TUNKU ABDUL RAHMAN UNIVERSITY COLLEGE

FACULTY OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

LABORATORY MARKING RUBRICS FOR BACHELOR DEGREE COURSES

STUDENT NAME: NICHOLAS EMILDAS A/L DEVADAS STUDENT ID: 19WGR11753 MARKS AWARDED:

MEMBER NAMES:

1. 3. DATE OF EXPERIMENT: 1/7/2021

2. 4.
DATE OF SUBMISSION: 20/7/2021
COURSE CODE & COURSE TITLE: BTME2223 Applied Fluid Mechanics EXPERIMENT TITLE: Losses in Piping Systems

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INSTRUMENT
3 TROUBLESHOOTING
4 INTRODUCTION/ THEORY/
LITERATURE REVIEW
5 OBJECTIVE
6 METHODOLOGY
7 RESULT AND DISCUSSION
- CALCULATION
- DISCUSSION
8 CONCLUSION
9 REFERENCE
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THE LECTURER IMPROVEMENT WITH ADVICE FROM THE THE RESULTS
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 BTME2223
APPLED FLUID MECHANICS

LOSSES IN PIPING SYSTEMS

STUDENT NAME : NICHOLAS EMILDAS A/L DEVADAS

STUDENT ID : 19WGR11753
PROGRAMME : RME2S2
OBJECTIVE:
1. To determine the major losses in piping system.
2. To determine the minor losses in piping system.
3. To compare losses with various flowrates in piping system with fully opened gate valve.

INTRODUCTION:
Piping systems are an ubiquitous factor in the design of energy consuming systems. To
minimize cost and work while maximizing performance, when choosing the appropriate
components for a system is always the goal. Optimization is the end goal regardless, of the
field and this is especially true for piping design. For instance, in the determination of the
pressure required for adequate flowrate in a piping system, it is imperative to find out the
minimum horsepower required by a pump to meet the requirements. To further improve
efficiency and in due course efficacy, a few factors must be considered which are friction head,
elevation head and velocity head in a piping system. The work required to transport fluid from
one place to the other are determined by considering the resistances aforementioned.

A closed tube through which fluid flows is known as a pipe. This flow is known as pressure
flow, because the main driving factor is pressure. Pipes come in a variety of cross-sectional
shapes, diameters and lengths. Most usually are circular unless a non-circular pipe is required
for special cases. Ideally, there should be no free surface inside the pipes. In other words, fluid
that flows through the pipe should run full. In cases where a free surface does exist within the
pipes (e.g., sewer pipes), open channel flow analysis will be performed on it. Consider a pipe
with fluid flow, there will be a force to oppose the flow of the fluid. This is known as viscous
resistance or force. It exists prominently at the boundary where fluid and pipe surface meet as
well as between the adjacent fluid layers. Energy from the total energy line is used to overcome
this viscous resistance. There are two types of fluid flow and depending on the type of flow,
the laws governing the frictional resistance are different for the flows (laminar and turbulent).
It is also worth noting that energy losses can also occur due to non-uniform flow brought about
by various pipe fittings (e.g., mitre bend, smooth bend, propriety bend and etc.).

In this experiment, we shall investigate the major and minor losses that arises from interior
surface of pipes, fittings and valves using different valves to vary the flowrates of fluid. In
theory, a certain value of head loss is expected to be obtained. However, this is based on a few
assumptions made. For instance, pipes are perfectly smooth. Experimentally, with the use of
piezometer fixed at various parts of our piping assembly, we shall obtain the actual or rather
real values of head loss through factors aforementioned before. By comparing the theoretical
results and experimental results, we hope to verify the theoretical relationships obtained while
investigating the reasons behind the discrepancy of values obtained experimentally from
theory.
THEORY:
Reynolds number
Pipe flow can be distinguished into laminar and turbulent flow. Laminar flow is typically
smooth flowing and in highly orderly motion at a level speeds while turbulent flow is highly
disordered and has fluctuating streamlines. The equation for calculating Reynold number is
given by,

𝑰𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒕𝒊𝒂𝒍 𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒄𝒆 𝝆𝒗𝑫

𝑹𝒆 = =
𝑽𝒊𝒔𝒄𝒐𝒖𝒔 𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒄𝒆 𝝁

Where 𝜌 is density of fluid, v is mean velocity of fluid, D is diameter of the circular pipe
and 𝜇 is dynamic viscosity. If Reynolds number is lesser than 2300, (Re<2300), flow is laminar.
If it is above 4000, (Re>4000) it is turbulent. Additionally, if the Reynolds number is in
between 2300 and 4000, (2300<Re<4000), this is considered transitional flow. This can be
considered as the phase when laminar turns into turbulent flow and vice versa.

Major Head Loss

Major head loss, hL or major loss is the term used in engineering practice for referring to
any frictional or energy loss caused by both wall roughness and fluid friction. The major loss
in a pipe can be determined by measuring the pressure at two distinct locations that are a
distance L apart. Then, the energy equation will be applied between these 2 points. Since the
pipe is horizontal, zin = zout = 0, and vin = vout = v for steady incompressible flow, and no shaft
work is done, we obtain

2 2
𝑝𝑖𝑛 𝑣𝑖𝑛 𝑝𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑣𝑜𝑢𝑡
+ + 𝑧𝑖𝑛 + ℎ𝑝𝑢𝑚𝑝 = + + 𝑧𝑜𝑢𝑡 + ℎ𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑏 + ℎ𝐿
𝛾 2𝑔 𝛾 2𝑔

𝑝𝑖𝑛 𝑣 2 𝑝𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑣 2
+ +0+0= + + 0 + 0 + ℎ𝐿
𝛾 2𝑔 𝛾 2𝑔
𝒑𝒊𝒏 −𝒑𝒐𝒖𝒕 ∆𝒑
𝒉𝑳 = =
𝜸 𝜸

∆𝑝
Hence, head loss in the pipe, hL = results in a pressure drop over the pipe’s length L.
𝐿
The reason being that work must be done by pressure to overcome the frictional resistance that
causes this loss. That's why 𝑝𝑖𝑛 > 𝑝𝑜𝑢𝑡 . The head loss for an ideal fluid is zero since there’s a
lack of frictional resistance. However, frictional resistance is inevitably present thus, fluid is
not ideal or in other words, a real fluid.

Laminar Flow through a Horizontal Pipe

Consider a laminar, steady flow of an incompressible fluid through a smooth pipe for
analysis purposes. Let us also consider a control volume element to be a differential disk within
the fluid to have an axisymmetric flow.

