dtig zhiqxaipe` dwihnznl begd

zixabl` dibeleteh

wpla cec

zpwezn dxecdn

r"yz

i
.ef zxaeg ly dpey`xd `qxbd zclwd lr ux`eey hxaex 'xcl zecez

xagnl zexeny zeiekfd lk 2012 ⃝

c

ii
 mipipr okez
2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . dibeleteh 1

9 ditehenedd zxez I
9 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ditehened 2

16 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . :ziceqid dxeagd 3

24 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . zeixebhwd zxez 4

29 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . zeixebihwa zeipa 5

43 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . zeitehenedd dixebhwd 6

46 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ieqik iagxn 7

52 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . otnw o`e htyn 8

58 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ziceqid dxeagd iyeniy 9

61 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ditehened zexeag 10

68 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . miaeiq 11

75 zil`iviltniq dibeleteh II
75 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . miil`iviltniq miqwltnew 12

80 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . il`iviltniq aexiw 13

86 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . zeila` zexeag 14

91 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . zil`iviltniq dibelened 15

96 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ze`xyxy iqwltnew 16

105 zix`lebpiqd dxezd III

105 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . zixlebpiqd dveawde zeil`iviltniq zeveaw 17

110 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . zix`lebpiq dibelened 18

117 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . zixlebpiqd dibelenedd ly zeneiqk`d 19

126 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . zixlebpiqd dibelenedd iyeniy 20

137 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . zextq 21

iii
 :dncwd 0.1

cenill dxwira zpeekn dpi`e ,zixabl` dibeeteha oey`x qxewl ynyl dcrep ef zxaeg

dxabl`e dibeleteha miiqiqa miqxewl xarn mcwen rci lr zknzqn dpi`y zexnl) invr

.(zipxcen

wxt) zeixebihw zeipa lr jex`d wxtd j` ,ze`vezd ly ixebihw geqip lr ybc dt myed

miixebihwd mibyend xwir z` ekeza fkxl `l` ,`edy zenk cnlidl e` `xwidl crep `l (5

.lreta dpey`xl miriten md xy`ke m` dl` mibyen bivdl xzei irah ;jynda miritend

onf eze`ae ,zerbiin zewica zxaegd i`xewn jeqgl ecrepe ,miipkh md milibxzd axin

.jxevd dxwna miyexc mihxt milydl mzleki z` oegal mdl xyt`l

:`ean 0.2

mirvn`a zeixhne`ib e` zeibeleteh zeira xeztl `id zixabl`d dibeletehd ly dzxhn

,zexeag oebk - miixabl` minvr miibeleteh miagxnl dni`zn `id ,jk myl .miixabl`

dheyt zixabl` dl`yl zixewnd dirad z` mzervn`a mbxzl dqpne - dnecke ,mibeg

.xzei

orehd ,(L.E.J. Brouwer [1881-1967]) xe`xa ly zayd zecewp htyn `id jkl `nbec

lebir `ed D2 f (x) = x

xy`k - -y jk D2 ∋ x yi f : D2 → D2 dtivx divwpet lkly

.(20.4 dpwqn e`x) R2 xeyina xebqd dcigid

icilwe`d agxna zeicicne zeneqg zeveaw n ozpiday orehd htyn `id ztqep `nbec

lr elit` aeygl eqp - zeveawd on zg` lk dvegd , Rn ⊃ H xeyin-lr `evnl ozip , Rn

.(20.31 htyn e`x) !xeyina mirlevn ipy ly dxwnd

lr 19-d d`nd seqa dcqeeid f`n dl` oebk zeax zeglvd dlgp zixabl`d dibeletehd

ly zeax zepkd zeyxcp d`xpy itk mle`e , (Henri Poincaré [1854-1912]) dx`wp`et ici

.mineyiil ribdl lkepy iptl mihtyne zexcbd

1
 dibeleteh 1
xtqn mi`xewl xikfp ,zizveawd dibeletehd lr zqqazn zixabl`d dibeletehdy oeeikn

:df megzn mibyen

:dxcbd 1.1

zeiwlg zeveaw ly sqe`a ciievnd ∅ ̸= X (topological space)

dveaw `ed ibeleteh agxn

edylk sqe` {Uα }α∈A m` ;T ∋ X, ∅ open ∪

-y jk ,( P(X) ⊇ T
) zegezt zeveaw ze`xwpd ,

,zegezt zeveaw ly iteq sqe` {Ui }ni=1 U

m`e ,dgezt
α∈A α ∩n mb f` ,zegezt zeveaw ly

dveaw `xwp X -a U dgezt dveaw A := X \ U

ly
i=1 Ui
milyd .dgezt mb f`

closed .( ) dxebq

:ze`nbec 1.2

lk ,xnelk - Tdisc := P(X) `id X dveaw lr ( discrete ) zihxwqicd dibeletehd (`)

.dgezt dveaw

. Ttriv := {∅, X} `id X dveaw lr ( trivial ) zil`ieeixhd dibeletehd (a)

:dxcbd 1.3

:f` ,idylk ziwlg dveaw X⊇A -e ibeleteh agxn (X, T ) m`

∪
. Int(A) := dgezt U ⊆A U `ed A ly (interior) miptd (`)

∩
. Cl(A) := dxebq F ⊇A F `ed A ly (closure) xebqd (a)

:dxcbd 1.4

dtivx zi`xwp f : X → Y divwpet ,miibeleteh miagxn (Y, T ′ )

-e (X, T ) m`

T ′ ∋ f −1 (U )
. :miiwzn U ∋T ′
dgezt dveaw lkl m` (continuous)
cg-cg `id m` (homeomorphism) mfitxene`ined zi`xwp f :X→Y dtivx divwpet

.sivx ok-mb dly iktedde ,lre zikxr

X∼
.(=Y :oeniq) miitxene`ined Y -e X -y xn`p , f :X→Y mfitxene`ined miiw m`

. (map) dwzrd dzrn `xwiz miibeleteh miagxn oia dtivx divwpet :dnkqen

:dprh 1.5

f` ,dn`zda Y X , lr zeibeleteh T2 T1, -e ,dtivx zeveaw oia divwpet f :X→Y m`

.(1.2 'bec) T2 = Ttriv e` T1 = Tdisc m` dtivx f

2
 :htyn 1.6

jk zetivx zeivwpet g : B → Y f : A → Y X
-e -e -a zexebq zeveaw B A
-e m`

:zxcbend f ∪g :A∪B →Y
, divwpetd f` , f |A∩B = g|A∩B -y

{
f (x) x∈A m`
, (f ∪ g)(x) :=
g(x) x∈B m`

.dtivx dpid

:dxcbd 1.7

m` X lr dibeletehl qiqa `xwp X ly zeiwlg zeveaw B

ly
∪∅ ̸= X
sqe` , m` (`)

B ∋ B3 miiw f` , B ∋ B1 , B2 xear B1 ∩ B2 ∋ x m` , X∋x B∈B B = X

lkle ,

B1 ∩ B2 ⊇ B3 ∋ x
. -y jk

∪
xear ,
α∈A Bα micegi`d lk sqe` `id B ici-lr zxvepd dibeletehd ,df dxwna (a)

. B ⊇ {Bα }α∈A
ly zeiwlg zeveaw ly S edylk sqe` `ed X lr dibeletehl (sub-basis)
∪ qiqa-zz (b)

.
S∈S S = X -y jk X
deedn Si ∈ S, n ∈ N
( ) B = S1 ∩ . . . ∩ Sn dxevdn B zeveawd sqe` ,df dxwna (c)

S . ici lr zxvepd dibeletehd zi`xwpd , X lr dibeletehl qiqa

:dxcbd 1.8

zxcben Y lr ( subspace ) agxn-zzd ziibeleteh X ⊇Y

, -e ibeleteh (X, T )
agxn m`

′
. T := {U ∩ Y | U ∈ T }

:dxcbd 1.9

zeivwpetd zveaw `id zeveaw ly {Xα }α∈A sqe` ly zifhxwd dltknd (`

∏ ∪
. Xα := {f : A → Xα | ∀α ∈ A, f (α) ∈ Xα }
α∈A α∈A

∏
dltknd m` .
α∈A Xα ∋ [(xα )α∈A ] -a zifhxwd dltkna xai` onqp mizirl :oeniq
X1 × X2 × . . . × Xn ∋ (x1 , x2 , . . . , xn )
. libxk onqp ,ziteq

zxvepd ef `id {(X∏0 , Tα )}α∈A ∪ ∪

miibeleteh miagxn sqe` zltkn lr dltknd ziibeleteh (a

.dlhdd `id πα0 : α∈A Xα → Xα0 xy`k ,

α∈A Uα ∈Tα {πα−1 (Uα )} qiqa-zzd ici-lr

:dprh 1.10

A∋α
, lkl fα : Y → Xα (Xα , Tα )α∈A
zeivwpete -e (Y, T ) ∏ miibeleteh miagxn ozpida

ziibeleteha dtivx f f (y) = (fα (y))α∈A

f` ; ici lr f : Y → α∈A Xα divwpet xicbp

fα .dtivx zeivwpetdn zg` lk m` wxe m` dltknd

3
 :dxcbd 1.11

xfd cegi`d `ed (Y, T ′ ) (X, T )

-e coproduct
miibeleteh miagxn ipy ly ( ) dltkn-ewd

dibeletehd mr X ⨿Y := {(x, 0) | x ∈ X}∪{(y, 1) | y ∈ Y } ⊂ (X ∪Y )×R

, :zeveawd ly

T ∪T′ . ici lr zxvepd

:dxcbd 1.12

dpnd ziibeleteh ,lr ziivwpet ρ:X→A -e ,dveaw A ,ibeleteh agxn (X, T ) m` (`)

. Tquot := {U ⊆ A | ρ−1 (U ) ∈ T } zxcben A lr (quotient topology)

zewlgn sqe`A = X/ ∼ X -e , lr zeliwy qgi ∼ -e ibeleteh agxn (X, T ) m` (a)

:zxcbend q:X→A divwpetl qgia dpnd ziibeleteh mr A f` , ∼ ly zeliwyd

dpn zwzrd zi`xwpq X -e , ly ( quotient space ) dpn agxn `xwp q(x) = [x]
.( quotient map )

:htyn 1.13

agxn A := X/ ∼ X , lr zeliwy qgi∼ -e miibeleteh miagxn (X, T ) -e (Y, T ′ ) m`

divwpet dxyn x ∼ x′ m` f (x) = f (x′ ) -y jk f : X → Y divwpet lk f` .dpnd

.dtivx f m` wxe m` dtivx f¯ f¯ ◦ q = f

-o , -y jk f¯ : A → Y

:dxcbd 1.14

d : X × X → R+ := [0, ∞) divwpeta zciievn ∅ ̸= X dveaw `ed ixhn agxn (`)

d(x, z) ≤ d(x, y) + d(y, z) d(x, y) = d(y, x)

-e , , x = y ⇔ d(x, y) = 0 :zniiwnd

X ∋ x, y, z . lkl

Bε (x0 ) := {x ∈ X | d(x, x0 ) < ε} dveaw `ed (X, d) ixhn agxna gezt xeck (a)

.( 0 < ε X ∋ x0
, )

:dprh 1.15

zi`xwpd ,dibeletehl qiqa deedn (X, d) ixhn agxna migeztd mixeckd sqe`

.zixhnd dibeletehd

:`nbec 1.16

zicilwe`d dwixhnd mr , Rn := {(⃗x = (x1 , . . . , xn ) | xi ∈ R}

∑
n
, d(⃗x, ⃗y ) := ( (xi − yi )2 )1/2
i=1

.icnin n -d icilwe`d agxnd `xwp

4
 :dxcbd 1.17

S n := {⃗x | d(⃗x, ⃗0) = 1} agxn-zzd `id ( n-sphere ) zicnin- n -d dcigid zxitqd (`)

. Rn+1 icilwe`d agxnd ly

R1 ⊇ S 0 = {−1, 1} :`id zicnin- 0 -d dxitqde , R2 ⊃ S 1 `ed dcigid lbrn hxta

.(zecewp izy liknd ihxwqic agxn)

R3 ⊃ S 2 dxitqd

hxta . Dn := {⃗x ∈ Rn | d(⃗x, ⃗0) ≤ 1} `ed icnin n -d xebqd (dcigid) xeck (a)

. R2 ⊃ D 2 `ed dcigid lebir

icilwe`d agxnd ly In agxn-zzd `id ( n-cube ) zicnin- n -d dcigid ziiaew (b)

n
.icilwe`d xyia dcigid rhw `ed I := [0, 1] xy`k , R

(c)

:dxcbd 1.18

F lrn icnin- n (projective space)

-d iaihwiiextd agxnd , F (welig mr beg e`) dcy lkl

,xnelk . 0 ̸= λ ∈ F ⃗x ∼ λ · ⃗y
m` wxe m` xy`k , F P n := (F n+1 \ {⃗0})/ ∼ dveawd `ed

F n+1 . ly miicnin- 1 -d miagxn-zzd zveaw `ed FPn

ziibeleteh z` F n+1 -l ozip - C e` F =R m` ,lynl - dibeleteh yi F -l m`

.dpnd ziibeleteh z` FPn -le ,dltknd

ici-lr zixyend ,dibeleteh mr dcy (mipeipxh`ewd) H C R e` F , `ed m` :dxrd

lawp jke , ∥ − ∥ : F → [0, ∞)
n
dnxep xicbdl lkep | − | : F → [0, ∞)
, hlgn jxr

F =R
, xear .SFn = {⃗x ∈ F n+1 : ∥⃗x∥ = 1} :xcbend Fn , -a dcigi zxitq `xwpd agxn

SHn ∼
. = S 4n+3 SCn ∼ = S 2n+1
-e eli`e ; Sn dlibxd dcigid zxitq heyt idef

:dprh 1.19

SFn / ∼ dpnd agxnl itxene`ined FPn iaihwiiextd agxnd H , e` ,C R , `ed F m`

.S
1
F ∋λ xear ⃗x ∼ λ⃗x :zeliwyd qgi zgz

:ze`nbec 1.20

xy`k , S 1/ ∼ -l itxene`ined `ede ,R2 -a ziy`xd jxc mixyid zveaw RP 1

`ed (`)

. RP ∼
1
=S 1
okle ,zeiahw zecewp ddfn (x, y) ∼ (−x, −y)

5
zecewp iedifn lawznd S2 lr zeliwy qgi aey ∼ xy`k S 2/ ∼ `ed RP 2 (a)

.zeiahw

:dxcbd 1.21

cegi`l X z` wxtl xyt` i` m` (connected) xiyw `xwp (X, T ) ibeleteh agxn (`)

.zewix `l zegezt zeveaw izy ly xf

(X, T ) ibeleteh agxna x dcewp ly Cx connected component

( ) zexiywd aikxn (a)

. x z` zeliknd X -a zexiywd zeveawd lk cegi` `ed

:dprh 1.22

.llken rhw `id m` wxe m` dxiyw `id R icilwe`d xyia A dveaw-zz

:dprh 1.23

lr `idy f : X → {0, 1} dtivx divwpet zniiw m` wxe m` xiyw epi` X ibeleteh agxn

.[zihxwqicd dibeletehd mr] {0, 1}

:dprh 1.24

.xiyw Y f` , Y lr dtivx divwpet f :X→Y -e xiyw agxn X m`

:dprh 1.25

jk A ∋ α0 miiwe , Y ibeleteh agxn ly

∪
zexiyw zeveaw-zz ly sqe` {Xα }α∈A m`

.xiyw agxn
α∈A Xα f` , A∋α lkl ∅=
̸ Xα ∩ Xα0 -y

:dxcbd 1.26

dwzrd `id y dcewpl x dcewpn X -a (path) dliqn f` ibeleteh agxn (X, T ) m` (`)

γ(1) = y
. -e γ(0) = x -y jk γ : [0, 1] → X

X ∋ x, y lkl m` (path-connected) zizliqn xiyw `xwp (X, T ) ibeleteh agxn (a)

. y -l x X
-n -a dliqn zniiw

`ed (X, T ) ibeleteh agxna x dcewp ly Px (path component) dliqnd aikxn (b)

. x z` zeliknd X -a zizliqn zexiywd zeveawd lk cegi`

lkl m` ( locally path connected ) zinewn zizliqn xiyw `xwp X ibeleteh agxn (c)

.zinewn dxiyw V U
-y jk -a zlkend x ly V daiaq yi x ly U daiaq lkle X∋x

6
 :dprh 1.27
∩
,
α∈A Xα ̸= ∅ -e Y ibeleteh agxna zizliqn-zexiyw zeveaw-zz sqe` {X
∪ α }α∈A m`

.zizliqn xiyw
α∈A Xα f`

:dprh 1.28

.xiyw `ed zizliqn xiyw ibeleteh agxn lk

:dxcbd 1.29

X -a x ̸= y zecewp izy lkl m` Hausdorff

( ) sxecqe`d `xwp (X, T ) ibeleteh agxn

. y∈V x∈U-e -y jk V -e U zexf zegezt zeveaw zeniiw

:dxcbd 1.30

gezt ieqik `xwp (X, T ) ibeleteh agxna zegezt zeveaw ly

∪ U = {Uα }α∈A sqe` (`)

′
xy`k) U = {Uα }α∈A′ ∪ iwlg sqe` X = α∈A Uα
. m` X lyopen cover
( )

X = α∈A′ Uα
. m` U (sub-cover)
ly ieqik-zz `xwp A ⊇ A′ (

miiw B∋β lkl m` U ieqikd ly (refinement) oecir `xwp V = {Vβ }β∈B ieqik

. Vβ ⊆ Uα A∋α
-y jk

X ly U gezt ieqik lkle ,sxecqe`d agxn `ed m` (compact) ihwtnew `xwp X (a)

.iteq ieqik-zz miiw

:htyn 1.31

Y f` , Y lr dtivx divwpet f : X → Y -e ,sxecqe`d agxn Y ,ihwtnew agxn X m`

.ihwtnew

:oeviwd jxrd htyn 1.32

jk X ∋ a, b miniiw f` ,dtivx f : X → R -e ihwtnew ibeleteh agxn (X, T ) m`

. X∋x lkl f (a) ≤ f (x) ≤ f (b) -y

:dxcbd 1.33

diam(A) := sup{d(x, y)}

. :xcben (X, d) ixhn agxna A dveaw ly ( diameter ) xhewd

diam(A) < ∞ . m` ( bounded ) dneqg zi`xwp (X, d) ixhn agxna A dveaw

:dxcbd 1.34

bal xtqn 0 < ε

`ed -y xn`p X , ly ieqik U = {Uα }α∈A -e ixhn (X, d)
agxn m`

miiw diam(B) < ε -y jk X ⊇ B dveaw lkl U

m` ieqikd ly (Lebesgue number )

. Uα ⊇ B A∋α
-y jk

7
 :bal ly ieqikd htyn 1.35

.bal xtqn yi gezt ieqik lkl , (X, d) zizxcq-ihwtnew ixhn agxna

:htyn 1.36

A0 ⊆ A1 ⊆ . . . ⊆ An ⊆ . . . :dlkda zcxei dxcq lkl , (X, d) ihwtnew ixhn agxna

dcewp zniiw limn→∞ diam(An ) = 0

, -y jk , X ∩∞
ly zewix-`le zexebq zeveaw-zz ly

. x∈ n=0 An dcigi

:dxcbd 1.37

V ∋ w, v zecewp izy lkl m` (convex) dxenw zi`xwp Rn icilwe` agxna V dveaw-zz

oia xagnd rhwd ,xnelk) t · v + (1 − t) · w ∈ V :miiwzn 0<t<1 iynn xtqn lkle

.( V -a `ed s` lken V ly zecewp izy lk

8
 I wlg
ditehenedd zxez
`idy ef dpigan ,dixhne`ibd ly xzei "dkx" `qxb `id zizveawd dibeletehd ,epi`xy itk

zexnl ,zibeleteh dfl df milewy xeyina mixenwd mirlevnd lk :zepga` zegt dyer

.zicilwe`d dixhne`ibd ly hand zcewpn minec elit` e` mitteg mpi`y

-pd ,llka miibeleteh miagxne ,miixhne`ib minvr l` dyinb xzei cer dyib xikp dzr

lka !dcewpl milewy ,cnin lka ,mixenwd mitebd lk ,dzpigan :ditehenedd zxez zi`xw

dibeleteha xikpy zexcbdd aex dyrnle ,zeliren zepga` zeyrl dgilvn `idy d`xp z`f

.ditehenedd zxez zxbqna zegqepn zixabl`d

ditehened 2
byend z` swyiy ,miibeleteh miagxn oia zewzrd lr mi`zn zeliwy qgi xicbdl dvxp

."sivx zeeir ici-lr dipyd on zg` divwpet lawl ozip" :iaihi`ehpi`d

:dxcbd 2.1

H : X × [0, 1] → Y dwzrd `id f, g : X → Y zewzrd izy oia ( homotopy ) ditehened

. H|X×{1} = g H|X×{0} = f
, -y jk

. H:f ∼g :oeniq

XX
X × {0} XXX f
XXX
XXX
Xz

H - Y
X × [0, 1]

:
 
X × {1} g


-pet ly dtivx dgtynk {Ht }t∈[0,1] lr miayeg Ht := H|X×{t}

f`e , :onqp minrtl

`id H :f ∼g -y xn`p ,0≤t≤1 lkl Ht = H0 H1 = g H0 = f

m` . , mr ,zeivw

. f =g m` wx okzii df - constant homotopy

( ) dreawd ditehenedd

:`nbec 2.2

x lkl g(x) = (0, 0) zxcben g : [0, 1]2 → [0, 1]2 -e ,zedfd f : [0, 1]2 → [0, 1]2 idz

.mdpia ditehened `id Ht (x) := tx f` .(dreaw divwpet)

9
 :dprh 2.3

. Y -l X -n zewzrd lr zeliwy qgi `ed ∼

:dgked

ici-lr H : X × [0, 1] → Y xicbdl lkep f : X → Y lkl ik ,iaiqwltx qgid i ( )

. H:f ∼f 0≤t≤1 f`e , lkl H(x, t) := f (x)

H −1 (x, t) := ici-lr H −1 : g ∼ f xicbp H:f ∼g:X→Y lkl ik ,ixhniq qgid ii ( )

. H(x, 1 − t)
ici lr F ⋆G:f ∼h xicbp G:g∼h F :f ∼g
, -e ozpida ik ,iaihifpxh qgid ( iii
)

{
F (x, 2t) 0 ≤ t ≤ 1/2 m`
(F ⋆ G)(x, t) =
G(x, 2t − 1) 1/2 ≤ t ≤ 1 m`

X × {0}
XXX f
XX
XXX
PP XXX
PP F XXz
PP
PP
PP
PP
q
X × { 21 } - Y
g
X × [0, 1] 
1
 

G
 :
 


X × {1}   h

 . F1 = g = G0 ik ,1.6 htyn itl dtivx F ⋆G -e

:dxcbd 2.4

homotopy ) dly ditehenedd zwlgn z`xwp ∼ zgz f divwpet ly zeliwyd zwlgn

Y X
. -l -n zewzrd ly zeliwyd zewlgn zveaw z` [X, Y ] -a onqp . [f ] zpneqne ,( class

:dprh 2.5

f` , g1 ∼ g2 : Y → Z -e f1 ∼ f2 : X → Y m` ,xnelk - zeakxd cakn ditehenedd qgi

. g 1 ◦ f1 ∼ g 2 ◦ f2

:dgked

10
g ◦ F : X × [0, 1] → Z f` ,dwzrd g:Y →Z -e ditehened F : f1 ∼ f2 : X → Y m` i
( )

. g ◦ F : g ◦ f1 ∼ g ◦ f2 ditehened `id

xicbp G : g1 ∼ g2 : Y → Z
, f :X →Y ditehenede , ii dwzrd ozpida ,dnec ote`a ( )

G ◦ f : X × [0, 1] → Z
I I
f (x, t) := (f (x), t)
f` . f : X × [0, 1] → Y × [0, 1]
I
:ici-lr

G ◦ f I : g1 ◦ f ∼ g2 ◦ f . ditehened `id

wiqdl ick (2.3 dprh) ditehenedd qgi ly zeiaihifpxha ynzyp ,illkd iii dxwna ( )

