VIRTUAL CAMPUS

SCHOOL OFEDUCATION
DEPARTMENT OF EARLY
CHILDHOOD STUDIES
CODE: BEP 2201

COURSE TITLE: EDUCATIONAL

GUIDANCE ANDC OUNSELLING

Instructional Module for B. ECE

(COMMUNITYOPTION) Distance Learning
P.O BOX 13495-01000
NAIROBI

www.mku.ac.ke

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COURSE DESCRIBPTION
The module on guidanceandcounselingisintendedforthetrainingofcounselorswhowillbe
expectedtoprovideguidanceandcounselingservicestoproducefullydevelopedandwell prepared
youngpeopleforresponsibleadulthood,futurecareers,areductionof youngpeople’s challengesof
growthanddevelopment.Duetothe manychangesthat have takenplaceinthe
recentyears,socially,occupationally,economically,someofthefamilyandsocial function that
usedtobecarriedoutbyparentsandgrand-parents,fortheinformationandeducationofthe
childrenarenownotcarriedout.Arapidlychangingworkworldandlabor force,violencein
homes,schoolsandcommunity,technologicaladvances,divorce,teenage suicide,drugand
substanceabuse,andsexualexperimentationsare justa fewexamplesofthesechallenges.

Comprehensiveguidanceandcounselingprogramfirmlygroundedin principalsofhuman
growthanddevelopment,a programthat is anintegralpartofeducational
processeswithacontentbase-specificknowledgeandskillsofitsown.

Themoduleintroducesthe learnertothestudyandpracticeofGuidanceandCounselling.Dueto
manybehaviouralproblemsyouareexpectedtogainknowledge,skills,competenceinhandling
children,adolescents,youngadultsandotherclientswhoseekyourhelp. Themodulelooksat
theissuesrequiringguidanceandcounselling,theories,principals,techniquesandpractices
governingcounselling. There’sneedtounderstandthehistoryandtheoriesthat formthe backbone of
guidanceand counselingpractice,counselorsdevelopment,ethical andlegal issuesrelatingto
counselling. Themoduleisintendedassist the learneringaininginsight
onb a s i c psychologicalproblems,andhelp the learnertodecidewhenyou,a friendor
familymemberwouldbenefitfromcounselingservices.It
ismeanttoserveasintroductoryguidetoguidanceandcounselling,andalsoleadlearnerto further
research. Attheendofthecoursethe learnerwillbeexpectedto
assessandclassifymethodsofcounselling,help
theparents,teachers,managersandthesocietyatlargetoidentifymeasuresofcorrecting behavior.As a
learner, asaguidance and counseling teacher one shouldaimtoimprovetheconditionofthesocietyby
givingtherapy,supportivecounselling,linkageandreferral, advocacyandvariousotherservices
asdemanded.

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COURSEOBJECTIVES

Attheendofthecoursethe learner should be able to:

Explainthehistoryanddefineguidanceandcounselling

Identifytheneedsforguidanceandcounselling

Identifycharacteristicsof effectiveguidanceandcounselling.-

Explainthetheories,techniquesprinciplesandpracticesof counseling

Identifytypesofcounselling a n d psychotherapyprocessesadaptable t o childrenandother ages

Counsellor-clientrelationsandexpectationsina counsellingrelationship

Assess,classify,andevaluateemotionaldisturbancesandtheir causes

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MODE OF ASSESSMENT

The course will be assessed through end of semester examination, take home assignments and a sit
in assessment test. The end of semester examinations will carry 70% of the total marks; the take
home assignments 15% of the total marks and the sit in assignments 15% of the total marks
totaling to 100%. The pass mark is 40%.

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 TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
 History of guidance and counselling
 Development of school counseling
 Emergence of guidance and counsellling in schools
 World War II to the space age
 Organizational changes and professional influences
 Expansion of school counseling
 The twenty firs t century a search for professional identity
 Development of guidance and counseling services in Kenya
CHAPTER 2: THEORIES ANDTECHNIQUESIN GUIDANCEAND COUNSELLING
 Person centered theory
 Operant conditioning
 Behavior modification
 Maslow hierarchy of needs
 Cognitive behavioural therapy

CHAPTER3:COUNSELLINGANDPSYCHOTHERAPYTYPES
 Qualities of an effective counsellor
 Types of counselling

CHAPTER4:COMPREHENSIVE SCHOOL COUNSELING PROGRAM

 Purpose of guidance and counseling programme

 Components of guidance and counseling

CHAPTER5: EMOTIONAL PROBLEMS/CHALLENGES DURING EARLY CHILDHOOD

 Fighting
 Verbal abusiveness
 Physical abusiveness or bullying
 Tantrums
 Lying
 Shyness and withdrawal
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  Excessive tension and anxiety
 Separation anxiety Disorder

CHAPTER6: THE ROLE OF TEACHER COUNSELLOR

The role of teacher counselor

CHAPTER7: MANAGING OF DIFFICULT CHILDREN IN SCHOOL SETTING

 Classroom management
 Methods of identifying problems behaviours
 Causes of children maladjustive behaviours
 Handling children misbehaviours in the classroom setting
 Dealing with various disorders
CHAPTER8. ETHICAL STANDARDS FOR GUIDANCE AND COUNSELLING
PROGRAMME
 Responsibility to students
 Responsibility to parents
 Responsibility to colleagues and professional associates.
 Responsibility to the school and community
 Responsibility to self
 Responsibility to profession

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 CHAPTERONE
HISTORYOFGUIDANCEANDCOUNSELLING
Objectives

By the end of this topic the learner should be able to:

 Discuss history of guidance and counseling
 Discuss the contribution of Jesse Davis,Alfred Binet and Frank Parson in development
of school counseling
 Describe the development of guidance and counseling services in Kenya

HISTORY OF GUIDANCE AND COUNSELLING

The term counseling has been defined differently by different people.

A way of relating and responding to another person, so that the person is helped to explore her/his
thoughts, feelings and behaviors to reach a clearer self understanding and then is helped to find and
use her/his strengths so that he/she copes more effectively with life by making appropriate decisions
or taking relevant action. (Inskipp and John1984).

It is helping process that uses the safety engendered by a special kind of relationship to help
individuals to get access to a greater part of their personal resources as a mean of responding to the
challenges of life. It uses specific skills and techniques in that relationship to help people become
more competent, more contented and more creative. It does not deal primarily with the mentally ill
but with normal individuals facing all the difficulties involved in domestic, work oriented and social
life. It is about helping people grow in emotional fitness and healthy. (McGuiness, 1998).Therefore,
counseling is the process of establishing a relationship to identify people’s needs, design, strategies
and services to satisfy these needs, and actively assist in carrying out plans to help people make
decisions, solve problems, develop self awareness, and lead healthier lives. Thus counseling refers to
a wide selection of services and activities that counselors choose to help people prevent disabling

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events focus on and develop human potential and remedy difficult situations. School counseling on
the other hand describes a broad program of services provided by professionally trained counselors
who practice in schools.

School counseling describes both the profession and the programme of services established by
counselors in schools. It refers to a wide selection of services and activities that school counselors
choose to prevent disabling events, focus on the students overall development and remedy existing
concerns. These services are rendered to teachers, parents, students and administration. Guidance is
a process developmental in nature by which an individual is assisted to understand, accept and
utilize his/her abilities, aptitudes, interests ’and attitudinal patterns in relation to his/her aspirations.

School guidance identifies planned activities that help students focus on a particular issue or topic.
Guidance is not the sole responsibility of school counselors nor is it the domain of any single
professional group. Everything done in the school can be related in some way to the concept of
“guiding students”. Guidance and counseling is therefore an important service in educational
institutions because it contributes to the self knowledge, determination, realization, acceptance and
self development of the individual by identifying his/her abilities, interests, attitudes, values,
potentialities and developing item to the fullest.

Development of School Counseling

The counseling profession entered the U.S. schoolhouse in the early twentieth century. Up to that
time, classroom teachers provided whatever social, personal or career assistance students needed.
The school counseling profession began as a vocational guidance movement that emerged from the
industrial Revolution at the beginning of the twentieth century. Some negative by-products of the
tremendous industrial growth of the period were city slums, ethnic ghettos and apparent neglect of
individual rights and integrity. In response to these conditions, proponents of the Progressive
Movement, a reaction to the negative effects of industrial growth, advocated for social reform.
Vocational guidance was one aspect of this response. For example, in 1895 George Merrill began
experimental efforts in vocational guidance at the California School of Mechanical Arts in San

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Francisco (Miller, 1968). Merrill’s program offered exploratory experiences for students in the
occupational trades taught at the California School, and these experiences were accompanied by
counseling, job placement, and follow-up services.

Generally, the guidance movement of this period instructed school children, adolescents, and young
adults about their moral development, interpersonal relationships, and the world of work. Jesse B.
Davis is thought to be the first person to implement a systematic guidance program in the public
schools (Gladding, 2000). From 1898 to 1907, he was a class counselor at Central High School in
Detroit, Michigan, and was responsible for educational and vocational counseling with eleventh-
grade boys and girls. Davis became Principal of a high school in Grand Rapids, Michigan in 1907
and at that time began a school wide guidance program. He encouraged his English teachers to
include guidance lessons in their composition classes to help students develop character, avoid
problem behaviors, and relate vocational interests to curriculum subjects.

Frank Parsons is often mentioned as the ‘’Father of Guidance’’ and is credited by most historians as
the person who began the guidance movement in the United States. In 1908, Parsons organized the
Boston Vocational Bureau to provide assistance for young people. The bureau was based on
Parson’s ideas and plans for vocational guidance, which stressed a scientific approach to Selecting a
career (Gysbers and Henderson, 2000). Parsons’ attention to vocational development was framed by
his concern about society’s failure to develop resources and services for human growth and
development. At the same time, he was concerned about helping young men make the transition
from their school years into the world of work. In his book “Choosing a Vocation”, which was
published after his death, Parsons (1909) highlighted three essential factors for choosing an
appropriate vocation:

(1) Clear self-understanding of one’s aptitudes, abilities, interest, resources and limitations;
(2) Knowledge of the requirements, advantages, disadvantages and compensation for different types
of employment; and
(3) An understanding of the relationship between these two groups of facts. This conceptualization
of successful career development still holds credence today. Self- understanding and knowledge of
one’s career interests go hand in hand for a person to be successful in life.
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Parson’s plan also includes training counselors to help young students with vocational development.
Nine months after establishing the vocational bureau, he began a program designed to train young
men to become vocational counselors and managers of vocational bureaus for YMCAs, few years
later, the School Committee of Boston created the first counselor certification program.
Requirements for this school counselor’s certificate included study of educational and experience in
a vocational school or vocational service. This certification program was eventually adopted by
Harvard University as the first college-based counselor education program. Frank Parsons’ work had
a significant impact on the vocational guidance Movement. In Boston, the superintendent of schools
designated over 100elementary and secondary teachers to become vocational counselors (Nugent,
2000).

Early developments in the guidance movement were complemented by the creation of the National
Vocational Guidance Association (NVGA) in 1913.This organization began publishing the National
Vocational Guidance Bulletin on a regular basis in 1921. Over the next several decades this
publication underwent several name changes, eventually becoming the Career Development
Quarterly. In 1952, when NVGA joined with the American Personnel and Guidance Association
(APGA), the personnel and guidance journal became the major publication of this national
association of counselor. Later, this publication was renamed the journal of counseling and
development of the American Association for Counseling and Development (AACD). The creation
of the NVGA is significant because it began the unification and identification of what has become
the counseling professional of today. This is especially true for the school counseling profession.

Emergence of Guidance and Counseling in Schools

The work of Jesse Davis, Anna Reed, Eli Weaver, Frank Parsons, and a host of other pioneers
created the momentum for the development of a school counseling profession. Coincidentally, many
of these developments, with their roots founded in the vocational guidance movement, raised
questions about the profession’s narrow focus on vocational development. Eventually, some leaders
of the counseling movement began to encourage a broader focus that included issues of personality
and human development beyond vocational guidance. This broader view laid the groundwork for
many of the counseling theories and approaches that were created in the years that followed.

