Nuclear Physics B20 (1970) 592-602.

North-Holland Publishing Company

MEASUREMENTS OF THE LONGITUDINAL A N D

LATERAL DEVELOPMENT OF ELECTROMAGNETIC
CASCADES IN LEAD, COPPER AND ALUMINUM AT 6 GeV
G. B A T H O W , E . F R E Y T A G , M. K O B B E R L I N G a n d K. T E S C H
Deutsches Elektronen-Synchrotron (DESY), Hamburg, Germany

R. KAJIKAWA
Department of Physics, Nagoya University, Nagoya, Japan

Received 12 March 1970

A b s t r a c t : The longitudinal and r a d i a l development of electromagnetic c a s c a d e s , ini-

tiated by 6 GeV e l e c t r o n s , has been m e a s u r e d in lead, copper and aluminum by
means of silver-phosphate d o s i m e t e r g l a s s e s . The m e a s u r e d energy deposition
was c o m p a r e d with Monte-Carlo calculations by VSlkel, especially at large depths
and r a d i i . Excellent agreement was found for the transition curves up to 40 r a d i a -
tion lengths and for the l a t e r a l distributions up to 4 MoliSre units. Between 4 and
12 Moli~re units the calculations tend to underestimate the energy deposition.

1. INTRODUCTION

In a n e a r l i e r p a p e r [1] we r e p o r t e d m e a s u r e m e n t s of t h e l o n g i t u d i n a l d e -
v e l o p m e n t of t h e e l e c t r o m a g n e t i c c a s c a d e . T h e l a t e r a l d i s t r i b u t i o n of s u c h
s h o w e r s , h o w e v e r , i s of s p e c i a l i n t e r e s t f o r d e s i g n i n g q u a n t a m e t e r s , F a r a -
day cups and shower counters, as well as for estimating radiation damage
in m a t e r i a l s . F o r t h i s r e a s o n a d d i t i o n a l m e a s u r e m e n t s of t h e l a t e r a l d e -
v e l o p m e n t of e l e c t r o m a g n e t i c s h o w e r s at 6 G e V w i l l b e g i v e n h e r e a n d b e
c o m p a r e d w i t h t h e M o n t e - C a r l o c a l c u l a t i o n s [2] w h i c h a r e a l s o g i v e n a t
6 GeV primary energy. A comparison with analytical cascade theories is
difficult: the most comprehensive analytical theory for lateral expansion by
K a m a t a a n d N i s h i m u r a [3] i s l i m i t e d in i t s r a n g e t o h i g h - e n e r g y p a r t i c l e s
in a b s o r b e r s of l o w a t o m i c n u m b e r s ( a i r s h o w e r s ) and, m o r e o v e r , i n c l u d e s
n o n e of t h e c a l c u l a t i o n s of t h e e n e r g y d e p o s i t e d in t h e m a t e r i a l w h i c h h a s
been measured here.
M e a s u r e m e n t s of e l e c t r o m a g n e t i c c a s c a d e s h a v e a l r e a d y b e e n p e r f o r m e d
m a n y t i m e s in d i f f e r e n t w a y s (cf. a u t h o r i n d e x of r e f . [1]). M o r e r e c e n t p a -
p e r s a r e l i s t e d u n d e r r e f . [4]. E n e r g y d e p o s i t i o n in c a s c a d e s w i t h p r i m a r y
e n e r g y of 1 G e V a n d a b o v e h a v e b e e n m e a s u r e d b y J e n k i n s et a l . [5] (1 GeV),
C r a n n e l l et al. [6] (1 GeV), E c k a r d t [7] (2.84 GeV) a n d L u c c i e t a l . [14]
(1 GeV). T h e c o m p a r i s o n of t h e s e m e a s u r e m e n t s w i t h M o n t e - C a r l o c a l c u l a -
 MEASUREMENTS ON ELECTROMAGNETIC CASCADES 593

t i o n s by Nagel [8] and B u r f e i n d t [9] is l i m i t e d to a r a d i u s of r o u g h l y 3 Mo-

l i ~ r e units (XM) f r o m the a x i s and shows good a g r e e m e n t .
In the e x p e r i m e n t in q u e s t i o n the s p a t i a l d i s t r i b u t i o n of the d e p o s i t e d en-
e r g y in the e l e c t r o m a g n e t i c c a s c a d e e x t e n d i n g to l a r g e r r a d i i and d e p t h s
w a s c a r r i e d out in o r d e r to p e r m i t a m o r e a c c u r a t e c o m p a r i s o n with the
M o n t e - C a r l o c a l c u l a t i o n s m a d e by VSlkel [2].