 . g1 ◦ f1 ∼ g1 ◦ f2 ∼ g2 ◦ f2 -y

:dxcbd 2.6

dpyi m` ( homotopy equivalence ) zitehened zeliwy zi`xwp f :X→Y dwzrd (`)

itehened ikted g g ◦ f ∼ IdX

`xwp . -e f ◦ g ∼ IdY -y jk g:Y →X dwzrd

. f ly ( homotopy inverse )

≃
. f :X≃Y e` , f : X −→ Y :oeniq

zeliwy yi m` ( homotopy equivalent ) zitehened milewy Y X , miagxn ipy (a)

≃
f : X −→ Y zitehened

. X≃Y :oeniq

:dnl 2.7

.zitehened zeliwy `ed mfitxene`ined lk

:dgked

g:Y →X sivx ikted el yi f` ,mfitxene`ined f :X→Y m` ,(a 1.4 dxcbd itl

g ◦ f ∼ IdX -y xne` df i
( )2.3 dprh itl j` . f ◦ g = IdY -e g ◦ f = IdX ,xnelk -

 .zitehened zeliwy f ,xnelkf ◦ g ∼ IdY

, -e

:dprh 2.8

.miibeleteh miagxn oia zeliwy qgi `id ≃ zitehenedd zeliwyd

xexa .2.7 dnl itl iaiqwltx ≃ qgid okle ,mfitxene`ined `ed IdX : X → X :dgked
.ixhniq qgi edfy 2.6 dxcbdn

miitehened miikted k:Z→Y g:Y →X

, -e , h:Y ≃Z f :X≃Y -e m` ,seqal

g◦k
, itehened ikted mr ,zitehened zeliwy `id h◦f :X ≃Z f` ,dn`zda h f , ly

ik

(g ◦ k) ◦ (h ◦ f ) = g ◦ (k ◦ h) ◦ f ∼ g ◦ IdY ◦f = g ◦ f ∼ IdX
(h ◦ f ) ◦ (g ◦ k) = h ◦ (f ◦ g) ◦ k ∼ h ◦ IdY ◦k = h ◦ k ∼ IdZ -e

 .2.5 dprh itl

11
df dxwna mb j` ;ynn dwlgn deedn miibeletehd miagxnd lk sqe`y al eniy :dxrd
.zeliwy qgi ly byenl zernyn yi

:dxcbd 2.9

:izcewp-cg agxnl zitehened lewy `ed m` (contractible) uieek `xwp X ibeleteh agxn

. X ≃ {x}

:dprh 2.10

. 1≤n lkl uieek Rn icilwe`d agxnd

zeieliwy od c⃗0 : Rn → {⃗0} dreawd divwpetde i : {⃗0} ,→ Rn :dgked

dlkddy d`xp ep`

dakxdd eli`e ,c⃗0 ◦ i = Id{⃗0} ,ok`e R ∋0

:(ziy`xd
n ⃗ xy`k) efl ef zeketd zeitehened

zedfl zitehened (ziy`xl xeyina dcewp lkf := i ◦ c⃗0 : Rn → Rn

zgleyd) dketdd

jk) H(⃗x, t) = t · ⃗x zxcbend H : Rn × [0, 1] → Rn

, IdRn
zix`pild ditehenedd ici-lr ,

 .( R ∋ ⃗x
n
H(⃗x, 1) = IdRn (⃗x)
lkl
⃗
H(⃗x, 0) = 0 = f (⃗x)
eli`e -y

:dprh 2.11

.dvieek Rn icilwe` agxna (1.37 'bd) dxenw dveaw lk

 .libxz :dgked

:dxcbd 2.12

dwzrdl zitehened `id m` (nullhomotopic) zitehenedlep zi`xwp f :X→Y dwzrd

X∋x
.( lkl cy (x) = y zxcbend) cy : X → Y dreaw

:dprh 2.13

.zitehenedlep IdX : X → X ely zedfd zwzrd m` wxe m` uieek X agxn

 .libxz :dgked

:dxcbd 2.14

: X ibeleteh agxn lkl

zeliwyd qgi xy`k , CX := X × [0, 1] / ∼ dpnd agxn `ed X lr (cone) hexgd (`)

X ∋ x, y . lkl (x, 1) ∼ (y, 1) :ici-lr xvep ∼

qgi xy`k ΣX := X × [0, 1] / ∼

, dpnd agxn `id X ly (suspension) dgiznd (a)

. X ∋ x, y (x, 1) ∼ (y, 1)
lkl -e (x, 0) ∼ (y, 0) :ici-lr xvep ∼ zeliwyd

12
 zcwepne ziqgi ditehened

:dxcbd 2.15

agxn-zz mr cgi , X ibeleteh agxn `ed miibeleteh miagxn ly (X, A) (pair) bef (`)

X A . ly

jk f : X → Y dtivx divwpet `id f : (X, A) → (Y, B) zebef ly dwzrd (a)

. f (A) ⊆ B -y

relative ) iqgi mfitxene`ined zi`xwp f : (X, A) → (Y, B) zebef ly dwzrd (b)

-xtene`ined `id f |X\A -e , Y lr (1.12 'bd) dpn zwzrd `id f homeomorphism m` (

Y \B X \A . -l oia mfi

:df xywda ditehened ly mipey mibyen ipy mpyi

:dxcbd 2.16

zebef ly zewzrd izy H : f0 ∼ f1 (homotopy of pairs)

oia zebef ly ditehened (`)

jk f1 -l f0 oia H : X × [0, 1] → Y f0 , f1 : (X, A) → (Y, B)

ditehened `id

0≤t≤1 B ⊇ Ht (A) . lkl -y

f0 , f1 : (X, A) → (Y, B) zewzrd izy oia (relative homotopy) ziqgi ditehened (a)

H(a, t) = f0 (a) = f1 (a) -y jk f1 -l f0 oia H : X × [0, 1] → Y ditehened `id

ly mevnvde , A lr zenikqn f1 -e f0 zeivwpetd ,xnelk) A∋a 0≤t≤1 -e lkl

.(dreawd ditehenedd `ed A × [0, 1] -l H

. H : f0 ∼ f1 (rel A) :oeniq

:cala x0 zg` dcewp likn A agxn-zzd eay df `ed bef ly ihxt dxwn

:dxcbd 2.17

qiqa zcewp zi`xwp x0 -e ,( pointed space ) cwepn agxn (X, {x0 }) befl mi`xew ep` (`)

∗
, :heyt oneqz `id ,itivtq my dl zzl mivex eppi` xy`k X . ly ( base point )

X . agxnl xyw ila

. (X, x0 ) -a xeviwa (X, {x0 }) befd z` onql bedp

(pointed map)
, zcwepn dwzrd zi`xwp f : (X, x0 ) → (Y, y0 ) zebef ly dwzrd (a)

ditehened zi`xwp zecwepn zewzrd oia (zebef ly ditehened e`) ziqgi ditehenede

. (pointed homotopy) zcwepn

:dprh 2.18

.zeliwy qgi ok` `id zebef ly zewzrd oia ziqgid ditehenedd

 .libxz :dgked

13
 :dpwqn 2.19

cwepn agxnn zecwepnd zewzrdd zeveaw lr) zeliwy qgi `id zcwepnd ditehenedd

.(edpynl oezp

:oeniq 2.20

zewzrd ly ziqgid zitehenedd zeliwyd zewlgn zveaw z` [(X, A), (Y, B)] -a onqp

. (Y, B) -l (X, A) -n zebef ly

zewlgn zveaw z` - [X, Y ]∗ :xeviwa e` - [(X, x0 ), (Y, y0 )] -a onqp dnec ote`a

. (Y, y0 )
-l (X, x0 ) -n zecwepn zewzrd ly zcwepnd zitehenedd zeliwyd

:dprh 2.21

.zebef ly zewzrd ly zeakxd zcakn ziqgid ditehenedd

 .libxz :dgked

:dpwqn 2.22

.zecwepn zewzrd ly zeakxd zcakn zcwepnd ditehenedd

:dxcbd 2.23

zcwepn dwzrd `id ( pointed homotopy equivalence ) zcwepn zitehened zeliwy

f ◦ g ∼ IdY -y jk g : (Y, y0 ) → (X, x0 ) zcwepn dwzrd dl yiy f : (X, x0 ) → (Y, y0 )

.(zecwepn zeitehened zgz) g ◦ f ∼ IdX -e

:dprh 2.24

.micwepn miibeleteh miagxn oia zeliwy qgi `ed zcwepnd zitehenedd zeliwyd

 .libxz :dgked

:dxcbd 2.25

zitehened `id m` zcwepn zitehenedlep zi`xwp f : (X, x0 ) → (Y, y0 ) zcwepn dwzrd

. cy0 : (X, x0 ) → (Y, y0 ) dreawd dwzrdl zcwepn ditehened zgz

:dxcbd 2.26

pointed ) cwepnd mekqd {(Xα , xα )}α∈A

, micwepn miibeleteh miagxn ly sqe` ozpida

:dpnd agxn `ed mdly ( wedge e` coproduct

∨ ⨿
(Xα , xα ) := (Xα , xα ) / ∼
α∈A α∈A

14
lkl xα ∼ xβ :ici-lr xvep ∼ zeliwyd
∨
qgi xy`k ,(1.11 'bd) mdly dltkn-ewd ly

miagxn ipy ly cwepnd mekqd hxta .

α∈A Xα :xeviwa df agxn onqp . A ∋ α, β
. X ∨Y xeviwa oneqi (Y, y0 ) -e (X, x0 ) micwepn

'$
'$
q s0

&%
&%
S1 ∨ S1

:befd byen z` lilkdl gep zeniieqn zexhnl

:dxcbd 2.27

ipy mr X ibeleteh agxn `id (X, A1 , A0 ) miibeleteh miagxn ly ( triple ) dyly (`)

. A0 ⊆ A1 ⊆ X :miagxn-zz

dwzrd `id f : (X, A1 , A0 ) → (Y, B1 , B0 ) map of triples ( ) zeyly ly dwzrd (a)

B0 ⊇ f (A0 ) B1 ⊇ f (A1 )
. -e -y jk f :X→Y

f0 , f1 : (X, A1 , A0 ) → (Y, B1 , B0 ) oia ( homotopy of triples ) zeyly ly ditehened (b)

B0 ⊇ Ht (A0 ) B1 ⊇ Ht (A1 )
-e -y jk f1 -l f0 H : X ×[0, 1] → Y
oia ditehened `id

. 0≤t≤1 lkl

:dxcbd 2.28

cwepn agxn `ed miibeleteh miagxn ly (X, A, x0 ) ( pointed pair ) cwepn bef (`)

oeniqd z` xvwp minrtl .qiqad zcewp z` A

liknd agxn-zz mr cgi (X, x0 )
-ivl mivex eppi`y e` ,xywdd on dxexa qiqad zcewp xy`k) (X, A)∗ -l (X, A, x0 )
dwzrd `id f : (X, A, x0 ) → (Y, B, y0 ) micwepn zebef ly dwzrd .(yxetna dpi

. f (A) ⊆ B :zniiwnd zcwepn

'bd) ziqgi ditehened `id micwepn zebef ly zewzrd oia zcwepn ziqgi ditehened (a)

.(2.17 'bd) zcwepn onf eze`a `idy (2.16

2 wxtl milibxz 2.29

.2.13 dprh z` egiked (` 2.29.1

.xiyw gxkda `ed uieek agxny e`xd (a

15
 .2.11 dprh z` egiked (` 2.29.2

lkly jk V ∋ ⃗x dcewp zniiw m` ( star-like ) ziakek Rn ⊇ V

zeidl dveaw xicbp (a

. V -a zlken {t⃗x + (1 − t)⃗y | 0 ≤ t ≤ 1} rhwd , V ∋ ⃗y

.dvieek `id ziakek dveaw lky e`xd

.uieek `ed X agxn lk lr (` 2.14 'bd) CX hexgdy e`xd (` 2.29.3

(n + 1)
- -d xebqd xeckl itxene`ined zicnin- n -d dxitqd lr CS n hexgdy e`xd (a

.(1.17 'bd) Dn+1 icnin

dxitql zitxene`ined zicnin- n

-d dxitqd lr (a 2.14 'bd) ΣS n dgizndy e`xd (b

.zicnin- (n + 1) -d

- hexgl daxgd dl yi m` wxe m` zitehenedlep dpid f :X →Y dwzrdy e`xd (c

zxcben i : X ,→ CX dlkdd xy`k , F ◦i = f -y jk F : CX → Y zniiw ,xnelk

. i(x) = [(x, 0)]

.2.18 dprh z` egiked 2.29.4

.2.21 dprh z` egiked 2.29.5

.2.24 dprh z` egiked 2.29.6

≃
,A ∋α lkl zcwepn zitehened zeliwy fα : Xα −→ Xα′ m`y m`y e`xd 2.29.7
∨ ≃ ∨
.(2.26 'bd) f: α∈A Xα −→ α∈A Xα′ zitehened zeliwy dxyn `id f`

:ziceqid dxeagd 3
d`xpy jka ,zixabl`d dibeletehd ly zipexwrd dyibd z` mibcdl lkep df alya xak

dibeletehd lr miieqn rcin epl zzl zlbeqnd ,dxeag ibeleteh agxn lkl mi`zdl ozip cvik

.ziceqid dxeagd myl dzkf `id ,efk dn`zd ly dpey`xd `nbecd efy oeeikn .ely

:dxcbd 3.1

jk γ : [0, 1] → X dwzrd `id y dcewpl x dcewpn X ibeleteh agxna dliqn ,xekfk

x
. loop
-a ( ) d`lel zi`xwp x-l x -n dliqn ;(1.26 'bd) γ(1) = y -e γ(0) = x -y

:dxrd 3.2

izy eay ,xebq rhw ly dpn agxnk (` 1.17 'bd) dcigid lbrn lr aeygl xyt`y oeeikn

dwzrdk x0 -a d`lel lr aeygl xyt` 1.13 htyn itl ,dcewpl zedefn dvwd zecewp

. γ : (S , s0 ) → (X, x0 )
1
zcwepn

16
 :dxcbd 3.3

γ : ([0, 1], {0, 1}) → (X, {x, y}) bef ly dwzrdk y x γ -l -n dliqn lr aeygl xyt`

ziqgi ditehened f` γ(1) = y

. -e γ(0) = x i`pzd z` zniiwn dxwnay

H : γ ∼ γ ′ : [0, 1], {0, 1}) → (X, {x, y})

p
. γ ∼ γ′ :onqp efk H yi m`e (path homotopy)
, ,zeliqn ly ditehened zi`xwp

H(1, t) = y -e H(0, t) = x ,xnelk - dvwd zecewp lr dxcbdd itl zxney efk H :dxrd
zeeir"k H lr aeygl xyt` okl . y -l x -n dliqn dnvra `id Ht lk okle , 0≤t≤1 lkl

. γ′ dliqnl γ dliqnd ly "sivx

:dprh 3.4

qgi `ed zeliqn ly ditehenedd qgi ,(zepey `weec e`l) X ∋ x, y zecewp izy lkl

ditehenedd zeliwy zwlgn z` ⟨γ⟩ -a onqp . X -a y -l x -n zeliqnd lk zveaw lr zeliwy

p
. ∼ zgz γ dliqn ly

 .2.18 dprh ly ihxt dxwn edf ,zncewd dxrdd itl :dgked

:md f, g, h : I = [0, 1] → X -e X := R2 − {0} m` :`nbec

, f (s) =(cos πs, sin πs)

, g(s) =(cos πs, 2 sin πs)
, h(s) =(cos πs, − sin πs)
p p
(dvwd zecewpl ziqgi) zeitehened zeliqnd yely lk ,oaenk . f ∼
̸ h la` f ∼ g f`

.(?recn) R 2
`lnd xeyina ze`lelk oidlr miayeg m`

:dxcbd 3.5

`id odly xeyxyd , z -l y -n dliqn δ : [0, 1] → X -e y -l x -n dliqn γ : [0, 1] → X m`

:zxcbend ,z -l x-n γ ⋆ δ : [0, 1] → X dliqnd

{
γ(2s) 0 ≤ s ≤ 1/2 m`
. (γ ⋆ δ)(s) =
δ(2s − 1) 1/2 ≤ s ≤ 1 m`

.1.6 htyn itl dtivx γ⋆δ

ik , (iii) 2.3 dprh zgkeda xcbedy zeitehenedd xeyxy ly ihxt dxwn mvra edf :dxrd
xy`k) γ : fx ∼ fy :mipecigi ly zewzrd izy oia ditehened `id X -a y -l x
-n γ dliqn

0 7→ z
.( dwzrdd z` fz : {0} → X -a onqp X∋z lkl

17
 :dxcbd 3.6

dliqnd `ed dly izliqnd iktedd X y , -a -l x -n dliqn γ : [0, 1] → X m` (`)

.( 0≤s≤1 ) γ −1 (s) = γ(1 − s) :zxcbend , x-l y γ −1 : [0, 1] → X

-n

. 0≤s≤1 -l cx0 (s) = x0 :zxcbend cx0 : [0, 1] → X

, `id x0 -a dreawd d`leld (a)

:dprh 3.7

.zeliqn ly ditehened zecakn izliqnd iktedde xeyxyd zelert

p p
z y
, -l y x
-ne -l -n zeliqn ly zeitehened D : δ ∼ δ′ G : γ ∼ γ ′ -e -y gipp :dgked
p
G⋆D : [0, 1]×[0, 1] → xicbp ,ok`e . γ ⋆δ ∼ γ ′ ⋆δ ′ : [0, 1] → X -y ze`xdl epilr .dn`zda

{ :jk X
G(2s, t) 0 ≤ s ≤ 1/2 m`
. (G ⋆ D)(s, t) =
D(2s − 1, t) 1/2 ≤ s ≤ 1 m`

p
. G ⋆ D : γ ⋆ δ ∼ γ ′ ⋆ δ′ :-e ,1.6 htyn itl dtivx G⋆D f`

−1 −1
ditehened `id , G (s, t) = G(s, 1 − t) zxcbend , G : [0, 1] × [0, 1] ,dnec ote`a

p
 G : γ −1 ∼ (γ ′ )−1
.
−1
zeliqn ly

:oeniq 3.8

ahid xcben df) z

. -l y -n β -e y -l x-n α zeliqn izy lkl ⟨α⟩ ⋆ ⟨β⟩ := ⟨α ⋆ β⟩ onqp

.(3.7 dprh itl

:dprh 3.9

.(zxcben `id xy`k) ditehened ick cr ziveaiw zeliqnd xeyxy zlert (`)

p p
. γ ⋆ cy ∼ γ -e cx ⋆ γ ∼ γ f` , y -l x-n dliqn γ m` (a)

.ditehened ick cr ⋆
-l qgia γ ly iccv-ec ikted `ed γ −1 (b)

ze`xdl epilr , X -a w z γ
-l -n z y β y x α
-e , -l -n :dgked
, -l -n zeliqn ozpida (`
p
:jk H : [0, 1] × [0, 1] → X (α ⋆ β) ⋆ γ ∼ α ⋆ (β ⋆ γ)xicbp ok`e ; -y

 ( )

α s+1
4t
0 ≤ t ≤ s+1
4
m`

. H(t, s) = β(4t − s − 1) s+1

≤ t ≤ s+2

m`
(
 4t−s−2 ) 4 4
γ 2−s s+2
4
≤ t ≤ 1 m`

18
 1 1
t=0
r α r 4 β t =r 2
t= γ t=1
r
s=0 A A
A A
A A
α -A β -A γ -
A A
x yA zA w
A A
A A
A A
s=1 r Ar Ar r
α 1 β 3
γ
t=0 t= 2
t= 4
t=1

p
. H : (α ⋆ β) ⋆ γ ∼ α ⋆ (β ⋆ γ) -e ,1.6 htyn itl dtivx H f`

:ici-lr F : [0, 1] × [0, 1] → X xicbp (a

{
x 0 ≤ t ≤ 2s m`
. F (t, s) := ( )
γ 2t−s
2−s
s
2
≤t≤1 m`

r t=0 γ t=1
r
s=0 Appp
pppppppA
pppp
pppp pppA
pppp
pppp pppp ppp
x pppp
pppp pppp ppppAppp x y
pppp
pppp pppp pppp ppppAppp γ -
pppp
pppp ppppcppppxpppp ppppAppp
pppp
pppp pp pp pp pp pp p
pppp pppp pppp pppp pppp ppppAp
pppp
pppp pppp pppp pppp pppp pppp pppp ppppAp
pppp
pppp pppp pppp pppp pppp pppp pppp pppp ppppAp
pppp
pppp pp pp pp pp pp pp pp pp pp p
s = 1 r pp pp pp pp pp pp pp pp ppA
pppp r r
t=0 cx t= 1
2
γ t=1

p p
< . γ ⋆ cy ∼ γ dnec ote`a F : cx ⋆ γ ∼ γ
. f`

p
zxcben G : [0, 1] × [0, 1] → X G : γ ⋆ γ −1 ∼ cx
xy`k y x , f` , -l -n dliqn γ m` (b



x ( 0 ≤ t ≤ 2s m`

γ t − s )
2
s
2
≤ t ≤ 12 m`
. G(t, s) :=

 γ −1 (t + 2s ) = γ(1 − t − 2s ) 1
≤ t ≤ 1 − 2s

 2
m`

x 1 − 2s ≤ t ≤ 1 m`

1 −1
r t=0 γ t =r 2 γ t=1
r
s = 0 Appp
p pp
pppppppA
p p p
pppp
pppp pppA γ̂ - γ̂ −1 -
p pppppppp ppp ppp
pppp
pppp pppppp pppppAp x ppppppp
x pppp
pppp pp pp pp x
p pppppppp ppp ppp ppp ppp ppp ppp x
pppp
pppp pppp pppp ppppAppp
pp p p p p p p p p p
pppp
pppp ppppcppppxpppp ppppAppp ppppppppcpp pppxppp ppp ppp ppp ppp ppp ppp

ppppp
pppp
pppp pppp pppp pppp pppp pppp pppA
pppppppppppp ppppppppp
pppp
pppp pppp pppp pppp pppp pppp pppp ppp ppppppppppppppppppppp ppp ppp ppp ppp ppp ppp ppp ppp
pppp
pppp A
pppp pppp pppp pppp pppp pppp pppp ppp
pppppppppp p p p p p p p p p
pppp
pppp pppppppppppppppppppppppppp ppp ppp ppp ppp ppp ppp ppp ppp
pppp pppp pppp pppp pppp pppp pppp ppppAppp
ppppppppppppp
s = 1 rpppp pp pp pp pp pp pp pp pp ppA p r
pppppppppppppp p p p p p p p p p r
t=0 cx t= 1 cx t=1
2

19
 p
 . γ −1 ⋆ γ ∼ cy -y mb d`xn df , (γ −1 )−1 = γ -y oeeikn

:dpwqn 3.10

x0 -a ze`leld ly zeliqn ly ditehenedd zeliwy zewlgn sqe` , X ∋ x0 dcewp lkl

xai`de ⟨γ −1 ⟩
, `ed ⟨γ⟩ ly iktedd xy`k ,3.8 'bd ly ⋆ dlertd zgz dxeag deedn

. ⟨cx0 ⟩ `ed yic`d

:dxcbd 3.11

,( x0 qiqad zcewpa) X ly (fundamental group) ziceqid dxeagd zi`xwp ef dxeag

. π1 (X, x0 ) -a zpneqne

:dxrd 3.12

p
cx0 ⋆ γ ∼ γ
, ,lynl - zeliwy zewlgnl mixaery iptl dxeag dpi` efy al eniy (`)

. cx0 ⋆ γ ̸= γ j`

eppi` m` j` . [(S 1 , s0 ), (X, x0 )] mr π1 (X, x0 ) z` zedfl xyt` ,3.2 dxrda xen`k (a)

zeliwyd zewlgn ly [S 1 , X] dveawl ,qiqa zcewp lr exnyi ze`leldy miyxec

zeiytegd ze`leld) ,S1 → X zecwepn-`l zewzrd ly (zcwepn-`ld) zitehenedd

- zeliqn izy :llkae - ze`lel izy xagl jxc oi` ik ,dxeag ly dpan oi` ( X ly

.dipyd ly dzligz `ed dpey`xd ly dteq m` `l`

(zexebq `weec e`l) zeliqnd lk ly zeliwyd zewlgn z` epgwl eli`y al eniy (b)

oexeag] .X ly iceqid oexeagd `xwpd , (groupoid) oexeag zeedn dl` f :I →X

,

,zxcben dxeagd zelert xy`k ."xagl" ozip mixai` ipy lk `ly `l` ,dxeag enk `id

.[zecigi "daxd" oke ,xai` lkl cv lkn ikted miiwe ,ziveaiw `id

:dprh 3.13

. π1 (X, x0 ) ∼
= π1 (X, x1 ) f` , X ly dliqn aikxn eze`a zecewp izy x1 -e x0 m`

xicbp .(dliqn aikxn eze`a md ik ,zniiw α ) x1 x0-l α

-n idylk dliqn `dz :dgked
edf . α∗ (⟨γ⟩) := ⟨α−1 ⟩ ⋆ ⟨γ⟩ ⋆ ⟨α⟩ ici lr α∗ : π1 (X, x0 ) → π1 (X, x1 ) mfitxenened