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Before World War II After the vocational guidance movement of the early1900s, World War I was
the next major event that had an impact on the developing counseling profession. During the First
World War, the United States military began using group-training procedures to screen and classify
draftees. Intelligence testing developed in the beginning of the decade, was the catalyst for his
movement. In particular, work begun by French psychologist Alfred Binet, and later expanded by
Lewis Terman and Arthur Otis, was adapted by the military. Arthur Otis developed an intelligence
test that could be given to large groups and administered by unskilled examiners. Nevertheless, the
military’s interest in using group measurement techniques was embraced by schools and the
education profession when the war ended. The potential for applying testing and other measurement
techniques to pupil assessment helped catapult the development and expansion of standardized
testing in United States schools. The 1920s also saw the rise of progressive education in the schools.
This movement, introduced by John Dewey, emphasized the school’s role in guiding students in
their personal, social, and moral development (Nugent2000). As a result schools began in co-
operating guidance activities in to the curriculum for the purpose of developing skills for living
(Brewer, 1932). This movement was short-lived and was criticized by parents, teachers and others
for been too permissive and anti-educational. These critics wanted to focus on fundamentals of
education and claimed that moral development was in the purview of the home and the church. This
criticism in addition to declining public funds brought on by the Great Depression, all but cost the
abandonment of support for guidance activities and counseling services in the schools.

The late1930s saw the first theory of guidance and counseling called Trait and Factor theory,
developed by Williamson at the University of Minnesota. Using Parson’s vocational program as a
spring board, Williamson and his colleagues became reading advocates for what became known as
the directive or counselor centered approach to school counseling. In this book “How to Counsel
Students” Williamson (1939) note that counselors should state their point of view with definiteness
attempting through exposition to enlighten the student. In this direct approach counselors were
expected to dispense the information and gather data to influence and motivate student. Later
Williamson softened this view to some degree. In 1958 he wrote that the counselor is responsible for
helping the student become more sophisticated, more matured in understanding the value option that
he faces and to identify clearly those that he refers. At the same time the directive approach
maintained that counselors could not give complete freedom of choice to students who were not
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capable of making the best decisions for themselves. According to this view counselors were obliged
to protect the interest of society, the school as an institution, and the student. Williamson believed
that the development of individuality on the part of student must be balanced with concern for self
destructive and anti-social behaviors. In his approach to counseling, Williamson (1950) developed
six steps for assisting students:

1. Analysis-the gathering of data about the student and his environment.

2. Synthesis-the selection of relevant data, the summary and organization of these data to understand
the strengths and weaknesses of the student.
3. Diagnosis-the development of rationale regarding nature and etiology of the students’ problems
4. Prognosis-a prediction of outcomes based on the actions chosen by the student.
5. Treatment-various approaches and techniques selected for the counseling relationship
6. Follow-up-an evaluation of the effectiveness of the counseling relationship and the student’s plan
of action. Counselors and psychologists alike echoed this concern and stressed that vocational
choice is simply one of many developmental issues with which counselors should assist students.
These views began to broaden the goals of guidance and counseling in education. As a result,
resurgence in school counseling began.

World War II to the Space Age

The 1940s saw major changes in the counseling profession, and these developments had significant
impact on the practice of counseling in schools. Among the influences during this period, three
major events seem to have shaped these developments:
(1) The popularity of the client-centered to counseling developed by Carl Rogers
(2) The onset and impact of World War II on U.S. society
(3) Government involvement in the counseling and education professions after the war. In addition,
organizational changes within the profession and emerging theoretical models of counseling were
significant and direction of the counseling profession.

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The Rogerian influence. Roger’s gave new direction to the profession by focusing on the helping
relationships established between counselors and their clients and by recognizing the importance of
personal development in these relationships. This focus moved the profession away from the
counselor-centered perspectives of earlier items and emphasized a growth oriented counseling
relationship as opposed to an informational and problem solving one.

Opinions about Roger’s influence on the school counseling profession are not uniformly favorable.
Wittmer (2000b) noted that inordinate attention placed on the individual by the client-centered
approach ‘’somehow took us off-tracking school counselor preparation and may have contributed to
the inappropriate training of many school counselors’’. In particular, the emphasis on individual
counseling processes tended to neglect preventive and developmental interventions needed in school
environments. Nevertheless, the impact of Roger’s work on counseling practices both in and out of
schools was remarkable.

World War II and Government Influence Two other events that influenced the counseling
profession during this period were World War II and increased government involvement in the
counseling and psychology professions. As the United States entered the war, the government
requested assistance from counselors and psychologists to help in screening, selecting and training
military and industrial specialists. After the war, the Veterans Administration (VA) provided funds
for graduate students to become trained as counselors and psychologists. About this time, the term
counseling psychologist emerged in VA specifications, further distinguishing psychologyfrom
vocational guidance (Gladding, 2000).Another example of governmental influence in the counseling
profession was the George-Barden Act of 1946.

This legislation provided funds to develop and support guidance and counseling activities in schools
and other settings. For the first time in history, school counselors and state and local supervisors
received resource, leadership, and financial support from the government. This action fueled the
start of a period of rapid growth for guidance and counseling services in schools. One governmental
change that occurred in the 1950s was the re organization of the Guidance and Professional Branch
of the U.S. Office of Education (Gysbers and Henderson, 2000). In 1955, a Guidance and Personnel
Services Section was reestablished. The development of this office helped to move the school
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counseling profession further away from its original vocational emphasis to a broader student
services perspective. This trend continued through the 1950s and into the 1 960s. the ensuing public
outcry and criticism of educational institutions eventually led to the passage of Public Law 85-864,
entitled the National Defense Education Act of 1958 (NDEA).

Some of the recommendations of NDEA were:

• Support the improvement of guidance and counseling programs in secondary schools, and
• Establish vocational education programs. Title V of the NDEA focused specifically on school
counseling and guidance services in two important ways. First, it provided funds to help states
establish and maintain school counseling, testing and other guidance-related services. Second, it
authorized the establishment of counseling institutes and training programs in colleges and
universities to improve the skills of those who were working with students in secondary schools or
of persons who were training to become school counselors.

Organizational Changes and Professional Influences.

As a result of these national initiatives, the 1950s saw a continued acceleration of the
schoolcounseling profession. This development was marked by particular events that altered the
national counseling associations spearheading this professional movement. Another phenomenon
that influenced the development of the counseling profession during this time was the introduction
of several new theories of counseling. The 1950s continued this dialogue and witnessed the
emergence of several new theories including behavior approaches such as implosive therapy
(Stampfl, 1961) and systematic desensitization (Wolpe, 1958). The humanistic and existential
movements, illustrated in the writings of Combs (1962), Jourard (1964), May (1966), and Maslow
(1957), and the emergence of group counseling also influenced the profession. Although there was
much overlap among the concepts of some of these theories, there were enough differences in
terminology and philosophy to create an array of counseling models, methods and strategies. In
1976, Parloff identified more than 130counseling theories and approaches and since that the number
has continued
to grow. Some approaches to counseling, such as Reality Therapy (Glasser, 1965), multimodal
counseling (Gerler, 1990), Adlerian counseling (Sweeney, 1998) and invitational counseling (Purkey
and Schmidt, 1990, 1996), are more popular and compatible with school counseling programs.
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Expansion of School Counseling
Federal legislation during this period of 1960s, continued to have an impact on the counseling
profession and the role of counselors, particularly school counselors. For example, the Elementary
and Secondary Education Act of1965 (Public Law 89-10) provided funds and supported special
programs to help schools improve educational opportunities for students of low-income families.
This bill also provided funds for services that would not normally be available in most schools. The
1960s saw a new, expanded role for school counselors, with movement away from an emphasis on
guidance programs. The counseling literature of this time, particularly The School Counselor journal
and a few major texts began to delineate the role and functions of counselors in schools. During this
period, the term guidance was targeted by some authors as a vague and sometimes confusing label
for counselors, teachers, and other people who attempted to define the role and functions of
counselors in schools. Nearly forty years later, the discussion about guidance and the choice of an
appropriate language of identity the school counselor’s role and functions continue to be important
professional issues. Many programmatic conceptsand goals expressed in these and other texts are
similar, yet there remains this unresolved difference in language used to define and describe the
school counseling profession. The confusion over the terms guidance and counseling is compounded
by the absence of a theoretical foundation for guidance as a professional function.

Muro and Kottman (1995) have note, ‘’ While there is some theory available to guide counseling
practice, formal guidance theory still needs elaboration and definition’’. It is difficult to comprehend
how any profession could establish a credible identity on a nonexistent theoretical foundation. In the
period following 1960, the role and functions of school counselors emphasized in the professional
literature included programmatic and process functions. Programmatic functions emphasized
strategies to develop comprehensive programs of services, such as defining goals and objectives,
assessing students’ needs, aligning services with the school’s curriculum, coordinating student
services, and evaluating results. In addition, educational and vocational planning, student placement,
and referral systems frequently were included in this category. Process functions described specific
activities by which counselors provided direct services to students, parents, and teachers. These
functions included individual and group counseling, student assessment, parent assistance, and
consultation with teachers and parents.
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In 1968, Miller wrote that an ‘’effective guidance program requires the cooperative effort of every
teacher in the school’’. Yet, this cooperative role for administrators and teachers remained unclear
because of several factors. For one, guidance continued to be associated strictly with the role of the
school counselor. To this day, this perception endures in many schools where the mere mention of
the word guidance has teachers and administrator sturning their heads toward the counselor’s office.

A second factor that made it difficult for teachers to embrace a guidance role was their narrow focus
on the subject matter that they were responsible for teaching. This is true in today’s schools as well.
Sometimes teachers, particularly in secondary schools, place so much emphasis on the instruction of
English, mathematics, science, and other subjects that they forget the broader, developmental
concerns of students. A historic failing in U.S. education has been the inability of our schools to
infuse guidance, which is lessons of self-development and social skills – into the curriculum and
daily instruction.

The emerging emphasis on the role of teachers in guidance in the 1960s and1970s highlighted
specific functions for establishing a foundation of collaboration between school counselors and
teachers. This collaboration continues to be an essential ingredient of today’s comprehensive school
counseling programs.

The Twenty-First Century: A Search for Professional Identity

In recent years, many authors have stressed the importance of counselors’ creating a clear identity
and purpose for the role in schools (Gladding, 2000; Myrick, 1997; Vacc and Loesch, 2000). Despite
this encouragement, uncertainty about the school counselor’s role continues as a major professional
issue and obstacle. In some respects, this is due to the continued confusion regarding the term
guidance and its use in describing guidance counselors, guidance services, guidance programs, and
guidance personnel. The failure of school counselors to choose and use a consistent language in
describing who they are and what they do has contributed to a lack of consistent focus on their role
and functions.

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Another factor that has contributed to the identity dilemma of school counselors is reluctance within
the counseling profession itself to recognize school counselors as trained professionals on equal
footing with counselors in other work settings. School counselors often fail to embrace the self
perception that they are highly trained, capable, ‘’real counselors.’’ The historical perspective in this
chapter is intended to enhance you understanding and appreciation of contemporary school
counseling practices and trends. The future of school counseling as a profession depends on the
ability of counselors to become an integral part of the school setting while maintaining their unique
role and contribution to student welfare and development. To accomplish this goal, effective
counselors identify their role; select appropriate functions; plan programs of services for students,
parents, and teachers; strengthen their professional development; and evaluate their effectiveness in
schools.

Development of Guidance and Counseling services in Kenya

The need for Guidance and Counseling Services in Kenya became more important in the early 1960s
when the country was anticipating independence. There was need to train human-power and
vocational guidance was part and parcel of this preparation. At the end of 1962, the Ministry of
Labour in collaboration with the Ministry of Education came up with a plan to offer vocational
guidance with the help of career masters in schools. In 1964 and again in 1970 it was recommended
y the FORD Foundation report that all career masters and school libraries should be supplied with a
comprehensive career guidebook. In 1965, the Ministry of Labour produced a booklet called
‘’Choosing Careers.’’ The book gave information on career selection to secondary school students.
In 1967, Guidance and Counseling Services was introduced in Kenya under the Ministry of
Education. It was to be coordinated and supervised from the head office. Its main objective was to
come up with definite recommendations on how guidance and counseling could support all learning
activities of students.

In 1967, the ministry of labour produced another booklet entitled ‘helping you to choose a career’.
The booklet aimed at finding out what careers were available in government and private sector. It
was also to help school leavers to get started on careers they could succeed in. In 1970, a career hand
book was launched ‘’careers guidance for Kenya’’. This book was revised in 1971. In July 1971 the
guidance and counseling section was moved to inspectorate section. Since its inception, the
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Guidance and Counselling unit has been responsible for organizing in service courses, seminars,
conferences and workshops for both teachers (career masters) and heads of schools. At the same
time the head office carries out regular routine supervisory and advisory visits to all schools. The
unit also prepares and disseminate guidance resource materials for teacher counselors e.g. a hand
book for guidance and counseling which covers aspects of guidance and counseling such as
classification and description of career and training opportunities open to school leavers. The book
gives information on career selection for secondary school students. Guidance and counseling has
been the concern of some of the education commissions. In 1976 for instance, the Gachathi Report
recommended that the Ministry of Education expand its services to include guidance and counseling
services. The head teacher of each school was to assign a member of staff to be responsible for
providing information on guidance and counseling to all stakeholders’, teachers and parents
inclusive. It was recommended that each school was to build and use cumulative record of students’
academic performance, home background, aptitudes and interests and special problems to facilitate
guidance and counseling.