Figure 1: Control element of fluid in a pipe

We will now apply the momentum equation to this control volume to reduce to an
equilibrium, due to the fact that the fluid is incompressible and the flow is steady. This in turn
leads to no convective change between the front and open control surfaces and no local change
in the control volume. Based on the free-body diagram of the control volume, pressure, gravity
and viscosity causes forces in the x-direction. This gives us,

𝜕
∑𝐹𝑥 = ∫ 𝑉𝜌 ⅆ𝑉 + ∫ 𝑉𝜌𝑉. ⅆ𝐴
𝜕𝑡
𝐶𝑉 𝐶𝑠

𝝏𝒑 𝜟𝒙 𝝏𝒑 𝜟𝒙
(𝒑 − ) 𝜟𝑨 − (𝒑 + ) 𝜟𝑨 + 𝝉𝜟𝑨′ + 𝜸𝜟 𝑽𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝝓 = 𝒎̇(𝑼𝟐 − 𝑼𝟏 )
𝝏𝒙 𝟐 𝝏𝒙 𝟐
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝛾 𝑖𝑠 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦, (𝛾 = 𝜌𝑔)

From Fig, the open control cross-sectional area is ΔA = πr2, the area on the closed control
surface is ΔA’ = 2πrΔx, and the control volume is ΔV = πr2Δx. Additionally, the velocity at
upstream is the same downstream, (U2 = U1). Substituting these into the equation above,
keeping in mind that sin ϕ = -Δh/Δx, and taking the limit, we get

𝑟 𝜕
𝜏= (𝑝 + 𝛾ℎ)
2 𝜕𝑥
 The equation above gives the shear-stress distribution within the fluid. Noticeably, it varies
directly with r, being zero at the centre and being the largest at the wall, r = R as shown in
figure below

This distribution is valid for both laminar and turbulent flow since τ was determined simply
from a balance of forces. For a laminar flow, the shear stress can be related to the velocity at
any point within the fluid by using Newton’s law of viscosity, τ = µ(du/dr). Substituting into
the previous equation and rearranging the terms, gives us

ⅆ𝑢 𝑟 2 𝜕
= (𝑝 + 𝛾ℎ)
ⅆ𝑟 2𝜇 𝜕𝑥

The term 𝜕(𝑝 + 𝛾ℎ)/𝜕𝑥 represent the total of the pressure and elevation gradients. Since
this sum is the hydraulic gradient, it does not vary with y, and so integrating the equation above
with respect to r, we obtain

𝑟2 ⅆ
𝑢= (𝑝 + 𝛾ℎ) + 𝐶
4𝜇 ⅆ𝑥

By using the “no-slip” condition that u = 0 at r = R, the constant of integration can be

determined. Once determined, the result is

(𝑅 2 − 𝑟 2 ) ⅆ
𝑢=− (𝑝 + 𝛾ℎ)
4𝜇 ⅆ𝑥

The velocity profile thus, take the form of a paraboloid. Since shear stress, τ is the smallest
in the region in centre of the pipe, the fluid has its maximum velocity there. The maximum
velocity occurs at the centre of the pipe where r = 0 and du/dr = 0. It is

𝑅2 ⅆ
𝑢𝑚𝑎𝑥 = − (𝑝 + 𝛾ℎ)
4𝜇 ⅆ𝑥
 The volume flowrate is found out by integrating the velocity profile over the cross-
sectional area. Choosing the differential ring element of area dA = 2πr dr, shown in Fig. 1, we
get

𝑅 𝑅
−2𝜋 ⅆ
𝑄 = ∫ 𝑢 ⅆ𝐴 = ∫ 𝑢 2𝜋𝑟ⅆ𝑟 = (𝑃 + 𝛾ℎ) ∫(𝑅 2 − 𝑟 2 )𝑟 ⅆ𝑟
4𝜇 ⅆ𝑥
𝐴 0 0

−𝜋𝑅 4 ⅆ
𝑄= (𝑃 + 𝛾ℎ)
8𝜇 ⅆ𝑥

The cross-sectional area of the pipe is A = 𝜋𝑅 2 , the average velocity is hence

𝑄 𝑅2 ⅆ
𝑉= =− (𝑝 + 𝛾ℎ)
𝐴 8𝜇 ⅆ𝑥

By comparison with umax, we see that

𝑢𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 2𝑉

The sign convention established for the pressure and elevation gradients, ⅆ(𝑝 + 𝛾ℎ)/ⅆ𝑥
produces the negative sign on the right of the equation. If the pressures p1 and p2 and the
elevation h1 and h2 between two points (cross sections) 1 and 2 on any streamline are known,
then these gradients turn into

ⅆ 𝑝2 − 𝑝1 ℎ2 − ℎ1
(𝑝 + 𝛾ℎ) = +𝛾
ⅆ𝑥 𝐿 𝐿

In the case of horizontal flow through a circular pipe, the force of gravity will not affect
the flow since dh/dx = 0. When pressure on the left side of the pipe is higher, the pressure will
“push” the fluid to the right over the length L. However, it is important to note that the pressure
will decrease along the pipe because of the fluid friction. According to our sign convention,
this causes a negative pressure gradient (Δp/L <0).
 Using this and the previous result, the maximum velocity, volumetric flowrate and average
velocity (vavg = vmax/2) stated in terms of the inner diameter of the pipe, D = 2R, then the
resulting equation is obtained

𝑫𝟐 𝜟𝒑
𝒖𝒎𝒂𝒙 = ( )
𝟏𝟔𝝁 𝑳

The velocity expressed in terms of average velocity,

𝑫𝟐 𝜟𝒑
𝒖𝒂𝒗𝒈 = ( )
𝟑𝟐𝝁 𝑳

Since flowrate, Q = Av and circular pipe is used the area, A = 𝜋𝐷2 /4,

𝝅𝑫𝟒 𝜟𝒑
𝑸= ( )
𝟏𝟐𝟖𝝁 𝑳

This final form of the equation is famously known as Hagen-Poiseuille equation, named
after a German engineer Gotthilf Hagen, and a French physician, Jean Louis Poiseuille. The
change of pressure over the length, L of the pipe can be found using this equation if the flow
Q is known.

128𝜇𝐿𝑄
𝛥𝑝 =
𝜋𝐷4

As change in pressure, Δp = ρgΔh = γΔh, area, A = πD2/4, and flowrate, Q = Av we get

𝟑𝟐𝝁𝒗𝑳
𝒉𝑳 =
𝑫𝟐 𝜸

Outstandingly, it can be seen that the diameter of the pipe has the greatest influence on the
pressure drop. For instance, if a pipe of half the diameter is used it will have sixteen times the
pressure drop because of viscous fluid friction. Pipes that may have narrowed due to the
accumulation of corrosion or scale may have serious consequences on the ability of pumps to
provide adequate water flow.

For convenience, we will express this equation in terms of Reynolds number

𝐿 𝜇 𝑣2
ℎ𝐿 = 4 ⋅ ⋅ 16 ⋅ ⋅
𝐷 𝜌𝑣𝐷 2𝑔

16 𝐿 𝑣 2
=4⋅ ⋅ ⋅
𝑅𝑒 𝐷 2𝑔

𝟒𝒇𝑳 𝒗𝟐
𝒉𝑳 = ⋅
𝑫 𝟐𝒈

Where,

𝟏𝟔
𝒇= , 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑙𝑎𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑟 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤
𝑹𝒆

This term f is known as friction factor. It is seen as a function of only Reynolds number.
Note that it does not depend on the roughness or smoothness of the interior surface of the pipe.
In this case, the viscosity of the fluid is the sole cause for the frictional loss.