 .jetdd mfitxenenedd `ed (α−1 )∗ -e ,3.9 dprh itl mfitxenened

:dxcbd 3.14

π1 (X, x0 ) = -e ,zizliqn xiyw `ed m` ( simply connected ) xyw heyt `xwp X ibeleteh agxn

.(3.13 dprh itl X ∋ x0 lkl oekp df f`e) X ∋ x0 edyfi`l {0}

mpi` mixg` miaikx ; X x0

jeza ly dliqnd aikxa wx ielz π1 (X, x0 ) -y al eniy :dxrd
okle ,ipep`w epi`
∼
π1 (X, x0 ) = π1 (X, x1 ) mfitxenefi`dy mb al eniy .eilr ritydl mileki

okle) x0 -a ielz epi` zihwxhqa` dxeagk π1 (x, x0 ) ly mfitxenefi`d iqetihy zexnl

!ziceqid dxeagd zxcbda x0 -n mlrzdl xeq` ,(mzq π1 X oneqi minrtl

20
 :dxcbd 3.15

`ed h : (X, x0 ) → (Y, y0 ) zcwepn dwzrd ici lr ( induced ) dxyend mfitxenenedd

. h# (⟨γ⟩) := ⟨h ◦ γ⟩ :xcbend h# : π1 (X, x0 ) → π1 (Y, y0 )

,

:dprh 3.16

.mfitxnened `ede ,ahid xcben h#

p p
xzi .ahid xcben h# okl ,2.5 dprh itl h ◦ γ0 ∼ h ◦ γ1 mb f` γ0 ∼ γ1 m` :dgked
-y oeeikn ,ok lr

{
h(γ(2s)) 0 ≤ s ≤ 1/2 m`
, h ◦ (γ ⋆ δ) = (h ◦ γ) ⋆ (h ◦ δ) =
h(δ(2s − 1)) 1/2 ≤ s ≤ 1 m`

-y ixd ,3.5 'bd itl

 h# (⟨γ ⋆ δ⟩) = ⟨h ◦ (γ ⋆ δ)⟩ = ⟨(h ◦ γ) ⋆ (h ◦ δ)⟩ = h# (⟨γ⟩) ⋆ h# (⟨δ⟩)

:dprh 3.17

h g
f` , (X, x0 ) → (Y, y0 ) → (Z, z0 ) ozpida ,xnelk - irah `ed dxyend mfitxenenedd

(IdX )# = Idπ1 (X,x0 )

. :zedfd mfitxenened `ed (IdX )# -e (g ◦ h)# = g# ◦ h#
,

 .3.15 dxcbd jezn xexa :dgked

:dprh 3.18

. (h0 )# = (h1 )# f` (qiqad zcewpl ziqgi) h0 ∼ h1 : (X, x0 ) → (Y, y0 ) m`

 .2.5 dprh itl h0 ◦ γ ∼ h1 ◦ γ mb f` h0 ∼ h1 m` :dgked

:dpwqn 3.19

∼
=
f# : π1 (X, x0 ) → π1 (Y, y0 ) f` zcwepn zitehened zeliwy f : (X, x0 ) → (Y, y0 ) m`

.mfitxenefi`

:dxcbd 3.20

ef la` , (X, x0 ) cwepn agxn lkl π0 (X, x0 ) := [(S 0 , s0 ), (X, x0 )]∗ z` xicbdl mb xyt`

.dveaw wx `l` ,dxeag dpi` xak

. [cx0 ] cegin xai` mr dveaw ,xnelk - ( pointed set ) zcwepn dveaw ef mvra

21
 dnl 3.21

. X ly dliqnd iaikxn zveaw oial π0 (X, x0 ) ixai` oia zikxr-cg-cg dn`zd dpyi

 .libxz :dgked

:dxcbd 3.22

:m` ( topological group ) zibeleteh dxeag `xwp X ibeleteh agxn

.dxeag ly dpan lra X (`)

{ :dxeagd zlert (a)

µ:X ×X →X
(a, b) 7→ ab

{ :dxeaga iktdd zlerte

ρ:X →X
a 7→ a−1
.zetivx zeivwpet od

:ze`nbec 3.23

.zibeleteh dxeag deedn ,xeaigd zlertl qgia R iynnd xyid (`)

ziaihc` dxeagk) zibeleteh dxeag `ed Fn ixehwe agxn lk ,xzei illk ote`a (a)

meyn ,F=R ly ihxt dxwn `ed F=C dyrnl F = R, C

. xear (ixhn agxnke

Cn ∼
. = R2n :miixhn miagxnky

.(zevixhn xeaig zgz) zibeleteh dxeag `id Mn (F) :raep zncewd `nbecdn (b)

dxeag `id GLn (F) oneqnd ,F dcy lrn n×n zekitdd zevixhnd lk sqe` (c)

xeaig zgz `l j`) Mn (F) ly ibeleteh agxn-zzk zevixhn ltk zgz zibeleteh

.(xeaig zgz dxebq dpi` GLn (F) -y meyn ,zevixhn

zgz) zeibeleteh zexeag od C× = C \ {0} -e R× = R \ {0} zeiltkd zexeagd (d)

.(ltkd

dxeag-zzk zibeleteh dxeag `id miiaeigd miiynnd mixtqnd ly R+ dxeagd (e)

.(agxn-zzd zibeleteh mr) R× ly

mbe zexeag ly mfitxenefi` `id exp : ⟨R⟩+ → ⟨R+ ⟩× zikixrnd dwzrdd :dxrd
.mfitxene`ined

.zibeleteh dxeag `id zihxwqicd dibeleteha zciievn G dxeag lk (f)

22
 :dxcbd 3.24

`ed G ly ze`lel d sqe` ,zibeleteh dxeag (G, µ, ρ, e) m`

. Ω(G) := {f : [0, 1] → G | f (0) = f (1) = e -e dtivx f}

ici-lr • : Ω(G) × Ω(G) → Ω(G) dlert xicbp

0≤t≤1 lkl (f • g)(t) = µ(f (t), g(t)) .

:dprh 3.25

. • dlertd zgz (zibeleteh) dxeag `id Ω(G) (`)

zixyend) ⋆ dlibxd dlertd mr ztlgznd , π1 (G, e) lr dxeag zlert dxyn • (a)

.(zeliqn xeyxy ici-lr

.zeitelig ode ,zecklzn π1 (G, e) lr ⋆ -e • zelertd izy (b)

.libxzk zex`yp (a)-e (`) :dgked

:`cixb zixabl` dcaer mvra ef (b)

:dnl 3.26

(X, •, ρ• , e• ) -e (X, ◦, ρ◦ , e◦ ) :dxeag ly mipey mipan ipy yi X dveaw dze` lry gipp

ρ• ρ◦
.( -e miiktedd meiwa jxev oi` ,xnelk - ( monoid ) oecigi ly dpan witqn :mvra)

:xnelk - zetlgzn zelertd izy m`

(1) ∀x, y, z, w ∈ X (x • y) ◦ (z • w) = (x ◦ z) • (y ◦ w)
.( X ∋ y, x lkl x◦y =x•y :xnelk) zecklzn zelertd izy f`

: e◦ = w = z = y -e edylk X∋x xear (1) z` aygp :dnld zgked

x • e◦ = (x ◦ e◦ ) • (e◦ ◦ e◦ )
(x • e◦ ) ◦ (e◦ • e◦ )
z` onql xyt`e , e• = e◦ :midcfn miyic`d mixai`d ipy xnelk ,e◦ • e◦ = e◦ okle

-y e`kn e . -a mdipy

x ◦ y = (x • e) ◦ (e • y)
= (x ◦ e) • (e ◦ y) = x • y ,
ote` eze`a .zedcfn •-e ◦ zelertd izy ,xnelk

x • y = (e ◦ x) • (y ◦ e)
= (e • y) ◦ (x • e) = y • x ,
 .zitelig dlertd xnelk

X×X → zexeag ly mfitxenened deedn ⋆ -y `ed (1) ly ixabl`d yexitd :dxrd

(X × X, (•, •), ρ• × ρ• , (e• , e• ))
,megza :dxyi dltkn ly dxeagd dpanl qgia X
. zeitelig zexeag xear wx okzii dfy raep dnldn .geeha (X, •, ρ• , e• ) -e

23
 3 wxtl milibxz 3.27

dwzrd zeidl y -l x-n X ibeleteh agxna (Moore path) xen ly dliqn xicbp 3.27.1

lk miyxn ep`y `ed cigid lcadd) µ(a) = y

. -e µ(0) = x -y jk ( 0<a ) µ : [0, a] → X
(.dxcbdd megzk xebq rhw

ynn ziveaiw didzy ote`a xen ly zeliqn lr xeyxy zlert xicbdl ozip cvik e`xd (`

.(ditehened ick cr wx `le)

oze` lawpy ote`a xen ly zeliqn ly dliqn-zeitehened xicbdl ozip cvik e`xd (a

.zelibx zeliqna enk zeliwy zewlgn

.3.19 dpwqn z` egiked 3.27.2

.3.21 dnl z` egiked 3.27.3

zeixebhwd zxez 4
dwihnzna minegz dnk lr xacl epl zxyt`nd ,dty dxwira `id zeixebhwd zxez

zxaerd ,zixabl` dibeletehl dni`zn `id ef dpigan .ipyl cg`n xearl e` ,zipnf-ea

.ixehqid ote`a dgztzd mb o`kne ,dxabl`l myne dibeletehl dixhne`bn

:dxcbd 4.1

ly xecq bef lkl xy`k Obj(C) , :zpneqnd ,minvr ly dwlgn `id C (category) dixebhw

minfitxn ly ( Hom(X, Y ) HomC (X, Y )

e`) dveaw zn`zen , X, Y ∈ Obj(C) minvr

.mdipa

f
X →Y libxk aezkpe , Range(f ) := Y -e Dom(f ) := X onqp HomC (X, Y ) ∋ f lkl

f :X→Y . e`

(identity) zedfd mfitxen Hom(X, X) ∋ IdX

`xwpd , Obj(C) ∋ X xai` yi lkl

(composition ) dakxd Obj(C) ∋ X, Y, Z

ziivwpet zniiw X ozpida ,jkl sqepa . ly

minfitxend Obj(C) ∋ X, Y, Z, W ◦ : Hom(X, Y ) × Hom(Y, Z) → Hom(X, Z)

lkl .

:zeneiqk` izy miiwl miyxcp

f g h
. f ◦ (g ◦ h) = (f ◦ g) ◦ h :miiwzn , X→Y →Z→W lkl ( I)

. Idx ◦f = f ◦ IdY = f f : X → Y , lkl ( II )

C(X, Y ) onql bedp mizirl . X ∈ Obj(C) mewna X ∈C aezkpe xvwp mizrl :dxrd
HomC (X, Y )
. mewna

24
 :ze`nbec 4.2

. Set oneqz - minfitxen xeza zeivwpet mr ,zeveawd zixebhw (1

. T op oneqz - minfitxen xeza zewzrd mr ,miibeletehd miagxnd zixebhw (2

- minfitxen xeza zebef ly zewzrd mr ,miibeletehd miagxn ly zebefd zixebhw (3

. T op2 oneqz

- minfitxen xeza zecwepn zewzrd mr ,micwepnd miibeletehd miagxnd zixebhw (4

. T op∗ oneqz

. Gp oneqz - minfitxen xeza minfitxenened mr ,zexeagd zixebhw (5

oneqz - minfitxen xeza minmfitxenened mr ,(miil`nyd) milcen- R -d zixebhw (6

F m`e , AbGp zeila`d zexeagd zixebhw `id Z Mod

- :hxta) .14.16 'bd e`x . R Mod
-

.( F lrn miixehweed miagxnd ziixebihw `id F Mod

- f` ,dcy

mr aey - dcigi (ila e`) mr (miiaihhenew-`l e`) miiaihhenewd mibegd zixebhw (7

.minfitxen xeza (mibeg ly) minfitxenened

:dxcbd 4.3

Obj(C) ⊇ Obj(D)
, m` C dixebihw ly (sub-category) D
dixebihw-zz `id dixebihw

. HomC (X, Y ) ⊇ HomD (X, Y ) Obj(D) ∋ X, Y , lkle

. D⊆C :oeniq

:miiwzn D ly Y -e X minvr ipy lkl m` (full) d`ln zi`xwp C⊇D dixebihw-zz

. HomC (X, Y ) = HomD (X, Y )

:ze`nbec 4.4

opyi - zexeagd ziixebihw ly d`ln dixebihw-zz `id zeila`d zexeagd ziixebihw ( ) i

,zeila` zexeag B -e A m` j` ;( 3≤n ) Sn zixhniqd dxeagd oebk ,zeila`-`l zexeag

.zeila` zexeag ly mfitxenl aygp odpia zexeag ly mfitxenened lk

. Set ly d`ln dixebihw-zz `id zeiteqd zeveawd ziixebihw ,dnec ote`a ( ii )

,mibegd ziixebihw ly dixebihw-zz `id dcigi mr mibegd ziixebihw ,z`f znerl ( iii )

j` ;dcigid lr xenyi mfitxenenedy miyxec ep` dcigi mr mibeg xear ik) d`ln dpi`y

- qt`d mfitxenened ,lynl - dcigi mr mibeg ipy oia mibeg ly minfitxenened mpyi

.dcigid lr mixney mpi`y

:dxcbd 4.5

miiw m` (isomorphism) (mfitxenefi`=) zeliwy `xwp C dixebhwa f :X→Y mfitxen

. g ◦ f = idX -e f ◦ g = idY -y jk , g:Y →X iccv-ec ikted el

25
 :dxcbd 4.6

i:A→X mfitxen yi m` ( retraction ) divwxhx `xwp C dixebihwa r:X→A mfitxen

X . ly ( retract ) hwxhx `xwp A df dxwna .( r -l oinin ikted) IdA = r ◦ i -y jk

:dxrd 4.7

zewzrd" xicbp cvik :d`ad dl`yd ici lr zeixebihw zexcbda zlrezd z` mibcdl xyt`

,zeivwpet zeidl miaiig mpi` minfitxendy itky al eniy ?zeixebhwd zxez ly dtya "lr

f :X→ :zxkend dxcbda ynzydl lkep `l okle ,zeveaw zeidl mikixv mpi` minvrd jk

. ∀y ∈ Y ∃x ∈ X f (x) = y m` lr mfitxen Y

:dxcbd 4.8

ipy lkl m` ( epimorphism ) mfitxenit` `xwp C φ:X→Y

-a C mfitxen , dixebhw lka

. f =g gxkda g◦φ=f ◦φ f, g : Y → Z -y jk minfitxen

:dxcbd 4.9

lkl m` ( monomorphism ) mfitxenepen C φ:X →Y

`xwp -a C mfitxen , dixebhw lka

f =g. gxkda φ◦g =φ◦f f, g : W → X -y jk minfitxen ipy

mixehwpt

dwihnzna cg` megzn xearl ick zeixebhwd zxeza ynzydl mivex ep` ,xen`k

:"zeixebhw oia zeivwpet" oirnl miwewf ep` jk myl .edpynl

:dxcbd 4.10

:`ed D -e C zeixebhw oia F : C → D functor ( ) xehwpt

. Obj(D) ∋ F (X) mvr m`zen Obj(C) ∋ X mvr lkl ,xnelk :minvr zn`zd ( )i
F (f ) : mfitxen mi`zn C f :X→Y
-a mfitxen lkl ,xnelk :minfitxen zn`zd ii ( )

. F (f ◦ g) = F (f ) ◦ F (g) IdF (X) = F (IdX )

-e -y ote`a , D -a F (X) → F (Y )

:dxcbd 4.11

"xehwpt" myd ,zxg` oiievn ok m` `l` . (covariant) ihp`ix`e-ew `xwp dfk xehwpt (`)

.ihp`ix`eew xehwptl qgiizi

D -a F (f ) : F (Y ) → F (X) mfitxen mi`zn C -a f :X→Y mfitxen lkl m` (a)

:miiwzn F (f ◦ g) = F (f ) ◦ F (g) mewnae

, F (f ◦ g) = F (g) ◦ F (f )
dpekn dfk xehwpt mizrl . (contravariant) ihp`ix`e-dxhpew `ed F -y xn`p

. (cofunctor) xehwpt-ew

26
 :dprh 4.12

:mixehwpt ipy G:D→E -u F :C→D m`

`id mixehwptd zakxd zlerte , (G ◦ F ) : C → E xehwpt lawle maikxdl ozip (`

.ziveaiw

-ew G◦F f` ,mihp`ix`e-dxhpew mdipy e` mihp`ix`e-ew mdipy G -e F m` (a

.ihp`ix`e

G◦F dakxdd f` ,ihp`ix`e-dxhpew ipyde ihp`ix`e-ew F -e G oian cg` m` (b

.zihp`ix`e-dxhpew

 .libxz :dgked

:dxrd 4.13

-e ihp`ix`e-ew F : C → D
xehwpt m` ,leaxq repnl ick ode ,zeixehqid zeaiqn od

m` ; ϕ∗ : F (X) → F (Y ) F (ϕ)
-a heyt mfitxend z` onql bedp , C -a mfitxen ϕ:X→Y
ynzypy oaenkϕ∗ : F (Y ) → F (X)
. -a F (ϕ) z` mipnqn ,ihp`ix`e-dxhpew xehwptd

.oecpd xehwptd iabl zerhl milelr ep` ea dxwn lka F (ϕ) `lnd oeniqa

:ze`nbec 4.14

xvepd iytegd lecend z` dveaw lkl dni`znd , FR : Set → R Mod - xehwpt miiw (`

.m`zda minfitxene ,ef dveaw ici lr

( abelianization ) divfila`d z` G dxeag lkl mi`znd Ab : Gp → AbGp xehwpt miiw (a

ici-lr zxvepd G ly zil`nxepd dxeag-zzd `id [G, G] Ab(G) := G/[G, G]

xy`k , dly

. (g, h) := ghg −1 h−1 commutators

( ) mixehhenewd

Ab(φ) := dxyend mfitxenenedd z` φ:G→H mfitxenenedl lkl Abmi`znd

. φ∗ : G/[G, G] → H/[H, H]
φ((g, h)) = (φ(g), φ(h))
, :miiwzn (g, h) xehhenew lkl ,mfitxenened φ -y llbay al eniy

.mfitxenened `ede ,ahid xcben φ∗ -y o`kn . [H, H] jezl [G, G] z` wizrn φ okle

-ew) xehwpt xicbdl lkep ,(reaw) edylk Obj(C) ∋ A

mvr C -e idylk dixebihw m` (b

HA (f ) = Obj(C) ∋ X
-e lkl HA (X) := HomC (A, X) HA : C → Set ici-lr (ihp`ixe

f∗ (g) = f ◦ g C xy`k , -a f :X →Y f∗ : HomC (A, X) → HomC (A, Y )

mfitxen lkl

HomC (A, X) ∋ g . lkl

H A : C → Set ihp`ixe-dxhpewC xehwpt xicbp dixebihwa A reaw -l ,dnec ote`a (c

∗
xy`k H (f ) = f : HomC (Y, A) → HomC (X, A)
A
, -e
A
H (X) := HomC (X, A) ici-lr

f ∗ (g) = g ◦ f .

,minfitxenl minfitxen mi`zdl mb jixv - minvrl minvr mi`zdl witqn `l :al eniy
ote`a dcy lrn ixehwe agxnl qiqa mi`zdl xyt` i` ,lynl .dakxdd xnyizy ote`ae

gipp elit`] .qiqa ixai` lr gxkda zxney dpi` zix`pil divnxetqpxh ik ,il`ixehwpt

[.dxigad zneiqk` zxfra lynl ,ixehwe agxnl qiqa mixgea epgp`y

27
 :`nbec 4.15

ziceqid dxeagd `id π1 (X, x0 ) xy`k , π1 : T op∗ → Gp xehwpt yi ,3.17-e 3.16 zeprh itl

miagxnl ik s` ,z`f znerl f# . dxyend mfitxenenedd `ed π1 (f ) eli`e ,( Gp

-a mvr)

oi` ,mfitxenefi` ick cr ,qiqad zcewp zxigaa ielz epi` π1 (X, x0 ) zizliqn mixiyw

xehwpt oi` okle ,(?minfitxen aikxp ji`) "zexeag ly mfitxenefi` iqetih" ly dixebhw

. π1 : T op → Gp

igxkd i`pzA⊆X , f :A→Y xy`k divwpete F : T op → C xehwpt ozpida :yeniy

(F |A = f F :X→Y
-y jk divwpet ,xnelk) X f-l ly dagxd meiwl (!witqn `l j`)

i : A → X φ ◦ F (i) = F (f )
xy`k) -y jk φ : F (X) → F (Y ) mfitxen meiw `ed

.(dlkdd

:dxcbd 4.16

ly) divwpetd ,C ∋ X, Y minvr ipy lkl m` (faithful) F :C→D

on`p `xwp xehwpt

F (f ) : z` f : X → Y -l dni`znd , HomC (X, Y ) → HomD (F (X), F (Y )) (zeveaw

F (X) → F (Y )
.zikxr cg-cg `id ,

on`pd xehwptd . (concrete) zihxwpew zi`xwp Set -l on`p xehwpt dl yiy dixebihw

underlying functor
.( e` forgetful ) ipgky xehwpt `xwp U : C → Set

-ep dpan mr zeveaw md da minvrd m` zihxwpew dixebihw C iaihi`ehpi` ote`a :dxrd

,il`ivpxtic ,ibeleteh dpan e` - beg e` dxeag ly dpan ,lynl - ixabl` zeidl lekiy) sq

- zeveaw ly zeivwpet heyt eidi C ly minfitxend mby `id zihixwd dyixcd .(cere

.sqepd dpand z` "cakl" zeyxcp llk jxca xy`

:`nbec 4.17

G dxeag lkl mi`zn U : Gp → Set ,lynl .zeihxwpew od 4.2 ze`nbeca zeixebhwd lk

.mixai`d zveaw lr dni`znd divwpetd z` mfitxenened lkle , G-a mixai`d zveaw z`

,iktedd zlert ,dxeagd zlert z` zecaknd zeivwpet heyt md Gp ly minfitxend ,ok`e

.yic`d xai`d lr zexneye

!minfitxend lr `l j` , Set ly mihwiiae`d lr `id U : Gp → Set -y al eniy

mb xyt`e ,zeixebihw oia minfitxen ly ciwtz miwgyn mixehwptdy mi`ex ep` :dxrd
zeixebihw izy oia miixyt`d mixehwptd lk sqe` mle` .(4.12 dprh) mixehwpt aikxdl

,"zeixebihw ly dixebihw" lr xacl lkepy ick .dveaw `le ,ynn dwlgn llk-jxca `ed

:`ad byena ynzydl epilr

:dxcbd 4.18

.dveaw deedn C -a minvrd lk sqe` m` (small) dphw zi`xwp C dixebihw

28
 :`nbec 4.19

miiwe , D ixai` md minvrd day ,dphw dixebihw deedn ⟨D, ≼⟩ ziwlg dxecq dveaw lk

d≼d
. -l mi`zn Idd : d → d hxta . d≼e m` wxe m` ϕ:d→e cigi mfitxen

:dnl 4.20

.dveaw deedn D -l C -n mixehwptd lk sqe` f` ,zephw zeixebihw izy D -e C m`

 .libxz :dgked

:dpwqn 4.21

envra ,minfitxen xeza (miihp`ix`e-ew) mixehwpt mr ,zephwd zeixebihwd lk sqe`

. Cat zpneqnd ,dixebihw deedn

4 wxtl milibxz 4.22

lr mdy minfitxen weica md minfitxenit`d ,Gp-e Set zeixebihway e`cee 4.22.1

.mdly geehd

mfitxenepen `ed φ:X→Y mfitxen ,4.2 'bec ly zeixebihwd lkay e`xd 4.22.2

.ikxr cg-cg `ed m` wxe m` (4.9 'bd)