The report also recommended the establishment of courses at the university for training professional
workers in guidance and counseling. The Kamunge report (1988) further recommended that schools
should establish guidance and counseling services with senior teachers being responsible for them.
This policy still stands as noted below: It is the responsibility of the head-teacher to ensure that
Guidance and Counseling Services are offered to the pupils. Each school should establish a guidance
and counseling committee headed by a teacher appointed by the head teacher (Ministry of
Education, Human Resource Development, (MEHRD), 1999).The Presidential Committee on
students’ unrest and indiscipline in Kenya Secondary School, (September 2001) in its report shows
that the above directive has not been implemented in most schools. At the same time, the
Ministry does not have a strong guidance and counseling division to coordinate all the activities of
guidance and counseling in the country. The division needs to be equipped with relevant personnel
and resources to facilitate its functions.

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 SUMMARY

This topic has embarked on defining terms related to school counseling. Ithas also traced the
historical background of school counseling bringing outsome of the major milestones in its
development, in the United States andKenya.

SELF ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS

1) Define school counseling and school guidance
2) Trace the historical background of school counseling in America highlighting major milestones
and contributors
3) Discuss the contributions of various government commissions in the development of counseling
in Kenya.

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 CHAPTERTWO

THEORIES ANDTECHNIQUESIN GUIDANCEAND COUNSELLING

By the end of the topic the learner should be able to:

1. Discuss the various concepts in each theory

2. Discuss the application of various counseling theories in a school setup.

PSYCHOANALYTIC THEORY

BACKGROUND TO PSYCHOANALYTIC APPROACH

Sigmund Freud (1856 – 1939) is the man behind the theory of psychoanalysis or he has been
referred to as the father of modern psychology. Psychoanalytic approach continues to influence
contemporary practice. Most of the theories of counseling and psychotherapy we are going to
discuss have been influenced by psychoanalytic principles and techniques. Some of the therapeutic
approaches that came up extended the psychoanalytic models, others modified its concepts and
procedures, and others emerged as a reaction against it. Freud‘s psychoanalytic system is a model
of personality development, a philosophy of human nature, and a mind of psychotherapy. He gave
psychotherapy a new look and new horizons, calling attention to psycho-dynamic factors that
motivate behavior, focusing on the role of the unconscious and developing the first therapeutic
procedures for understanding the structure of one‘s basic structure. A significant contribution of the
psycho-analytic model is delineation of the stages of psychosexual and psycho-social development
from birth through adulthood
FREUD’S KEY CONCEPTS

VIEW OF HUMAN NATURE

Psychoanalysis views human nature as determined by irrational forces, unconscious motivations.
We are not aware of them but they still determine the way we behave. Biological drives – i.e. our
interest will determine institutional drives, psychosexual events during the first six years of life.

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Instincts in this theory are seen as central in Freudian approach. Originally the term libido was used
to refer to sexual energy. Later on the idea of libido was broadened to include all the other energies
that are involved in life. Freud says that these instincts serve the purpose of the survival of the
individual and the human race. Life instincts danger e.g. fire outbreak. Instinct drives you to know
to put off the fire e.g. car is rolling and you are about to die, what does the instinct tell you jump
out. According to Freud, instincts are oriented towards positive growth, development and creativity.
The goal of man‘s life is gaining pleasure and avoiding pain and the more comfortable goal is an
effort

The ego characteristics

According to Freud the ego has contact with the external world of reality. The word ego is taken
directly from Latin, where it is the nominative of the first person singular personal pronoun and is
translated as "I myself". The Ego acts according to the ‘reality principle’ seeking to please the id‘s
drives in realistic ways that will benefit in the long term rather than bring grief. The Ego comprises
that organised part of the personality structure that includes defensive, perceptual, intellectual-
cognitive, and executive functions. Conscious awareness resides in the ego .It is the ―executive‖
that governs controls and regulates personality. It is rules by the reality principles i.e. reasons,
rational, regulates and deals with what is actually happening. It does realistic and logic thinking and
formulates plans of action for satisfaction needs, for example a couple that is courting may want to
have sex{the id ).The superego swings in action moralizing the feelings and labels them as sin. The
ego mediates by assuring the couple that its not sin to possess feelings but they can wait since they
are meant for each other. This is the seat of intelligence and rationality principle that checks and
controls the blind impulses of id.

Freud super ego

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It is the ―judicial branch of personality It is the persons moral code that asks, what is the right
thing? The main concern is whether the action is good or bad, right or wrong. It represents the
ideal’ rather than the ‗real.‘ It strives for perfection. It represents the traditional values and ideals of
the society as they are handed down from parents to children. It is related to psychological rewards
and punishment. The rewards are not tangible e.g. confronting your mother and society demands
you should not even when she does something wrong. Rewards are feelings of pride and self-love,
while the punishments are feelings of guilt and inferiority.
Note;
 The three -Id, ego and super ego- interact like a bundle of energy. In a well adjusted personality
the ego is the primary executer.

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CONSCIOUSNESS AND THE UNCONSCIOUSNESS The greatest contributions of Freud are
his concepts of the unconscious and the levels of consciousness. These concepts of the unconscious
and the levels of consciousness are the keys to understanding behavior and the problems of
personality. The unconsciousness cannot be studied directly but can be inferred from behavior.
Clinical evidence for postulating the unconscious includes the following(1) dreams, which are
symbolic representations of unconscious needs wishes and conflicts(2) Slips of the tongue and
forgetting, for example a familiar name, and(3) Materials derived from free association. For Freud
consciousness is a thin slice of the total, mind like the greater part of the iceberg that lies below the
surface of water, the low part of the mind lies below the surface of awareness. The unconsciousness
stores all the experiences memories and repressed materials. Needs and motivations that are
inaccessible are also outside the sphere of consciousness i.e. are thus in sphere of unconsciousness.
The aim of psychotherapy is to make the unconscious motives conscious for only when one
becomes conscious of motivation can one exercise choice.
EGO-DEFENSE MECHANISMS
The Ego Defense Mechanisms are psychological strategies employed by individuals, groups and
even nations to cope with reality and to maintain self-image. Healthy persons normally use
different defenses throughout life. An ego defense mechanism becomes pathological only when its
persistent use leads to maladaptive behavior such that the physical and/or mental health of the
individual is adversely affected. The purpose of the Ego Defense Mechanisms is to protect the ego
(you) from anxiety, social sanctions or to provide a refuge from a situation with which you cannot
currently cope. According to Freud every individual is at times confronted with need to justify
his/her behavior that appears to contradict the normal behavior. When contradictions arise in our
behavior, they cause emotional anxiety and must be explained to create emotion relief. According
to Freud, it is the ego that does the process called defense mechanism. Some examples of ego
defense mechanisms include the following;

Repression

Is the unconscious exclusion from one‘s conscious mind of unbearable thoughts or experiences or
feelings. The most painful events of the past five years of life are excluded and they influence later
behavior. (Give more examples)
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Denial

It operates at pre-conscious level and at conscious level. It is a way of distorting what the
individual thinks, feels or perceives in a traumatic experience. Denial cannot cope with painful
experience –refusing to accept pre-conscious level e.g. the death of a loved one. The ego is
overwhelmed and cannot cope. A little bit is okay but if it is too overwhelmed, then it is dangerous.
If we are unable to access defense mechanisms to cope with the reality we become
malfunctioned.(Is it true give more examples of denial)

Projection

Is the blaming of others for ones own failings or inadequacies e.g. a man fails to go to work, the
boss starts complaining, summoned, money deducted, interdicted, has a family, comes home
quarrels everybody in the house. Shifting blame from yourself. Other people become the recipients.
It makes other people suffer for things not of their own. (Give more examples)

Displacement

Displacement is discharging impulses by shifting from a threatening object to a safer situation i.e.
directing energy to another object or person e.g. case of a teacher differs with the parent, the
teacher displaces to the child of this parent because this is an easier target. (Give more examples)

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Rationalization Using a socially acceptable but untrue explanation for inappropriate behavior or
giving good reasons for explaining failures or losses. It helps soften the blow connected with
disappointment. (Give more examples)

Regression

Going back of an individual to a level of emotional maturity appropriate to an earlier stage in life.
The demands are not great in this stage. In face of extreme stress or challenge individuals may
attempt to cope with anxiety by crying extreme dependence e.g. Husband and wife conflict.
Women start crying whole night, men refuse to eat food, sucking the thumb, regression, bed
wetting at age 15-16. (Give more examples)

Compensation

It consists of making perceived weakness or developing certain traits to make for limitations e.g.
people who feel socially incompetent may become lovers and develop their intellectual capabilities.
Children who do not receive positive attention and cognitive may develop behaviors designed to
get negative attention (Give more examples)

Sublimation

Redirection of sexual or aggressive energy into creating behaviors usually socially acceptable and
admirable. (Give more examples)
Identification

Poor students associating with affluent students, a way which makes people who are inferior
identify themselves with successful courses, organizations or people in their hope to be perceived
worthwhile. Thus in raising self-esteem, may want to identifying with a family name.

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Withdrawal Deliberate avoidance of a relationship or communication with those around the
person. Helps avoid intimacy, confrontation about a behavior; substance abuse habit don‘t want to
reveal who you because others cannot cope with who you are. (Give more examples) Reaction
Reactionformation

Expressing of opposite impulses or communicating opposite of what is true e.g. a parent hating or
beating a child he loves, bosses communicating hatred even when that is not what he means in
reaction formulation e.g. husband wife relationship. Communicating hatred – what is it that keeps
you holding to this woman when all the time you communicate hatred, Student‘s
lesbian/homosexuality. (Give more examples)

PERSON CENTERED THEORY

The nature of people

Carl Rogers and his person centered school of thought views people as rational, socialized,
forward-moving and realistic beings. People possess the capacity to experience their maladjusted
life and to move towards a more adjusted state of mind. Rogers believed that in moving toward
psychological adjustment, people are moving toward actualization. Because people possess the
capacity to regulate and control their own behavior, the counseling relationship is merely a means
of tapping personal resources and developing human potential.

A person-centered counselor believes that people:

a) Have worth and dignity in their own right and therefore deserves respect.
b) Have the capacity and right to self-direction (self-actualization) and when given the
opportunity, will make wise judgments.
c) Can select their own values.
d) Have the capacity to deal with their own feelings, thoughts and behaviors.

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Have the potential for constructive change and personal developmenttowards a full and satisfying
life (actualization).

Application of the theory

1) If a warm and accepting climate can be created in class, students will trust the teacher
enough to risk and share their ideas in class, about their issues / problems. A non
judgmental teacher will help the students feel free to explore their feelings, thoughts and
behaviors as they relate to their school life, personal growth, development and adjustment.
Such exploration should, in turn, lead to more effective decision-making and to productive
behavior by the student. An effective teacher should possess empathy, openness,
spontaneity, acceptance, mutual respect, warmth, concreteness, genuineness and self-
disclosure which all facilitate change in the student’s behavior.

2) The main goal of person-centered therapy is to assist people in becoming more autonomous,
spontaneous and confident. The teacher should help students to learn to accept their own
values and trust their own judgment rather than live by the values of others.

3) A teacher should help a student to be a fully functioning person who has learned to be free.
According to Rogers, learning to be free is the essential goal of education if civilized culture
is to survive and if individuals in the culture are to be worth saving. People who have learnt
to be free can confront life and face problems. They trust themselves to choose their own
way and accept their own feelings without forcing them on others. Such individuals pride
themselves and others as having dignity, worth and value.

4) An effective teacher needs to possess certain attitudes towards his/her students: congruence
(genuineness), unconditional positive regard (respect) and empathy. The teacher should not
be artificial and needs to accept the students as people who have the potential to become
good, rational and free. Because students have self-worth, dignity and unique traits they
need to be treated as individuals.
5) In general the teacher refrains from giving advice or solutions, moralizing and making
judgments.
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 6) Rogerian principles of self concept and interpersonal relationship development were seen
to be enhanced by group counseling. The contribution of Rogers to teachers and learners
and how Person entered theory and practice can harmonize education has been discussed.

7) Rogers firmly believed that the methodology of person-centered theory could be

successfully applied to achieve peace among people and nations.