Head Loss with Friction Factor

Now, let us expand upon what we discussed previously. The pressure drop within a pipe
is attributed greatly to the frictional resistance along the rough walls of a pipe. Using the same
considerations, such as pipe having circular cross section and being straight due to having the
best structural strength for resisting pressure and also because this cross section will deliver the
largest amount of fluid with the smallest frictional resistance, the major head loss for an
inclined pipe is to be determined. Consider an incompressible, steady flow between section 1
and 2 of an inclined constant area pipe in Fig. 2.
 Figure 2: Control volume of steady, fully developed flow between two sections in an
inclined pipe

The one-dimensional continuity equation reduces to

𝑄1 = 𝑄2 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡

Since area of pipe is constant, velocity at upstream is equal to downstream U1 = U2, since
flowrate Q = Av. Also, since there is no pump or turbine between 1 and 2, hturb = hpump = 0. The
flow energy equation becomes

𝑝1 𝑈12 𝑝2 𝑈22
+ 𝛼1 + 𝑧1 = + 𝛼2 + 𝑧2 + ℎ𝐿
𝛾 2𝑔 𝛾 2𝑔

𝑝1 𝑈12 𝑝2 𝑈12
+ 𝛼1 + 𝑧1 = + 𝛼2 + 𝑧2 + ℎ𝐿
𝛾 2𝑔 𝛾 2𝑔

And since 𝛼1 = 𝛼2 (kinetic energy correction factor, commonly assumed to be 1 in

problems involving turbulent pipe flow) reduces equation to pressure drop and elevation head

𝛥𝑝
ℎ𝐿 = + 𝛥𝑧
𝜌𝑔
Finally, the momentum relation is used on the control volume in Fig 2, accounting for applied
x-directed forces due to pressure, gravity, and shear:

∑𝐹𝑥 = 𝛥𝑝(𝜋𝑅 2 ) + 𝜌𝑔(𝜋𝑅 2 )𝐿 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜙 − 𝜏𝑤 (2𝜋𝑅)𝐿 = 𝑚̇(𝑈2 − 𝑈1 )

𝛥𝑝(𝜋𝑅 2 ) + 𝜌𝑔(𝜋𝑅 2 )𝐿 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜙 − 𝜏𝑤 (2𝜋𝑅)𝐿 = 0

𝛥𝑝𝑅 + 𝜌𝑔𝑅𝐿 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜙 − 2𝜏𝑤 𝐿 = 0

𝛥𝑝 2𝜏𝑤 𝐿
+ 𝐿 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜙 =
𝜌𝑔 𝜌𝑔𝑅
𝛥𝑝 4𝜏𝑤 𝐿
+ 𝐿 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜙 =
𝜌𝑔 𝜌𝑔𝐷

Since 𝐿 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜙 is the mathematical equivalent of Δz and left-hand side is the head loss, the
equation reduces to

𝛥𝑝 4𝜏𝑤 𝐿
+ Δz = ℎ𝑓 =
𝜌𝑔 𝜌𝑔𝐷

Based on the results derived from both horizontal and tilted pipe, it can be seen the major head
loss is directly proportional to the frictional resistance or wall shear stress. The Darcy friction
factor, f is a dimensionless parameter. Henry Darcy, a French engineer conducted an
experiment in 1857, which first found the effects of roughness of pipe to resistance of pipe.
Alternately the expression for the friction factor can be expressed as

𝟖𝝉𝒘
𝒇=
𝝆𝒗𝟐

𝟒𝒇𝒍 𝒗𝟐
𝒉𝒇 =
𝑫 𝟐𝒈

For laminar flow, the major head loss transpires within the fluid. It is due to shear stress or
frictional resistance developed between layers of fluid when they slide over one another with
relative velocities. Using the equation derived earlier, we can write the head loss in terms of
average velocity as
 𝟑𝟐𝝁𝒗𝑳
𝒉𝑳 =
𝑫𝟐 𝜸

Turbulent Flow
In the case of turbulent flow, the pressure drop is measured either with two pressure gauges or
pressure manometer since there is no actual analytical method of determining the head loss in
a pipe due to this type of flow. Based on the experiments conducted in the past, it is found that
the pressure drop depends on the pipe length L, the pipe diameter D, viscosity µ, the fluid’s
density ρ, average velocity v, and the roughness 𝜀 from the pipe’s inner surface. Using
dimensional analysis, the relationship between the pressure drop and the variables can be
written in terms of the three dimensionless ratios, explicitly

𝐿 𝜀
𝛥𝑝 = 𝜌𝑣 2 𝑔1 (𝑅𝑒, )
𝐷′ 𝐷

Where g1 defines this unknown function. Further experiments shows that the pressure drop
varies or is directly proportional to the length of pipe and inversely proportional to the diameter
of the pipe. This gives us

𝐿 2 𝜀
𝛥𝑝 = 𝜌𝑣 𝑔2 (𝑅𝑒, )
𝐷 𝐷

And finally,

𝐿 𝑣2 𝜀
ℎ𝐿 = 𝑔3 (𝑅𝑒, )
𝐷 2𝑔 𝐷

For ease we have included the factor 2, in order to express hL in terms of velocity head v2/2g.
In other words, the unknown function is 2g2 = g3(Re, 𝜀/𝐷). The head loss is also directly
proportional to the velocity head. This has been confirmed by experiment. Comparing the
above equation with head loss equation of laminar flow, letting the friction factor represent

𝜀
𝑓 = 𝑔3 (𝑅𝑒, )
𝐷
We can express the head loss for turbulent flow in the same form as the laminar flow, which is

𝟒𝒇𝑳 𝒗𝟐
𝒉𝑳 = ⋅
𝑫 𝟐𝒈

This final equation is called the Darcy-Weisbach equation. It is derived using dimensional
analysis, and it applies to both type of flows, laminar and turbulent flow in fluid. In the case of
laminar flow (Re < 2300), friction factor is determined using the equation above. However,
turbulent flow uses the friction-factor relationship f = g3(Re, 𝜀/𝐷) through experiment. For
flows that exceed the critical Reynolds number such as the transitional flow and turbulent flow,
various formulas are suggested by a few researchers. Formulas from the likes of Von Karman,
Johann Nikuradse, Lewis Moody and Cyril Colebrook. Given the assumption that the pipe used
is smooth, the formula suggested by Blasius was used. This equation is valid for Re values up
to 105

𝟎. 𝟎𝟕𝟗
𝒇=
∜𝑹𝒆

For additional information, Prandtl’s student, Nikuradse came up with his own equation and
the work of Moody and Colebrook can be considered the extension to Nikuradse’s work. The
Colebrook equation and Moody Chart both consider the surface roughness or relative
roughness 𝜀/𝐷, of the interior surface of pipes. (Hibbler, 2015)

Minor loss
Major head losses due to frictional stress has been discussed, now we will talk about the minor
head losses. Piping systems are not always routed using a straight pipe from source to
destination. Pipe connections such as bends, fittings, entrances, and transitions are required to
reroute or change the direction of the flow throughout the system. The minor loss is somewhat
a misnomer because the minor losses are often greater than the major losses in the pipe system.

As a result of turbulent mixing of a fluid within the connection, minor losses occur as the fluid
passes through the connection. The swirls or eddies that are generated are carried downstream,
where they decay and generate heat (eddies dissipates due to viscous motion) before fully
formed turbulent or laminar flow is restored. Minor losses in application are not localised
within the connection. However, we will make the assumption that it is and express this loss in
terms of velocity head,
 𝒗𝟐
𝒉𝑳 = 𝑲𝑳
𝟐𝒈

KL is known as the loss or resistance coefficient, which is experimentally found out. The
following are a partial list of values for KL for some common types of fittings encountered in
practice.

Figure 3: Loss coefficient table for fittings, bends and valves (Das, 2019)

A minor loss occurs when fluid enters pipe from a reservoir. The loss incurred depends on the
type of transition used. Transition that has lowest lost and provides gradual change in flow is
the well-rounded transition. The radius r of the transition influences the value of the loss
coefficient KL. Entrance transitions with higher loss coefficients are those with flush entrance
KL = 0.5 and re-entrant pipe KL=1.0. In these situations, fluid will separate from the wall of the
pipe and form a ‘necking’ vena or contracta near the entrance. This is due to fluid streamlines’
inability to bend 90° around a corner. This forces the flow to constrict and inadvertently
increases the velocity at the entrance ergo lowers the pressure and produces flow separation
which creates localised eddies at these locations. At the discharge end of pipe is directed into
a huge reservoir, the loss coefficient is 1.0 regardless of the shape of the transition. At this
point, the kinetic energy of the fluid is converted into thermal energy as fluid exits the pipe and
eventually come to rest in the reservoir.