2. MEASURING METHOD AND S E T - U P

S i l v e r p h o s p h a t e g l a s s d o s i m e t e r s f r e q u e n t l y u s e d in d o s i m e t r y , w e r e
u s e d f o r m e a s u r i n g the e n e r g y d e p o s i t i o n . In t h e s e g l a s s e s , l u m i n e s c e n c e
c e n t r e s a r e f o r m e d by i r r a d i a t i o n with ionizing r a d i a t i o n s and can be e x -
c i t e d by m e a n s of i r r a d i a t i o n with u l t r a - v i o l e t light and thus be r e a d out
( r a d i o - p h o t o l u m i n e s c e n c e ) . In o r d e r to a v o i d s y s t e m a t i c e r r o r s ( s t e e p g r a -
dient of the e n e r g y d e p o s i t i o n , B r a g g - G r a y p r i n c i p l e , t r a n s i t i o n effect,
s e e s e c t . 4) the d i m e n s i o n s (1 m m 0 , 6 m m length) of the d o s i m e t e r g l a s s
Schott R P L II w e r e c h o s e n a s s m a l l a s p o s s i b l e . D u r i n g p r e l i m i n a r y t e s t s
it was d e t e r m i n e d that the r e l a t i v e e r r o r s of d o s e m e a s u r e m e n t s w e r e l e s s
than 5%. No fading w a s found o v e r a p e r i o d of four m o n t h s . The c a l i b r a t i o n
c u r v e ( l u m i n e s c e n c e i n t e n s i t y v e r s u s dose) was a l s o t a k i n g d u r i n g the p r e -
liminary tests.
j,~-r_bmaterial bLocks--~
ackingplates7 /
ime~erptate~

Fig. 1. Experimental set-up.

' i n e d o s i m e t e r g l a s s e s w e r e put into h o l e s in 6 m m t h i c k p l a t e s of the

m a t e r i a l to be e x a m i n e d . T h e s e p l a t e s w e r e s u r r o u n d e d by c o m p a c t b l o c k s
of the s a m e m a t e r i a l so that g a p s and h o l e s in the m a t e r i a l w e r e a v o i d e d
(fig. 1). In the p a p e r [1] it w a s shown t h a t the e n e r g y t r a n s p o r t e d f r o m the
s h o w e r c e n t e r o u t s i d e t h r o u g h g a p s could o t h e r w i s e l e a d to c o n s i d e r a b l e
e r r o r s in the l a t e r a l d i s t r i b u t i o n . The r a t i o of the d r i l l h o l e s to the whole
a r e a w a s l e s s than 0.5%. The m o s t i m p o r t a n t d a t a on the m a t e r i a l s u s e d
a r e shown in t a b l e 1.
594 G. BATHOW et al.

Table 1
Data on m a t e r i a l s and results of m e a s u r e m e n t s .

Lead a) Copper Aluminum b) Dosimeter

glass

Z 80.8 29 13 .O 12 .O
A 204 63.6 27.0 25.1
p(g/cm 3) 11.1 8.9 2.66 2.48
Xo c) (cm) 0.581 1.44 9.05 10.5
XM d) (cm) 1.6 1.6 4.7
Dimensions of
the absorbers 30 × 30 × 30 40 x 40 x 56 40 x 40 x 150
(cm 3)
cascade
(cm-1) 0.46 ~- 0.01 0.23 ~- 0.01 0.042 • 0.001
(X~o1) 0.26 0.33 0.38
Xmin (cm-1) e) 0.47 0.27 0.058

a) Lead: alloy with 4% antimony.

b) Aluminum: alloy with 3% magnesium.
c) Radiation length.
d) Moli~re unit, see subsect. 3.2.
e) Pure m a t e r i a l s .