OPERANT CONDITIONING

The major contributor of this theory was B.F.Skinner who contends thatthe problems clients face
are learned through conditioning (classical andoperant). Children and adults learn through the
consequences of theirbehavior. Pleasurable consequences of behavior lead to reinforcement andthis
increases frequency of engaging in that behavior. Withdrawal ofreinforcement leads to extinction
of the behavior. The role of thecounselor therefore is to help the client to unlearn the
undesirablebehavior. The methods used under this theory are systematicdesensitization, flooding
and counter-conditioning.

Systematic desensitization is a method used to help the client whohas developed phobia or fear for
something. The client is made toapproach the feared experience in small steps and relax after
eachstep. This method was first used by Watson and Johns in 1824 tohelp a 3 year old boy to
overcome his fears for animals which haddeveloped because of an attack from a dog.

Flooding is applied to help the client who has developed fear forsomething. In this method, the
fear-causing or anxiety-causingstimulus is presented to the client continuously until theundesirable
behavior is eliminated. For instance, if a child hasdeveloped fear for a teacher the parent can pay
several visits to theteacher with the child, until the fear in the child is eliminated.

Counter-conditioning: This method is used to help a client who hasdeveloped a bad habit or is
addicted to something. It involvespresenting a conditioned stimulus and unconditioned stimulus
insuch a way that the undesirable behavior is eliminated.There are some behavior therapy methods
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that foster adaptivebehavior through principles of reinforcement. Examples include thetoken
economy, successive approximations, social skills training,and biofeedback training and
punishment. Through the applicationof these principles, behavior modification is used to
extinguishundesirable responses and promote constructive behavior. Nonreward can be used to
produce extinction of troublesome behaviors.Often this is done by simply identifying and
eliminating reinforcers,particularly attention and approval.

BEHAVIOUR MODIFICATION

Principles of Behavior Modification

Behavior modification is a prime example of the application of the laboratory. Numerous

experiments on learning and their implications to behavior modification have been done. Some of
these researchers developed theories and recommendations for behavior modification for example,
Bandura (1969), Craighead, Kazdin Mohaney (1981), Houston (1976), Skinner (1938), Waston and
Rayner (1920), and Wolpe (1958, 1973).

Below are some of principles derived from their work.

i) Principle of positive reinforcement – To improve or increase an individual’s performance

of a certain activity, arrange for an immediate reward after each correct immediate benefit
to the individual. It may not be learned at all if benefits are delayed.

ii) Principle of Shaping Behavior also known as Successive Approximations Principle - To

teach a person to act in a manner in which he/she has seldom or never behaved, reward
successive steps to the final behavior. Reward successive improvements instead of waiting
for perfect behavior. Shaping means rewarding actions that are closer and closer
approximations to a desired response. If a response is complicated, it may never occur and
therefore will not be rewarded. If I want to reward a retarded child for saying “ball” I may
begin by rewarding the child for saying anything that starts with a b sound.

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iii) Principle of Social Reinforcement – showing recognition or approval of another person.
Praise, attention, support and even flattery encourage friendly or socially acceptable
behavior among people.

iv) Time out – is a procedure that usually involves removing the individual from a situation in
which reinforcement for undesired behavior occurs. Time out prevents reward from
following an undesirable response: it is a variation of non-reinforcement. Time out
includes isolation, seclusion, imprisonment, and detention.

v) Principle of non-reinforcement – an action that is not followed by reward will occur less
frequently and eventually suffer extinction.

vi) Principle of Extinction – if a response is not followed by reward after it has been repeated
many times, it will go away. To stop an individual from acting in a particular way, you may
arrange conditions that he/she receives no rewards following the undesired act. Behaviour
not followed by reinforcement tends to be extinguishes (forgotten). Extinction and non-
reinforcement are one and the same principle.

vii) The Incompatible Alternative Principle involves rewarding alternative behavior. To stop
an individual acting in a particular way, you reward an alternatives action that is
inconsistent with or cannot be performed at the same time as the undesired act for example,
telling lies versus telling the truth. The alternative behavior may be a distraction because
the two behaviors cannot be performed at the same time.

viii) Principle of Punishment – If a response is followed by discomfort or an

undesirable effect, the response will be suppressed (but not necessarily extinguished). For
example, caning and/or scolding children when their behavior is socially unacceptable
(stealing, fighting etc).

ix) Principle of Modeling and Imitation – To teach in individual a new way of behaving
allow him/her to observe another person (preferably a prestigious and knowledgeable
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 person performing the desired behavior. Note that adequate or inadequate models can
influence a variety of behavior which may be good or bad. They are acquired through
observational learning.

x) Satiation Principle – To stop a person from acting in a particular way, you allow him/her
to continue performing the undesired act until he/she gets tired of it. This method is called
satiation principle because the individual may become satiated with the consequences of
continuing his/her actions as a result of fatigue or boredom for example, asking a noise
maker to come to school on Saturday afternoon and shout for one hour. The satiation
principle should not be used when behaviour is harmful that is, when it is clear that a
continuation of the behavior will result in someone being hurt. For example, allowing a
bully to continue beating smaller children might eventually cure the bully of his habit, but a
number of innocent children would be hurt. Satiation principle cannot be allowed for
cigarette smoking because smoking involves some long-range health hazards.

xi) Principle of Negative Reinforcement – This is ending an aversive situation when

individual does the accepted behaviors. For example, detaining students in class until they
do their homework.

xii) Principle of Aversive Conditioning – when a positive stimulus (e.g. drinking alcohol) is
repeatedly paired with an aversive stimulus (e.g. electric shock), the result is that the
positive stimulus will come to elicit the response formerly elicited by the aversive stimulus
(avoidance behavior). Aversive conditioning is also known as Avoidance Principle – In
teaching a person the situation to be avoided (or some simultaneously present to the person
the situation to be avoided (or some representation of it) and some aversive condition (or its
representation). For example, to teach dangers of over-speeding show drivers the situation
to be avoided (speeding and unlawful driving) with aversive conditions (accident victims).
This may influence drivers to avoid over speeding.

xiii) Fear Reduction Principle also known as Systematic Desensitization – To help a

person overcome his/her fear of a particular situation, gradually increase his/her exposure to
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 the feared situation while he/she is otherwise comfortable, relaxed, secure or rewarded. Pair
comfort with fear and gradually expose the client to the feared situation. Fear must be
faced, but it can be faced gradually in small steps while the person is engaged in pleasant
activities. The stronger the fear, the more gradually it must be presented and the longer it
will take to overcome it. To overcome fear one has got to learn to relax because a person
cannot be anxious and relaxed at the same time. The incompatibility of anxiety and
relaxation is often used by professional counselors to reduce anxieties of their clients.
Parents and teachers can also use incompatible activities to help children overcome their
fears or anxieties.

xiv) Principle of Assertiveness or Assertion Training – To help an individual learn to

interact with others so that he/she knows what to say (content) to elicit a desired response
(consequence) and how and when (timing) to do so. It involves making one to express
one-self clearly and precisely and demanding one’s rights. The person is taught skills so
that he/she can stand for his/her rights and be precise and non-aggressive when interacting
with others or when making demands.

MASLOW HIERARCHY OF NEEDS

Maslow advances a theory of human needs referred to as a hierarchy of needs.In his theory he
pointed out that some needs, particularly physiological needs,are basic to others. It follows that
such needs must be satisfied before higherneeds can be felt and fulfilled, hence the use of the term
‘hierarchy’.

According to Maslow’s view of motivation, physiological needs are thestrongest, the most
demanding of satisfaction. It is reasonable to expect,therefore, that drive reduction will be aimed
primarily at these lowest ofneeds.If the needs at the physiological level have been fulfilled, the
personconcerned will be faced with the next level of needs – the safety needs such asthe need to
avoid or escape danger and the need to be secure and protected.This is followed by the family and
to be part of a group. There is also what iscalled the need for self-esteem – the need to have the

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respect, confidence andadmiration of others and to gain self-confidence and self respect. Once all
ofthese needs have been fulfilled the person will be motivated towards selfactualization– towards
knowing and understanding, and towards finding(deriving) satisfaction from being sensitive to the
beauty of human beings,their accomplishments, and the natural environment.

The first four needs are called deficiency needs and their fulfillment is greatlydependent on other
people. The rest are referred to as being needs and theirsatisfaction is dependent on the individual
himself.The second group or needs echoes Rousseau’s (1762) theory. He said thatman is naturally
good and happy. In view of this, people ought to learnthrough their experiences with nature, learn
to depend on things existingwithin their environment, and learn to depend on themselves and to be
independent of other people.

Hierarchy of needs in a school setting

In view of the importance of Maslow’s (1968) theory of motivation, we willexamine it further with
regard to its application in a school and classroom.

Physiological needs
Where there is reason to believe that pupils are not receiving adequatenutrition at home, provision
should be made for a meal at school. Thisshould be done particularly where, due to long distances,
children cannot gohome for lunch. If this is not possible, pupils’ parents should be encouragedto
see that their children bring with them a snack for lunch. The temperaturein every classroom and
the library should be correct, there should be aircirculation and the lighting should be adequate.
Children with physicaldisabilities such as poor eyesight or impaired hearing should be brought to
theattention of medical personnel and parents. Children should be encouragedto dress appropriately
for the weather conditions, and if a child needs to go tothe toilet before recess he should not be
denied permission to do so, althoughhe should be encouraged to go during recess.

Psychological needs

Safety needs

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The fulfillment of children’s safety needs important to their sense of security.Generally children are
fearful of being bullied by their peers or by olderstudents, being chastised harshly by teachers, or
being subjected tohumiliation and severe discipline by teachers. The school should see to it
thatchildren are protected against these security-threatening factors. It is alsonecessary that teachers
establish good pupil-teacher relationships.

Love and belonging

A teacher should make his pupils feel that they are members of his class andthat he is proud to have
them in his class. He should learn their names anduse them frequently and if a pupil is absent he
should let it be known thathe/she is missed by telling one of the pupil’s friends and welcoming
him/herin his/her return. If the pupil is sick for a while should visit him/her or senda get well soon
note to his/her home. Teachers should also try to include asmany pupils as possible when asking
questions in class.

Esteem needs
Teachers should help their pupils to develop positive self-concepts by treatingthem as persons of
worth with human dignity. They should assign pupilswork that matches their intellectual ability,
because when they do it well it willboost their self-esteem. Pupils who achieve success in class
activities should bepraised and those who fail should be given assistance. Slow learners shouldbe
given individual assistance and helped to fill that they are capable ofachieving something if they
apply themselves.

Self-actualization
The objectives of teachers are to enable their pupils to develop their potential fully and to find
fulfillment in life. If a pupil is cut out to be a teacher heshould be encouraged to be the best teacher
he can irrespective of whether itis at primary school or at university level, and if pupil want to
become anagriculturalist, he should be encouraged to pursue his vocation. Long beforethe pupil
finish school and start working, they should be encouraged to thebest they can, whether they are

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working in a school assignment of helping their parent at home. They should be made aware that
life is meaningful,exciting and enjoyable, and that they have a great contribution to make.
This theory has discussed motivation and the numerous ways in which motivation can facilitate
learning at school. By definition, motivation is a concept which can account for why people
behavior the way they do. Man’s behavior is purposeful in the sense that for every cause there is an
effect. Motivation can either be extrinsic or intrinsic.

A person is said to be extrinsically motivated if what he does is in expectation of approval praise,

certificate, a reward etc. A person who is intrinsically motivated engages in a given behavior
because he derives personal satisfaction from that behavior or because it satisfies curiosity or need
for achievement or competence or assists him in maintaining a state of equilibrium. While extrinsic
motivation is more commonly used in schools a teachers objective is to see to it that his pupils
become intrinsically motivated, so that what they do in terms of learning becomes a source of
reinforcement instead of being dependent on external motivation. ‘Rewards for learning should be
so engineered that after serving their introductory laws they lead people to independent learning
activities’. Pupils can be motivated by success and failure as well as by achievement and
competence needs. They should be given the impression that it is possible forthem to succeed in
their school work and in life as a whole, and therefore, teachers should see to it that in whatever
they do pupils are able to experience some success, sense of achievement and level of competence.
Teachers canmotivate pupils by maintaining a positive attitude toward themselves, theircolleagues,
their pupils and their professional. Furthermore, teacher’spersonality characteristics can serve as a
source of motivation. Some of these characteristics are kindness, flexibility, impartiality, efficiency,
patience, solicitude and consistency.

According to Maslow’s theory of a hierarchy of needs, children can bemotivated by the fulfillment
of their physiological and psychological needs.Physiological needs must be satisfied before
psychological needs and begratified.