Head Loss due to Sudden Change in Area of Flow

For the case of expansion and contraction, the minor loss depends on the ratios of the cross-
sectional diameters from one diameter of pipe to another. For sudden expansion, the equation
for KL has been determined from momentum, energy and continuity equation. The region of
stagnation at the corners of the larger pipe contributes only slightly to the loss. For contraction,
a vena contracta is formed within the pipe with smaller diameter. Since this formation is
dependent on the diameter ratios, the loss coefficient has to be determined experimentally.

Loss due to Sudden Enlargement

𝟐
(𝑼𝟏 − 𝑼𝟐 )𝟐 𝑼𝟐𝟐 𝑨𝟐 𝑼𝟐𝟏 𝑨𝟏 𝟐
𝒉𝒇 = = ( − 𝟏) = (𝟏 − )
𝟐𝒈 𝟐𝒈 𝑨𝟏 𝟐𝒈 𝑨𝟐

Loss due to Sudden Contraction

𝟐
𝒗𝟐 𝟏 𝒗𝟐
𝒉𝑳 = ( − 𝟏) = 𝑲𝑳
𝟐𝒈 𝑪𝑪 𝟐𝒈

Where CC = coefficient of contraction = AC/A1, where AC is area of vena contracta

For experimental calculation,

𝒑𝟏 −𝒑𝟐 𝑼𝟐𝟏 − 𝑼𝟐𝟐

𝒉𝑳 = +
𝝆𝒈 𝟐𝒈

Head Loss due to Bends

Changes in the direction flow can cause fluid separation or wake from the inner wall of the
pipe due to radial or normal accelerations along the streamlines. When a secondary flow occurs
within the bend the loss created from the change in direction can increase further. It is caused
by the radial pressure variation and the frictional resistance both along the pipe wall and within
the fluid. This results in twin eddies formation and a double swirling motion through the bend.
To avoid these effects, a larger radius bend or long sweep is used or guide vanes can be placed
inside the sharp bends of larger pipes in order to reduce the head loss.
The head loss of bends is given by,

𝒗𝟐
𝒉𝑩 = 𝑲𝑩
𝟐𝒈
Where KB is loss coefficient dependent on the bend radius and the angle of bend. Refer to
figure

Head Loss due to Valves

Valves are commonly used to control flow rates in piping system by means of altering the head
loss until the desired flow rate is attained. It is very desirable for valves to have a low loss
coefficient when fully opened so that the minimal head loss during full-load operation. There
are several valve designs each with its own advantage and disadvantages. The valves to be
investigated in this experiment are gate and globe valves. (Cimbala, 2014)

The head loss of valves is given by,

𝒗𝟐
𝒉𝑽 = 𝑲𝑽
𝟐𝒈

Where K is loss coefficient dependent on the type of valve and the angle of opening. Refer to
figure.

Principal of Pressure Loss Measurements

Consider Figure and apply Bernoulli’s equation between 1 and 2:

𝑝1 𝑣12 𝑝2 𝑣22
+ + 𝑧1 = + + 𝑧2 + ℎ𝐿
𝜌𝐻20 𝑔 2𝑔 𝜌𝐻20 𝑔 2𝑔

Since upstream velocity and downstream velocity are the same in piezometer tubes, therefore,

𝑝1 − 𝑝2
ℎ𝐿 = + 𝛥𝑧 → (1)
𝜌𝐻20 𝑔
 Figure 4: Mercury and air tubes

If the medium in the tubes are mercury and air as displayed in Figure 4, then

𝑝1 + 𝜌𝐻𝑔 𝑔𝑦 + 𝜌𝑎𝑖𝑟 𝑔𝑥 = 𝑝2 + 𝜌𝐻𝑔 𝑔(𝑦 + 𝑥)

Since the density of air can be negligible, thus

𝑝1 − 𝑝2 = 𝜌𝐻𝑔 𝑔𝑥 → (2)

Substituting (2) into equation (1), head loss is thus given by

𝜌𝐻𝑔
ℎ𝐿 = 𝑥 + 𝛥𝑧 = 13.6𝑥 + 𝛥𝑧 → (3)
𝜌𝐻20
 Figure 5: Mercury and water
However, if the medium in the piezometer tubes are mercury and water as illustrated in Figure
5, then

𝑝1 + 𝜌𝐻𝑔 𝑔𝑦 + 𝜌𝐻20 𝑔𝑥 = 𝑝2 + 𝜌𝐻𝑔 𝑔(𝑦 + 𝑥)

The density of water cannot be neglected, hence

𝑝1 − 𝑝2 = (𝜌𝐻𝑔 − 𝜌𝐻20 )𝑔𝑥 → (4)

Substituting (4) into equation (1), head loss is then given by

𝜌𝐻𝑔 − 𝜌𝐻20
ℎ𝐿 = 𝑥 + 𝛥𝑧 = 12.6𝑥 + 𝛥𝑧 → (5)
𝜌𝐻20

For horizontal pipe, z = 0 thus the head loss equation (3) & (5) will finally become

ℎ𝐿 = 13.6𝑥 + 𝛥𝑧

ℎ𝐿 = 12.6𝑥 + 𝛥𝑧

When pipe is horizontal, 𝛥𝑧 = 0,

 𝒉𝑳 = 𝟏𝟑. 𝟔𝒙

𝒉𝑳 = 𝟏𝟐. 𝟔𝒙

APPARATUS:
Refer to lab manual

PROCEDURE:
Refer to lab manual

RESULT & CALCULATION:

In this piping loss experiment, the theoretical head loss was calculated for each feature. To
simplify the calculation, the flowrates, cross sectional areas of pipe and velocities of fluid for
respective cross-sectional area of pipes ahead of time. The density of water and viscosity were
obtained from an online source for assumed temperature. The Reynolds number is calculated
to determine the type of flow followed by calculating the friction factor using the appropriate
equation.

a) First Set (1st Flowrate)

Flowrate, Q (litres/min) 18
Flowrate, Q (m3/s) 18 × 1000 ×1E-6/60 = 0.0003
Temperature (°C) 23
Water density, ρ (kg/m3) 997.57 (Anon., 2015)
Dynamic viscosity, µ (Ns/m2) 0.00093 (Anon., 2004)
Kinematic viscosity, υ (m2/s) υ = µ/ρ = 9.3E-07
Diameter, D1 (mm) 13.7
Diameter, D2 (mm) 26.4
Diameter, D1 (m) 0.0137
Diameter, D2 (m) 0.0264
Area, A1 (m2) πD1/4 = 0.00015
Area, A2 (m2) πD2/4 = 0.00055
Length, l (m) 0.914
v1 (m/s) Q = A1v1 → v1 = Q/A1 = 2.03512
v2 (m/s) Q = A2v2 → v2 = Q/A2 = 0.54805
Re ρv1D1/µ = 29874.8, Re>4000 Flow is turbulent
f 0.079/(Re1/4) = 0.00601
 The values for loss coefficients are taken from Fig, except for sudden expansion,
contraction and smooth bend pipes of varying radius. These were calculated manually and
extrapolated. (Refer from Appendix)

Feature Loss Coefficients, KL

90° propriety elbow 0.9 (From Fig. 1)
Straight pipe 13.7 mm bore -
90° Sharp bend (mitre) 1.62 (From appendix)
Sudden expansion -
Sudden contraction
90° Smooth bend 50.8 mm 0.1
90° Smooth bend 100 mm 0.08
90° Smooth bend 152 mm 0.12
Gate Valve (for fully opened) 0.2
Globe valve (for fully opened) 10