?mfitxenit` mb `edy mfitxenepen lr xnel elkez dn 4.22.3

?mfitxenefi` gxkda `ed m`d

.4.12 dprh z` egiked 4.22.4

.mixehwpt ok` md (c-e (b 4.14 ze`nbeca excbedy) H A -e HA -y e`xd 4.22.5

zeixebihwa zeipa 5

-ibeleteh miagxn ,zexeag ,zeveaw - miihnznd minvrd lr aeygl milibx ep`y zexnl

lr `weec hand z` zcwnn zeixebihwd zxez ,dwihnzna ixwird oeicd `yepk - mi

ly zedfd mfitxen xy`k) cala minfitxend zxfra dze` gqpl ozip dyrnl .minfitxend

"minfitxen" mb yiy al miyp df xywda .(minvrl mb oitiwra qgiizdl epl xyt`n X mvr

:mixehwptd oia

29
 :dxcbd 5.1

η : (natural transformation) zirah divnxetqpxh ,mixehwpt ipy F, G : C → D m`

mfitxen lkly C ∋X
jk , mvr lkl D ηX : F (X) → G(X)
-a mfitxen `id F →G
. G(f ) ◦ ηX = ηY ◦ F (f ) :miiwzn C -a f :X→Y

:dxrd 5.2

G(f ) ◦ ηX = ηY ◦ F (f )
, znbeck ,dixebihwa minfitxen zeakxd ly oeieey bivdl bedp

: (commutative diagram) zitelig dn`xb`ic zxfra

F (f )
F (X) / F (Y )

ηX ηY
 
G(X) / G(Y )
G(f )

ipnid (mfitxen=) ugd z` miaikxn m` d`vez dze` milawny dyexit "zeitelig"d xy`k

.il`nyd mr oezgzd ugd zakxd enk oeilrd ugd mr

yi xy`k cgeina ,d`ixwl dlw xzei daxd dn`xb`icd ,mewn xzei qtez dfy zexnl

.jynda zeaexw mizrl ef dnkqena ynzyp ep` .cg` reaixn xzei

:dxcbd 5.3

m` (natural isomorphism) irah mfitxenefi` zi`xwp η:F →G zirah divnxetqpxh

C∋X
. lkl mfitxenefi` `ed ηX

:`nbec 5.4

Ab(G) := G
dly divfila`d z` Ab : Gp → AbGp
dxeag lkl mi`zn xehwptd xen`k

Gp
, AbGp
ly (d`ln) dixebihw-zz `id dixebihwd mle` .zila` dxeag `idy , G/[G, G]
F := I ◦ Ab : Gp → Gp
, I : AbGp ,→ Gp
xehwpt lawp , -a dlkdd xehwpt z` onqp m`e

miayeg ep`y `l` F (G) := G/[G, G]

- Ab ik , enk weica zipevig dpigan d`xp xy`

iabl epl xken dnec AbGp avn) . Gp

dixebihw-zza `le , dixebihwa mvrk F (G) lr

megza mb zeielz - lr ozeid ,lynl - odly zenieqn zepekz xy`k ,zeiynn zeivwpet

.(mze` dxicbnd dgqepa wx `le ,geehae

dpn mfitxenened epyi , G ly dpn zxeag `id dzxcbd mvrn G/[G, G] -y oeeikn

-a g[G, G] ely zil`nyd dwlgnd z` G ∋ g lkl mi`znd) qG : G → → G/[G, G]

zirah divnxetqpxh mvra `id efy mi`ex ep` (2 4.14 `nbeca xen`d on G/[G, G]
.(

φ:G→H mfitxenened lkl ok`e - IdGp , F : Gp → Gp mixehwptd ipy oia q : IdGp → F

:zitelig dn`xb`ic lawp zexeag ly

φ
G /H

qG qH
 
G/[G, G] / H/[H, H]
φ∗

30
 .(a 4.14 'beca xen`d itl

;4.5 'bda minvr ipy oia epiyry enk zeixebihw izy oia mfitxenefi` xicbdl lkep :dxrd
:d`ad div`ix`ed `ed xzei iyeniy byeny xazqn j`

:dxcbd 5.5

miiw equivalence of categories

m` ( ) zeixebihw ly zeliwy `xwp F :C →D xehwpt

θ : F ◦ G → IdD η : G ◦ F → IdC -e :miirah minfitxenefi` ipye G:D→C xehwpt

.(` 2.6 dxcbdl eeyd)

:dxcbd 5.6

lkl m` dfl df ( adjoint ) micenv mi`xwp G : D → C -e F : C → D mixehwpt ipy

mfitxenefi` miiw D∋D -e C∋C

∼
=
, ηC,D : HomC (C, G(D) −→ HomD (F (C), D)

.(c-b 4.14 'bec e`x) D -e C mipzynd ipyn cg` lk ly xehwptk irah

. F ly (right adjoint) oinin cenvd G -e , G ly (left adjoint) l`nyn cenvd `xwp F

.ibeletehd xywda hxtae ,zeixebihwd zxeza ifkxn ciwtz miwgyn micenv mixehwpt

.o`k df `yepa aigxp `l mewnd xvewn

:ze`nbec 5.7

FR : Set → xehwptd , R dcy lrn miixehwed miagxnd ziixebihw VecR m` (`

ly divwpetle) X ici-lr yxtpd R lrn ixehwed agxnd z` X dveaw lkl mi`znd VecR
ogkyd xehwptl l`nyn cenv ,(dni`znd zix`pild dwzrddd z` f :X→Y zeveaw

.(` 4.14 'bec e`x) U : VecR → Set

X ⟨X, Tdisc ⟩
) ibeletehd agxnd z` X dveawl mi`znd , R : Set → T op xehwptd (a

U : T op → Set
. ogkyd xehwptl oinin cenv (` 1.2 'bec - zihxwqicd dibeletehd mr

zil`ieeixhd dibeletehd mr X z` X dveawl mi`znd , L : Set → T op xehwptd (b

. U : T op → Set ogkyd xehwptl l`nyn cenv (a 1.2 'bec) Ttriv

(c 4.14 'bec) H A = HomSet (−, A) : Set → Set xehwptd ,(dreaw) idylk dveaw A m` (c

dltknd z` Obj(Set) ∋ X − × A : Set → Set

dveawl mi`znd , xehwptl oinin cenv

. (x, a) 7→ (f (x), a) f :X→Y

divwpetd z` divwpetle , X ×A zifhxwd

:dxcbd 5.8

-xcqd lk sqe` `id X free group generated by

dveaw ( ) ici-lr zxvepd ziytegd dxeagd

−1 −1
`ly i`pza , X := {x | x ∈ X} X ∪ X −1 xy`k , jezn mixai` ly zeiteqd ze

,zexcq xeyxy `id dxeagd zlert x−1 x x x1

. e` dxevdn mitevx mixai` ipy miriten

ly ikted .dwixd dxcqd `ed yic`d xai`d .l"pk miiweg-`l mitvx zhnyd jk-xg`e

.x
−ε1
n . . . x−ε
1
1
dxcqd `ed ( ε1 , . . . , εn ∈ {−1, 1} x1 , . . . , xn ∈ X
, ) xε11 . . . xεnn xai`

31
 F (X)
. :heyt e` FGp (X)
, -a X ici-lr zxvepd ziytegd dxeagd z` onqp ep` : oeniq

:dprh 5.9

xehwptl l`nyn cenvd , FGp : Set → Gp xehwpt dxicbn X 7→ FGp (X) dn`zdd

U : Gp → Set
. ogkyd

 .libxz :dgked

zeltkn

zelerd zerteza szeyn ew `evnl dzlekia oenh zeixebihwd zxez ly zepexzid cg`

od (zifhxwd) dltknd byena eplwzp ,lynl .dwihnznd ly dxe`kl mipey mixywda

?dl` lkl szeynd dn .zexeag iabl ode ,miibeleteh miagxn iabl od ,zeveaw iabl

:dxcbd 5.10

mvr `id mdly (product) dltkn C

Obj(C) ⊃ {Xα }α∈A
, dixebihwa minvr ozpida

zil`qxaipe`d dpekzd lra A∋α pα : Y → Xα

, lkl Obj(C) ∋ Y minfitxena ciievnd

fα : Z → X α minfitxen Obj(C) ∋ Z
ly sqe`e (universal property)
mvr lkl :d`ad

. A∋α pα ◦ g = fα
lkl g:Z→Y -y jk C cigi mfitxen miiw , -a

irah mfitxenefi` mixyn pα -d ,zexg` milina

∼
=
∏
HomC (Z, Y ) −→ HomC (Z, Xα )
α∈A

. f 7→ [(pα ◦ f )α∈A ] xcbend

:dnl 5.11

m` ,zexg` milina - zniiw `id m` ,ipep`w mfitxenefi` ick cr dcigi dltknd

-ihwa {Xα }α∈A ly zeltkn izy ⟨Y ′ , {p′α : Y ′ → Xα }α∈A ⟩ -e ⟨Y, {pα : Y → Xα }α∈A ⟩
∼
pα ◦ h = p′α h : Y −→ Y ′
=
. A∋α lkl -y jk C -a cigi mfitxenefi` miiw f` C , dixeb

 .libxz :dgked

:oeniq 5.12
∏
.
α∈A Xα :oneqz {Xα }α∈A ly dltkn lk

:ze`nbec 5.13

Set
. dixebihwa dltknd `id (` 1.9 'bd e`x) zeveaw ly zifhxwd dltknd (`

`id (a 1.9 'bd) dltknd ziibeleteh mr ,miibeleteh miagxn ly zifhxwd dltknd (a

.1.10 dprh itl , T op dixebihwa dltknd

32
 ∏
,xnelk - "zehpicxe`ew itl" zexeag dpan mr ,
α∈A Gα zexeag ly zifhxw dltkn (b

[(eα )α∈A ] yic` xai`e [(gα )α∈A ]−1 = [(gα−1 )α∈A ]

, , [(gα )α∈A ] · [(hα )α∈A ] := [(gα · hα )α∈A ]
Gp
. dixebihwa dltknd `id -

htyn e`x - zixwn dpi` dltkn "dze`" yi dl`d mixwnd zyely lkay dcaerd :dxrd
.jynda 5.23

zeleab

oeirxd .leabd byen - zeixebihwd zxeza aeyg byen ly ihxt dxwn `ed dltknd byen

,cigi mvra mdpia minfitxene minvr ly mly sqe` silgdl ozip zeniieqn zepigany `ed

.elek sqe`d zepekzn wlg ekeza otevd

:dxcbd 5.14

I- ) dn`xb`ic- I `xwp D : I → C xehwpt ,(4.18 'bd) idylk dphw dixebihw I m` (`

dixebihwd .mdpia zirah divnxetqpxh `id zen`xb`ic- I ly dwzrd . C -a diagram

(

. C I
zpneqn C -a zen`xb`ic- I -d lk ly

DX : I → C
, dpnqpy , X -a dreaw I
dn`xb`ic- Obj(C) ∋ X zniiw mvr lkl (a

lkl I φ . -a mfitxen lkl DX (φ) = IdX Obj(I) ∋ i

-e , DX (i) = X lkl zxcbend

zereaw zen`xb`ic- I ly dwzrdd Df : DZ → DY

`id C f :X →Y , -a mfitxen

(Df )i = f : Z → Y . zxcbend

. CI dixebihwd jeza D : C → CI xehwptd ici-lr zpkeyn C df ote`a

zwzrda ciievnd Obj(C) ∋ Y mvr `ed C -a X:I→C dn`xb`ic- I ly ( limit ) leab (b

Obj(C) ∋ Z mvr lkly df oaena zil`qxaipe` `idy ϑ : DY → X zen`xb`ic- I

jkC f :Z →Y
-a cigi mfitxen miiw , η : DZ → X zen`xb`ic- I ly dwzrd lke

. η = ϑ ◦ Df -y

ηi : Y → X(i)
, minfitxen ly sqe` heyt `id η zirahd divnxetqpxhdy al eniy

z` "ccewl" epl xyt`n `eti` Y leabd . X dn`xb`icd ly minfitxend mr zetlgznd

.dn`xb`icd jezl zewzrd zpigan ,cigi mvr ici-lr dlek X dn`xb`icd

ly ( structure maps ) dpand zewzrd mi`xwp ( I ∋i ) ηi : Y → X(i) minfitxtend (c

. Y leabd

:dprh 5.15

mfitxenefi` ick cr cigi `ed f` ,miiw C -a X:I→C zniieqn dn`xb`ic- I ly leabd m`

. Y = limI X oneqi `ed .ipep`w

 .libxz :dgked

leab" e` ( projective limit ) "iaihwiiext leab" mya leab `xwp xzei oyi gepina :dxrd

33
 .( inverse limit ) "jetd

opeazp m` xzei aeh dze` oiadl lkep mle` ,oihelgl dnezq ile` zi`xp ef dxcbd :dxrd
:zeheyt ze`nbec xtqna

:ze`nbec 5.16

mfitxen caln ,minfitxen da oi` ,xnelk - ( discrete ) zihxwqic `id I dixebihwd m` (`

-n minvr ly {X(i)}i∈Obj(I) sqe` heyt `id C -a dn`xb`ic- I f` - mvr lkl zedfd

zen`xb`ic- I ly dwzrd df dxwna .cala miqkcpi`k miynyn I ly C minvrd xy`k ,

,( Obj(I) ∋ i lkl cg`) C -a ϑi : Y → X(i) minfitxen ly ϑ : D(Y ) → X

sqe` `id

heyt `ed leabd df dxwnay 5.10 dxcbdn `eti` mi`ex

∏η
ep`: D Z → X
. dnecae

.
∼
limI X = i∈Obj(I) X(i) :dltknd

,(4.19 'bec e`x) cxeid xcqd mr miirahd mixtqnd ly dixebihwd J := ⟨N, ≥⟩ m` (a

cigi mfitxen mr , C -a minvr ly (Yn )∞

n=0 dxcq heyt `id Y :J →C dn`xb`ic f`

.miawer mixai` ipy lk oia ψn : Yn → Yn−1

:dxcbd 5.17

ψn+1
. . . . Yn+1 −→ Yn . . . Y0 ly ( sequential limit ) izxcq leab `xwp Y :J →C ly leab

:dprh 5.18

`ed Y : J → Set ly izxcq leab

∏
∞
. lim Yn = {(yi )∞
i=0 ∈ Yi | 1 ≤ n lkl ψn (yn ) = yn−1 }
n
i=0

 .libxz :dgked

:dxcbd 5.19

φ:i→ :minfitxen ipye Obj(I) = {i, j, k}

, :minvr dyelyn zakxen I dixebihwdy gipp

dixebihwa X dn`xb`ic- I x`zl xyt` .(oaenk , Idk -e Idj Idi

, , -l sqepa) ψ:j→k -e k
:"dpit" xeza C
(2) X(i)
X(φ)
X(ψ)

X(j) / X(k)

.(2) dn`xb`icd ly ( pullback ) xeg`l dkiyn X ly leabl mi`xew dfk dxwna

ici-lr zx`ezn ϑ : DY → X divnxetqpxhd f` , X dn`xb`ic- I -d ly leab Y m`

34
 :zitelig dn`xb`ic

Y HH
HH ϑ
HH i
= HH
 H$
Y CC
= /Y X(i)
GG
CC GG
CC GGϑk
CC GG
C! GG X(φ)
ϑj # 
X(j) / X(k)
X(ψ)

xzei ipekqg ote`a ϑ z` x`zl xyt` , ϑk = X(φ) ◦ ϑk = X(ψ) ◦ ϑi -y xne` dfy oeeikne

:itelig reaix ici lr

ϑi
(3) Y / X(i)

ϑj X(φ)
 X(ψ)

X(j) / X(k)

:jk zil`qxaipe`d dpekzd z` x`zl ozipy xazqn ipyd xe`izdn

:dprh 5.20

itelig reaix lkl m` wxe m` (2) ly xeg`l dkiynd `id (3) iteligd reaixak ⟨Y, ϑi , ϑj ⟩
ηi
Z / X(i)

ηj X(φ)
 X(ψ) 
X(j) / X(k)

:zitelig d`ad dn`xb`icdy jk f :Z→Y dcigi dwzrd zniiw

(4) Z
ηj
∃!f
! ϑi
&
Y / X(i)
ηi
ϑj X(φ)
  X(ψ) 
X(j) / X(k)

:dprh 5.21

ϕ ψ
`id Gp e` , T op Set
, dixebihwa A −→ C ←− B ly xeg`l dkiynd

Y := {(a, b) ∈ A × B | ϕ(a) = ψ(b)}

dpana Gp
-ly dxwnae ,dltknd jeza agxn-zzd ziibeleteha T op ly dxwna zciievn)

.( A×B zexeag ly dxyid dltknd ly dxeag-zz ly

 .libxz :dgked

35
ly d`lnd dixebihw-zza ,lynl .dn`xb`ic lkl zeleab miniiw dixebihw lka `l :dxrd
:dxcql leab oi` Gp -a zeiteqd zexeagd

qn+1 qn q2
. . . → Z/pn+1 −→ Z/pn −→ Z/pn−1 → . . . → Z/p2 −→ Z/p

.(xveil xvei zgleyd) lr mfitxenened `id qn lk xy`k

:dxcbd 5.22

X :I →C I dn`xb`ic- lkl m` ( preserves limits ) zeleab xnyn F :C→D xehwpt

D F ◦X :I →D
. -a dn`xb`ic- I -d ly leab `ed F (Y ) :miiwzn Y leab el yiy

:htyn 5.23

.zeleab xnyn `ed f` ,l`nyn cenv yi F xehwptl m`

 .libxz :dgked

zixebihw zeil`ec

categorical ) zixebihwd zeil`ecd `id zeixebihwd zxeza zepiiprnd zertezd zg`

-lr ,un`n lk `ll ,zeycg zeprh gikedle ,miycg mibyen xicbdl zexyt`d :( duality
ly ixebihwd il`ecd `ed (4.9 'bd) mfitxenepend byen ,`nbecl ."mivigd lk jetid" ici

.(4.8 'bd) mfitxenit`d byen

zegt `ed (5.10 'bd) dltknd byen ly ixebihwd il`ecd ,mixg` miax mixwna enk

:ixewnd byend on xken

:dxcbd 5.24

`id mdly (coproduct) dltkn-ew C , dixebihwa Obj(C) ⊃ {Xα }α∈A minvr ozpida

dpekzd lra ,A ∋ α lkl iα : Xα → Y minfitxena Obj(C) ∋ Y

ciievnd mvr

miiw , C -a fα : Xα → Z minfitxen ly sqe`e Obj(C) ∋ Z mvr lkl :zil`qxaipe`d

. A∋α lkl g ◦ i α = fα g:Y →Z

-y jk cigi mfitxen

irah mfitxenefi` mixyn iα -d ,zexg` milina

∼
=
∏
HomC (Y, Z) −→ HomC (Xα , Z)
α∈A

. f 7→ [(f ◦ iα )α∈A ] xcbend

:dnl 5.25

.(zniiw `id m`) ipep`w mfitxenefi` ick cr dcigi dltkn-ewd

 .libxz :dgked

36
 :oeniq 5.26
⨿
.
α∈A Xα :oneqz {Xα }α∈A ly dltkn-ew lk

:ze`nbec 5.27

. Set dixebihwa dltkn-ewd `ed zeveaw ly xfd cegi`d (`

dltkn-ewd `ed ,1.11 'bd ly dibeletehd mr ,miibeleteh miagxn ly xfd cegi`d (a

. T op dixebihwa

∨
-ewd `ed micwepn miibeleteh miagxn ly (2.26 'bd)
α∈A (Xα , xα ) cwepnd mekqd (b

T op∗
. dixebihwa dltkn

. Gp dixebihwa dltkn-ewd `id zexeag ly ziytegd dltknd (c

:zxekfz 5.28

zeidl zxcben {Gα }α∈A zexeag ly edylk sqe` ly ( free product ) ziytegd dltknd

dveawd ici-lr zexvepd zenvnevnd milnd ly G = ∗α∈A Gα sqe`d

∪
, X := (Gα \ {eα })
α∈A

dxeag dze`a opi` gi+1 -e gi -y jk , X -n mixai` ly g1 g2 · · · gn zeiteq zexcq ,xnelk

dpi` zxvepd dlind m`y `l`) xeyxy ici-lr zxcben G -a dxeagd zlert . 1≤i<n -l

dxeag dze`a mi`vnp h1 -e gk -y `vnp g 1 g 2 · · · g k h1 h2 · · · hn -a m` ,xnelk - znvnevn

xai`k zynyn dwixd dlind .( Gα0 -a gk · h1 dxeagd zlert z` mirvan f` - G α0

.5.8 'bdl eeyd .xai` lk jetide xqd jetid ici-lr libxk lawzn iktedde ,yic`

:`nbec 5.29

dxeagl zitxenefi` Z ziteqpi`d zilwivd dxeagd ly miwzer n ly ziytegd dltknd

.(5.8 dxcbd e`x) mixvei n lr FGp (x1 , . . . , xn ) ziytegd

zeleab-ew

:(5.14 'bd e`x) leabl il`ecd byend z` illk ote`a xicbdl ozip ote` eze`a

:dxcbd 5.30

mvr `ed (` 5.14 'bd) C dixebihwa X : I → C dn`xb`ic- I

colimit ly ( ) leab-ew

oaena zil`qxaipe` `idy ϑ : X → DY zen`xb`ic- I zwzrda Obj(C) ∋ Y

ciievnd

mfitxen miiw , η : X → DZ zen`xb`ic- I ly dwzrd Obj(C) ∋ Z

lke mvr lkly df

. η = Df ◦ ϑ C f :Z→Y
-y jk -a cigi

'bdl eeyd) . Z leab-ewd ly dpand zewzrd mi`xwp ηi : X(i) → X minfitxtend

.(c 5.14

37
 :dprh 5.31

ick cr cigi `ed f` ,miiw C -a X : I → C zniieqn dn`xb`ic- I ly leab-ewd m`

Y = colimI X . oneqi `ed .ipep`w mfitxenefi`

 .libxz :dgked

"xyi leab" e` ( inductive limit ) "iaihwecpi` leab" `xwp leab-ew xzei oyi gepina :dxrd
.( direct limit )

:ze`nbec 5.32
⨿
colimI X ∼
. = i∈Obj(I) X(i) :dltkn-ewd `ed leab-ewd ,(` 5.16 'bec) zihxwqic I m` (`

(Xn )∞
n=0 dxcq heyt `id X:I→C dn`xb`ic f` ,libxd xcqd mr I := ⟨N, ≤⟩ m` (a

ly leab-ew .miawer mixai` ipy lk oia ϕn : Xn → Xn+1 cigi mfitxen mr , C -a minvr ly

ϕn
. X0 → . . . Xn −→ Xn+1 → . . . ly ( sequential colimit ) izxcq leab-ew `xwp Y :I→C

:dprh 5.33
⨿∞
zeliwyd qgi xy`k , colimn Xn := i=0Xi / ∼ `ed X : I → Set ly izxcq leab-ew

. 0 ≤ n Xn ∋ x n
-e lkl xn ∼ ϕn (xn ) :ici lr xvep ∼

 .libxz :dgked

:dxcbd 5.34

`id X dn`xb`ic- I f` , ψ:i→k -e φ:i→j minfitxen mr , Obj(I) = {i, j, k} m`

:"dpit"

X(ψ)
(5) X(i) / X(j)

X(φ)

X(k)
.( pushout ) miptl dtigc `xwp X ly leab-ewe

:dprh 5.35

reaix lkl m` wxe m` (5) ly miptl dtigc `id (6) dn`xb`ica oeilrd il`nyd reaixd

:zitelig dlek dn`xb`icdy jk f :Y →Z eweewn ug miiw (6) dn`xb`ica itelig ipevig

X(φ)
(6) X(i) / X(j)

X(ψ) ϑj
 ϑk  ηj
X(k) /Y

∃!f
ηk ! 
,Z

38
 .libxz :dgked

:dprh 5.36

ϕ ψ
Y := A ⨿ B/ ∼
, `id T op Set -e dixebihwa C ←− A −→ B ly miptl dtigc (`

A∋a. lkl ψ(a) ∼ ϕ(a) ∼

ici-lr xvep zeliwyd qgi xy`k

ϕ ψ
jezid mr dltknd `id C ←− A −→ B zexeag ly dn`xb`ic ly miptl dtigcd (a

E xy`k ,(B ∗ C)/E dpnd zxeag zeidl zxcbend ,B ∗A C ( amalgamated product )

. {ϕ(a) · ψ(a)−1 }a∈A ici-lr zxvepd (5.28 'bd) B∗C -a zil`nxepd dxeagd `id

 .libxz :dgked

:dxcbd 5.37

ici-lr C op opposite category

, ( C ) dketdd dixebihwd z` mi`zdl lkep dixebihw lkl

ziyrp C op
-a HomC op (A, B) := HomC (B, A)
dakxdd xy`k Obj(C op ) := Obj(C)
, -e

C op
, -a fˆ : Ŷ → X̂ C f :X →Y z` mi`zp C -a -l m` ,xnelk : -a xy`n jetdd xcqa

d
Id X = IdX̂ f[◦ g = ĝ ◦ fˆ . -y oaenk . f`

:dnl 5.38

. F̂ : C op → D ihp`ixee-ew xehwpt raew F :C→D ihp`ixee-dxhpew xehwpt

 .libxz :dgked

:dxcbd 5.39

zxcben C × D product category ( D C ) dltknd ziixebihw , -e zeixebihw izy lkl (`

ly zebef C×D md Obj(C × D) := Obj(C) × Obj(D)

ly minvrd ,xnelk) ici-lr

HomC×D (C × D, C ′ × D′ ) := Obj(D) ∋ D Obj(C) ∋ C (C, D) -e ,( -e xy`k minvr

HomC (C, C ) × HomD (D, D′ )

′
.