In conclusion, pupils must be sufficiently motivated to attend school and topay attention to what is
going on in the classroom if schooling is to have anyeffect on them. Left to themselves the majority
of children would not learn toread or ponder over arithmetic problems without prompting from
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adults.Thus the study of motivation is relevant to and important for teachers. Ateachers’ success in
the classroom depends on how well she applies theprinciples of motivation in her teaching.

COGNITIVE BEHAVIORAL THERAPY

This therapy is based on the assumption that “we are what we tell ourselveswe can be, and are
guided by what we believe we ought to do”.Unacceptable behaviors are modified by changing
negative self-statementsa person makes into constructive coping statements. The postulator of the
theory is Albert Ellis. Abnormal behavior is caused by faulty or irrational patterns of thinking.
Iffaulty thought processes, can be replaced by irrational ideas about theworld maladjustment and
abnormal behavior will disappear (Ellis,1962).

Cognitive therapists focus on the beliefs, attitudes, and automatic types ofthinking that create and
compound their clients’ problems (Beck, 1985; Ellis, 1985).Cognitive therapists aim to directly
change maladaptive cognitions toreduce negative feelings, to provide more accurate perceptions of
theself and others, and to orient the client toward solving problems.In cognitive restructuring,
clients are shown how their interpretations ofevents can lead to maladaptive responses. They are
then helped torestructure or rethink their situations so that they can generate moreadaptive
responses.

The three phases of changing behavior patterns include the following:

Cognition preparation in which the client and therapist discover howthe client thinks and expresses
the problems for which therapy issought.Skill acquisition and rehearsal which involves learning
new selfstatementsthat are constructive while minimizing the use of selfdefeatingones (anxiety-
eliciting or self-esteem reducing) andApplication and practice of new learning in actual situations
starting ineasy ones and graduating to those more difficult.CBT treatment therefore helps the client
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to examine and challenge pastevents that have produced irrational beliefs as well as maladaptive
orfaulty thinking so as to develop more healthier or accurate ways ofthinking and producing more
rational beliefs.CBT also aims to teach improved coping skills which enable individuals todevelop
confidence in their ability to handle any situation, no matterhow upsetting it may feel at first.

Cognitive behavior therapy emphasizes changing thought patterns thatunderlie emotional or

behavioral problems. Its goals are to correctdistorted thinking and/or to teach improved coping
skills. The clientslearn to recognize and challenge their own irrational beliefs. The role ofthe
therapist is to help the client to reconstruct his thinking and beliefsystem, encourage the client to
engage in behavioral exercises thatmaximize positive environmental consequences.

Cognitive therapy uses the following approaches:Cognitive reconstruction-the pupil is shown how
theirinterpretations of events lead to maladaptive responses. They arehelped to restructure or
rethink their situations so that they cangenerate more adaptive responses. For example,
aggressivestudents are helped to interpret provocations as social problemsdemanding a solution
rather than as threats to their honour.Self instruction therapy-what people say to themselves will
determinewhat they will do. The teacher counselor helps the student tochange his/her self
instructions so that his/her behavior willchange.Problem solving training- this encourages the
student to use the stagesof problem solving. This includes preparation, production,testing and
evaluation.Self efficacy-this is ones belief that one is capable of executing certainbehaviors or
reaching certain goals
Functional analysis-a systematic study of behavior in which oneidentifies the stimuli that trigger
problem behavior and thereenforcersthat maintain it.Self regulation-the ability to control ones
behavior to meet goals onehas set for him/herself.

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SUMMARY
In this topic we have discussed the application of counselingtheories in a school set up. The
theories include psychodynamic theories such as psychoanalytic theory, Humanistic theories which
include; Person Centered, and Maslow Hierarchy of needs and Behavioural theories and cognitive
behavioral theories.

SELF EVALUATION QUESTIONS

1) Discuss how person centered theory can be used in class by the teacher to improve results.
2) Differentiate between systematic desensitization and flooding.
3) Discuss the application of Maslow’s hierarchy of needs can be used to improve
performance in a school.
4) Explain the importance of self efficacy and problem solving skills in behavior modification
of clients.
5) Describe the three phases of changing behavior according to cognitive behavior therapy.

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 CHAPTER THREE
COUNSELLINGANDPSYCHOTHERAPYTYPES

OBJECTIVES
By the end of the session the learner should be able to:

1) Discuss qualities of a teacher counselor

2) Discuss various types of counselling

QUALITIES OF AN EFFECTIVE TEACHER COUNSELOR

1) Sincere and genuine interest in each student’s development as a person. It is this interest
which will lead the students to confide in him/her.

2) Commitment to a program providing conditions for that development. An effective teacher

counselor should be willing and committed to serve others.

3) Warm outgoing person who can inspire the confidence of students and the support of fellow
staff member. He/she should be friendly warm and approachable. One should be willing to
help students even at odd hours.

4) Good public relations that is, able to relate with parents, students, staff and community.

5) Initiative so as to be able to develop new areas of services as needed.

6) Organizational ability to establish priorities for there will be many demands on his time. An
effective teacher counselor needs to demonstrate leadership and organizational ability to
communicate with people of all levels.

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7) A person of mature judgment. He/she need to be mature, emotionally stable in character,
responsible and tolerable.

8) Creativity. Since every individual is unique in one’s own way, the counselor has to use
his/her creative ability to understand and meet the client’s needs.

9) Flexible and non-judgmental. An effective counselor needs to have an ability and

willingness to change, to modify and to amend according to what the situation calls for.
This is because there is no fixed way or approach of dealing with various students in need
of guidance and counseling. An effective counselor assesses the situation of the client and
take appropriate approach to meet his/her needs.

10) Self knowledge. An effective counselor should understand the self. He/she must know what
and who he/she is, the personal biases, commitments, vulnerable spots, weaknesses,
strengths, fears, defenses, and ones impact on others. Only in as much as one is aware of the
dimensions of oneself will he/she be able to use “self” to benefit others.

11) Growth oriented. An effective counselor must be committed to the continued search for
knowledge and self awareness. One should be interested in reading new theories and
applying them in counseling. One should be involved in continuous personal and
professional development. The counselor must be knowledgeable as clients respect
counselors who have something to offer them.

12) Objectivity. Effective counselor should be objective and not subjective in evaluating
problems of the client. He/she should show respect for the decisions made by the client
without imposing his/her decisions to the student.

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 TYPESOFCOUNSELLING

Typesofcounselingarebroughtaboutbythenatureofthecounselingprocessrequiredand/or
byanykindofclientsin attendance.Sometimesakindofamixtureoftypesofcounselingwill
beinplayat timesduetotheclient’srequirementsoftheservicestobeprovided.

1) Individualcounseling/therapy

This is a professional therapeutic relationship between the counselor and the client where the
counselor helps the client tosearch him/herself,discoverhim/hermakedecisions. Individual therapy is
commonly used than group counseling. Some of the problems addressed in individual counseling
include relationship problems, school work, family related problems, self concept, making
educational choices, career counselling, and peer relationship among other issues(Mwamwenda
1995).

2) Groupcounseling/therapy

Thisinvolvesmultiplenumbersofpersonstoget herorsimultaneously.Usuallytheclientshave
similarproblemsandduringgroupdiscussions,theyarehelpedtosearch,discoverthemselves
andalsomakedecisionssensibly. Group counseling involves a group of people working together
under the leadership of a counselor with the o objective of solving personal and interpersonal
problems. Through group counseling is client realizes he/she is not the only person
undergoing a particular problem this provides psychological relief and reassurance that the
problem is surmountable. In group counseling, as clients interact they are able to understand
themselves better, but also to understand others better. Group counseling reflects what holds
true inn real life as observed in different grouping such as families, schools, clubs, ethnic and
national groups (Mwamwenda 1995).

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 3) Facilitativecounseling
It issometimesreferredto as remedialor adjustivecounseling.Duringthecounselingprocessthe client
ishelpedto clarifya concern,thenthroughselfunderstandingandacceptancetodevisea
planofactiontoworkor
actontheconcerninaresponsiblemanner.Forexample:Improvingofexaminationgrades,
identifyingindividualstrengths,Planningcareer/academicoptions,Getting alongwithothers

Thistypeof counselinghelpsclientsclarifytheirproblems,takeactionandhence growinlifeor

movewell abouttheirambitionswithcourageandconfidence.

4) Preventivecounseling

Thisis an approachwherebytheclient ishelpedtobeawareof aproblembeforehe/she experiencesit.

For example:offeringsexeducationtoa client canpreventpregnancy;sexually
transmitteddiseases;minimizechancesif contractingHIV/AIDS.Givingawarenessofdrugson
healthcanhelpclientsabstainfromsubstance/drugabuse.Thistypeof
counselinghelpsclientsmakeproperdecisionssincetheyareawareofoutcomesof theiractions.It
alsoinvolvesclientsbeingguidedonhowto avoidaspecificproblem/concern. Thistypeof
counselingcanbedoneas anindividualorgroupcounseling

5) Developmentalcounseling
Thistypeof counselingcanbedoneasgrouporindividualcounselingprocess. It helps
individualsachievepositivepersonal growthandadjustmentthroughone’slie.It isnot always
problemorientedbut focusesonhelpingtheindividuallearnandunderstandthemselvesbetter
andthereforeadjusttovarioussituationsinlifeateverystageofdevelopment.Thishelpsthem
becomeresponsiblefortheirchoicesinlife.It isaveryusefulcounselingmodein familiesand
schoolsituations.

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 6) Crisiscounseling

Acrisisis an acuteproblemorwhenthereisadangeroussituation.Itinvolvespanic,confusion
orfrustrationof client andthereforehe/shebecomesunabletousethemethodsofcopingwith
theproblemeffectivelyor givesupaltogether.Theclient’sself controlhereis
affected.Examplesofcrisissituationsinvolve:lossoflovedone/property,divorce,expulsionfromsch
ool, lossofjob/retrenchment,rape,accident, robbery,kidnap,landclashes, e.t.c.It canbegiventoan
individualor group.

7) MarriageCounseling

MarriageisaninstitutionordainedbyGod. There arethosewhohavethevocationofcelibacyin

orderthat theymightserveGodbetter. However,marriageisthevocationforthemajorityof
peoplesincethisisthewayGodhaschosentoperpetratethehumanrace.Marriageistheoldesthumaninsti
tutioninhistory.Inmarriagecounselingthefamilyrelationshipmustbe
givenpriorityasthissetsthefoundations forthechildrenwhoareborninthat marriageor
whowillbeadoptedinthat family.
Familymembers’relationshipisaverygoodfoundationforchilddevelopment.

8) Pre-maritalcounseling

There aresomeissuesthat a coupleconsideringmarriageneedtolookatbeforetheirmarriage.

Ourtraditionalculturesprovidedsome guidanceforpeoplewhowereplanningtomarry.One
wishesthat thingswerealways easyforthosegettingintomarriage.Theredesignatedpeoplein
thecommunityorfamilywhoarechargedwiththeresponsibilitytoinstructthecoupleon
expectationsanddutiesofmarriage. Theseexpectationsanddutiesweretaughtduringtherites
ofpassageespeciallyinitiation.Bytheweddingday,thebrideandthebridegroomwereadequatelyprep
aredforthechallengesandrolesinmarriage. However,tofulfilltheexpectations
andthesedutiesbecomeverychallengingespeciallysoonthearrivalofnewbornis experienced.
Thatis,practicingwhat waslearntbecomesareal challengeduetosocialbehaviorofthecouple
andeachindividual’sexpectationofthepartner.
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However,nooneshouldhidefromtheintendingtomarrycouples,thetype oflifethat lies ahead
ofthem;lifethat willneedunderstandingofeachother,bearingeachother’smisfortunesandbad
deeds.Thatis,therewillbemoreconflictsthanjoyduetootherswhowill comeintotheirlife.

9) ChildandAdolescentCounselling

Adolescentsrepresentanimportantsegmentofthesociety, particularlyinthedeveloping
countrieswheretheyformthebulkofthepopulation. It isimportantto appreciatethat
adolescencecanbea confusingandstressfulperiod.It isaperiodwhenmanyphysicaland
emotionalchangestakeplaceandsuchit isaperiodwhenthoseconcernedbecomeanxiousand askalot
ofquestions.Itcanhoweverbemadeaveryexitingperiodiftheadolescentis
empoweredwiththeknowledgeandskillsrequiredto copewithchallengesadequately. Thiswill
enabletheindividualtomakesounddecisionsandsafechoicesaboutlife

Adolescenceismarkedbychangesthat arerelativelybriefandnottypicallyassociatedwith long-

termadjustmentproblems(Graber&Brooks-Gunn,1996;Steinberg,1999).