Feature Tube H exp, m H theoretical, m

90° 1&2 𝒉𝟏 − 𝒉𝟐 𝒌𝒗𝟐𝟏 𝟒𝒇𝒍 𝒗𝟐𝟏
+ .
propriety = 872 − 418 𝟐𝒈 𝒅 𝟐𝒈
elbow = 454 𝑚𝑚 2.03512 4(6.01 × 10−3 )(0.914)
= . [0.9 + ]
2 × 9.81 0.0137
= 528.49
≈ 528 𝑚𝑚
Straight 3&4 𝒉𝟑 − 𝒉𝟒 𝟒𝒇𝒍 𝒗𝟐𝟏
.
pipe 13.7 = 410 − 61 𝒅 𝟐𝒈
mm bore = 349 𝑚𝑚 2.03512 4(6.01 × 10−3 )(0.914)
= .
2 × 9.81 0.0137
= 339 𝑚𝑚
90° Sharp 5&6 𝒉𝟓 − 𝒉𝟔 𝒌𝒗𝟏 𝟒𝒇𝒍 𝒗𝟐𝟏
𝟐
+ .
bend = 1015 − 287 𝟐𝒈 𝒅 𝟐𝒈
(mitre) = 728 𝑚𝑚 2.03512 4(6.01 × 10−3 )(0.914)
= . [1.62 + ]
2 × 9.81 0.0137
= 680 𝑚𝑚
Sudden 7&8 𝒗𝟐𝟏 −𝒗𝟐𝟐 𝒗𝟐𝟏 𝑨𝟏 𝟐
𝒉𝟕 − 𝒉𝟖 + = (𝟏 − )
expansion 𝟐𝒈 𝟐𝒈 𝑨𝟐
2
2.03512 − 0.54812 2.03512 13.7 2
−0.066 + = (1 − ( ) )
2(9.81) 2 × 9.81 26.4
= 129.78 = 112.71
≈ 130 𝑚𝑚 ≈ 113 𝑚𝑚
 Sudden *9 & 𝒗𝟐𝟏 −𝒗𝟐𝟐 𝒗𝟐𝟏 𝟏 𝟐
𝒉𝟗 − 𝒉𝟏𝟎 + ( − 𝟏)
contraction 10 𝟐𝒈 𝟐𝒈 𝑪𝑪
0.5481 − 2.03512
2 𝒌𝒗𝟐𝟏
= 0.307 + =
2(9.81) 𝟐𝒈
= 111.21 0.3509 × 2.03512
=
≈ 111 𝑚𝑚 2 × 9.81
≈ 74 𝑚𝑚
90° *11 𝒉𝟏𝟏 − 𝒉𝟏𝟐 𝒌𝒗𝟐𝟏 𝟒𝒇𝒍 𝒗𝟐𝟏
+ .
Smooth & 12 = 710 − 351 𝟐𝒈 𝒅 𝟐𝒈
bend 100 = 359 𝑚𝑚 2.03512 4(6.01 × 10−3 )(0.914)
= . [0.08 + ]
mm 2 × 9.81 0.0137
= 355 𝑚𝑚
90° *13 𝒉𝟏𝟑 − 𝒉𝟏𝟒 𝒌𝒗𝟐𝟏 𝟒𝒇𝒍 𝒗𝟐𝟏
+ .
Smooth & 14 = 508 − 150 𝟐𝒈 𝒅 𝟐𝒈
bend 152 = 358 𝑚𝑚 2.03512 4(6.01 × 10−3 )(0.914)
= . [0.12 + ]
mm 2 × 9.81 0.0137
= 363.8
≈ 364 𝑚𝑚
90° *15 𝒉𝟏𝟓 − 𝒉𝟏𝟔 𝒌𝒗𝟐𝟏 𝟒𝒇𝒍 𝒗𝟐𝟏
+ .
Smooth & 16 = 674 − 281 𝟐𝒈 𝒅 𝟐𝒈
bend 50.8 = 393 𝑚𝑚 2.03512 4(6.01 × 10−3 )(0.914)
= . [0.1 + ]
mm 2 × 9.81 0.0137
= 359.6
≈ 360 𝑚𝑚
Globe 𝟏𝟐. 𝟔 × ∆𝒉 𝒌𝒗𝟐𝟏
valve = 12.6(57) 𝟐𝒈
= 718.2 10 × 2.03512
=
≈ 718 𝑚𝑚 2 × 9.81
= 2111 𝑚𝑚
Gate valve 𝟏𝟐. 𝟔 × ∆𝒉 𝒌𝒗𝟐𝟏
= 12.6 × 12 𝟐𝒈
= 151.2 0.2 × 2.03512
=
≈ 151 𝑚𝑚 2 × 9.81
= 42.22
≈ 42 𝑚𝑚

b) Second Set (2nd Flowrate)

Flowrate (litres/min) 10
Flowrate (m3/s) 10 × 1000 ×1E-6/60 = 0.00017
Temperature (°C) 23
Water density, ρ 997.57
(kg/m3)
Dynamic viscosity, µ 0.00093
(Ns/m2)
 Diameter, D (mm) 13.7
Diameter, D (m) 0.0137
Area, A (m2) πD/4 = 0.00019
Length, l (m) 0.914
v (m/s) Q = Av = 0.88799
Re ρvD/µ = 13035.3, Re>4000 Flow is turbulent
f 0.079/(Re1/4) = 0.00739

Values of loss coefficients, KL are reused from the first set,

Feature Tube H exp, m H theoretical, m

90° propriety 1&2 𝒉𝟏 − 𝒉𝟐 𝒌𝒗𝟐𝟏 𝟒𝒇𝒍 𝒗𝟐𝟏
+ .
elbow = 560 − 395 𝟐𝒈 𝒅 𝟐𝒈
= 165 𝑚𝑚 0.887992 4(0.00739)(0.914)
= . [0.9 + ]
2 × 9.81 0.0137
= 115.47
≈ 115 𝑚𝑚
Straight pipe 13.7 3&4 𝒉𝟑 − 𝒉𝟒 𝟒𝒇𝒍 𝒗𝟐𝟏
.
mm bore = 453 − 323 𝒅 𝟐𝒈
= 130 𝑚𝑚 0.887992 4(0.00739)(0.914)
= . = 79.3 𝑚𝑚
2 × 9.81 0.0137
90° Sharp bend 5&6 𝒉𝟓 − 𝒉𝟔 𝒌𝒗𝟐𝟏 𝟒𝒇𝒍 𝒗𝟐𝟏
+ .
(mitre) = 486 − 237 𝟐𝒈 𝒅 𝟐𝒈
= 249 𝑚𝑚 0.887992 4(0.00739)(0.914)
= . [1.62 + ]
2 × 9.81 0.0137
= 144 𝑚𝑚
Gate Valve 𝟏𝟐. 𝟔 × ∆𝒉 𝒌𝒗𝟐𝟏
= 12.6 × 4 𝟐𝒈
= 50.4 𝑚𝑚 0.2 × 0.887992
=
2 × 9.81
= 8.04 𝑚𝑚

Experimental, Theoretical and % error

a) First Set (1st Flowrate = 0.0003 m3/s)