T h e b l o c k s of m a t e r i a l with t h e e n c a s e s g l a s s d o s i m e t e r s w e r e i r r a d i -
a t e d with a 6.0 GeV e l e c t r o n b e a m . F o r l o n g e r i r r a d i a t i o n t i m e the e l e c -
t r o n c u r r e n t w a s c o n t r o l l e d by a s e c o n d a r y e m i s s i o n m o n i t o r , f o r s h o r t e r
e x p o s u r e s a c o n t r o l w a s e f f e c t e d by a g l a s s d o s i m e t e r put i n f r o n t of the
b e a m a x i s . T h e b e a m p r o f i l e w a s a l s o m e a s u r e d with a d o s i m e t e r g l a s s
u s i n g p l a t e s of 80 x 30 x 2 m m 3 ( s e e r e f . [7]). F i g . 2 s h o w s the m e a s u r e d
b e a m p r o f i l e . T h e i n t e n s i t y of the b e a m w a s l i m i t e d to 5 . 1 0 1 0 e / s so a s to
k e e p t h e h e a t i n g of t h e m a t e r i a l low, e s p e c i a l l y in the c a s e of l e a d , a n d
t h u s e l i m i n a t e the t e m p e r a t u r e d e p e n d e n c e of t h e output of the l u m i n e s -
cence centres.

,y[mml
'tO

Fig. 2. Measured beam profile. Numbers indicate the fraction of maximum intensity.
 MEASUREMENTS ON ELECTROMAGNETIC CASCADES 595

In o r d e r to c o v e r 6 o r d e r s of magnitude in the e n e r g y deposition the to-

tal n u m b e r of e l e c t r o n s was i n c r e a s e d by roughly a f a c t o r of 100 in s e v e r a l
e x p o s u r e s . Thus the e n e r g y deposition in the shower c e n t e r could be well
m e a s u r e d f i r s t and then, using higher e l e c t r o n n u m b e r s , the deposition at
l a r g e r shower depths and radii. The r a t i o of the e l e c t r o n n u m b e r s for dif-
f e r e n t e x p o s u r e s were obtained f r o m the overlapping a r e a s .

3. RESULTS

About 6 000 d o s i m e t e r g l a s s e s were r e a d with a c o m m e r c i a l a p p a r a t u s

(Toshiba F G D - 6) and the dose distribution v e r s u s depth and r a d i u s was a s -
c e r t a i n e d . The integral of the dose distribution was n o r m a l i z e d a c c o r d i n g
to the known total input of e l e c t r o n e n e r g y (see also sect. 4). With the di-
m e n s i o n s used m o r e than 98% of the e n e r g y r e m a i n e d inside the m a t e r i a l
blocks, as can be e s t i m a t e d by extrapolation of the m e a s u r e d distribution.
The shape of the m e a s u r e d b e a m profile was taken into c o n s i d e r a t i o n during
integration.

3.1. Longitudinal development of the cascade

If the m e a s u r e d values a r e i n t e g r a t e d over the r a d i u s at a c e r t a i n depth
for one radiation length thickness, the longitudinal distribution of the
s h o w e r ( ' t r a n s i t i o n c u r v e ' ) is obtained. This is shown in fig. 3 for the t h r e e
m a t e r i a l s with depths extending up to 40 radiation lengths (A1 : 16 Xo). F o r
c o m p a r i s o n the values f r o m V61kel's [2] block d i a g r a m s a r e listed as a
h i s t o g r a m for Pb and Cu. No calculations a r e available for A1. The c a l c u -
lations for lead have been done with X o = 0.515 cm. F o r our c o m p a r i s o n we
used the s a m e value for lead, c o r r e c t e d it for the antimony content, and
with the r e s u l t i n g Xo = 0.532 c m the e x p e r i m e n t a l points in fig. 3 were cal-
culated. (A b e t t e r value for the radiation length of lead is 0.562 cm and
0.581 cm for our l e a d - a n t i m o n y allow. The dotted line in fig. 3 shows our
e x p e r i m e n t a l r e s u l t s with the value 0.581 em applied.)
The slope of the longitudinal dose distribution behind the shower m a x i -
m u m is a p p r o x i m a t e d by an exponential function whose slope can be de-
s c r i b e d by an attenuation coefficient (itcascade). This is shown in table 1 as
well as the m i n i m u m a b s o r p t i o n coefficient (itmin) for g a m m a radiation.
The a p p r o x i m a t e a g r e e m e n t of the two it-values does not p e r m i t the d i r e c t
conclusion that the c a s c a d e in l a r g e r depths develops by m e a n s of g a m m a
quanta whose e n e r g y c o r r e s p o n d s to the m i n i m u m a b s o r p t i o n coefficients:
the a b s o r p t i o n coefficients a r e m e a s u r e d under other g e o m e t r i c a l condi-
tions, and the f o r m of the photon s p e c t r u m of the c a s c a d e b a r e l y changes
with the depth of the cascade. The development of the c a s c a d e is a question
of balance between the a b s o r p t i o n of l o w - e n e r g y p a r t i c l e s and t h e i r r e p r o -
duction by h i g h - e n e r g y p a r t i c l e s [8], which p r o c e s s is d e s c r i b e d by the p a -
r a m e t e r itcascade.
596 G. BATHOW et al.