SUMMARY

For any practicing counselor, its important for him/her to have effective qualities that will
enable them deal and handle the clients effectively with their issues. As a teacher counselor
one should be aware of various counseling types which are mentioned in the essay and how
to handle clients in each setting.

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 CHAPTER4
COMPREHENSIVE SCHOOL COUNSELING PROGRAM

OBJECTIVES

By the end of the topic the learner should be able to:

1) Discuss the purpose of school counseling programmes

2) Discuss the components of guidance and counseling.

3) Discuss the various goals of guidance and counseling.

Introduction
A school counseling program is a planned component of the larger schoolpurpose and mission. It is
a program that consists of particular services forwhich the counselor has received specialized
training. The role of thecounselor is to design a comprehensive program of services with specific
goalsand objectives that complement the broader mission of the school.

School counselors serve students, parents, and teachers. The services they provide include
individual and group counseling, consulting, testing and assessment, group instruction, and
referrals. Counselors deliver the services within the framework of an organized program.

THE PURPOSE OF GUIDANCE AND COUNSELING PROGRAMS

Counselors are employed by schools to help people become ‘’more able’’.School counselors assist
pupils in becoming ‘’able’’ learners, then support parents in their supervising and parenting roles,
and help the teachers to provide effective instruction and create healthy classroom climates for all
students.

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The role and purpose of school counselors is a mission to provide services that ensure an
opportunity for all students to learn and develop to their fullest potential. The purpose of school
counseling programs is to provide an array of services that facilitate the development of all
students. School counselors design programs and services that address the development of students
in three essential areas: educational, career development and personal and social development. We
can look at these by focusing on the various components of Guidance and Counseling services.

COMPONENTS OF GUIDANCE AND COUNSELING

There are six components of guidance and counseling services.

1. Educational guidance and counseling

It’s concerned with the provision of assistance to students in their choices in, and adjustment to the
curriculum and school life in general. It guides them pursue the right type of education as necessary
while ensuring that the right balance is kept in order to meet the human resource needs of
thenation. It also helps them solve education related problems. The students are guided in selection
of courses in accordance of theirintellectual abilities so that after completing education they may
effectively adjust in their environment. It assists students to solve their problems related to
education. Educational guidance helps students develop their natural curiosity about the world
around them by asking questions and introducing new concepts and methods. It helps them develop
techniques and resources that will facilitate learning such as orientation, time management,
planning, and use of the library etc. It helps them realize the value of education and discover their
special aptitudes and limitations.

2. Vocational guidance and counseling

It’s a process for helping anindividual to choose an occupation, prepare for it, and enter it and
developing it. Vocational happiness requires that a person’s interests, attitudes and personality be
suitable for his work. It provides an individual with an understanding of the world of work and
essential human needs and familiarizing individuals which terms such as dignity of labour and
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work value. It focuses on assisting an individual who possesses certain assets, liabilities and
possibilities to select many occupations that are suited to him and then aid him in preparing for it,
entering and progressing in it. One is assisted to explore various careers and their requirements.
Vocational counseling enables them understand their talents, abilities and interests in a given
occupation. In vocational counseling the individual is able to discover his/her potentialities and
develop them towards self fulfillment and social usefulness .The client is assisted to assemble
information about many common occupations and guided in finding information about less familiar
jobs. They are assisted in recognizing those occupations in which they may find satisfaction and
develop their fullest potential by considering the working conditions, expected salary and
advancement. They are assisted in considering the practicalities of their occupational choices in
terms of availability, time etc. They are assisted to plan their approaches to the occupations of their
choice or for the training required.

3. Personal, social and psychological guidance and counseling

Is a process of helping an individual to know how to behave with consideration towards other
people. It helps an individual to understand himself, know how to get on with others, learn manners
and etiquette pursue leisure time activities, practice social skills, and develop roles and
responsibilities. It focuses on assisting students in understanding themselves (self perception) and
how to adjust in any environment. It helps integrate self perception with perceived environmental
realities. It helps improve abilities to make and execute plans and differentiate changeable from
unchangeable situations. It also helps to identify possible corrective measures, to deal with personal
psychological problems with less fear and anxiety. It is offered to help one deal with disruptive
behavior and promotes behavior change.

4. Civic guidance and counseling

Civic is the study of rights and responsibilities of citizenship. It focuses on helping
studentsunderstand and maintain social values, ideas, law and order. It assists the youth to get rid of
tribal and ethnic ideations that discriminate. One is then able to accept others regardless of gender,
ethnicity and social economic status. Civic guidance and counseling helps one to become a good
citizen. One is able to understand the importance of the world they live in and learn how to live
amicably with others. It creates awareness and encourages avoidance of social evils such as

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corruption. It helps in minimizing gender unfairness. It teaches honesty, civic responsibilities such
as voting and the importance of social order and obedience of the constitution.

5. Health guidance and counseling

It promotes good physical and mental health by teaching nutrition and hygiene. The youth should
understand how to manage and cope with health conditions like asthma epilepsy, diabetes,
HIV&AIDs, etc. Teachers should assiststudents with such conditions. It also teaches the dangers of
smoking, drinking, and drug abuse, exercising and eating a balanced diet. It also equips the learner
on how he/she can avoid potentially dangerous situations.

6. Parent education guidance and counseling

It helps to address issues of parenting e.g. effective parenting, developmental stages etc.

GOALS OF GUIDANCE AND COUNSELING

Counseling in schools must be goal driven and purposeful.

1. Development goals.
These are the goals wherein the client is assisted in meeting his anticipated human growth and
development (emotional, cognitive and physical wellness) e.g. menarche in girls and sperm ache in
boys and challenges in these transitions.

2. Preventive goals.
Prevention is a goal in which the counselor helps the students to avoid some undesired outcome.
There are three levels of prevention, that is, primary intervention before problem sets it, secondary
intervention, after problem has set in but it has not become chronic or severe and tertiary when the
problem is there already and intervention may be to rehabilitate, that is, to make the problem less
incapacitating.

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3. Enhancement goals.
If the student possesses special skills and abilities, enhancement mean they can be identified and
further developed through the assistance of a counselor.

4. Remedial goals.
This involves assisting a counselee to overcome and treat an undesirable development.

5. Exploratory goals.
Exploration presents goals appropriate to the examining of options, testing of skills and trying new
and different activities, environment, relationship etc.

6. Reinforcement goals.
This is used in the instance where students need help in recognizing that what they are doing,
thinking and feeling is ok.

7. Cognitive goals.
Cognition involves acquiring the basic foundations of learning and cognitive skills.

8. Physiological goals.
It involves acquiring the basic understandings and habits for good health.

9. Psychological goals.
Aids in developing good social interaction skills, learning, emotional control,developing a positive
self concept etc.

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 SUMMARY

In any institution it’s important to have a comprehensive school counseling programme that is
effective. The school counselor should ensure the purpose and goals of guidance and counseling
programme is well stipulated and various components of guidance and counseling are well
covered.

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 CHAPTER FIVE
EMOTIONAL PROBLEMS/CHALLENGES DURING EARLY CHILDHOOD

OBJECTIVES

By the end of the session the learner should be able to:

1) Discuss various emotional problems in early childhood

EMOTIONAL PROBLEMS/CHALLENGES DURING EARLY CHILDHOOD

Children learn about the nature and expression of emotions form their day to day
interactions with people, how parents, teachers and other social agents in their life’s teach
about emotions or react to emotional experiences are key lessons for children. Daniel
Goleman (1995) proposed that emotional competence may be as important as any other
type of learning that takes place in school Goleman calls for “schooling of emotions” that
focuses on the following emotional skills: identifying, expressing and managing emotions;
controlling impulses and delaying gratification; understanding the perspective of others and
knowing the difference between feelings and actions.

Some of the emotional problems and challenges during early childhood include:

Fighting
Fighting is one of the most common behavioural problems of children today. Many
children have not learned to settle their misunderstanding other than by physical minas.
Fighting may be a way of gaining attention a learned behaviour form parents, peers or
other significant others in the children lives or as a way of striking back at a world
perceived as cruel and hostile.

Verbal Abusiveness
Verbal abusiveness such as rudeness, sarcasm, impoliteness and came-calling is a cover
feelings of inadequacy, a learned behaviour from adults or other models , a call for
attentions or a way of striking back at an unfriendly world. When a child becomes verbal
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abusive, the child needs interactions with adults who are calm rational and consistent and
who behave maturely. Adults need to be on guard and not to allow the child’s verbal
abusive to provoke the same behavior form them. When adults result to criticism belittling
and name calling, they have a chance of changing children’s behaviours

Physical abusiveness or bullying

Physical abusiveness and bullying can be a compensation for a poor self concept. Children
often hide fears and feelings of inadequacy behind acts of bullying. Verville (1968)
suggested that bullies generally feel inferior. Children may also be responding to or
modeling adult behaviours they have observed. Bullying may be an attempt to strike back
at an unfriendly world or to seek power and attention the child cannot gain otherwise.
Bullying children need calm, consistent adult/child interactions. However, because
bullying behavior usually provokes anger in the adult, the child may receive only criticism
and punishment – increasing feelings of worthlessness and hostility

Destructiveness
Destructiveness and vandalism are problems of increasing severity in our society. One of
the counselor teacher first concerns is to find out what is happening in the child
environment to cause such intense feelings and behavior. Is the child so angry at someone
or something that there is an intense need to strike out the hurt that person or place, could
the destructiveness be caused by frustration, feelings of failure or feelings of revenge
because the child feels no one care. A second concern in gaining the child trust in order to
change the self defeating behavour a task that requires time and patience of from all
concerned.

Tantrums
Temper tantrums may create feelings of anger frustration and helplessness in parents or
other adults. Adults often feel they completely lost control of the child and the situation
when children throw tantrums. In some children tantrums are a learned behavours for
neither getting attention nor getting their way. Some children have learned to manipulate
adults by throwing tantrums; some seek revenge
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Lying
As part of their normal development, young children often lie because of their inability to
distinguish fact from fantasy or because of fear of disapproval and punishment. Habitual
lying may be due to feelings of inadequacy, insecurity or pressure from parents or other
significant persons in the child’s life. It could be a learned behavior to escape
responsibility or punishment.

Shyness and withdrawal

Shyness and withdrawal are attempts to avoid participation in ones surroundings. The
child may fear the situation, fear failure or criticism; lack self –confidence or fear
embarrassment or humiliation. It is also possible that the child is physically ill.
Unfortunately, shy and withdrawn children are usually ignored because they cause little
trouble compared to attention-seeking child.

Excessive tension and Anxiety

A little and anxiety may motivate a child, but excessive tension and anxiety interfere with
learning and performance. Excessive tension and anxiety may be situational or a chronic
condition. The symptoms include continued restlessness and movement nail biting, tics,
frequent blinking, rapid breathing, repeated throat clearing and similar somatic complains.
Some children experience school; phobia which grow out of unpleasant or embarrassment
experiences in school, failure in school, from the security of separation from the security of
home and parents, failure of the unknown or other experiences that may have associated
bad feelings with school. Some of the tensions that children experience include; School
related tension and anxiety and separation anxiety among others

Separation anxiety disorder

Separation anxiety disorder is a condition in which a child becomes fearful and nervous
when away from home or separated from a loved one -- usually a parent or other caregiver
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-- to whom the child is attached. Some children also develop physical symptoms, such as
headaches or stomachaches, at the thought of being separated. The fear of separation
causes great distress to the child and may interfere with the child's normal activities, such
as going to school or playing with other children. Separation anxiety develops after a
significant stressful or traumatic event in the child's life, such as a stay in the hospital, the
death of a loved one or pet, or a change in environment (such as moving to another house
or a change of schools). Children whose parents are over-protective may be more prone to
separation anxiety. In fact, it may not necessarily be a disease of the child but a
manifestation of parental separation anxiety as well -- parent and child can feed the other's
anxiety. In addition, the fact that children with separation anxiety often have family
members with anxiety or other mental disorders suggests that a vulnerability to the
disorder may be inherited.

What Are the Symptoms of Separation Anxiety Disorder

Following are some of the most common symptoms of separation anxiety disorder:

• An unrealistic and lasting worry that something bad will happen to the parent or
caregiver if the child leaves
• An unrealistic and lasting worry that something bad will happen to the child if he or
she leaves the caregiver
• Refusal to go to school in order to stay with the caregiver
• Refusal to go to sleep without the caregiver being nearby or to sleep away from
home
• Fear of being alone
• Nightmares about being separated
• Bed wetting
• Complaints of physical symptoms, such as headaches and stomachaches, on school
days
• Repeated temper tantrums or pleading

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 SUMMARY

As children grow, they go through various emotional problems and challenges. Some of
the challenges are mentioned above. it s important for teacher counselor and various
socializing agents to know how to deal with these challenges in the most effective way that
will not result to acting out.