. E -l D -e C -n ( bifunctor ) xehwptia `xwp F :C×D →E xehwpt (a

:d`ad dprha mkql xyt` (c-b 4.14 'bec) minfitxend zveaw ly zepekzd z`

:dprh 5.40

. C × C op → Set xehwptia `ed HomC (−, −) C , dixebihw lka

 .libxz :dgked

:dxrd 5.41

ycgn eze` yxtp m`e , C op lr htyn hxta lawp ziixebihwd zxeza illk htyn lkl

mivgd lk ipeeik eay ,ixewnd htynd ly il`ec gqep eplaw heyty `vnp C lr htynk

39
 .mibyen ly zexcbd iabl dnec ote`a .zeakxdd xcq iabl oke ,ektdzd

ly ixebi-hwd il`ecd `ed leab-ewd byen ik ,5.31 dprhl zil`ec 5.15 dprh lynl jk

.(jtidle) leabd byen

:5.23 htynl il`ec `ad htynd ,dnec ote`a

:htyn 5.42

.zeleab-ew xnyn `ed f` ,oinin cenv yi F xehwptl m`

 .libxz :dgked

:dxrd 5.43

mixvei s` `l` ,dn`zda zeleab-ewe zeleab mixnyn wx `l micenv mixehwpt dyrnl

-e , U : D → C -l l`nyn cenv xehwpt F : C → D m`y df oaena ,mze` create

( )

leab miiwU ◦X : I → C dn`xb`icle D , -a idylk dn`xb`ic- I `id X : I → D

dprhd mby oaenk . U (Z) ∼
=Y :miiwzne D Z -a X leab yi -l f` , D -a Y = limI (U ◦ X)
C
.dpekp , -a zeleab-ew xvei F -y zxne`d ,zil`ecd

zeixebihwa zeleab-ewe zeleab miniiw recn zexiaqn od j` ,o`k dl` zeprh gikep `l

minec - zeltknd oebk - owlg recne ,(Set -a zeipad ozpida) ,Gp -e T op oebk zexken

.zxg` mi`xp - Gp -a zeleab-ewd oebk - mwlge ,zepeyd zeixebihwa

qt` invr

:dxcbd 5.44

miiw Obj(C) ∋ X mvr lkl m` ( initial object ) iligz mvr `xwp C dixebihwa J mvr (`

. ψX : J → X cigi mfitxen

Obj(C) ∋ X mvr lkl m` ( terminal object ) iteq mvr `xwp C dixebihwa T mvr (a

. φX : X → T cigi mfitxen miiw

.iteq mbe iligz mb `ed m` ( null object ) qt` mvr `xwp C dixebihwa Z mvr (b

:ze`nbec 5.45

.iteq xai` oi`e ,iligz `ed 0 xai`d (4.19 'bd e`x) ⟨N, ≤⟩ zpeeknd dixebihwa (`

.iligz xai` oi`e ,iteq `ed 0 xai`d ⟨N, ≥⟩ zpeeknd dixebihwa (a

:dprh 5.46

ly leab-ewd `ed iligz mvre ,( I = ∅ ) dwixd dn`xb`icd ly leab `ed iteq mvr

.dwix dn`xb`ic

 .libxz :dgked

40
 :dpwqn 5.47

md m` ,ipep`w mfitxenefi` ick cr micigi C dixebihwa qt` mvre ,iteq mvr ,iligz mvr

.miniiw

 .5.46-e ,5.31 ,5.15 zeprhn raep df :dgked

:ze`nbec 5.48

`id {x} cg` xai` za dveaw lke ,iligz mvr `id dwixd dveawd Set dixebihwa (1

.ef dixebihwa qt` mvr oi` jkitl .iteq mvr

day ,( pointed sets ) zecwepn zeveaw ly Set∗ dixebihw xicbdl xyt` ,z`f znerl (2

minfitxende ∅ ̸= X
,( hxtae) X ∋ x0 oiievn xai` yi oday (X, x0 ) zeveaw md minvrd

'bd eeyd) f (x0 ) = y0 -y jk f :X→Y zeveaw ly zeivwpet md f : (X, x0 ) → (Y, y0 )

.(` 2.17

.(zg` dcewp za dveaw lk) Z = ({x0 }, x0 ) `edy ,qt` mvr yi Set∗ dixebihwa

.qt` mvr `ed izcewp-cg agxn T op∗ dixebihwa (3

.qt`d mvr `id {0} qt`d zxeag , AbGp -e Gp zeixebihwa (4

:dxrd 5.49

qt` zwzrd Obj(C) ∋ Y, X

dpyi minvr ipy lkl Z , qt` C mvr -a yi m`y al eniy

'bd) ζX,Y := ψY ◦ φX Z :zxcbend , jxc zlvtznd ζX,Y : X → Y dcigi ( null map )

da yi ,ok lr xzi Obj(C) ∋ Y, X; lkl dwix dpi` HomC (X, Y ) -y xne` df hxta .(5.44

.Set∗ HomC (−, −)

-l (a 5.39 'bd) xehwptiad ly dnxd yi mvra okle ,oiievn xai`

:dxcbd 5.50

: Z qt` mvr yi day C dixebihwa φ:X→Y mfitxen ozpida

φ
Ker(φ)
. oneqi `ed ;Z → Y ←− X ly xeg`l dkiyn `ed φ ly ( kernel ) oirxb (`

zikxr cg-cg `ide , i : Ker(φ) → X (d 5.14 'bd) dpan zwzrda ciievn `edy al eniy

.(mfitxenepen)

φ
oneqi `ed ;Z ←− X −→ Y ly miptl dtigc `ed φ ly ( cokernel ) oirxb-ew (a

.(mfitxenit`) lr `idy , q : Y → Coker(φ) dpan zwzrda ciievne , Coker(φ)

:dprh 5.51

Ker(φ) := {g ∈ `ed φ:G→H mfitxenened ly oirxbd AbGp -e Gp zeixebihwa (`

. G | φ(g) = 0} ,→ G
xy`k , H/ Im(φ) dpnd zxeag `ed mfitxenened ly oirxb-ewd AbGp dixebihwa (a

. H ly {φ(g) | g ∈ G} dxeag-zzd `id Im(φ)

 .libxz :dgked

41
ikxr-cg-cg `ed m` elit` - ϕ:G→H mfitxenened ly dpenzd Gp dixebihwa :dxrd
.dtiwz dpi` ef dxcbd Gp
-a okle , H -a zil`nxep dxeag-zz dgxkda dpi` -

5 wxtl milibxz 5.52

.5.9 dprh z` egiked 5.52.1

.5.11 dnl z` egiked 5.52.2

.5.15 dprh z` egiked 5.52.3

.5.18 dprh z` egiked (` 5.52.4

zexeagl ,zexeagl mb siwz 5.18 dprha zeveaw ly izxcqd leabd ly xe`izdy e`xd (a

.miibeleteh miagwne ,zeila`

.5.21 dprh z` egiked 5.52.5

.5.23 htyn z` egiked 5.52.6

.5.25 dnl z` egiked 5.52.7

.5.33 dprh z` egiked (` 5.52.8

-xeagl ,zexeagl mb siwz 5.33 dprha zeveaw ly izxcqd leab-ewd ly xe`izdy e`xd (a

.miibeleteh miagwne ,zeila` ze

42
 .5.36 dprh z` egiked 5.52.9

.5.40 dprh z` egiked 5.52.10

.5.42 htyn z` egiked 5.52.11

.5.46 dprh z` egiked 5.52.12

.5.51 dprh z` egiked 5.52.13

zeitehenedd dixebhwd 6

mibyend zxcbd jxevl zg` dixebihw cerl wwcfp ,4 wxta exkfedy zeixebihwl sqepa

.zitehenedd dixebihwd `id - zixabl`d dibeletehd ly mihtynd geqipe

:dxcbd 6.1

ly minvrd) miibeletehd miagxnd md ho T op zitehenedd dixebihwd ly minvrd

,xnelk - zewzrd ly zitehenedd zeliwyd zewlgn md minfitxende ,( T op

. Homho T op (X, Y ) := [X, Y ]
.(2.5 dprh itl ahid xcben df) [g] ◦ [f ] := [g ◦ f ] zxcben dakxdd

-xende ,micwepn miagxn md ho T op∗ zcwepnd zitehenedd dixebihwd ,ote` eze`a

:zewzrd ly zcwepn zitehened zeliwy zewlgn md minfit

. Homho T op∗ ((X, x0 ), (Y y0 )) := [(X, x0 ), (Y y0 )] = [X, Y ]∗

γ(X) = X :ici lr γ : T op → ho T op xehwpt xicbdl xyt`y zxne` mvra 2.5 dprh

. γ∗ : T op∗ → ho T op∗ xehwpt dneca dxicbn 2.21 dprhe ,γ(f ) = [f ] -e

:dprh 6.2

ho T op
. -a mfitxenefi` [f ] m` wxe m` zitehened zeliwy `id f :X →Y dwzrd

wxe m` zcwepn zitehened zeliwy `id f : (X, x0 ) → (Y, y0 ) zcwepn dwzrd ,dneca

ho T op∗
. -a mfitxenefi` `ed [f ] m`

 .2.22 dpwqne 2.5 dprh itl ,2.23-e ,2.6 ,4.5 zexcbdn raep df :dgked

zeprh ly dnly zkxrn gqpl zexyt`d `id zeixebihwd zxez ly zepexzid cg` :dxrd
,3.19 dpwqne 3.18 dprh hxtae ,3 wxta epgkedy dnnn daxd ,lynl .zrlewe dxvw dxeva

:d`ad dprha mkql ozip

43
 :dprh 6.3

xehwpt yi ,xnelk - "zcwepnd zitehenedd dixebihwl cxei" π1 : T op∗ → Gp xehwptd

: π1 = Π1 ◦ γ∗ -y jk Π1 : ho T op∗ → Gp
π1
T op∗ / Gp
v:
v
γ v
v
 v Π1
ho T op∗

jko , π1 -a Π1 xehwptd z` mb onqp llk jxca mixzein mipeniqn rpnidl ick :dxrd
.zitehenedd dixebihwl micxeid mixg` mixehwpt mr mb dyrp

.zibeletehd dixebihwd ly zepekzdn wlg lr zxney zitehenedd dixebihwd ,d`xpy itk

lkep mle` , ho T op -a miniiw T op∗ e` T op -a miniiwd zeleab-ewd o` zeleabd lk `l

:ze`xdl

:dprh 6.4
∏
dltknd `id {Xα }α∈A miagxn ly edylk sqe` ly
α∈A Xα zifhxwd dltknd (`

. T op dixebihwa

[(xα )α∈A ] dcewpd mr , {(Xα , xα )}α∈A micwepn miagxn sqe` ly zifhxwd dltknd (a

T op∗
. dixebihwa dltknd `id ,qiqad zcewp xeza

⨿
T op
. dixebihwa dltkn-ewd `ed {Xα }α∈A ly
α∈A Xα xfd cegi`d (b

∨
dltkn-ewd `ed {(Xα , xα )}α∈A micwepn miagxn ly
α∈A (Xα , xα ) cwepnd mekqd (c

. T op∗ dixebihwa

 .libxz :dgked

:dpwqn 6.5

miagxn ly {(Xα , xα )}α∈A sqe` lkl ,xnelk - zeltkn xnyn π1 : ho T op∗ → Gp

:zexeag ly irah mfitxenefi` yi micwepn

∏ ∏
. π1 ( Xα , xα , [(xα )α∈A ]) ∼
= π1 (Xα , xα )
α∈A α∈A

 .libxz :dgked

zixabl`d dibeletehd ly miiqiqad oiipad ipa` md dl`k mixehwpt ,d`xpy itk

:d`ad dnikqa xe`izl zpzip zixabl`d dibeletehd ly zixwird dlertd jxc ,mvra

;ditehenedd zxeza diral dpezp zibeleteh e` zixhne`ib dira minbxzn (`

;oexzitl zpzip dirad day ,dni`zn zixabl` dixebihwl xehwpt milirtn (a

.miibeleteh migpena dxfg ixabl`d oexzitd z` miyxtn (b

44
 :dnl 6.6

oneqzy ,dixebihw mieedn ,(2.28 'bd) micwepn zebef ly zewzrd mr ,micwepnd zebefd

. ho T op2∗ oneqz dl dni`znd zitehenedd dixebihwd T op2∗

.

6 wxtl milibxz 6.7

irah ote`a zitxenefi` (X, x0 ) cwepn agxn ly ziceqid dxeagd ok`y e`xd 6.7.1

. [(S 1 , s0 ), (X, x0 )] -l

? [(S 1 , s0 ), (X, x0 )] -a yxetn ote`a dxeagd zlert z` x`zl lkep cvik

:miibeleteh miagxn Y ′ -e ,Y ′
,X ,X eidi 6.7.2

≃ ≃
zeliwy zexyn g : Y −→ Y ′ -e f : X −→ X ′ zeitehened zeieliwy izy lky e`xd (`

′ ′
. X ×Y ≃X ×Y zitehened

. [Z, X × Y ] ∼
= [Z, X] × [Z, Y ] :irah mfitxenefi` yi Z agxn lkly e`xd (a

.(` 6.4 dprh z` egiked 6.7.3

.(a 6.4 dprh z` egiked 6.7.4

.(b 6.4 dprh z` egiked 6.7.5

.6.5 dpwqn z` egiked 6.7.6

≃
,A ∋α lkl zcwepn zitehened zeliwy fα : (Xα , xα ) −→ (Xα′ , x′α ) m`y e`xd (` 6.7.7
∨ ≃ ∨
.(2.26 'bd) f: α∈A (Xα , xα ) −→ α∈A (Xα′ , x′α ) zitehened zeliwy dxyn `id f`

:irah mfitxenefi` miiw(Z, z0 ) cwepn agxn lkly e`xd (a

∨ ∏
.[ (Xα , xα ), (Z, z0 )]∗ ∼
= [(Xα , xα ), (Z, z0 )]∗
α∈A α∈A

π1 (X, x0 ) ∼
̸= {0}-y jk (X, x0 ) cwepn ibeleteh agxn edyfi` miiw m`y e`xd 6.7.8

.π1 (S 1 , s0 ) ∼
̸= {0} gxkda f` , (zil`ieeixh dpi` ely ziceqid dxeagd ,xnelk)

. π1 (S 1 , s0 ) ∼
=Z -y d`xp (7.12 htyn) jynda :dxrd

f` ,zila` dppi`y ziceqi dxeag mr cwepn agxn edyfi` epyi m`y e`xd 6.7.9

.zila` dppi` π1 (S 1 ∨ S 1 , s0 )

45
 .(a 6.7.7 libxz e`x :fnx

.(8.7 'bec) π1 (S 1 ∨ S 1 , s0 ) ∼
=Z∗Z -y d`xp jynda :dxrd

.6.6 dnl z` egiked 6.7.10

ieqik iagxn 7

.ieqik agxn zxfra `id ziceqid dxeagd aeyigl zeiqiqad mikxcd zg`

:dxcbd 7.1

:zi`xwp miibeleteh miagxn oia p:E→B dwzrd

daiaq yi E ∋e dcewp lkl m` ( local homeomorphism ) inewn mfitxene`ined (`)

.mfitxene`ined p|U : U → V -y jk , B -a dgeztV := p(U ) dzpenzy U dgezt

daiaq yi B∋b lkle inewn mfitxene`ined p

(covering map)
m` ieqik zwzrd (a)

−1
itxene`ined ote`a wzren p (V ) ⨿
ly zexiyw aikxn lky jk B ⊇ V = Vb dgezt

−1
lr mfitxene`ined p|Uα : Uα → U -e p (V ) = α∈A Uα
, p ,xnelk - ici-lr V lr

lr (evenly covered) cig` ote`a dqekn V dgeztd dveawdy xn`p df dxwna . V

. p ici

divfil`ieeixh ieqik `xwp (ely ieqik-zz lk e`) dl` zeaiaq ly V := {Vb }b∈B sqe`d

−1
on xexa p xy`k . p (V ) ly zeqext Uα
ze`xwp zeveawde p
, trivializing cover
xear )

B ly (covering space) ieqik agxn E -y heyt xn`p ,xywdd

:ze`nbec 7.2

IdX : X → X zedfd (`

.il`ieeixh ieqik `xwp df .ihxwqic agxn A xy`k , proj : X × A → X dlhdd (a

aygiz `l proj dfk dxwna ;xiyw didi ieqik zwzrda E agxndy miyxec mizirl

|A| > 1
. xear ieqik zwzrd

lbrnd lr miayeg m` exp(t) := (cos 2πt, sin 2πt)

. zxcbend exp : R → S 1 dwzrdd (b

iepikd o`kne - exp(t) = e2πit f` ,miakexn mixtqn ly dveawk S 1 := {z ∈ C | |z| = 1}

.( exponential map ) zikixrnd dwzrdd

:dprh 7.3

.ieqik zwzrd `id exp : R → S 1

46
 r1
p pp
pp
R r0
p pp
pp
r −1
p pp
pp

exp
?

rs0
S1

:ici lr S 1 ⊆ R2 ly miieqikd z` gwip :dgked

U− := {(x, y)|x < 0} , U+ := {(x, y)|x > 0} , U − := {(x, y) | y < 0}

 . Vn = [n − n1 , n + n1 ) xy`k Vn = P −1 (U+ ) f`e , U + := {(x, y) | y > 0} -e

:dprh 7.4

.ieqik zwzrd `id ( C ⊇ S1 ∋ z -l p(z) = z n :zxcbend) p : S1 → S1

 .libxz :dgked

:dprh 7.5

zwzrd p1 × p2 : E1 × E2 → B1 × B2 mb f` , i = 1, 2 -l ieqik zewzrd pi : Ei → Bi m`

.ieqik

 .libxz :dgked

:dpwqn 7.6

. S1 × S1 qexehl ieqik zwzrd `ed exp × exp : R × R → S 1 × S 1

qexehd

47
 :dxcbd 7.7

f ly (lift) dnxd `id f˜ : X → E -y xn`p , f :X→B -e p:E→B zewzrd ozpida

:zitelig dnxb`ic yi m` ,xnelk - p ◦ f˜ = f m` ( p -l qgia)

>E
}}
f˜
}
}} p
}} f 
X /B

:(zeliqn znxd) dprh 7.8

f (0) = b0 -y jk f : [0, 1] → B dliqn lkl f` p(e0 ) = b0

, -e ieqik zwzrd p:E→B m`

.
˜
f (0) = e0 f˜ : [0, 1] → E
-y jk -l dcigi dnxd yi

{f −1 (Uα )}α∈A f` ,(7.1 'bd) p xear B ly divfil`ieeixh ieqik {Uα }α∈A m` :dgked
zegeztd zeveawl qiqa mieedn migeztd mirhwdy oeeikn [0, 1]
; ly gezt ieqik `id

migezt mirhw ici lr ieqikl {f −1 (Uα )}α∈A z` ocrl xyt` ,(1.15 dprhe 1.7 'bd) xyia

-zz {(sβ , tβ )}β∈B -n `ivedl xyt` ,ihwtnew [0, 1] dcigid rhwy oeeikn . {(sβ , tβ )}β∈B
didz ezxev ,xzeia ipekqgd ote`a df z` dyrp m` .(1.30 'bd) iteq ieqik

, {[0, b0 )} ∪ {(ai , bi )}n−1

i=1 ∪ {(an , 1]}

lkl ai+1 < xi < bi xgap 0 ≤ i < n

m` okl . lkl ai < ai+1 < bi < ai+2 xy`k

jk [0, 1] 0 = x0 < x1 . . . xn = 1
ly dwelg lawp , xn := 1 x0 := 0 1≤i<n
, -e ,

f˜|[0,xi ] dnxdd z` xicbp dzr f ([xi , xi+1 ]) ⊆ Uαi

. -y jk A ∋ αi 0≤i<n miiw lkly

1≤i : lr divwecpi`a

ieqik zxcbdne E ∋ ei := f˜(xi )

, dcewpd zrawp hxta , f˜|[0,xi ] ozpida i
, -d alya

f˜i : [xi , xi+1 ] → E divwpetl f |[xi ,xi+1 ] z` mixdl xyt`y xexa ,(7.1 'bd) cig` ote`a

dnxd lawle f |[0,xi+1 ] := f |[0,xi ] ∪f˜i

˜ xicbdl xyt` 1.6 htyn itl f`e , f˜i (xi ) = ei -y jk

 .yxcpk

:(zeitehened znxd) dprh 7.9

F (0, 0) = b0 -y jk dwzrd F :I ×I →B -e p(e0 ) = b0 ,ieqik zwzrd p:E→B m`

F̃ (0, 0) = e0
. -y jk F̃ : I × I → E -l F z` mixdl ozip f`

. F |([0,1]×{0})∪({0}×[0,1]) z` mixdl ozip 7.8 dprh zxfra (` :dgked

ici lr deey ote`a zeqeknd zegezt zeveaw ici lr B ly ieqik {Uα }α∈A m` (a

-y jk Qi,j := [tj , tj+1 ] × [si , si+1 ] miphw mireaix ici lr I×I ly p ieqik `vnp ,

−1
z` xicbpe 0 ≤ j < n 0 ≤ i < m
, -e lkl A ∋ α(i, j) edyfi`l f (Uα( i,j) ) ⊇ Qi,j
 .( j lr k"g` , i lr mcew) dletk divwecpi`a dnxdd

48
 (0, 1) r q q q qr(1, 1) (0, 1) r r(1, 1)

sj+1 pp pp pp pp pp pp pp pp pp pp pp pp q
pp pp pp pp pp pp pp pp pp pp pp pp Q {0} × [0, 1] [0, 1] × [0, 1]
pp pp pp pp pp pp pp pp pp pp pp pp i,j
sj ppp ppp ppp ppp ppp ppp ppp ppp ppp ppp ppp ppp ppp ppp ppp ppp ppp ppp ppp ppp ppp ppp ppp ppp ppp ppp ppp ppp ppp ppp ppp ppp r
pp pp pp pp pp pp pp pp pp pp pp pp pp pp pp pp pp pp pp pp pp pp pp pp pp pp pp pp pp pp pp pp
pp pp pp pp pp pp pp pp pp pp pp pp pp pp pp pp pp pp pp pp pp pp pp pp pp pp pp pp pp pp pp pp r
pp pp pp pp pp pp pp pp pp pp pp pp pp pp pp pp pp pp pp pp pp pp pp pp pp pp pp pp pp pp pp pp
pp pp pp pp pp pp pp pp pp pp pp pp pp pp pp pp pp pp pp pp pp pp pp pp pp pp pp pp pp pp pp pp
rp p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p r r r
(0, 0) tj tj+1 (1, 0) (0, 0) [0, 1] × {0} (1, 0)

Qi,j F |([0,1]×{0})∪({0}×[0,1])

ly ditehened dxwna F m` mb j` ; F̃ mb jk ,(3.3 'bd) zeliqn zitehened F m` :dxrd

(?recn) efk gxkda dpi` dnxdd ,ze`lel

:dpwqn 7.10

mr ,b1 -l b0 -n B δ γ
-a zeliqn izy , -e , p(e0 ) = b0 ,ieqik zwzrd p:E →B m`

p p
δ̃ -e γ̃ hxtae) γ ∼ δ ⇔ γ̃ ∼ δ̃ f` e0 . -a zeligznd dn`zda δ̃ γ̃ -e zenxd

.( e1 dcewp dze`a zeniizqn

:dgked
p
zeliqn ziitehened F := p ◦ F̂ i`ceea f` , E -a zeliqn ziitehened F̂ : γ̃ ∼ δ̃ m` (`

. δ = p ◦ δ̃ -l γ = p ◦ γ̃ oia B -a

p
-l dcigi dnxd dl yi 7.9 dprh itl , B -a zeliqn F : γ ∼ δ ly ditehened m` (a

ly dnxd `id F̃ |[0,1]×{0} -y xne` F̃ (0, 0) = e0

df hxta F̃ : [0, 1] × [0, 1] → E
. -y jk

zpenze dtivx F̃ -y oeeikn f` , p−1 ({b1 } ∋ e1 := F̃ (1, 0) F |[0,1]×{0} = γ onqp m` okle ,

−1
p ({b1 }) F̃ |
⨿ {1}×[0,1]
ihxwqicd agxnl itxene`ined `edy , aiqd jeza dlek zlken

htyn itl xiyw [0, 1] ik ,1.23 dprh itl ,dreaw F̃ |{1}×[0,1] α∈A {b1 } gxkday ixd -

{e0 } . F̃ |{0}×[0,1]
-a dlek zlken zpenz ote` eze`a .1.22

dprha zecigid itl , e0 -a dligznd F |[0,1]×{1} = δ

, ly dnxd `id F̃ |[0,1]×{1} -y oeeikn

p
 .yxcpk , F̃ : γ̃ ∼ δ̃ -y epi`xd jkae , F̃ |[0,1]×{1} = δ̃ gxkda 7.8

:dnl 7.11

-e , f (0) = g(0) = x0 :zeniiwnd zeliqn f, g : [0, 1] → X -e π1 (X, x0 ) = {0} m`

p
dvwd zecewpl ziqgi) F :f ∼ g zeliqn ly ditehened zniiw f` f (1) = g(1) = x1
,

x0 , x1 .(

zbviin γ -y ixd , π1 (X, x0 ) = {0} -y oeeikne x0 , -a dxebq d`lel γ := f ⋆ g −1 :dgked

−1 p
:3.9 dprh itl okl . f ⋆g ∼ cx0 ,xnelk - dxeaga yic`d xai`d z`

p p p p
 . f ∼ f ⋆ (g −1 ⋆ g) ∼ (f ⋆ g −1 ) ⋆ g ∼ cx0 ⋆ g ∼ g .