0(%)

lo Cu

|.~

L~

j
Fig. 3. Transition curves for Pb, Cu and A1. Histograms show the Monte-Carlo r e -
sults, points indicate the r e s u l t s of this work. The dotted line indicates the slope of
the points for X o = 0.581 cm.

3.2. Radial d e v e l o p m e n t o f the c a s c a d e

In o r d e r t o c o m p a r e t h e m e a s u r e d r a d i a l d i s t r i b u t i o n w i t h M o n t e - C a r l o
calculations, the latter were folded with the measured beam profile and are
s h o w n t o g e t h e r w i t h t h e m e a s u r e d v a l u e s f o r t h r e e d i f f e r e n t d e p t h s in f i g s .
4 a n d 5 f o r l e a d a n d c o p p e r . T h e a g r e e m e n t in t h e v i c i n i t y of t h e a x i s i s
good, whereas for large radii divergences are visible which are especially
p r o n o u n c e d in s m a l l e r d e p t h s . T h e r e t h e m e a s u r e d d i s t r i b u t i o n i s h i g h e r
b y a f a c t o r w h i c h i n c r e a s e s u p t o 2. T h e s e d e v i a t i o n s , w h i c h a l s o h a v e b e e n
n o t i c e d in m e a s u r e m e n t s b y a n o t h e r a u t h o r ( W u c h e r e r [4]), a r e o u t s i d e t h e
e r r o r m a r g i n a n d a l s o o u t s i d e t h e s t a t i s t i c a l e r r o r b a r s of t h e M o n t e - C a r l o
calculations.
F u r t h e r m o r e , in fig. 6 t h e r a d i a l p r o f i l e at f o u r d i f f e r e n t d e p t h s v e r s u s
t h e d i s t a n c e f r o m t h e a x i s h a s b e e n g i v e n in M o l i ~ r e u n i t s (XM) b e c a u s e t h e
M o l i ~ r e u n i t X M = X o E s / ~ (E s = 21 M e V s c a t t e r i n g e n e r g y , ~ i s t h e c r i t i c a l
e n e r g y of t h e m a t e r i a l ) i s a m a t e r i a l - i n d e p e n d e n t u n i t of t h e l a t e r a l d e v e l -
o p m e n t . T h e l o n g i t u d i n a l s l o p e of t h e c a s c a d e (fig. 3) i s s t e e p e s t in a l u m i -
n u m a n d l e a s t s t e e p in l e a d , a n d t h e r e f o r e t h e a l u m i n u m p r o f i l e i s h i g h e r
t h a n t h e v a l u e s f o r l e a d a n d c o p p e r . In t h e s a m e w a y t h e v a l u e s f o r l e a d
a r e a p p r o x i m a t e l y a f a c t o r of 10 h i g h e r t h a n t h o s e f o r c o p p e r at l a r g e
depths.
 D (arbitrary units)

I0s Pb
L
:SXo T:12Xo T :2L, Xo

103-
i
1:

10L

1 2 3 ~ ~ 0 7 I 9 10 11 R [ c m ]

F i g . 4. M e a s u r e d l a t e r a l d i s t r i b u t i o n f o r l e a d ( c i r c l e s ) in c o m p a r i s o n with M o n t e -
C a r l o r e s u l t s (dotted line with e r r o r b a r s ) .

D h (arbitrary units)
106!

105

10~,

103

10;'

101.

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Rtcm)
1 2 3 4 s ~ ~ ~ ~ to . 12 13 1,,
0 1 2 3 4 s 6 7 0 9 10, 12 13 1~
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . RlcrnJ
0 1 2 3 /, 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 1~
F i g . 5. M e a s u r e d l a t e r a l d i s t r i b u t i o n f o r c o p p e r ( c i r c l e s ) in c o m p a r i s o n with M o n t e -
C a r l o r e s u l t s (dotted line with e r r o r b a r s ) .
598 G. BATHOW et al.