CHAPTE SIX
THE ROLE OF A TEACHER IN COUNSELLING

OBJECTIVES
By the end of the session the learner should be able to:
1) Discuss various roles of school counsellor in a school setting

THE ROLE OF A TEACHER IN COUNSELLING

The school counselor is the person at the core of the program. The individual’s ideas,
opinions and techniques are indispensable to a successful program. He lays the foundation
for the programme and develops an organization that is effective and flexible. He/she is
responsible for providing individual, group or crisis counseling to students. He/she helps to
identify students with issues and refer them to Guidance and Counseling teachers or work
with them. They also consult on how best they can work with them. The teacher counselor
provides consultation to other teachers and other stakeholders. He/she collaborates with
them to develop, implement, and evaluate the plans. He/she should brief the head teacher
on any matters of importance to the departments and the school in general.

The career master/mistress is the person whose presence is important because of his/her
central place in guiding students of either class eight or form fours on avenues of further
education and career choices. The heads of department will give useful information on
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learners who could be experiencing difficulties in their subjects or those of teachers under
their department. The subject teacher is aware of the student’s determination to succeed as
well as their disinterest. The physical teacher contribution is important because the subject
deals with physical fitness, normal growth and development, organic vigor and efficiency,
neuromuscular efficiency, vitality and control of the nervous system and body posture and
mechanics.
As the teacher counselor has a role of:

1) Detecting any physical abnormality or difficulty in the learner. The class teacher meets
his/her students daily and observes their changing attitudes.

2) Planning and development of guidance and counseling programs and the curriculum in
relation to students needs, that is, a program developer. Through the counseling
relationship they help each student to understand the psychological world in which he
lives; accept himself as he is, develop personal decision making competencies and to
resolve special problems.

3) To provide guidance and counseling services. This is done using individual, group or
family counseling approaches.

4) Counselor assumes the role of leader and consultant in the schools pupil appraisal
program by; Coordinating the accumulation and use of meaningful information about
each pupil. Interpreting information about students and relating the information to the
students themselves, to their parents, teachers and to others who are professionally
concerned. Helping to identify students with special abilities or needs.

5) The counselor collects and disseminate to pupils and their parents information. This
information may concern school subjects and courses, opportunities for further
education and career training opportunities.

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6) The counselor coordinates the use of services beyond those he can provide. This can be
done by making pupils and their parents aware of their availability of such services and
making appropriate referrals. The teacher counselor has a major responsibility in
making and coordinating referral services within public and private agencies.

7) Liaising and maintaining cooperative working relationship with other students, staff,
and specialists and with agencies in the community where special services are
available. The counselor encourages the development and extension of community
agencies for meeting student’s special needs that are not already adequately met.

8) The counselor assists in providing placement-services for students by;

a) Planning with teachers and administrators for the grouping and scheduling of
students.
b) Helping to make appropriate choice of school programs and to develop long range
plans of study.
c) Helping them to make successful transition from one school to another.
d) Coordinating his placement work with that of others to make the most effective use
of the placement services available in the school and thecommunity.
9) Keeping appropriate records of services to students. A teacher can keep a wide range of
student’s records. These include the student’s appraisal records and counseling case
notes.

10) The counselor conducts or cooperates with others in conducting local research related
to student’s needs and how well school services are meeting those needs

11) The counselor carries out a program of public relationship by;

a) Participating in the programs of various groups.
b) Furnishing information on counseling and guidance programs to local publishers,
radio, and television stations.

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12) To attend supervision with suitably qualified supervisor as professionally
recommended. By attending supervision the teacher counselor avoids counselor burn
out.

SUMMARY

A teacher is a child r ole model and as one of socializing agents they play a big role in a
child’s life which can either result to negative or positive behaviour change. The teacher
counselor should be aware of important part they play in a child life especially in
counseling setup. The roles of a cousellor are well explained in the topic

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 CHAPTER SEVEN
MANAGING OF DIFFICULT CHILDREN IN SCHOOL SETTING

OBJECTIVES
By the end of the session the learner should be able to:
1) Explain the term;
a) Classroom management
b) Difficult children
2) Discuss various methods of identifying problems behaviours in the classroom
3) Describe various children maladjustive behavours
4) Discuss various methods of behavour modification
5) Discuss ways a teacher can handle children behavour in the classroom setting

DIFFICULT CHILDREN
Difficult Children refers to children with irritable temperament, irregular biological
rhythms, and intense emotional responses.

Classroom management

The teacher should ensure that the classroom environment is conducive for learning. The
classroom environment is largely determined by the teachers’ ability to manage all the
variables present in the classroom at any one time for the purpose of promoting conditions
for learning therefore the teachers ability to run a well manage class is of utter importance,
in fact, many teachers fail in their job because of their ability to manage their classrooms
than for any other reason, the classroom management is seen as the teacher number one
profession problem (Gage, Berliner, 1991)

For the teacher counselor to be effective in as a classroom manager, she/he should possess
methods of identifying problem behaviours in the classroom, know why students
misbehave, and possess effective skills for maintaining discipline.

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Methods of identifying problem behaviours in the classroom
For the teacher to be able to identify problem behaviours in t he classroom he needs to be
in touch with the class. This means being aware of what is happening in all parts of the
classroom so that the can intervene p promptly and accurately when inappropriate
behaviours. The teacher should possess observation skills. Observation refers to watching
children. The teacher’s observation of children will reveal;
1. Facial expression that may indicate
2. Unhappiness
3. Anxiety
4. Restlessness
5. Hyperactivity
6. Tension
7. Self-consciousness
8. Anger
9. Nervous habits and
10. Day dreaming
The teacher could observe the learners social activities. When children are playing in the
field the teacher could use scientific gadgets like the binoculars to observe the pupils social
interactions unobtrusively. The use of this method will reveal the pupils who are playing
together and those who are left out by the others so that a lot of the times they sit or stand
by themselves. If a students is observed alone on m any occasions the teacher should know
that this student has a problem. Observation of pupils’ social interaction will also reveal
the pupils, who bully others, others who are bullied, the fearful ones, the quarrelsome ones
and those who are defiant.

The teacher could use socio metric questions to discover the pupils who have problems.
For example ask pupils in the class to nominate other pupils form the same class with
whom one would like to share a cubicle to be desk mates to go for walks with and so on.

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Causes of children maladjustive behaviours
Pupils do not misbehave for the sake of doing so; they have their own reasons. A good
teacher is the one who knows why learners are likely to show problems behaviour. The
following are some of the reasons;
1. Unmet needs
2. Poverty
3. Broken homes
4. Conflict-ridden homes which produces children with nervousness, unhappy and
insecure
5. Personal inadequacies
6. The rejected child
7. The overprotected child
8. Unfavorable school practices

Ways for behaviour Modification Techniques

There are several methods the teacher could use in managing difficult children which
would go along in minimizing cases of indiscipline while at the same time they will help to
maximize the occurrence of desirable behaivours the methods are delivered form theories
of behavioiur modification. They include classical conditioning eliciting and extinction
principles, operant conditioning; reinforcement and behavior contracting.

A. Eliciting
Eliciting is the act of expecting and calling upon the pupil to display the desirable behavior.
The teacher could call the students by name and ask him to answer a question or do to a
certain assignment or pick something on the floor. The most important concept here is
giving the pupil the opportunity to do something desirable. When the pupil has displayed
the desirable behaviour he should be given recognition. He should be told words such as
thank you well done among other words. The positive responses from the teacher will
enhance the chances of recurrence of the behavior.

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 B. Extinction
This refers to the elimination of a response through the withdrawal of reinforcement. The
teacher could ignore a behavior that is undesirable sometimes. For example, some
attention-seeking pupil who comes to class late so that he can be asked why he is late could
be ignored ,a student who does things to make the class laugh could be discouraged if the
teacher instructs the class not to laugh, extinction works very well if the teacher
accompanies it with reinforcement of alternative behavour.

C. Reinforcement
Reinforcement is the key concept derived form operant conditioning theory; reinforcement
refers to the use of rewards as incentives to induce and strengthen desirable behavior;

1. The teacher should always remember that rewards are useful when they are seen as
potential sources of need satisfaction
2. Therefore, certain pupils will work for certain rewards. For this reason the teacher
should know his pupils well in order to know what rewards a learner will work for
3. Rewards must be attainable. If a pupil is attracted to a certain reward but knows that he
has little chance of attaining it he will not work for it.

D. Punishment
Punishment is a form of aversive control of behavior. Aversive control of behavior means
in use ofunpleasant stimuli to change undesirable behavior. A teacher can use punishment
through the following ways; the teacher could administer an aversive stimulus like caning
or kneeling.
A teacher can also remove an individual form a reinforcing situation e.g. removing a pupil
form class also Called time out.
Removing a desirable stimulus form the students’ e. g taking away playtime is punishment
Punishment can also be psychological like scolding or blaming a pupil

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The aim of punishment to the pupils is usually aimed at weakening it, suppressing the
behavior and eliminating the behavior. NB administering punishment to the pupils the
teachers should be careful not to allow emotions too overcome them to prevent going to the
extreme of harming the child

Other ways of preventive indiscipline;

The teachers should respect and love children;
1. Respect children identity
2. Acceptance which refers to being aware of their unique personality, interests, stron
points failures and temperaments
3. The teacher should help the pupils t o develop social competence so that they can will
peer acceptance
4. Organize the school experience to meet the need for new experiences
5. The school should provide varied opportunities for emotional, physical and intellectual
and aesthetic achievement
6. Provide good teaching
7. Allowing the children to be committed to behavior change
8. Establish clear behaviour change guidelines, expectation, standards and rules that are
clear to all
9. Adopt a teamwork approach-involve teachers’ administration and parents
10. Design a complete discipline leader
11. As a teacher, train self management and discipline
12. Implement fair and firm rules
13. Minimize problems early

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HANDLING A CHILD BEHAVIOR IN THE CLASSROOM SETTING (Were, 2003)
Children misbehavior can disrupt teaching and learning in class. The way the class teacher
handles the students will greatly determine if the behavour will continue or not. Some of
the strategies of handling different behavours include;

Planned ignorance
The teacher can decide to ignore some misbehavior like shuffling, whispering, indefinite
noise, muttered curses etc. The instructor might pretend to be deal or indifferent to the
noise. The assumption is that the noise will die off. However, in case of missing lost
equipment, it would be important to assign responsibilities to group representatives who
will be responsible for caring and distributing resources

Signal interference
This is applied when the intervention of planned ignorance does not work. Theteacher
should extinguish the unacceptable behaviours by identifying the sources of signaling to
the child using facial gestures such as frown, raised and signaling to the child using facial
gestures such as frown raised eyebrows, or even a shake of head or a wave of an
admonishing finger. Theteacherhas to ensure that the source has received the signal. In
certain circumstances’, it cab be f followed by a quite request addressed to the child desist.

Proximity of control
This is used in case signal interference fails. The teacher should apply the physical
proximity of his/her presence. It is accepted that most children will stop misdeeds and
resume e a relevant activity once a teacher is near them. Therefore, the teacher should walk
to where the student is.

Interest boosting
A child can be motivated and interest refocused on the learning experience. When the
teacher demonstrates aninterest in the class takes the child is performing. This can take
forms such as marking the work done and giving a positive reinforcement like praise

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(good). It could also involve assisting the pupil to do the task and by so doing ignoring the
misbehavior, modifying the task or giving a different one if it is discovered that the learner
is experiencing difficulties in tackling a particular task.

Hurdle help
Some pupils could be misbehaving because particular subjects present immediate problems
or hurdles that they cannot conquer without the teachers’ assistance. Theteacher should
identify such early enough and give them individuals’ attention before they reach a level
where they will feel frustrated. Such help might include giving pupilsa list of key words in
writing a composition or allowing them to use a dictionary if they are poor in spelling

Tension decontamination through humour

This is applied when there have been a confrontation between the teacher and the pupils the
air could be cleared by a well timed joke or comment, which draws attention to t he funny
side of the situation

Direct appeal
This applies to children with laid down values. Theteacher should know their values and
appeal on them when they misbehaving. These values include justice, fair play, respect,
obedience, cooperation etc.