Feature hLe (m) hLt (m) % Error

90° propriety elbow 0.454 0.528 |(ℎ𝐿𝑒 − ℎ𝐿𝑡 )|
× 100
ℎ 𝐿𝑡
= 14.10
Straight pipe 13.7 0.349 0.339 3.10
mm bore
 90° Sharp bend 0.728 0.680 6.98
(mitre)
Sudden expansion 0.130 0.113 15.15
Sudden contraction 0.111 0.074 50.14
90° Smooth bend 100 0.359 0.355 1.01
mm
90° Smooth bend 152 0.358 0.364 1.60
mm
90° Smooth bend 0.393 0.360 9.28
50.8 mm
Globe valve 0.718 2.111 65.98
Gate valve 0.151 0.042 258.13

b) Second Set (2nd Flowrate = 0.00017 m3/s)

Feature hLe (m) hLt (m) % Error

90° propriety elbow 0.165 0.115 42.90
Straight pipe 13.7 mm 0.13 0.0793 63.94
bore
90° Sharp bend (mitre) 0.249 0.144 72.43
Gate valve 0.0504 0.00804 527.02

DISCUSSION:
Feature of Fitting (Compare and comments)
Firstly, when comparing the experimental results of the different flowrates, the
experimental values of the pipes and valve of the 10 litres/min are lower than the experimental
values of those in the 18 litres/min for 13.7 mm straight pipe, 90° propriety bend, mitre bend
and gate valve. This may be due to the flowrate varying directly with head loss as show in the
Hagen-Poiseuille equation.

Figure 6: 90° propriety elbow bend (left) and 90° mitre bend (right) (Cimbala, 2014)
 Next, the comparison for different type of bends will be made. The type of bend that has
the highest head loss belongs to the 90° mitre bend, due to shape of the bend which is sharp as
shown in Fig.6, which causes the fluid to take a sharp turn which causes the great loss obtained
in the experiment. It should be noted that the reading obtained for this bend also includes losses
from the straight pipe that it is connected to as seen in Fig 15 in Appendix. Following the 90°
mitre bend, the 90° propriety elbow is the type of bend with the second largest head loss when
considering just the bends. The 50.8 mm, 100 mm and 152 mm smooth 90° bends pale in
comparison in head loss value to the 90° propriety bend. The 90° propriety bend and 90° mitre
bend have similar features in terms of the angle of bend and also due to the fact, that both bends
causes a sudden change of direction of the flow of fluid. This sudden change of direction creates
a larger wake or separated flow region inside the pipe when compared to the other bends of
varying angles and also radius of bend. This results in a huge head loss formation of eddies in
the wake that uses the useful pressure energy and later decay and dissipate as heat right before
the flow is fully restored.

Figure 7: Smooth bend pipe with different radii (Chicago Metal Rolled Products, n.d.)
Furthermore, it is found that the results for the 50.8 mm, 100 mm and 152 mm smooth
bends are approximately similar to the results obtained by the 13.7 mm bore straight pipe. The
readings taken for these bends also includes the head loss for straight pipes that they are
connected to due to where the ends of the tubes of piezometer are. Since, it is assumed that
losses in piping system are localised, if we neglect the losses incurred by the straight pipe
connected to these smooth bends, the head loss becomes insignificant. This explains why the
result is only a little bit higher respectively than the result of the straight pipe. The minor head
loss that does occur is due to the gradual change in direction. Since, the radius of bend
increases, the flow path of fluid can change less abruptly as compared to mitre bend and
propriety bend. This creates a smaller wake region thus, generating smaller head loss. However,
it is important to note that at some high value of radius bend, the head may increase due to an
increase in the length of flow path increases, which contributes to the major part of head loss
for the 152 mm smooth bend case.
 As the flow passes through the pipe of smaller diameter to larger diameter (sudden
expansion) and vice versa (sudden contraction) respectively, the experimental value of head
loss for the case of sudden expansion is relatively higher than the sudden contraction. These
types of losses are considered minor losses as well. However, unlike with the bends, the head
loss that occurs for both sudden expansion and contraction is a localised effect due to the
change in pipe area. This type of fitting is also the smallest values of result that we obtained in
the experiment. It is speculated that the results obtained for the sudden expansion and
contraction are lower because the piezometer tubes are attached directly to the inlet and outlet
of the fitting unlike the cases before that included the major head loss of the straight pipe
(dependent on length of pipe) connected to the bends. The value for sudden expansion is most
likely higher because the wake formed at the corners of the pipe with larger piping diameter is
bigger than the wake formed as the fluid goes through sudden contraction as mentioned above.
This is why the sudden expansion experimental result is higher than the sudden contraction.

Last but not least, the flow through the gate valve creates the smallest head loss as
compared to the other bends and fittings that are connected to the straight pipe. For instance,
90° propriety or elbow bend, 90° mitre bend, 50.8 mm, 100 mm and 152 mm smooth 90° bend
and straight pipe. Since the gate valve is in fully opened, the pressure drop is minimised while
conducting the experiment. Consequently, the difference of pressure before entering and after
entering the valve is very minute. It is however, still regarded significant for a minor loss. In
contrast, another valve also grouped under minor loss, the globe valve is producing
tremendously high values for loss. The results obtained is even higher than major loss produced
in straight pipe. From the experimental result, it is shown that the globe and gate valve both
has high percentage error so it can be said that the globe valve measurement has failed since
percentage error is higher than 100%.

Experimental and Theoretical Head Loss (Compare, Justify & Improvements)

a) First Set (1st Flowrate = 0.0003 m3/s)

Feature hLe (m) hLt (m) %

Error
90° propriety elbow 0.454 0.528 14.10
Straight pipe 13.7 mm 0.349 0.339 3.10
bore
90° Sharp bend (mitre) 0.728 0.680 6.98
Sudden expansion 0.130 0.113 15.15
Sudden contraction 0.111 0.074 50.14
90° Smooth bend 100 mm 0.359 0.355 1.01
90° Smooth bend 152 mm 0.358 0.364 1.60
90° Smooth bend 50.8 mm 0.393 0.360 9.28
Globe valve 0.718 2.111 65.98
Gate valve 0.151 0.042 258.13
 b) Second Set (2nd Flowrate = 0.00017 m3/s)

Feature hLe (m) hLt (m) % Error

90° propriety elbow 0.165 0.115 42.90
Straight pipe 13.7 mm 0.13 0.0793 63.94
bore
90° Sharp bend (mitre) 0.249 0.144 72.43
Gate valve 0.0504 0.00804 527.02

Compare and Justification (explain results)

By investigating the experiment using different types of bends, fittings and valves, it is
observed that the theoretical values are lower than the experimental value in general. However,
there are a few outliers. Most notably, the globe valve. Asides from that, based on the
percentage error calculated, the sudden contraction, globe valve and gate valve are producing
results with the greatest percentage error. This may be due to the assumptions made throughout
the experiment. For instance, the valves are assumed to be fully opened although there may
have been points throughout the experiment where valve is required to be closed. Other than
that, the value for contraction coefficient from textbook is obtained from various experiment
conducted in the past however, the value actual size of vena contracta may vary. The rest of
the results are within an acceptable range (15-20%) to be considered valid. These discrepancies
can be explained based on the assumption made in the beginning of the experiment such as
surface roughness being zero, flow of liquid is uniform and fully formed and that transitional
flow is not present.
By investigating the experiment using different flowrates, it is observed that the theoretical
values are lower than the experimental value in general. It is also observed that as the flowrate
decreased from the first set to the second set, that the head loss decreases and the percentage
of error increases. The head loss is justified since it has been established that the flowrate is
directly proportional to the pressure loss which in turn affects the head loss proportionally.