10-~ D(radle) 10-6l D (rad/e)

10-7-
T=SXo
t
t T = 10 Xo
10-e-
10-~. -~-At
-0- Pb
lo-,o. 10-~

lo-,~-
lf~t3-
10-~-
10-1:
t . . . . ~bnix,i o lOR(X~)

lO-e. O(ra,d/e) 10"~. O(rad/e}

lO-9.
T=15Xo T= 38 Xo
10-~°- 10lo
10"11 ~
10-12-
10-is.

10"1t

10-~1

~°-"~ i ' ' ' ~ .... ~'oR'cx,~' i ' ' ' ~ . . . . ~R(x.i

Fig. 6. Comparison of lateral distribution in different materials at four equivalent

depths.

The energy deposited between radii r and r + A t , integrated over infi-

nitely long cylinders, should have a distribution which is independent of
the material in question and of the energy of primary particles. Fig. 7
shows the energy per radius interval XM versus radius for the three ma-
terials used. For comparison, Monte-Carlo results for copper covering
the energy range 1-6 GeV are shown as a histogram. The experimental
points agree well with this distribution.
 MEASUREMENTS ON ELECTROMAGNETIC CASCADES 599

0%
lOO:

-- HoMe Carlo (Col

• Co
• Pb
kl

1 A o

o"
0.1 o•.

°°oo
1 2 3 I, 5 5 7 8 9 10 I1 12 RIXm)
Fig. 7. Energy deposition integrated over depth f o r Pb, Cu and A1. F o r c o m p a r i s o n ,
a h i s t o g r a m of M o n t e - C a r l o results f o r copper £s shown.

'° l \ , , , \
l', \ ',\ Is•doses
3,~,, \ ,,\ \ eb..

\ \\\
vsA~,A~X ~ I ~ A ~ A ',-10"~

104',1 1:
, , I/ I-- I 1-'m~
J~ s i

[U,""/,"//
0 . . . . ~ .... ',*0 . . . . ts , ~
Fig. 8. I s • d o s e s f o r ]e~.d.
600 G.BATHOW et al.

3.3. General v i e w o f the r e s u l t s

To give a g e n e r a l p i c t u r e f o r p r a c t i c a l p u r p o s e s of the r e s u l t s f o r a l l
d e p t h s and r a d i i , i s o d o s e d i a g r a m s f o r the u s e d m a t e r i a l s a r e shown in
figs. 8-10. The s l o p e of the c a s c a d e which b e c o m e s s t e e p e r f r o m l e a d to
a l u m i n u m is v i s i b l e , a s w e l l a s the l a r g e r o f f - a x i s b a c k s c a t t e r i n g in the
c a s e of lead.

Tl

35"
(~[" ~ Isodosei
"'"'-. Cu
36-

25-

2~

~ I.10-W

16-

5-

. . . . i . . . . lill ' " n ix."i

Fig. 9. Isodoses for copper.

i 1[x'] AllS°doses
20] radle

o 5 lo i IX= I-
Fig. 10. Isodoses for aluminum.

4. D I S C U S S I O N

It remains to be examined whether the known deviations from the M o n -

te-Carlo calculations could have been caused by our measuring methods.
In the evaluation (see sect. 3) the ratio of the energy deposition in the
 MEASUREMENTS ON ELECTROMAGNETIC CASCADES 601

g l a s s to the e n e r g y deposition in the m e t a l in the whole block was p r e s u m e d