49
 :htyn 7.11.1

dwzrd f :M →B -e ,(3.14 'bd) xyw-heyt agxn M ,ieqik zwzrd p:E →B m`

. f˜ : M → E dtivx dwzrdl (7.7 'bd) dnxd f -l yi f` ,dtivx

e0 ∈ p−1 (b0 )
. dnxd b0 := f (m0 )
xgape , M ∋ m0 onqp :dgked , qiqa zcewp xgap

f`e M m , -am0 -l -n γ dliqn M ∋m zniiw M lkl ,zizliqn xiyw hxta -y oeeikn

dcewpl e0 δ̃ -n dliqnl dcigi dnxdl zpzipd , B b := f (m) b0 δ := f ◦ γ-a -l -n dliqn

f˜(m) := e . E e = δ̃(1) xicbp .7.8 dprh itl , -a

′ ˜
M m m0
, -a -l -n zxg` dliqn γ γ m` ,ok`e : f zxigaa dielz dpi` divwpetdy d`xp

G := f ◦ H okle , H : γ → γ′ zeliqn ly M ditehened yi ,xyw-zheyt -y oeeikn f`

′
zeliqn ly ditehenedl G z` mixdl f ◦γ ozip f ◦γ ,7.9 dprh itl . -e oia ditehened

′
f˜ zetivx z` gikedl ozip .ahid
˜
e = f (m) := δ̃(1) = δ̃ (1)
zxcben G̃ : δ → δ ′ hxtae ,

 .7.9 dprh zgkedak

:htyn 7.12

. π1 (S 1 , s0 ) ∼
=Z

dnxd dpyi γ : ([0, 1], {0, 1}) → (S 1 , ∗) (zcwepn) d`lel lkl ,7.8 dprh itl :dgked
gxkda ,Z = exp−1 (s0 ) p(γ̃(1)) = 0 -e , -y oeeik γ̃(0) = 0. -y jk γ̃ : [0, 1] → R dcigi

ϕ(⟨γ⟩) := γ̃(1) . ici lr ϕ : π1 (S 1 , s0 ) → Z xicbn df γ̃(1) = n ∈ Z

.

:lr divwpet ϕ (`

, (S 1 , s0 )
-a d`lel γ := exp ◦γ̂ f` . n -l 0 -n γ̂ : [0, 1] → R idylk dliqn migwel

. ϕ(γ) = γ̂(1) = n okl . 7.8 dprha zecigid llba dyexcd γ̃ -d `id γ̂ -e

:zikxr-cg-cg divwpet ϕ (a

,xyw heyt R -e ,seqe dlgzd eze` zelra δ̃ , γ̃ -y oeeik f` , γ̃(1) = δ̃(1) = n m`

p
.7.11 dnl itl γ̃ ∼ δ̃

:mfitxenened ϕ : π1 (S 1 , s0 ) → ⟨Z, +⟩ (b

xicbp , ϕ(⟨δ⟩) := δ̃(1) = n -e ϕ(⟨γ⟩) := γ̃(1) = m ozpida

. h := (m + γ̃) ⋆ δ̃; [0, 1] → R

:miiwzne γ⋆δ ly dnxd h okle , ⟨exp ◦h⟩ = ⟨γ ⋆ δ⟩ -y `vnp ,zixefgn exp -y oeeik

 . ϕ(γ ⋆ δ) := h(1)) = n + m

:dxcbd 7.13

. π1 (S 1 , s0 ) ∋ ⟨γ⟩ ly ( degree ) dbxcd `xwp n := ϕ(⟨γ⟩) xtqnd

.lr ϕ : π1 B → p−1 (b0 ) ,zizliqn xiyw E -e ieqik zwzrd p:E→B m` :zillk

50
 :dxcbd 7.14

X̃ m` ( universal covering space ) il`qxaipe` ieqik agxn `xwp p : X̃ → X ieqik agxn

.(3.14 'bd) xyw heyt

:`nbec 7.15

.il`qxaipe` ieqik agxn exp : R → S 1

:dprh 7.16

q:Z→ p:Y →X , -e ,(b 1.26 'bd) zinewn zizliqn-xiywe xiyw ibeleteh agxn X m`

epyi ,xnelk - ieqik iagxnk miitxenefi` md f` ,miil`qxaipe` ieqik iagxn ipy X

. q◦h=p -y jk h:Y →Z mfitxene`ined

 Fulton, Corollary 13.6

.[ ] e`x :dgked

:dxcbd 7.17

dcewp lkl m` ( locally semi-simply connected ) dvgnl zinewn xyw-heyt `xwp X agxn

. X -a zitehenedlep γ : (S 1 , s0 ) → (U, x) d`lel lky jk U daiaq yi X∋x

-a zitehenedlep didz γ -y yexcp m` ,xnelk) zinewn xyw heyt X agxnd m` :dxrd

- R n
-a dgezt dveaw lk okl .dvgnl zinewn xyw heyt i`ceea X f` ( X -a mewna ,U
.dl`k eidi - o`k mda lwzipy miagxnd lk ,llkae

:dprh 7.18

m` il`qxaipe` ieqik agxn yi X -l f` .zinewn zizliqn-xiyw `edy xiyw agxn X idi

.dvgnl zinewn xyw-heyt `ed m` wxe

.dyw epi` ⇐ oeeikd :dgkedd oeirx

X̃ xeza gwipe , X ∋ x0 qiqa zcewp xgap ,l"pk X -l ieqikd agxn z` zepal ick

: x0 -a zeligzny γ zeliqn ly ditehenedd zewlgn zveaw z`

. X̃ : {(x, ⟨γ⟩) | x ∈ X, γ ∈ [([0, 1], {0, 1}), (X, {x0 , x})]}

ody X ⊇U zegezt zeveaw ly X̃ -l zenxdd lk sqe` `ed X̃ lr dibeletehl qiqa

.dreawd d`lell X -a zizliqn zitehened γ:S →U 1

d`lel lky jk ,zizliqn zexiyw

 Fulton, Theorem 13.20

.[ ] e`x mihxtl

51
 7 wxtl milibxz 7.19

.7.4 dprh z` egiked 7.19.1

.7.5 dprh z` egiked 7.19.2

ezxfra e`xde ,T
2
:= S 1 × S 1 qexehd ly ieqikd agxn ly yxetn xe`iz e`vn 7.19.3

.(6.5 dpwqn lr jnzqdl ila) π1 (T 2 ) ∼

=Z×Z -y zexiyi

- milbrn ipy ly cwepnd mekqd) S1 ∨ S1 ly ieqikd agxn ly xe`iz e`vn 7.19.4

.(mixvei ipy lr ziytegd dxeagd) π1 (S 1 ∨ S 1 ) ∼

=Z∗Z -y ezxfra e`xde ,(2.26 'bd 'x

.deg(f ) =0 f` , lr zwzrd dppi` f : S 1 → S 1 m`y e`xd 7.19.5

otnw o`e htyn 8

d`xp dzr .lbrnd enk heyt agxnl elit` ,ziceqid dxeagd z` aygl dyw icy epi`x

zeiceqid zexeagd ozpida , X agxn ly ziceqid dxeagd z` x`zl zixabl` jxc yiy

. X z` miaikxnd ,xzei miheyt "oiipa ipa`" ly

: Seifert-van Kampen htyn 8.1

jk , X = U1 ∪ U2 -a zizliqn zexiyw zegezt zeveaw U2 U1, -e ibeleteh X

agxn m`

:dnxb`icd f` . U0 ∋ x -e ,zizliqn dxiyw U0 := U1 ∩ U2 -y

(i1 )#
(7) π1 (U0 , x) / π1 (U1 , x)

(i2 )# (j1 )#
 (j2 )# 
π1 (U2 , x) / π1 (X, x)

.(zelkd j2 j1 i2 i1
, , , xy`k) miptl dtigcd `id

:dn`xb`ica oeilrd ipnid reaixd ,5.34 'bd xekfk

i1
(8) B0 / B1

i2 j1
 j2  f1
B2 /C

∃!h
f2 
+G

52
 i i
,ipevig itelig reaix lkl m` B1 ←−
1
B0 −→
2
B2 xear zexeag ly miptl dtigcd `xwp

.ztlgzn dlek dn`xb`icdy jk h:C→G cigi mfitxenened miiw

-xwpew miaeyig zeyrl epl xyt`n `ed ,htynd ly ihqilnxetd geqipd zexnl :dxrd
:lynl .miih

:oey`x yeniy 8.2

. X mb jk ,(3.14 'bd) xyw iheyt U2 -e U1 m`

-e B1 = π1 (U1 , x) zexeagd df dxwna .1.25 dprh itl zizliqn xiyw X :dgked

zniiwy d`xp G := C = π1 (X, x) gwip m` okle ,zeil`ieeixh od (8)-a B2 = π1 (U2 , x)
m` j` .(wix ote`a miniiwzn zeiaihhenewd i`pz lk) h : C → G dcigi dwzrd

 ! 0 -e IdC :zepey zewzrd izy yi C ̸= {0}

:ipy yeniy 8.3

:miiwzn G lkl f` xyw heyt U0 = U1 ∩ U2 m`

. Hom(π1 (X, x), G) = Hom(π1 (U1 , x), G) × Hom(π1 (U2 , x), G)

 .wix ote`a cinz miiwzn (8)-a f2 ◦ i2 = f1 ◦ i1 i`pzd df dxwna :dgked

:dpwqn 8.4

'bd) π1 (U2 , x) -e π1 (U1 , x) ly dltkn-ewd) π1 (X, x) ∼

= π1 (U1 , x) ∗ π1 (U2 , x) df dxwna

.(5.28

 .libxz :dgked

:`nbec 8.5

xear S n = D+
n
∪ D−
n
ik , π1 (S n , s0 ) ∼
2≤n -l = {0}
1 1
n
D+ := {(x1 , . . . , xn+1 ∈ S n | xn+1 > −ε} -e
n
D− := {(x1 , . . . , xn+1 ∈ S n | xn+1 < +ε}
2 2
n ∼ n−1
zitehened lewy D+ ∩D− = S
n
×(−ε, ε) jezigd xy`k 0<ε<1 ,( -l) xeck i`vg ipy

S n−1 . "deeynd xeck"l

n
D+
R
@
 Q
n  n ∼ n−1
S n
D+ ∩ D− =S × (−ε, ε)

n 
D−

:8.4 dpwqn lr div`ix`e mvra dzid 8.1 htyn ly zixewnd `qxbd

53
 :otnw o`e htyn 8.6

mixiyw micwepn miagxn ipy ly cwepn mekq `ed (X, x0 ) = (A, x0 ) ∨ (B, x0 ) m`

π1 (X, x0 ) ∼
. = π1 (A, x0 ) ∗ π1 (B, x0 ) f` , X -a x0 ly dvieek daiaq yie ,zizliqn

 .libxz :dgked

:`nbec 8.7

. π1 (S 1 ∨ S 1 , s0 ) = π1 (S 1 , s0 ) ∗ π1 (S 1 , s0 ) = Z ∗ Z

:dxrd 8.8

elit` - zizliqn xiyw didi U0 := U1 ∩ U2 jezigdy miyxec `l m` oekp epi` 8.1 htyn

!mivieek ely dliqnd iaikx lk m`

1
D+ f` ,
1
D− := {(x, y) ∈ S 1 | y < 1} -e
1
D+ := {(x, y) ∈ S 1 | y > −1} m` ,lynl

,mivieek dliqn iaikxn ipy ly cegi` `ed D+1

∩ D−1
≃ S0 eli`e ,mivieek mdipy
1
D− -e

.7.12 htyn itl ,zil`ieeixh-`l ziceqi dxeag D+1

∪ D−1
= S1 -l z`f lka j`

:8.1 htyn zgked

zexyn (j2 )# -e (j1 )# ,(5.24 'bd) dltkn-ewd ly zil`qxaipe`d dpekzdny al eniy

. ϕ : π1 (U1 , x) ∗ π1 (U2 , x) → π1 (X, x) mfitxenened cgi

:lr ϕ (`

, γ −1 (U1 ) zegeztd zeveawd oian zg` lk , γ : ([0, 1], {0, 1}) → (X, x) d`lel ozpida

zeihwtnewne [0, 1]
, -a migezt mirhw ly cegi` `id [0, 1] , z` cgi zeqknd , γ −1 (U2 )
dwelg lawp okl .iteq ieqik-zz mdn `ivedl ozip [0, 1]
0 = u0 < u1 < . . . < uN −1 < uN = 1
{1, 2} ∋ ν(ℓ)
. Uν(ℓ) -l -a dlek zlkend dliqn `id γi := γ|[uℓ ,uℓ+1 ] 0 ≤ ℓ < N
, lkly jk

ibefℓ ν(ℓ) = 1
-l -y jk ,oibexiql U2 -e U1 -a od γℓ zeliqn-zzdy gipdl xyt` ,mvra

ℓ
.xn`p ,ibef-i`ν(ℓ) = 2 -l -e

zizliqn dxiyw U1 ∩U2 0≤ℓ≤N

-y oeeikn U0 = U1 ∩U2 ∋ γ(tℓ ) =: xℓ
; lkl hxta

, αℓ (0) = x -y jk αℓ : [0, 1] → U0 = U1 ∩ U2 x dliqn yiy ixd ,dgpdd itl z` dlikne

αℓ := cx
.( z` zgwl xyt` ℓ=N ℓ=0 ,0≤ℓ≤N αℓ (1) = xℓ
e` m`) . lkl

−1
, Uν(ℓ) -a dlek zlkend x0 -a d`lel `id βℓ := αℓ ⋆ γℓ ⋆ αℓ+1 0≤ℓ≤N
, lkl okl

:`vnpe

p p −1
γ ∼ γ0 ⋆ · · · ⋆ γN −1 ∼ α0 ⋆ γ0 ⋆ (α1−1 ⋆ α1 ) ⋆ γ1 ⋆ · · · ⋆ (αN −1 ⋆ αN −1 ) ⋆ γN −1 ⋆ αN
p
∼ (α0 ⋆ γ0 ⋆ α1−1 ) ⋆ (α1 ⋆ γ1 ⋆ α2−1 ) ⋆ · · · ⋆ (αN −1 ⋆ γN −1 ⋆ αN ) = β0 ⋆ · · · ⋆ βN −1
xnelk ,3.9 dprh itl

∏
N −1
(9) . π1 (X, x) -a ⟨γ⟩ = (jν(ℓ) )# ⟨βℓ ⟩
ℓ=0

54
-nxepd dxeag-zzd `edy ze`xdle Ker(ϕ)
, z` aygl epleki ,htynd z` gikedl ick (a

miiwn ok` π1 (X, x) -y zexiyi ze`xdl gep xzei didi mle` ;(a 5.36 dprha zx`eznd zil

-xenened ozpiday ze`xdl ,xnelk :miptl dtigcd z` dxicbnd zil`qxaipe`d dpekzd z`

mfitxenened miiw f1 ◦ (i1 )# = f2 ◦ (i2 )#

, i = 1, 2 -y jk ( ) fi : π1 (Ui , x) → G minfit

i = 1, 2 h ◦ (ji )# = fi
: -l -y jk h : π1 (X, x) → G cigi

(i1 )#
(10) π1 (U0 , x) / π1 (U1 , x)

(i2 )# (j1 )#
 (j2 )#  f1
π1 (U2 , x) / π1 (X, x)

∃!h
f2 $- 
G

(9) dxeva zegtl zg` dbvdl π1 (X, x) ∋ ⟨γ⟩

ozip xai` lky (`-a epi`xdy oeeikn

mfitxenenedd m`y i`ceea ,1≤ℓ≤N {1, 2} ∋ ν(ℓ) lkl xear π1 (Uν(ℓ) , x) ∋ ⟨βℓ ⟩ xy`k

:miiwl aiig `ed ,miiw h

∏
N −1
( ) ∏
N −1
(11) h⟨γ⟩ = h jν(ℓ) )# ⟨βℓ ⟩ = fν(ℓ) ⟨βℓ ⟩
ℓ=0 ℓ=0

.(miiw `ed m` ,cigi ok` h okle)

xai`ly okzii hlgda ?(11) `gqepd ici lr ahid xcben h m`d :`id dl`yd

,xn`p - (9) dxevdn mipey mibevii ipy eidi π1 (X, x) ∋ ⟨γ⟩

′ ′′
∏
N ∏
N
(12) ⟨γ⟩ = (jν ′ (ℓ) )# ⟨βℓ′ ⟩ = (jν ′′ (ℓ) )# ⟨βℓ′′ ⟩
ℓ=0 ℓ=0

:miiwzny ,xnelk - beviia dielz dpi` h zxcbdy ze`xdl epilr f`e

′ ′′
∏
N ∏
N
h⟨γ⟩ = fν ′ (ℓ) ⟨βℓ′ ⟩ = fν ′′ (ℓ) ⟨βℓ′′ ⟩
ℓ=0 ℓ=0

-y jkl lewy (12)-e mfitxenened h -y oeeikn

′ ′′
∏
N ∏
N
, (jν ′ (ℓ) )# ⟨βℓ′ ⟩ · ′′
(jν ′′ (N ′′ −ℓ) )# ⟨βN ′′ −ℓ ⟩
−1
= 0
ℓ=0 ℓ=0

m`y ze`xdl witqny ixd

∏
N −1
(13) , π1 (X, x) ∋ 0 = ⟨γ⟩ = (jν(ℓ) )# ⟨βℓ ⟩
ℓ=0

55
 f`

∏
N −1
(14) . fν(ℓ) ⟨βℓ ⟩ = 0
ℓ=0

p
xne` df . γ ly zcwepn ditehenedlep H : γ ∼ cx xy`k ,(13) miiwzny `eti` gipp

γ -y oeeikn .0 ≤ s, t ≤ 1 H(t, 0) = γ(t) H(t, 1) = H(0, s) = H(1, s) = x

lkl -e -y

N −1
zpenzy jk [0, 1] 0 = u0 < . . . < uN = 1
ly ((jν(ℓ) )∗ (βℓ ))ℓ=0 dwelg yi , -d ly xeyxy

p
0≤ℓ<N . Uν(ℓ) γℓ := γ|[uℓ ,tℓ+1 ] ∼ (jν(ℓ) ) ◦ βℓ
lkl -a zlken dlek

dwelgl jxevd dxwna ef dwelg [0, 1] × [0, 1]

ocrl xyt` , ly zeihwtnewd llba

dipyd rlvd ly 0 = s0 < . . . < s m = 1 0 = t0 < t1 < . . . tn−1 < tn = 1

dwelg `evnle ,

jezl elek H ici-lr wzren Ri,j := [ti , ti+1 ] × [sj , sj+1 ] reaix-zz lky ote`a reaixd ly

mikqp jynda epzeigepl 0≤j<m 0≤i<n. -e{0, 1, 2} ∋ µ(i, j) lkl Uµ(i,j) xy`k ,

Xµ(i,j) := X xear -y

. {0, . . . , n − 1} × {0, . . . , m − 1} ̸∋ (i, j)

(ti , sj+1 ) δi,j+1 (ti+1 , sj+1 )

7→ xi,j+1 r -r 7→ xi+1,j+1 (0, 1) r r r r r r(1, 1)
36 6
I
r r
αi,j+1 αi+1,j+1
Ri,j 7→ Uµ(i,j)
ηi,j ηi+1,j sj+1 r r
Ri,j
αi,j sj r r
zr -r
(ti , sj ) δi,j (ti+1 , sj ) r r
7→ xi,j 7→ xi+1,j
αi+1,j r r r r r r
r (0, 0) ti ti+1 (1, 0)
x

Ri,j ohw reaix xear mipeniqd I2 ly dwelgd

dpezgzd zil`nyd dpitd zglyp dil`y X -a dcewpd , xi,j := H(ti , sj ) mcewnk onqp

`id ,dl`k miphw mireaix drax`l llk-jxca zkiiy ef dcewpy oeeikn . Ri,j reaixd ly

:xcbend X ⊇ Vi,j agxn-zzl zkiiy mvra

Vi,j := Uµ(i,j) ∩ Uµ(i−1,j) ∩ Uµ(i,j−1) ∩ Uµ(i−1,j−1)

dxiyw - U0 = U1 ∩ U2 e` ,U2 U1 , oian zg` `idy - ef dveaw eply zegpdd itle

-l x -n αi,j dliqn xegal lkep x

mcewnk okl . qiqad zcewp z` dlikne ,zizliqn

zetqep zeliqn izy xicbp ok αi,j := cx

. xi,j = x rawp , m`y mikqp Vi,j ; xi,j
-a

zil`nxet) 0≤j <m -e 0≤i<n ηi,j := H|{ti }×[sj ,sj+1 ]

lkl -e δi,j := H|[ti ,ti+1 ]×{sj }
(3.27.1 libxz e`x j` 1 - didi ekxe`y jk dxcbdd megz z` lnxpl epilr

−1 −1
zeniizqne zeligznd θi,j := αi,j ⋆ ηi,j ⋆ αi,j+1 -e ζi,j := αi,j ⋆ δi,j ⋆ αi+1,j ze`lel lawp

ly zcwepn ditehenedlep deedn H|Uµ(i,j) ,ok lr xzi Uµ(i,j)