Factors & Improvements

The disparity in result of head loss can be attributed to several errors that are present in the
experiment. The value taken from the pressurized manometer’s meniscus might not be accurate
as the reading of the manometer is not steady and consistent due to the unstable flow of the
water current in the pipelines. An inconsistency in the taking of reading will lead to inaccurate
calculations which are based on the results obtained. Additionally, an apparatus factor may
cause discrepancies between the theoretical and experimental results. Furthermore, the
viscosity of the fluid is also a factor which causes differences between theoretical and
experimental result, since the fluid which flow through the pipeline may have different
viscosity due to the environment parameter such as temperature and pressure(Saravacos, 1970).
Also, an unmaintained pipe system might cause the interior of the pipe to be corroded or
decayed and thus the diameter would not be constant at every region. This will affect the
reading of the manometer because the velocity of the fluid may not be consistent as the fluid
flows through the pipeline. Therefore, the experimental value is different from the calculated
value. Besides that, the relative roughness of the pipe is assumed to be perfectly smooth but
not calculated in this experiment. The real value for the roughness of the pipe is unknown and
it could be different from the theoretical value as there are non-environmental factors that cause
the difference between theoretical and experimental result (CK, 2018). The corrosion will not
only affect the surface roughness and velocity, it may also mix with the water which in turn
will affect the density of the water making it no longer constant. Lastly, the bubbles or air
pocket in the pipeline may cause the system to exert more energy due to overcome the eddies
formed within it.

The improvements that can be conducted to further improve the accuracy of experiments
and minimise inconsistency for future testing is by taking 2-3 set of readings and taking the
average of piezometer and manometer tube height to eliminate parallax error. Waiting for
readings to stabilise before continuing to results collection is also advised. Next, performing
regular maintenance on the pipe system should be conducted more regularly or the pipes,
fittings, bends and valves should be inspected for rust to ensure that the surface roughness is
altered too much. Additionally, adding devices such as diffusers and filters before passing
through the piping system to minimise the head loss of fluid before flowing through the piping
system can further improve the results. Moreover, any means of controlling temperature and
density of fluid should be taken. For instance, using a AC unit or sterilising the fluid with UV
rays. Last but not least, using a more accurate flowmeter to calculate head loss and actual
flowrate can drastically improve the results since a comparison between the theoretical and
experimental results such as velocity and flowrate can be made.

Losses in Piping System (Application & Factors to Optimise)

An application in where the distribution of water is paramount, is in the fire prevention
industry. To be precise, the fire sprinkler system. These systems aid in putting out fires and
also stalling for time for firemen to arrive. For this reason, it falls under fire prevention and not
mitigation. The crucial component of the system are the sprinkler heads. Sprinkler heads are
unique. They automatically detect a fire discharge water right into the seat of the blaze
and operate a local alarm they can also operate a remote alarm to alert the fire brigade or
rather emergency centre.
A typical sprinkler head comprises of a threaded body to connect to pipe work with a valve
seal to hold back the water. The valve seal is retained by a glass bulb which contains a liquid
that has a high coefficient of expansion, also known as a bead. A small measured quantity of
vapor remains trapped when the bulb is air tight sealed and insulated from outside influences.
When the liquid expands under the influence of heat from a fire, pressure in the bulb increases
until the vapor is further compressed. Increases in temperature causes a rapid build-up of
pressure sufficient to shatter the bulb, releasing the valve seal and allowing the water to flow
onto a water distribution deflector. This results in an even distribution of water droplets in a
predetermined pattern over the fire.

Figure 8: Sprinkler head assembly (NFPA, n.d.)

Sprinkler heads are available in a variety of operating temperatures which are identified
by the colour of the bulb. Thera are a vast array of sprinkler heads available; each type of head
is designed to cope with different fire risks, different operating temperatures and different
operational requirements. The British standard defines fire risks as light hazard, ordinary
hazard or extra high hazard. Generally, as the hazard increases so does the water discharge or
density. Discharge conventional sprinklers can be mounted in either the upright or pendent
position with a deflector designed to spray a proportion of the water discharged onto the surface
of the ceiling. spray sprinklers in upright or pendent positions are used for applications where
all the water needs to be discharged downwards. Sidewall sprinklers are primarily used to keep
ceilings, clear of pipe work for aesthetic reasons or to avoid having to disturb existing ceilings
when installing.

Figure 9: Orientation of sprinkler heads (Waran, 2015)

 Each sprinkler protects up to 17 square meters in light hazard fire risks and nine square
meters in ordinary hazard fire risks. side wall sprinklers with extended coverage are specifically
designed to give an extended coverage of water distribution, with one sprinkler able to protect
an area of up to 21 square meters. This type of sprinkler must have a quick response bulb. In a
fire, few deaths result from direct contact with flames (deaths are mainly caused by the
inhalation of the emissions). Sprinklers provide valuable time for those in charge to assist their
escape.
Sprinkler head is connected to a water supply via a network of pipes fed throughout the
building. The area protected by each sprinkler head can vary from nine square meters to 21
square meters depending on the fire risk. The pipe work is hydraulically designed to ensure the
correct flow and pressure of water is maintained at each sprinkler head. The water supply to
the system can be fed from the town main for light to medium fire risks such as residential
offices hotels and light manufacturing and commercial occupancies for high fire risk areas such
as heavy manufacturing and warehouse storage a pumped supply from a water storage tank or
reservoir is normally necessary.

Figure 10: Sprinkler network model (Viznoi, 2017)

A control and alarm valve automatically delivers the flow of water to the sprinkler heads.
There are generally five types of sprinkler system that all require different valve arrangements.
A wet system is where the pipe work is permanently charged with water and used to protect
premises where temperatures are unlikely to fall below freezing point.
In cases where the ambient temperature may fall or be below freezing point, the presence
of static water in the sprinkler pipes is clearly undesirable. For this situation, a dry system can
be installed in which the pipe work is charged with compressed air when a sprinkler operates
the compressed air is released and the control valve opens, allowing water to flow into the pipe
work and to discharge from the operated sprinkler heads.
An alternate wet and dry system as the name implies allows the system pipe work to be
alternately charged with water in summer and with air in when there is a risk that the ambient
room temperature can fall below freezing. Pre-action systems are comprised of a standard
sprinkler system and an independent electrical system of heat or smoke detectors installed in
the same areas as the sprinklers. When a signal from two or more detectors are received, the
main control panel automatically opens the control valve, allowing water to flow into the
sprinkler pipe work.
Water is only discharged when the individual sprinkler heads reach their operating
temperature. Any physical damage to a sprinkler in a non-fire situation will not result in water
discharge but will cause both visual and audible alarms to be raised at the main control panel
only.
A deluge system unlike any other typical sprinkler system, is designed specifically for high
hazard and applications with fast fire growth potential. The deluge valve is actuated by a
separate detection system responding to a fire. This brings a large number of open sprinklers
into action simultaneously throughout the protected area (Explained, 2014)

Inadequate flow in piping layout due to pressure loss in the fire sprinkler system could
result in a time lag or more consumption of energy from pumps. This could prove fatal as it
could cost someone their lives and even increase property damage. Hence, a few factors should
be considered in optimising the flow in piping layouts. Primarily, gravity. Rise and falls in
elevation will result in pressure loss and gains respectively. Succeeding, piping paths and
valves used will also impact pressure losses. Throughout the piping system, bends, valves,
fittings, expansion joints and any changes in direction will result in pressure loss as well.
Moreover, pipe size is also an important factor to consider as piping diameter has an inverse
effect on pressure. Flow may vary from large diameter to smaller diameter and losses will
occur. The use of a diffuser should be used in those cases to minimise loss. Furthermore,
material friction force will also incur losses. Different piping materials will have different
surface roughness which is why it is important to choose a smooth material. In addition,
corrosion within the pipe is a must to check. Corrosion causes pitting along the surface of pipe
or joints which slows fluid flow. Last but not least, distribution layout of pipes is important. As
the piping layout may stretch far distances, there are bound to be losses along the flow
throughout the system. A ring main line system can be used as opposed to a dead-end line to
ensure adequate flow throughout the system. Using parallel piping instead of just series or a
higher power pump is also accepted (Solorio, 2017).