to be constant, and the m e a s u r e d values w e r e n o r m a l i z e d to the input e n e r -
gy. If the B r a g g - G r a y principle [10] w e r e valid for our m e a s u r e m e n t s , this
n o r m a l i z a t i o n would not be n e c e s s a r y . The Bragg'-Gray p r i n c i p l e p r o v e s that
the r a t i o of the two e n e r g y depositions p e r unit m a s s is the s a m e as the r a -
tio of the m a s s stopping p o w e r s of the m a t e r i a l s in question, and an a v e r -
aged r a t i o of the m a s s stopping power in the c a s c a d e could be used a c c o r d -
ing to the p a p e r by T o m i m a s u and Sugiyama [11]. However, for the B r a g g -
G r a y p r i n c i p l e to be valid it is n e c e s s a r y , a m o n g other conditions, that only
a s m a l l p a r t of the e n e r g y of the s e c o n d a r y e l e c t r o n s be r e l e a s e d by ioniza-
tion in the m e a s u r i n g volume. This is no longer fulfilled with the d i m e n s i o n s
of the g l a s s d o s i m e t e r s used for e n e r g i e s below s e v e r a l MeV, and the e n e r -
gy deposition in the g l a s s should be s m a l l e r than the e n e r g y calculated f r o m
the m a s s stopping power ratio. We r e a l l y find a r a t i o between the input e n e r -
gy and the deposited e n e r g y (which is calculated by integration f r o m the dose
in the g l a s s over the whole block), which for lead, copper and aluminum is
s m a l l e r than the a v e r a g e d r a t i o of the m a s s stopping power in the c a s c a d e
by the f a c t o r s 0.8, 0.9 and 0.98 r e s p e c t i v e l y . The value of A1 is plausible
b e c a u s e g l a s s and aluminum have a l m o s t the s a m e atomic number and
a t o m i c weight (see table 1).
In our c a s e , however, in which the B r a g g - G r a y principle is not valid for
the l o w - e n e r g y p a r t of the s p e c t r u m , the dependence of the r a t i o of the en-
ergy depositions on the s p e c t r u m of the s e c o n d a r y e l e c t r o n s and, t h e r e b y ,
on the position in the m e t a l block is small. In the longitudinal direction we
find good a g r e e m e n t with the M o n t e - C a r l o calculations up to a p p r o x i m a t e l y
40 radiation lengths; this is a r a n g e in which the e l e c t r o n s p e c t r u m changes
c o n s i d e r a b l y . In the l a t e r a l d i r e c t i o n a possible s p e c t r u m dependence in
our m e a s u r e m e n t s is c e r t a i n l y l e s s noticeable. If one c a l c u l a t e s the shower
age v e r s u s depth and r a d i u s a c c o r d i n g to K a m a t a and N i s h i m u r a [3], then
it is noticeable that the shower age (as a m e a s u r e for the slope of the e l e c -
t r o n e n e r g y s p e c t r u m ) hardly changes at d i s t a n c e s above two Moli~re units
f r o m the axis.
Another disturbing effect is the ' t r a n s i t i o n effect' calculated by Pinkau
[12], which c a u s e s a l a r g e change in the n u m b e r of the shower e l e c t r o n s
when the c r i t i c a l e n e r g y changes suddenly as a r e s u l t of the t r a n s i t i o n to
another m a t e r i a l . A c c o r d i n g to P i n k a u ' s calculations the effect should al-
r e a d y be noticeable in the dimension of our g l a s s d o s i m e t e r (10 -2 Xo).
M e a s u r e m e n t s [13] show, however, that in this c a s e the deviation is only a
few per cent and can t h e r e f o r e be d i s r e g a r d e d .
The t r a n s p o r t of e n e r g y by annihilation photons may be another r e a s o n
for the s p r e a d of the l a t e r a l distribution in c o m p a r i s o n to the M o n t e - C a r l o
calculations. By a rough e s t i m a t e one finds that about 7% of the whole en-
e r g y in the c a s e of lead and about 2% in the c a s e of copper a r e deposited by
annihilation photons. A m e a s u r a b l e s p r e a d of radial distribution is t h e r e -
f o r e not to be expected for i s o t r o p i c production of annihilation quanta.
The n e u t r o n s and p r o t o n s p r o d u c e d in the c a s c a d e cannot d i s t o r t the p r o -
file of the c a s c a d e , as a simple e s t i m a t e shows.
602 G. BATHOW et al.

T h u s the r e s u l t s of V S l k e l ' s M o n t e - C a r l o c a l c u l a t i o n s , b e i n g i n e x c e l l e n t
a g r e e m e n t with the m e a s u r e d t r a n s i t i o n c u r v e s , g i v e a l s o r e l i a b l e l a t e r a l
d i s t r i b u t i o n s f o r r a d i i up to 4 XM. B e t w e e n 4 a n d 12 X M t h e c a l c u l a t i o n s
t e n d to u n d e r e s t i m a t e t h e e n e r g y d e p o s i t i o n , at 12 X M the d e v i a t i o n s a r e
r o u g h l y a f a c t o r of two.

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