Restructuring the lesson

At times students misbehave because of the structure of the lesson or the environment.
May be the teacher has started with difficult content or teacher-centered activities or the
class has poor acoustics and the class is attracted to the lesson in the neighboring class.
Owing to this, the lass might become noisy and too distracted to concentrate. It would be
appropriate for the teacher to move to restructure the lesson and deal with pupils-centered
activities and more easily manageable parts of the lesson. the content can also be simplified
to the level where the learners can understand and participate

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Self-evaluation
It is important that in every situation, the teacher assesses his/her contact in class. The
teaching approaches adopted and how he/she manages the class. Maybe the problem in
class could be because the teachers weaknesses in one of these areas. After the assessment
has been done, a different approach should be used

SUMMARY

Managing difficult children in school set-up is a major challenge of many teachers

especially teacher counselors without counseling skills. For a teacher to be able to deal
with children, they should learn classroom management strategies and how to identify
problems and interventions for each child issue. In addition the teacher should also learn
various ways of handling children in a classroom setting which will help in dealing with
maladjustive behaviours.

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 CHAPTER EIGHT

ETHICAL STANDARDS FOR GUIDANCE AND COUNSELLING PROGRAMME

OBJECTIVES
By the end of the topic the learner should be able to:

1. Discuss the ethical responsibilities of a school counselor.

2. Appreciate the ethical dilemmas faced by a school counselor.
3. Discuss how the ethical dilemmas can be overcome.

Introduction
Ethical standards provide framework for professional practice and responsible behavior
and at the same time contribute to the identity of the profession that is governed by these
measures of conduct. The standards for school their daily practices. Instead, they are
general guidelines that enable counselors to establish a foundation and performing the wide
array of services expected of them, counselors must search for additional guidance to
complement their knowledge and understanding of ethical guides and legal restraints.
Several years ago, Mabe and Rollin (1986) cautioned. ‘’A responsible member of the
counseling profession must look to various sources for guidance. We fear that may
professions may see a code of ethics as the basis for explicating responsibility for his
members’’. Their admonition continues as sound advice for today’s counselors. Although
an ethical code of conduct plays a central role in defining professional’s responsibilities, it
is not a sufficient guide. Part of a school counselor’s responsibilities is to understand the
limits of the profession’s standards and supplement one’s knowledge of sound ethical and
legal practices with information from many resources and learning
activities.Counselorshave responsibility to use sources available to assist them in acquiring
this understanding, including workshops, conferences and publications.

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In addition to serving the three major populations of students, parents’ and teachers, school
counselors are responsible for carrying out assignments delegated to them by school
Principals and Counseling Supervisors. In performing these functions, school counselors
work with other professionals, such as school social workers, nurses, and psychologists, as
well as professionals in the community. The responsibilities associated with such awide
range of clients and professionals make it necessary to delineate ethicalguidelinesaccording
to different areas of accountability and service. For this reason, the ethical standards put
forth by ASCA are divided according to the counselor’s responsibilities with students,
parents, and other professionals; the school and community; the counseling profession; and
oneself. By aligning these different responsibilities enumerated in the ASCA code with
guidelines from the ethical standards of the American Counseling Association, school
counselors develop a broader understanding of how their
profession views ethical behavior and professional practice.

In the following sections, the responsibilities outlined by the ASCA ethical standards help
to define and explain the ethical practice of school counselors. In addition, you may want
to locate other professional codes of ethical conduct, such as those for school social
workers and school psychologists, and compare them with the standards for school
counselors. The first area of ethical behavior for school counselors addresses their
responsibilities to students.

Responsibilities to Students

School counselors have primary responsibility for ensuring that their counseling services
and the educational program of the school consider the total development of every student,
including educational, vocational, personal, and social development. Counselors accept
responsibility for informing students about the purposes and procedures involved in
counseling relationships and use appropriate assessment and diagnostic techniques to
determine which services to provide. The ethical guidelines state that school counselors
should avoid imposing their values on counselees. Therefore, counselors should encourage
students to explore their own values and beliefs in making decisions about educational
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plans and life goals. This responsibility is not an easy task. Counselors, too, have strong
values and in dealing with young people, these convictions are not easily ignored or
disguised. Counselors might find it appropriate to express their views and allow students to
consider these opinions while broadening their available options. There is a distinct
difference between expressing one’s views and imposing one’s values. When a counselor’s
values and views are so strongly opposed to those of the student’s that a healthy and
helpful relationship is impossible, the counselor is obliged to assist the student in finding
another professional with whom a beneficial relationship can be established.

The ethical standards stipulate that school counselors protect the confidentiality of
students’ records and information received from students in counseling relationships. In
practice, the concept of confidentiality and its limitations are explained to students at the
beginning of a helping relationship. Because of the ages of students they serve, school
counselors are in a unique position regarding confidentiality. The courts have not always
recognized that minors have the capacity to understand and establish confidential helping
relationships. For this reason, school counselors not only need to be aware of their
professional code of ethics, they also need to know their legal responsibilities regarding
confidentiality. First, counselors need to know the difference between confidentiality and
privilegedcommunication. The term confidentiality refers to an individual’s right to privacy
that is inherent in professional counseling relationships. By contrast, privileged
communication is a legal term used to indicate that a person is protected from having
confidential information revealed in a public hearing or court of law. As such,
confidentiality is established in an agreement between the school counselor and student
when they form a helping relationship privileged communication, on the other hand, is
granted to students by states that have laws protecting the confidences students share in
relationships with their school counselors.

A final consideration about confidential counseling relationships relates to situations that

indicate a clear and imminent danger to a student or to others. When students share
information indicating their intention to harm themselves or others, or when they,
themselves, are being abused, counselors cannot keep this information confidential. Sadly,
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sometimes children and adolescents are forced into abusive situations that include physical
harm, sexual assault, emotional or physical neglect, and psychological harassment.
Counselors are obligated to learn about laws and procedures governing the reporting of
child abuse and neglect, and to fulfill their responsibilities as outlined by such statutes and
regulations. In cases of abuse and neglect and instances of imminent danger to students,
school counselors must break confidence and reports are essential, and, in cases of
potential suicide, the security of students is paramount.

In addition, school counselors are warned about establishing dual relationships that might
diminish their objectivity. If a dual relationship is unavoidable (e.g. counseling a family
relative in your school when you are only counselor available), each counselor has
responsibility to take action that would address the potential for harm to the client.

Responsibilities to Parents
As defined, counselors sometimes form helping relationships with parents in either
counseling or consulting roles. Informing parents of the purposes and procedures to be
followed and maintaining confidences are practices that apply to helping relationships
established with parents as well as with student

Counselor’s have a responsibility to inform parents about services available to students and
involve parents when appropriate. Although the ethical responsibility for maintaining
confidentiality between a counselor and student may be understood, the legal responsibility
of counselors to involve parents in their helping relationships is not as clear. These
differences between ethical practice and legal requirements sometimes confuse counselors
and place them in the precarious position of decking whether to protect children’s rights or
please parents. Generally, schools counselors can avoid some of those entanglements by
keeping parents informed of the services provided in their counseling programs; making
program brochures available to parents and using othermediator advertise services and
develop an open dialogue with parents. In school counseling, particularly at the primary
and elementary school grades, parental involvement is essential. Encouraging parental
involvement and seeking a student’s permission to release information and facilitate this
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involvement is a delicate matter (Salo and Schumate, 1993). Again, counselors search for a
balance between their legal obligations and ethical responsibilities. There is no single
guideline to direct counselors toward the correct path on every occasion.

Finally, responsibilities to parents include the practice of providing accurate and objective
information. By so doing, counselors share assessment data, school policies, and other
information in an equitable and objective manner to strengthen parents’ understanding of
their children’s needs and the services available to help students progress in school.
Accordingly, counselors are obligated to share information about services in the school and
community accurately and fairly without bias or discrimination.
Responsibilities to Colleagues and Professional Associates
Earlier chapters of this module presented information about the counselor’s responsibilities
in collaborating with other professionals in the school system and community. The ethical
code of professional conduct addresses this area of school counseling by promoting the
qualities of cooperation, fairness, respect, and objectively. School counselors who function
at a high level of ethical practice demonstrate regard and respect for the education
profession and their teaching colleagues. A successful and effective school counseling
program does not exist without cooperative relationships between and among teachers,
administrators, and counselors.

Responsibilities to the School and Community

Because school counselors focus primarily on the educational development of students,
they also have the responsibility of protecting the integrity of the curriculum and
instructional program. Part of being a spokesperson for the welfare of students is accepting
the roles as an advocate for the educational mission of the school. Partly, this responsibility
is fulfilled when counselors assess school climate and keep administrators and teachers
informed of potential dangers to students’ welfare, the instructional program, or the school
environment.

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Responsibilities to Self
When reviewing ethical standards, we sometimes forget the person who is expected to
behave ethically. The school counselor’s ethical guidelines address the need for counselors
to behave within the boundary of their professional competencies and accept responsibility
for the outcomes of their services. Counselors are obliged to choose approaches and use
techniques for which they have adequate knowledge,
training,andskill,includinganunderstanding of cultural diversity. School counselors must
alsocomprehendhow their own cultural and social identity can affect
thecounselingrelationship. To ensure this level of ethical practice, counselors keepabreastof
issues and trends in counseling, attend conferences and workshops, return to graduate
school, read professional journals and choose other avenues to improve their performance
and elevate their effectiveness.

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SUMMARY
This topic has discussed the ethical responsibilities of a teacher counselor. A teacher
counselor has responsibilities to the parents and guardians, to the students, to himself, to
colleagues and professional associates, to the school and community to the profession and
in the maintenance of standards. In maintaining these responsibilities the teacher counselor
is confronted by some ethical challenges and dilemmas. Thus a teacher counselor needs to
be well grounded in ethical problem solving process.

SELF EVALUATION QUESTIONS

1. Discuss any five ethical responsibilities a teacher counselor has in school
counseling practice.
2. Discuss some of the ethical dilemmas a teacher counselor has in school counseling
practice.
3. Discuss how the ethical dilemmas can be overcome.
.

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REFERENCES:

Fuster,J.M.(2000).PersonalCounselling.Mumbai:Better YourselfBooks

Rogers, C. (1965). Client-centred Therapy: Its currentpractice, implicationsandtheory.

London:HoughtonMifflin

Mwamwenda T.S (1995) Educational Psychology.An African Perspective. 2nd Edition Isando:
Heinemann Publishing Company

Nasibi, W M.W. (2006).Discipline: Guidance and Counseling in schools: A practical guide to

teacher counselors and parents. (2nd Ed).Nairobi: Nehema Publishers.

Schmidt, J.J. (2003).Counseling in Schools: Essential Services and Comprehensive Programs. (4th
Ed). Boston: Allyn & Bacon

Yadav,S.(2005).GuidanceandCounselling.NewDelhi:AnmolpublicationsPvt.Ltd.

Corey,G(2005).TheoryandPracticeofCounselling and Psychotherapy. London:HoughtonMifflin

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 SAMPLE EXAM

DEPARTMENT OF EARLY CHILDHOOD

BACHELOR OF EARLY CHILDHOOD
UNIT CODE: BEP 2201

COURSE TITLE: GUIDANCE AND COUNSELING

INSTRUCTION: SECTION A – ANSWER ALL QUESTIONS

SECTION B ANSWER ANY TWO QUESTIONS
TIME 2 HOURS

QUESTION ONE
a) Define the terms; ( 4 mks)
1) Guidance
2) Counseling

b) Explain the contribution of the following theorist in development of school counseling ( 6 mks)
1) Jesse Davis
2) Alfred Binet
3) Frank Parson
c) State any four application of person centered theory (4 mks)
d) List any five principles of behavour modification (5 mks)
e) State any four ethical responsibilities of a school counselor (4 mks)
f) List any five cause of children maladjustinve behavour (5 mks)
g) List any two role s of a teacher counselor (2mks
 SECTION B
QUESTION TWO
a) Discuss ethical dilemmas faced by a school counselor (10 mks))
b)Discuss the application of Maslow hierarchy of needs theory in a school setting (10mks)

QUESTION THREE
a) Define the term; ( 4mks)
1. Classroom Management
2. Difficult children
b) Discuss any three types of counseling (6mks)
c) Describe ways a teacher can handle children behavior in the classroom setting (10mks)

QUESTION FOUR
a) Preschoolers experience various challenges during their developmental stages; discuss any give
emotional problems during early childhood ( 10 mks)
b) Describe goals of guidance and counseling ( 10 mks)

QUESTION FIVE

a) Discuss components of guidance and counseling (10 mks)

b) Discuss qualities of a teacher counsellor( 10 mks