Valves (Application)
Gate valves are used to permit or prevent the flow of fluids and as a result they are either
fully open or close. Gate valves predominantly contains three components which are the valve
body and seats, stem and the gate/disc and the packing and bonnet. Operationally, the seats and
body are at rest whilst the threaded stem rotates to lift the gate of its seats. A valve actuator or
handwheel is used to rotate the stem. The bonnet encases the disc whilst the valve is open and
provides a location for the stem packing. In essence, the valve operates by completely blocking
the flow with a gate or plate that is perpendicular to the flow of fluid. In the open position it
will allow little (in the event gate is withdrawn from the flow path) to no obstruction to the
flow, thus resulting in low resistance ergo low loss coefficient (KL = 0.2 when fully opened).
There are several types of gate valves. For instance, the rising stem and non-rising stem designs.
The rising stem gives a visual indication of the position of the gate in the valve while in the
non-rising valve, the stem is threaded inside the disc, lowering and raising as the stem turns
while remaining axially fixed.

Figure 11: Gate Valve (Cimbala, 2014)

The metal seats on both sides of gate will allow the fluid to flow in two direction or in
other words bi-directionally. Gates are sealed without an extra sealing ring in cases where
leakage are acceptable. This valve is suitable for fully open and fully closed. However, for
partially open configuration it is not as ideal due to the valve internals being exposed to uneven
and accelerated wear and vibration. A pressure reduction is incorporated for some very large
valves before gate can be moved. Gate valves’ simple design makes them very economical.
The gate valves are generally used in power plants and process plants for isolation and shut-
off purposes. Additionally, water heater inlets are required by building codes to have an on/off
valves installed on its upstream. Non-rising stems are used in cases where vertical space is
indispensable like aboard ships. To summarise, the gate valve is a good economical option that
provides positive shutoff, bi directionality and low-pressure loss in a compact envelope while
the downsides comprise of slow automation, susceptibility to vibration and unable to regulate
flow.

The term globe refers to the spherical shape in the yesteryears of the outer housing of the
valve. Globe valve is designed to regulate and stop flow through pipes. It consists of three
major components which is the disc and the stem, packing and bonnet and the valve body and
the seat. In action, rotation of the stem through a valve actuator or handwheel, lifts the disc of
its seat. A Z-shaped path is followed as fluid flows through valve, causing the fluid to meet the
disc directly. Depending on the position of disc relative to its seat (higher or lower), the flowrate
will vary respectively. There are other variations to the globe valve such as angle and Wye
patterns or different sealing elements like quick opening with few turns of stem or gradual
opening with many turns of stem. It is important to note that the inlet and outlet of valve are
placed in a line to one another in all the configurations. This type of valve has one of the highest
loss coefficients. Essentially, due to the head on fluid contact nature with the disc and the
drastic change in direction of the fluid flow, when the valve is fully opened it will still
experience a pressure drop ergo a head loss. This in turn affects the loss coefficient which
means as it moves from fully open to fully closed, the loss coefficient will increase (typically
from 5-25).

Figure 12: Globe Valve (Cimbala, 2014)

Globe valves are a preferred choice for regulating and stopping flow since in some cases,
the flow may assist in the process of opening and closing. These are called fail open and fail
close cases. These valves are also regularly automated using pneumatic actuators that act
directly on the valve stem to move circular disc into place. A disadvantage of using this type
of valve is that the loss coefficient is significant starting from fully open state so it is not suitable
for applications requiring higher flowrates or basic on/off. This valve is usually found in
wastewater plants, power plants and process plants.

Butterfly valve is a valve that provides quick shut off means of regulating flow. Its main
component are the butterfly disk, housing and valve stem. It is a quarter turn valve (angle of
rotation, 0 ≤ θ ≤ 90°) with a pivoting disk that is mounted on a valve stem that can rotate in the
valve’s body. Control of the flow of the fluid is achieved by varying the angle of the pivoting
disk. As the angle varies from fully open to fully closed, the planform area of the disk is further
exposed to the direction of flow of the fluid. This increases the frictional resistance or shear
stress opposing the direction of the flow which in turn increases the head loss incurred. Thus,
the loss coefficient will increase as well as the valve goes from fully opened to fully closed.
 Figure 13: Butterfly Valve partially open (left), actual part(right) (Cimbala, 2014)

An advantage of the butterfly valve is that it is low-costing in terms of purchase,

installation and maintenance costs. Next, it is suitable for flows of slurries and liquids which
have suspended solids because it has a very wide valve opening. However, the biggest
limitation with this valve is it has high chances of cavitation and choke occurring because the
disk is always in the flow path of the fluid. Besides that, flow turbulence may affect the
movement of disk within the valve’s casing. It is also typically used in wastewater plants,
power plants and process plants similar to globe valve (Edwards, 2021).

Figure 14: Swing Check Valve (Cimbala, 2014)

Swing check valve is a valve that prevents flow reversal and permits fluid to flow in a
single direction only. It consists of hinged gates, disc wafers or wafers that are usually spring-
actuated to close against ports as pressure declines. These devices are used for low pressure
applications. A tilting disc check valve varies the theme by an amount by hinging the gate
slightly inward to reduce the pressure required for the inlet. Operationally, the typical swing
check valve has its disc completely out of the way when the material is flowing. The disc
swings back into place when not in use. This mean the process of disc swinging back to close
inlet is gradual. As the disc closes the inlet, coefficient of loss is increases. The typical
application is for flows with high solids percentage and lower on/off cycle count. For instance,
CONCLUSION:
The purpose of this experiment is to determine the major and minor losses in a piping
system to verify the validity of pre-determined values such as loss coefficient, KL for bends,
fittings and valves in a turbulent flow since there are fluctuations in the velocity. Based on
the nature of turbulent flow, it is known that the turbulent flow can exhibit certain
unpredictability in its physical quantities such as in flowrates, velocities and formation of
eddies. Based on the experimental results obtained and the theoretical results calculated, it is
shown clearly the comparison between the major and minor losses. As well as the
relationship between the losses (major & minor) and the flowrate.
Throughout this experiment, the experimental values for major and minor head losses are
calculated and then are compared to theoretical values respectively. Through the experiment,
it is found that the major head loss is caused by the frictional force in the straight pipe and
minor head loss is caused by the loss coefficient of the various pipe fittings. As the flowrate
decreases, it can be noted that the head losses in piping system also decreases. Although, as
mentioned before, that turbulent flows are unpredictable, however it seems to obey the basic
fundamentals that was established in our theory section. The inconsistency of the results is
caused by some factors such as instrument factors, human factors and environmental factors as
deliberated before in the discussion.
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Lab Manual
Lecture Notes
NFPA, n.d. Public Education. [Online]
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fire-sprinklers/Fire-Sprinkler-Initiative/Take-action/Free-downloads/How-sprinklers-work
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PRESSURE LOSS. [Online]
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pressure-loss
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APPPENDIX:

Figure 15: Apparatus Setup for Losses in Piping System

Figure 16: Character of the flow in 90° bend & the associated loss coefficients
Figure 17: Loss coefficients for mitre bends