. x
-a zelken mdizepenze , -a

−1 −1
ζi,j ⋆ θi+1,j ⋆ ζi,j+1 ⋆ θi,j
:

(15) π1 (Uµ(i,j) , x) -a ⟨ζi,j ⟩ ⋆ ⟨θi+1,j ⟩ ⋆ ⟨ζi,j+1 ⟩−1 ⋆ ⟨θi,j ⟩−1 = 1

56
ξ : szeyn bivp yi π1 (U2 , x) ∋ λ π1 (U1 , x) ∋ κ
-e mixai` ipyl m`y al miyp dzr

κ = (i1 )# (⟨ξ⟩) okle U0 = U1 ∩ U2

, -a zlken ([0, 1], {0, 1}) → (X, x)
ezpenz gxkda ,

mixai`d lynl jk f1 (κ) = f2 (λ)

. :miiwzn eply λ = (i2 )# (⟨ξ⟩
dgpdd itly o`kne , -e

ζi,j+1 : dliqnd ici-lr mdipy mibvein π1 (Uµ(i,j+1) , x) ∋ ⟨ζi,j+1 ⟩ π1 (Uµ(i,j) , x) ∋ ⟨ζi,j+1 ⟩ -e

αi,j+1 zeliqnd zxiga itl Uµ(i,j) ∩ Uµ(i,j+1)

, ([0, 1], {0, 1} → (X, x)
-a zlken dzpenzy ,

θi+1,j αi+1,j+1
:jkitl . -l dnecae , -e

(16) fµ(i,j+1) (⟨ζi,j+1 ⟩) = fµ(i,j) (⟨ζi,j+1 ⟩) -e fµ(i+1,j) (⟨θi+1,j ⟩) = fµ(i,j) (⟨θi+1,j ⟩)

.( f0 := f1 ◦ (i1 )# = f2 ◦ (i2 )# mipnqn ep` xy`k) 0≤j<m 0≤i<n , lkl

:lawp (15) lr eze` lirtp m` ,mfitxenened `ed fµ(i,j) lky oeeikn

0 = fµ(i,j) (0) = fµ(i,j) (⟨ζi,j ⟩ ⋆ ⟨θi+1,j ⟩ ⋆ ⟨ζi,j+1 ⟩−1 ⋆ ⟨θi,j ⟩−1 )

= fµ(i,j) ⟨ζi,j ⟩ · fµ(i,j) ⟨θi+1,j ⟩ · fµ(i,j) ⟨ζi,j+1 ⟩−1 · fµ(i,j) ⟨θi,j ⟩−1
-xenenedd zlrtd ixg` milhazn mipky miphw mireaixa mixai`dy mi`ex ep` (16) jezne

.mi`znd ( k ∈ {0, 1, 2} ) fk mfit

lk lr fk -d zlrtday `vnp `eti` `vnp miphwd mireaixd lk lr dletk divwecpi`a

:`vnp mini`znd mireaixd

∏
n ∏
m ∏
n
( fµ(i,0) ⟨ζi,0 ⟩) · ( fµ(n,j) ⟨θn,j ⟩) · ( fµ(n+1−i,m) ⟨ζn+1−i,m ⟩−1 ) ·
i=1 j=1 i=1
∏m
· ( fµ(0,m+1−j) ⟨θ0,m+1−j ⟩−1 ) = 0
j=1

lawp okle , H ≡ cx did reaixd ly zil`nyde dpeilrd ,zipnia rlva mle` , G -a

∏n
(17) .( fµ(i,0) ⟨ζi,0 ⟩) = 0 ∈ G
i=1

zecewpn wlg eeid 0 = u 0 < u 1 < . . . < uN = 1 zeixewnd dwelgd zcewpy oeeikn

m`y d`xp ,diipad it-lr (13) wexitl dni`zdy 0 = t0 < t1 < . . . < tn = 1 dwelgd

p
Uµ(i+ρ,0) ⊆ Uν(ℓ) -e γi ∼ βi ⋆ · · · ⋆ βi+k
, f` , uℓ = ti < ti+1 < ti+k−1 < ti+k = eℓ+1 lynl

-y ,`eti` ,raep (16) ρ jezn . lkl f0 e` fµ(i+ρ,0) = fν(ℓ) 0≤ρ<k

xnelk , lkl

∏
k−1
fν(ℓ) (γℓ ) = fµ(i+ρ,0) ⟨βi+ρ ⟩
ρ=0

,ahid xcben h -y epi`xd jka .yxcpk ,(14) miiwzn (17) itl okle , 0≤ℓ<N lkl

 .miptl dtigc ly il`qxaipe`d i`pzd z` zniiwn ok` (7)-y xnelk

.[ Fulton, §14c ]-a ieqikd iagxn zxfra Grothendieck ly zihpbl` dgked e`x :dxrd

Richard ici-lr dpey`xl dpzipy) lirl dgkedd ly zepeirxa ynzydl xyt` mvra

π1 : xehwptd ici-lr "zeleab-ew xeniy" lr illk xzei htyn lawl ick ( 1959 Crowell
-a

.ho T op∗ → Gp

57
 :htyn 8.9

lk U := {Uα }α∈A
xy`k , gezt ieqik yi (X, x0 ) zizliqn xiyw cwepn agxnly gipp

mikezig zgz Uxebq x0 m` . qiqad zcewp z` dlikne zizliqn dxiyw Uα dveaw

π1 (X, x0 ) Uα1 ∩ Uα2 = Uα3

f` - -y jk A ∋ α3 miiw A ∋ α1 , α2 lkl ,xnelk - miiteq

dlkdd iα,β : Uα ∩ Uβ ,→ Uα
`id xy`k) (Uα , iα,α )α,α′ ∈A
′ dn`xb`icd ly leab-ew `ed

.( A ∋ α, β lkl

 .8.1 htyn zgked ly dxiyi dllkd :dgked

:dpwqn 8.10

x0 ∈ U1 ⊆ U2 ⊆ . . . Un ⊆ . . .
, :zegezt zeveaw ly dlkda dler dxcq ly cegi` X m`

.(a 5.32 'bec) π1 (X, x0 ) = colimn→∞ π1 (Un , x0 ) f`

8 wxtl milibxz 8.11

.8.4 dpwqn z` egiked 8.11.1

.8.6 htyn z` egiked 8.11.2

.8.9 htyn z` egiked 8.11.3

ziceqid dxeagd iyeniy 9

.dibeleteha wx `le ,dwihnznd ly mipeebn minegza miax miyeniy ziceqid dxeagl

:z` wiqdl lkep ,7.12 htyn lr epknzqda ,lynl

:dxabl`d ly iceqid htynd 9.1

.cg` akexn yxey zegtl yi miakexnd lrn reaw-`l mepilet lkl

xn`p - miqt` `ll owezn akexn mepilet p(z) -y gipp :dgked

. p(z) = z n + an−1 z n−1 + . . . + a0

R := ,lynl) 1 < R ici lr xn`p ,(1.32 htyn) meqg p|S 1 ,ihwtnew S 1∑ -y oeeik

.(
n
i=0 |ai |
f : S1 → S1 divwpet idef C∋w
.( p(w) ̸= 0
lkl ik ,ahid xcben) f (z) = p(Rz)
|p(Rz)|
xicbp (1

H(z, 0) = a0 /|a0 |
.( -e H(z, 1) = f (z) H(z, t) = f (tz)
f`e) :ici lr ,zitehenedlep `ide

58
 n n
ici lr f -l zitehened ,g : S 1 → C \ {0} R z
g(z) := |p(Rz)|
divwpet xeza , ,z`f znerl (2

lkl G(z, t) ̸= 0 -y al eniy G(z, t) = tf (z) + (1 − t)g(z)

. ,xnelk - zix`pil ditehened

tf (z) + (1 − t)g(z) = 0
f` m` ik , t, z
Rn
= |g(z)| = |t||g(z) − f (z)| ≤ |g(z) − f (z)|
|P (Rz)|
|a1 Rn−1 z n−1 + . . . + a1 Rz + a0 |
=
|p(Rz)|

epiidc

R ≤ |an−1 R
n n−1 n−1
z + . . . + a0 | ≤ |an−1 |R n−1
+ . . . + |a0 |
∑
n−1
< |ai |Rn−1 = Rn
i=0

S 1 ,→ C\{0} pn (z) := z n
-y oeeikne , pn : S 1 → S 1 zxcbend -l zitehened g(z) ,seqal (3

dni`zn π1 (S , s0 ) ∋ ⟨pn ⟩
1
π1 eli`e , -a mfitxenefi` dxyn `id ,zitehened zeliwy `id

dreawd divwpetd π1 (C \ {0}, s0 ) ≡ π1 (S 1 , s0 ) ∼

jci`n . = Z mfitxenefi`a Z ∋ n -l

 p(z)
.reaw n=0 ,xnelk n=0 - gxkda okle , -l dni`zn h(z) = a0

mihtyn mb gikedl ozip ziceqid dxeagd aeyige ieqikd iagxn zxez zxfra :dxrd
dyrp `l .`id mb ziyteg - ziyteg dxeag ly dxeag-zz lk :lynl ,oihelgl miixabl`

.o`k z`f

xe`xa ly zayd zcewp htyn

:dprh 9.2

zecewp `ll envrl Rn -a xebqd dcigid xeckn f : Dn → Dn dtivx dwzrd zniiw m`

S
.
n−1
= ∂D n
,zicnin- (n − 1) -d dxitqd lr Dn ly (4.6 'bd) divwxhx zniiw f` ,zay

lkl f (⃗x) ̸= ⃗x -y o`kn .zay zecewp `ll dtivx divwpet f : Dn → Dn -y gipp :dgked
. D ∋ ⃗x n
lkl qt`n dpey g(⃗x) := ⃗x − f (⃗x) xehwed okle ,
n
D ∋ ⃗x

:dnl 9.3

-y jk φ : Dn → [0, ∞) dtivx divwpet dzxfra xicbdl ozipe ,dtivxg divwpetd

oxwd ly jezigd zcewp `id h(⃗x) ,xnelk) ∥h(⃗x)∥ = 1 :miiwn h(⃗x) := ⃗x + φ(⃗x) · g(⃗x)
.(xeckd zty mr g(⃗x) oeeika

 .libxz :dgked

meiw gihan zay zecewp `ll f : Dn → Dn divwpet meiwy mi`ex ep` dnld itl

- S n−1
∋ ⃗x lkl h(⃗x) = ⃗x -y dpekzd h -l ,ok lr xzi . h:D →S n n−1
dtivx divwpet

 .divwxhx h ,xnelk ;xeckd zty lr xak eidy zecewp onewna dxi`yn h ,xnelk

59
 :dprh 9.4

.dcigid lebir ly hwxhx epi` dcigid lbrn

, r ◦ i = IdS 1 xy`k , r : D2 → S 1 divwxhx zniiwe ,dlkdd i : S 1 → D2 m` :dgked

:lawp (3.17 dprh) ziceqid dxeagd zeil`ixehwptn f`

. r# ◦ i# = (r ◦ i)# = (IdS 1 )# = Idπ1 (S 1 ) = IdZ

,2.10 zeprh itl π1 (D2 ) ∼

= π1 ({⃗0}) = {0} eli`e ,7.12 htyn itl π1 (S 1 ) ∼
=Z mle`

ipy ly dakxd didz Z minlyd zxeag ly zedfd mfitxenenedy okzii `l .3.18-e ,2.11

gked jkae ,dxizql eprbd okl .(?recn) zil`ieeixhd dxeagd jxc mixaerd ,minfitxenened

 .htynd

:(xeyina xe`xa ly zayd zcewp htyn) dpwqn 9.5

.zay zcewp yi envrl dcigid lebirn dwzrd lkl

,2.10 dprh itl ,uieek elek xeyind :ditehenedd zxeza htyn eppi` dfy al eniy :dxrd
zxcbend) f :R →R 2 2
dffd ziivwpetl la` .2.11 dprh itl D 2
-l zitehened lewy okle

⃗a ̸= ⃗0
. m` zay zecewp oi` (reaw R2 ∋ ⃗a xear R2 ∋ ⃗x
, lkl f (⃗x) = ⃗x + ⃗a

2 cnina mle`-weqxea htyn

dxwn gikedl ick lbrnd ly ziceqid dxeaga aeyiga ynzyp ep` ,zncewd `nbeca enk

:xfr zeprh izya ligzp .(20.30 htyn 'x) cnin lka jynda gkeiy ,htyn ly ihxt

:dprh 9.6

f` ,S 1 ∋ ⃗z lkl f (−⃗z) = −f (⃗z) zniiwn f : (S 1 , s0 ) → (S 1 , s0 ) zcwepn dwzrd m`

.ibef-i` deg(f )

γ, δ : [0, 1] → S 1 γ⋆δ xy`k ,π1 (S 1 , s0 )

dliqnd f ici-lr :dgked -a xai`k z` bviip

.0 ≤ t ≤ 1 δ(t) := f (cos(π(t+1)), sin(π(t+1))) γ(t) := f (cos(πt), sin(πt))

-l -e zexcben

-y ixd R ∋ t , sin(πt) = − sin(π(t + 1))

lkl cos(πt) = − cos(π(t + 1)) -e -y oeeikn

f 0≤t≤1 . δ ( t) = −γ(t)
lr i`pzd itl lkl

γ̃ : (7.8 dprh it lr γ(1) = f (−s0 ) = −f (s0 ) = −s0

,dcigid) dnxdd , -y oeeikn

miiwz γ̃(0) = 0 exp : R → S 1 mr , γ [0, 1] → R

ieqikd zwzrdl qgia , ly

mr δ ly δ̃ : [0, 1] → R
dnxdd z` Z ∋ n -a onqp γ̃(1) = n + 21
,dneca . xear

γ : [0, 1] → S 1 ⊂ C δ
ly sewiyd `id ( δ −1 δ̃(0) = γ̃(1)
-l dketdd dliqnd) -y al miype ,

sewiyl 0 R ( -a t → −t
ly sewiyd) exp z` C dxiarn dwzrdde , -a iynnd xiva

1 −1
f` δ̃(0) = n + 2 0 γ̃
m` hxta . δ̃-a ly sewiyd S1
`ed okl .iynnd xiva ly

meiqd zcewp zeidl zxcbend , f δ̃(1) = (n + 12 ) + (n + 12 ) = 2n + 1

ly dbxcd weica idefe ,

 [f ] ∈ π1 (S 1 , s0 ) . γ⋆δ γ̃ ⋆ δ̃ z` zbviind ly dnxdd ly

60
 :dprh 9.7

.S 2 ∋ ⃗z lkl f (⃗z) = f (−⃗z) zniiwnd f : S2 → S1 dwzrd oi`

mr f zakxd g :√D2 → S 1
ici-lr xicbdl did ozip f,z`fk dzid eli` :dgked
xear . g(x, y) := f (x, y, 1 − x2 − y 2 ) ,xnelk - h : D 2 → D+2
mfitxene`ine`dd

:lawp S 1 = ∂D2 ∋ ⃗z
, g(−⃗z) = f (h(−⃗z)) = f (−h(⃗z)) = −f (h(⃗z)) = −g(⃗z)
libxz itl , g|S 1 ly ditehenedlep deedn g mle` .ibef-i` deg(g|S 1 ) 9.6 dprh itl okle

 .dxizq - deg(g|S 1 ) = 0 okle ,(c 2.29.3

:(2 cnina m`le`-weqxea htyn) 1 dpwqn 9.8

. f (⃗z) = f (−⃗z) -y jk S 2 ∋ ⃗z dcewp yi f : S 2 → R2 dwzrd lkl

`vnpe , g(z) := f (⃗
z )−f (−⃗
∥f (⃗
z)
z )−f (−⃗
z )∥
:dgqepd ici-lr g : S2 → S1 xicbdl lkep ,`l m` :dgked

 .9.7 dprhl dxizqa - S ∋ ⃗z

2
lkl g(⃗z) = g(−⃗z) -y

:(cnind ly zeihp`ix`eepi`) 2 dpwqn 9.9

Rn -a megzl ixtene`ined zeidl leki epi` R2 -a (dwix `l dxiyw dgezt dveaw) megz

. 3≤n xear

3≤n
( ) Rn ⊇ V dveawl itxene`ined A -y jk R2 ⊇ A dveaw s` oi` mvra :dgked
xeck ly oekiy milawn epiid ,z`fk A zniiw dzid eli` ik Int(V ) ̸= ∅
, :wix `l mipt mr

∂ B̄ε (⃗x) ∼
= S n−1 dxitqd ly oekiy okle , R2 jezl ( V ∋ ⃗x Rn ⊇ B̄ε (⃗x)
) ohw xebq

 .9.8 dpwqnl dxizqa - R2

xeyinl

9 wxtl milibxz 9.10

.9.3 dnl z` egiked 9.10.1

f (⃗z) = f (−⃗z)-y jk S 1 ∋ ⃗z dcewp yi f : S 1 → R1 dwzrd lkly e`xd 9.10.2

,deg(f ) ̸= 0 f` ,S
1
∋ ⃗z lkl f (⃗z) ̸= f (−⃗z) zniiwn f : S1 → S1 m`y e`xd (` 9.10.3

.7.19.5 libxz itl lr f okle

. lr f f` , S 2 ∋ ⃗z lkl f (⃗z) ̸= f (−⃗z) zniiwn f : S2 → S2 m`y e`xd (a

ditehened zexeag 10

dfy xak epi`x .dxeag ly irah dpan [X, Y ]∗ dveawl yi Y -e X minieqn miagxn xear

.(a 3.12 dxrd 'x) Y ly ziceqid dxeagd z` epxcbd jk - X = S1 -l oekp

61
 :dxcbd 10.1

πn (X; x) := [(S n , s0 ), (X, x)] :`id (X, x) cwepn agxn n

ly zi- -d ditehenedd zxeag

.( Rn+1 ⊇ S n ∋ s0 := (1, 0, . . . , 0) =: s0 xy`k)

:ici lr ixhne`b ote`a x`ezz dxeagd zlert

f - ∗x
p0
∗s0 ∇ - ∗ X

-
g

:jk xzei ilnxet ote`a xcbeze

:dxcbd 10.2

. Rn icilwe`d agxnd ly I n := [0, 1]n agxn-zzd `id zicnin n-d diaewd (`

. ∂I n := {⃗x = (x1 , . . . , xn ) ∈ I n | ∃k ∈ {1, . . . n}, xk ∈ {0, 1}} `id diaewd zty (a

`id (X, x0 ) cwepn agxna (pointed singular n-cube) zcwepn zixlebpiq diaew- n (b

zcewpl qgia ,zcwepn dwzrd hxta F : (I n , ∂I n ) → (X, {x0 )

idef) zebef ly dwzrd

.( I n ∋ ⃗0 qiqad

:dprh 10.3

irah ote`a zitxenefi` [(I n , ∂I n ), (X, x0 )] ziqgid zitehenedd zeliwyd zewlgn zveaw

. πn (X, x0 ) -l

 .libxz :dgked

:dxcbd 10.4

zeixlebpiq zeiaew- n izy od g : (I n , ∂I n ) → (X, x0 ) f : (I n , ∂I n ) → (X, x0 )

-e m` (`

f ⋆g zcwepnd zixlebpiqd diaew- n -d `ed (concatenation)

mdly xeyxyd ,zecwepn

:zxcbend (X, x0 ) -a

{
f (2x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ) 0 ≤ x1 ≤ 12
. (f ⋆ g)(x1 , . . . , xn ) =
g(2x1 − 1, x2 , . . . , xn ) 21 ≤ x1 ≤ 1

:xcben f : (I n , ∂I n ) → (X, x0 ) zcwepn zixlebpiq diaew- nly f −1 iktedd (a

I n ∋ (x1 , . . . , xn )
. lkl f −1 (x1 , x2 , . . . , , xn ) := f (1 − x1 , x2 , . . . , xn )

62
 :dprh 10.5

.zeiqgi zeitehened zcakn zecwepn zeixlebpiq zeiaew- n ly xeyxyd zlert (`

.ziqgi ditehened ick cr ziveaiw zecwepn zeixlebpiq zeiaew- n ly xeyxyd zlert (a

ditehened ick cr , f zcwepn zixlebpiq diaew- n ly iccv-ec ikted `ed f −1 iktedd (b

.( f ⋆ f −1 ∼ f −1 ⋆ f ∼ cx0 ,xnelk) ziqgi

 .(3.9-e 3.7 zeprh zegkedl eeyd) libxz :dgked

:dpwqn 10.6

. πn : ho T op∗ → Gp xehwpt dxicbn zi- n -d ditehenedd zxeag 1≤n

, lkl

 .libxz :dgked

:htyn 10.7

. 2≤n -l zeila` od cwepn agxn lk ly πn (X, x0 ) ditehenedd zexeag

 .libxz :dgked

:mi`ad mixeiva exfrd :fnx

pppp pppp
pppp pppppppppp
pppppppppp pp pppp pppp pppp pppp pp pppppppppp pppp pp pp pp pp pp pp pp pp pp pp pp pp pp
ppppxpppp pppppppppp pp ppppxpppp0pppp pppp pp pppppppppp pppp ppxpp pp pp pp pp pp pp ppxpp pp pp pp
g g pppp pppp
pppp
pppp0 g pppppppppp
pppppppppp
x0
pppppppppp p pp pp pp pp p pppp pp pp pp 0pp pp pp pp pp f pp pp pp0pp pp f f
pp pp pp pp pp pp pppppppppp
pppppppppp g pppppppppp f pppp pp pp pp pp pp pp pp pp pp pp pp pp pp pp
ppxpp pp pp pp pp pppppppppp
pppppppppp g pppppppp ppppxpppp pppp0pppp pppp pppp pppp pppp ppxpp pp pp pp pp
f pp pp pp 0pp pp pp f pppppppppp
x0
pppppppppp f pp pppp pppp pppp pppp pp pppppppppp
pppppppppp
pppppppppp
x 0
g pp pp pp 0pp pp pp g

:zedeabd ditehenedd zexeag ly ziqgi `qxb mb dpyiy xazqn

:dxcbd 10.8

onqp 2≤n -l (`

∂I n ⊇ J n := {(x1 , . . . , xn ) ∈ I n | ∃k ∈ {1, . . . n − 1}, xk ∈ {0, 1}}

∪ {(x1 , . . . , xn ) ∈ I n | xn = 0}

:"oeilrd dqknd" `ll In diaewd zty `id Jn ,xnelk

. I+n−1 := {(x1 , . . . , xn ) ∈ ∂I n | xn = 1}

(2.28 'bd) (X, A, x0 ) relative singular n-cube

cwepn befa ( ) ziqgi zixlebpiq diaew- n (a

-n idef ,xnelk f : (I , ∂I , J n ) → (X, A, x0 )

-
n n
(2.27 'bd) zeyly ly dwzrd `id

dtyd lk mvra A
la` , jezl dlek diaewd zty z` dwizrnd X -a zixlebpiq diaew

x0 . qiqad zcewpl zwzren oeilrd dqknd caln

63
 f |I+n−1
R r
I+n−1 x0 R
f |J n = cx0 A
n
I -
f
X
Jn

zecwepn zeix`lebpiq zeiaew- n ly zeyly ly zitehenedd zeliwyd zewlgn sqe` (b

. πn (X, A, x0 ) := [(I n , ∂I n , J n ), (X, A, x0 )] oneqi

:dprh 10.9

,zecwepn zeix`lebpiq zeiaew- n xeyxy zlert zgz dxeag deedn πn (X, A, x0 ) 2 ≤ n

, -l

cwepnd befd ly ( n-th relative homotopy group n ) zi- -d ziqgid ditehenedd zxeag `xwizy

πn : ho T op2∗ → Gp
.(6.6 dnl e`x) xehwpt dxicbne , (X, A, x0 )

 .libxz :dgked

:dprh 10.10

zxeag oia πn (X, A, x0 ) ∼

= πn (X, x0 ) irah mfitxenefi` yi f` , X ⊇ A = {x0 } m`

. 2≤n lkl ,dlibxde ziqgid ditehenedd

 .libxz :dgked

:dprh 10.11

. 3≤n -l zila` πn (X, A, x0 )

 .(10.7 htyn zgked e`x) libxz :dgked

zewiecn zexcq

:dxcbd 10.12

minfitxenenede zexeag ly dxcq

ϕn−2 ϕn−1 ϕn ϕn+1

(18) . . . → An−2 −→ An−1 −→ An −→ An+1 −→ An+2 → . . .

n
, lkl miiwzn df m` . Im(ϕn−1 ) = Ker(ϕn ) exact at An An
m` ( ) -a zwiecn zi`xwp

(long exact sequence)

. dkex` zwiecn dxcq (18)-y xn`p

64
 i f
dxvw zwiiecn dxcq efy xn`p , C B, A
e , -a zwiiecn 0→A→B →C →0 m`

.( C∼
= B/A -e , B ly dxeag-zz A (short exact sequence)
mvra f`e)

:htyn 10.13

∂# : πn (X, A, x0 ) → πn−1 (A) mfitxenened epyi 2≤n lkle (X, A, x0 ) cwepn bef lkl

:dxcqdy jk

i# j# ∂# i#
. . . → πn (A, x0 ) −→ πn (X, x0 ) −→ πn (X, A, x0 ) −→ πn−1 (A, x0 ) −→ πn−1 (X, x0 ) → . . .

.zelkdd j : (X, x0 ) ,→ (X, A) -e i : (A, x0 ) ,→ (X, x0 ) xy`k ,zwiiecn

:dgked

f : (I n , ∂I n , J n ) → (X, A, x0 )
. ziqgi zixlebpiq diaew- n lkl ∂# ([f ]) := [f |I+n−1 ] xicbp

itl mfitxenened `ide [f ] , zeliwyd zwlgnl f bivpd zxigaa dielz dpi` ∂# ([f ]) f`

ote`a I n−1
, mr zipep`w dxeva I+n−1 z` midfn ep` jyndae o`k .lirl xeyxyd zxcbd

.ywaznd

: πn (X, x0 ) -a weic (`

,πn (A, x0 ) -a xai` zbviind ,zcwepn zixlebpiq diaew- n f : (I n , ∂I n ) → (A, x0 ) m`

j ◦i◦f : ziqgi zixlebpiq diaew- n -k eilr miayeg m` ,envr f j∗ (i∗ ([f ]))
ici-lr bvein f`

:zxcbend ditehenedd la` (I , ∂I , J ) → (X, A, x0 )

n
.
n n

{
f (x1 , . . . , xn−1 , xn − t) xn ≥ t m`
H((x1 , . . . , xn ), t) :=
x0 xn > t m`

:zcwepn ziqgi ditehened `id

H : (I n × [0, 1], ∂I n × [0, 1], J n × [0, 1]) → (X, A, x0 )

. j∗ ◦ i∗ = 0 -y epi`xd jkae .( H : f ∼ cx 0 )

zniiwy xne` df j∗ ([f ]) = 0

, f : (I n , ∂I n ) → (X, x0 )
-y jk ozpida ,ipy cvn

jk H : (I × [0, 1], ∂I × [0, 1], I+ × [0, 1]) → (X, A, x0 )

n n n−1
zcwepn ziqgi ditehened

g : (I n , ∂I n ) → (A, x0 ) n
zcwepn zixlebpiq diaew- H : cx0 ∼ f (rel (∂I n , I+n−1 )
xicbp . -y

g(x1 , . . . , xn−1 , xn ) := H((x1 , . . . , xn−1 , 1), xn )

. :ici lr

ik (I , ∂I ) → (A, x0 )
,
n n
g
zebef ly dwzrd ok` `id ziqgid ditehenedd zxcbd itl

I n × [0, 1] ly zexg`d ze`td lk H z` f |∂I n = cx0

dwizrn eli`e , -y oezp l`ny cva

,xnelk) G:f ∼i◦g H

ditehened dxicbn mb x0 -y al eniy . -l (oeilrde il`nyd caln)

G : (I × [0, 1], ∂I × [0, 1]) →

n n
(X, x0 )xy`k ,( g f
-l dwzrdk dilr miayeg xy`k , -l oia

(X, x0 ) :ici-lr zxcben

. G(x1 , . . . , xn−1 , xn , s) := H(x1 , . . . , xn−1 , s + (1 − s)xn , sxn )

65
 f
s
xn = 1
r r g
6
@ s
@ I+n−1 × [0, 1] cx 0 A X
@ -
@r rI n × {1} r rx0
rI n × {0} 3
xn = 0 @ cx0
@
@ 1
@r [0, 1] -r  

t=0 t=1  H

I n × [0, 1]

. Ker(j∗ ) ∋ [f ] m` i∗ ([g]) = [f ] -y epi`xd jka

: πn−1 (A, x0 ) -a weic (a

diaew- n zxcbd itl f` πn (X, A, x0 ) , f : (I n , ∂I n , J n ) → (X, A, x0 )

-a xai` bviin m`

`ed g : (I n−1 , ∂I n ) → (X, x0 ) j# (∂# ([f ])) := h

xy`k , miiwzn ziqgi zixlebpiq

:ici lr H : (I n−1
× [0, 1], ∂I × [0, 1]) → (X, x0 )
n
f |I+n−1
zcwepn ziqgi ditehened xicbp .

. ∂# ◦ j # = 0 H : g ∼ cx0 (rel ∂I n−1 ) H((x1 , . . . , xn−1 ), t) := f (x1 , . . . , xn−1 , t)

okle , ;

ditehened i∗ ([f ]) = 0
zniiw , f : (I n−1 , ∂I n−1 ) → (A, x0 )
-y jk ozpida ,ipy cvn

H : g ∼ cx0 (rel ∂I n−1 )

, H : (I n−1 × [0, 1], ∂I n × [0, 1]) → (X, x0 )
-y jk zcwepn ziqgi

lr h : (I , ∂I , J ) → (X, A, x0 )
n n n
g := i ◦ f : (I n−1 , ∂I n ) → (X, x0 )
xicbp , xy`k

okle H : g ∼ cx0 (rel ∂I n−1 )

, h((x1 , . . . , xn )) := H((x1 , . . . , xn−1 ), 1 − xn )
f` ; :ici

∂# ([h]) = [h|I+n−1 ] = [f ] .

: πn (X, A, x0 ) -a weic (b

bvein ∂∗ (j∗ ([f ])) f` , πn (X, x0 ) -a xai` bviind f : (I n , ∂I n ) → (X, x0 ) ozpida

;zcwepn zixlebpiq diaew- n zxcbd itl x0 -l elek wzren f |∂I n f |I+n−1 = cx0
ik , ici-lr

∂# ◦ j∗ = 0 . okl

∂# ([f ]) = 0
, -e ziqgi n f : (I , ∂I , J ) → (X, A, x0 )
zixlebpiq diaew-
n n n
m` ,ipy cvn

-y jk H : (I n−1 × [0, 1], ∂I n−1 × [0, 1]) → (A, x0 ) zcwepn ziqgi ditehened zniiw

g : In → X H : f |I+n−1 ∼ cx0 (rel ∂I n−1 )

:ici lr xicbp .

{
f (x1 , . . . , xn−1 , 2xn ) 0 ≤ xn ≤ 12 m`
. g(x1 , . . . , xn−1 , xn ) =
H(x1 , . . . , xn−1 , 2xn − 1) 1
2
≤ xn ≤ 1 m`

zixlebpiq diaew- n eplaw ,xnelk ,diipad itl g|∂I n = cx0 -e ,1.6 htyn itl dtivx g f`

. (X, x0 )-a zcwepn

zeyly ly ditehened xicbp ,seqal

G : (I n × [0, 1], ∂I n × [0, 1], J n × [0, 1]) → (X, A, x0 )

66
 ici lr

{
f (x1 , . . . , xn−1 , 2x
t+1
n
) 0 ≤ xn ≤ t+1
2
m`
G(x1 , . . . , xn , t) =
H(x1 , . . . , xn−1 , 2xn − (t + 1) t+1
2
≤ xn ≤ 1 m`

wlg f z` zrvane , H ditehenedlepd ly xzei ohw wlg zrvan G ,lcb t -y lkk ,xnelk)

 .Ker(∂# ) ∋ [f ] m` Im(j∗ ) ∋ [f ] -y epi`xde , G:j◦g ∼f f` .(onfd ly xzei lecb

:dprh 10.14

zebef ly dwzrd ozpida ,xnelk - zirah 10.13 htyn ly dkex`d zwiiecnd dxcqd

:zitelig dn`xb`ic lawp , f : (X, A, x0 ) → (Y, B, y0 ) micwepn

i# j# ∂#
πn (A, x0 ) / πn (X, x0 ) / πn (X, A, x0 ) / πn−1 (A, x0 )

(f |A )# f# f# (f |A )#
 i#  j#  ∂# 
πn (B, y0 ) / πn (Y, y0 ) / πn (Y, B, y0 ) / πn−1 (B, y0 )

. 2≤n lkl

 .libxz :dgked

:dxcbd 10.15

z` xicbdl ozip (X, A, x0 ) cwepn befl ,3.20 dxcbda enk

, π1 (X, A, x0 ) := [(I 1 , {0, 1}, {1}), (X, A, x0 )]

.zcwepn dveaw efe

67
 10 wxtl milibxz 10.16

.10.3 dprh z` egiked 10.16.1

.10.6 dpwqn z` egiked 10.16.2

.10.5 dprh z` egiked 10.16.3

.1 ≤ n-l zeila` od cwepn agxn lk ly πn (X, x0 ) ditehenedd zexeagy e`xd 10.16.4

.10.7 htyn z` hexita egiked 10.16.5

.10.9 dprh z` egiked 10.16.6

.10.10 dprh z` egiked 10.16.7

.10.11 dprh z` egiked 10.16.8

.10.14 dprh z` egiked 10.16.9

didi ozipy ote`a "zecwepn zeveaw ly zwiiecn dxcq" byend z` exicbd 10.16.10

zeveaw ly dxvw zwiiecn dxcql cr dpini 10.13 htyn ly zwiiecnd dxcqd z` jiyndl

:zecwepn

i# j# ∂# i#
π1 (A, x0 ) −→ π1 (X, x0 ) −→ π1 (X, A, x0 ) −→ π0 (A, x0 ) −→ π0 (X, x0 )

?ipnid dvwd lr xnel xyt` dn

miaeiq 11

proj : X × Y → X
, dlhdd ly mb onf eze`ae ,ieqikd zwzrd byen ly dllkd `ed aeiq

wlg lk lrn "xac eze`" `id dketdd dpenzd day dwzrda xaecn mixwnd ipya .lynl

:oey`x hana ef dpekz ztwyn dpi` ozipy zil`nxetd dxcbdd .geehd ly witqn ohw

68
 :dxcbd 11.1

qgia ( homotopy lifting property ) zeitehenedd znxd zpekz yi p:E→B dwzrdl (`

oinin itelig reaix lkl m` X oezp agxnl

X /E
h
X
h /E
:
uuu
H̃ uuu
i uu p i p
 uu   
X × [0, 1]
H /B X × [0, 1]
H /B

dlkdd xear ,ztlgzn l`nyn dn`xb`icdy jk H̃ : X × [0, 1] → E dnxd zniiw

.i:X∼
= X × {0} ,→ X × [0, 1]

zpekz dl yi m` ( Hurewicz fibration ) (uiaxed ly) aeiq zi`xwp p:E→B dwzrd (a

. X ibeleteh agxn lkl qgia zeitehened znxd

znxd zpekz dl yi m` ( Serre fibration ) xq ly aeiq zi`xwp p:E →B dwzrd (b

.( 0≤n ) I n
diaew lkl qgia zeitehened

xcbei - iteq il`iviltniq qwltnew lkl qgia dnxdd zpekz dl yiy raep dfn :dxrd
.xq ly aeiq hxta `ed (uiaxed ly) aeiq lky xexa .(12.7 'bd) jynda

`xwp E agxnde p
, ly ( base space ) qiqad `xwp B agxnd ,aeiq p:E →B m` (c

. p ly ( total space ) llekd agxnd

agxnd-zz `ed B∋b dcewpa p:E→B (uiaxed e` xq ly) aeiq ly ( fibre ) aiqd (d

`xwii b0 qiqad zcewpa aiqd ,cwepn agxn (B, b0 ) xy`k . E ly Fb := p−1 (b)
.p ly aiqd

:dnl 11.2

F ∼
. =Y aiq mr ,(uiaxed ly) aeiq `id zifhxw dltkn lkn projX : X × Y → X dlhdd

 .libxz :dgked

b1 -n α dliqn lk f` ,zizliqn xiyw B p:E→B

-e ,aeiq m`y ze`xdl xyt` :dxrd
≃
okl .dvwd zecewp lrn miaiqd oia hα : Fb1 −→ Fb2 zitehened zeliwy dxyn B -a b2 -l

. p:E→B F
aeiqd ly "aiqd" lr xacl df dxwna xyt`

:dxcbd 11.3

i p
i`pza ,( fibration sequence ) aeiq zxcq F −→ E −→ B zewzrdd zxcql `xwp ep`

.dlkdd i : F ,→ E B∋b -e , edyfi`l F = p−1 (b) -y

f`e , F = p−1 (b0 ) -y gipp cinz p : (E, e0 ) → (B, b0 ) cwepn aeiq ly dxwna ,oaenk

.ahid zxcben dxcqd

69
 :dxcbd 11.4

-iw m` ( locally trivial bundle ) zinewn-il`ieeixh cb` p : E → B

zi`xwp dwzrd

`xwpd B
, ly U = {Uα }α∈A gezt ieqike ( p lyfibre
( ) F
aiqd `xwpd) agxn mi

mfitxene`ened A∋α lkle ,(trivializing cover ) divfil`ieeixh ieqik

∼
ϕα : Uα × F −→ p−1 (Uα )
=

:(dlhdd) projUα : Uα × F → Uα = p ◦ ϕα -y jk

ϕα
Uα × F / p−1 (Uα )
G GG v
GG vv
G vvp
projUα GGG vv
# v{ v
Uα

. F oezpd aiql itxene`ined B -a b dcewp lk lrn Fb aiqd ,zinewn il`iaixh cb`a

:ze`nbec 11.5

.ihxwqic agxn F aiqd eay ,zinewn il`ieeixh cb` `ed (7.1 'bd) ieqik agxn lk (1

dpnd agxnk icnin- n -d akexnd iaihwiextd agxnd z` xicbdl xyt` xekfk (2

, CP n := (Cn+1 \ {⃗0})/ ∼

dpn zwzrd `eti` yi . C \ {0} ∋ λ lkl ⃗z ∼ λ · ⃗z xcben ∼ zeliwyd qgi xy`k

`ed SCn+1 ∼
= S 2n+1 -l qn ly mevnvd mb ,(1.18 'bec e`x) xen`ke qn : Cn+1 \ {⃗0} → CP n
,

. ηn : S 2n+1 → CP n dpn zwzrd

:dprh 11.6

S1
. aiq mr ,zinewn-il`ieeixh cb` `id ηn : S 2n+1 → CP n dpnd zwzrd , 1≤n lkl

.2n cnina ( Hopf fibrations ) sted ly miaeiqd mi`xwp dl`

ly zeliwyd zwlgn) [z0 ; z1 ; . . . ; zn ] xeza CP n -a zecewpd z` onqp m` :dgked

xy`k V0 , . . . , Vn
, ici-lr CP n+1 ly ieqikd f` Cn+1 \ {⃗0} ∋ ⃗z = (z0 , . . . , zn )
,(

xy`k , ηn ly divfil`ieeixh ieqik deedn Vi := {[z0 ; . . . ; zi ; . . . ; zn ] ∈ CP n | zi ̸= 0}

-y oeeikne 0 ≤ i ≤ n
, lkl ahid xcben ϕi -y ze`xl ϕi : Vi × S 1 → ηn−1 (Vi )
lw .

−1
jetdd mfitxene`inedd z` xicbdl lkep ηn (Vi ) = {(z0 , . . . , zn ) ∈ S 2n+1 | zi ̸= 0}
,

 . ϕ−1
i (z0 , . . . , zn ) := ([z0 ; . . . ; zn ], |zi | ) ∈ Vi × S
zi 1
:ici-lr

:dnl 11.7

`ed 2 cnina sted ly aeiqd okle ,(o`nix ly dxitqd) Ĉ = C ∪ {∞} = S 2 ∼= CP 1

. η2 (z0 , z1 ) = z0
z1
∈ C ∪ {∞} xeza C2 ⊇ S 3 ∋ (z0 , z1 ) η2 : S 3 → S 2
xear xcbene ,

 .libxz :dgked

70
 :dprh 11.8

.xq ly aeiq `ed p:E→B zinewn-il`ieeixh cb` lk

.o`k z`f gikep `l j` ,(uiaxed ly) aeiq `ed zinewn il`ieeixh cb` lk mvra :dxrd

:zitelig dn`xb`ic ozpida :[7.9 dprh zgked e`x] dgked

In
h /E

i p
 
I n × [0, 1]
H /B

(n + 1)
- -d diaewd zeihwtnewn .(11.4 'bd) B ly divfil`ieeixh ieqik U = {Uα }α∈A idi

zephw zegezt zeiaewl dze` wlgl xyt` , I n × [0, 1] zicnin

(1) (1) (2) (2) (n+1) (n+1)

C(i1 ,i2 ...,in ) := (ti1 −1 , ti0 ) × ti2 −1 , ti1 ) × . . . × tin −1 , tin )
(n+1) (1) (n+1) (1) (1) (1)
lkly jk ( 0 = t0 < tn+1 < . . . < tnn+1 = 1 . . . 0 = t0 < t1 < . . . < tn1 = 1
, , )

xai`d jezl zwzren dni`znd dxebqd diaewdy jk A ∋ α(i0 , . . . , in ) (i0 , . . . , in ) miiw

H(Cl(C(i0 ,...,in ) )) ⊆ Uα(i0 ,...,in )

. :divfil`eiiexhd ieqik ly mi`znd

dler dxcq lawpy ote`a (Ck )N

k=1 dxcqa elld zegeztd zeiaewd z` xcqp dzr

-y jk (Ak )N
k=0 mixebq miagxn ly dlkda

, I n × {0} = A0 ⊆ A1 ⊆ . . . ⊆ AN := I n × [0, 1]

rk : Bk → Bk ∩ Ak−1 1 ≤ k ≤ N
-y ote`ae , lkl Bk := Cl(Ak \ Ak−1 ) = Cl(Ck )
ly H̃ : AN := I n × [0, 1] → E zyweand dnxdd z` xicbp .(4.6 'bd) divwxhx `id

H̃|A0 := h : I n → E
: 0≤k≤N xy`k , ly divwecpi`a H : I × [0, 1] → B
n

zegeztd zeveawd zg` jezl Bk = Cl(Ck ) z` wizrn H|Bk dipad itly oeeikn

mfitxene`ined miiw dxcbdd itl ,U divfil`ieeixhd ieqik ly Uα(k)

∼
ϕα(k) : Uα(k) × F −→ p−1 (Uα(k) )
=

-lr Gk : Bk → E xicbdl lkepe , p ◦ ϕα(k) = projUα(k) : Uα(k) × F → Uα(k) -y jk

miiwzn i`ceea f` . Bk ∋ (⃗x, s) lkl Gk (⃗x, s) := ϕα(k) (H(⃗x, s), projF (rk (⃗x, s))) :ici

ick F̃k−1 -l Gk z` sxvl lkep 1.6 htyn itl okle H|Bk = p ◦ Gk (Gk )|Bk ∩Ak−1 = F̃k−1
, -e

 F̃k . z` lawl

:dnl 11.9

. h : (I n+1 , J n ) → (I n × [0, 1], I n ) iqgi mfitxene`ined miiw 0<n

, lkl

 .libxz :dgked

71
 dpwqn 11.10

:oinin itelig reaix lkle , 0<n lkl , p:E→B xq ly aeiq lkl

J n−1
h /E J n−1
h /E
zz<
H̃ zzz
z p p
 zzz
i i
  
In
H /B In
H /B

.ztlgzn l`nyn dn`xb`icdy jk H̃ : I n → E dnxd zniiw

:dprh 11.11

lkl p∗ : πn (E, F, e0 ) → πn (B, b0 ) mfitxenefi` dxyn p : (E, e0 ) → (B, b0 ) xq ly aeiq

1≤n
.

micwepn zebef ly dwzrd lawp p : (E, e0 ) → (B, b0 ) cwepn aeiq lkly al eniy :dxrd
.10.10 dprh itl πn (B, {b0 }, b0 ) ∼
= πn (B, b0 ) -e , p : (E, F, e0 ) → (B, {b0 }, b0 )

zniiw 11.10 dpwqn itl , f : (I n , ∂I n ) → (B, b0 ) zix`lebpiq diaew- n :dgked

ozpida

dn`xb`icdy jk f ly
˜
f :I →E
n
dnxd

ce0
J n−1 /E
<
f˜zzz
z
zz p
 zzz f
i

In /B

f˜ ,xnelk - F := p−1 (b0 ) aiqd jezl I n−1 × {1} z` dwizrn f˜ -y o`kne ,ztlgzn

epi`xd jka [f ] = [p ◦ f˜] = p∗ ([f˜])

. i`ceeae ,ziqgid ditehenedd zxeaga xai` bviin

.lr p∗ -y

zeiqgi zeixlebpiq zeiaew- n izy xear p∗ ([fˆ]) = p∗ ([ĝ]) -y gipp dzr

. fˆ, ĝ : (I n , ∂I n , J n ) → (E, F, {e0 })

: p◦g -l p◦f -n H : (I n × [0, 1], ∂I n × [0, 1]) → (B, b0 ) ditehened zniiwy xne` df

p ◦ fˆ
s
cb0
xn = 1
r r 
:
@
6    B
@ I+n−1 × [0, 1] 
@r r  p ◦ ĝ s rb0
r r 3
xn = 0 @ cb0
@
@r -r 
1
 
t=0 t=1  H

I n+1 = I n × [0, 1]

72
 :ici-lr h : Jn → E xicbdl lkep f`


 ˆ
f (x1 , . . . , xn−1 ) s = 0 m`

h(x1 , . . . , xn−1 , s) = ĝ(x1 , . . . , xn−1 ) s = 1


m`


c e0 :zxg`

zitelig dn`xb`ic lawp

Jn h /E

i p
 
I n × [0, 1]
H /B

ze`xl xyt`y H̃ : I n+1 = I n × [0, 1] → E -l H ly dnxd yi aey 11.10 dpwqn itl okl

. H̃ : fˆ ∼ ĝ ditehenedk dze`

−1
okl . H̃(I × {1}) ⊆ p (b0 ) = F
n
-y raep H ly dnxd H̃ -y dcaerdn

H̃ : (I n × [0, 1], ∂I n × [0, 1], J n × [0, 1]) → (E, F, {e0 })

 .zikxr-cg-cg p∗ ,xnelk - πn (X, F, e0 ) ∋ [fˆ] = [ĝ] okle ziqgi ditehened `id

:dpwqn 11.12

:dkex` zwiiecn dxcq dpyi p : (E, e0 ) → (B, b0 ) cwepn xq ly aeiq lkl

i# p# ∂# i#
. . . . → πn (F, e0 ) −→ πn (E, e0 ) −→ πn (B, b0 ) −→ πn−1 (A, x0 ) −→ . . . π0 (B, b0 )

:yeniy 11.13

πi (F ) = {0} f` ,xyw heyt X̃ xy`k , F (ihxwqic) aiq mr ieqik agxn p : X̃ → X m`

∼
=
∂# : π1 (X, x0 ) −→ -y lawp dkex`d zwiiecnd dxcqdn okl
∼
π0 (F ) = F . 0<i eli`e , -l

∼
=
. 1<i lkl minfitxenefi` p∗ : πi (X̃, e0 ) −→ πi (X, x0 ) π0 (F, e0 ) -e

:dpwqn 11.14

. 1 ̸= i -l πi (S 1 , s0 ) = {0}

 .lirl mi`pzd z` miiwn exp : R → S 1 :dgked

:yeniy 11.15

i η2
:dkex` zwiiecn dxcq lawp ,(11.6 dprh) sted ly aeiqd zxcq S 1 −→ S 3 −→ S 2 m`

i# (η2 )# ∂# i# (η2 )# ∂# i#
. . . π3 S 1 / π3 S 3 / π3 S 2 / π2 S 1 / π2 S 3 / π2 S 2 / π1 S 1 / π1 S 3

∼
= ∼
= ∼
= ∼
= ∼
= ∼
= ∼
= ∼
=
  ∼      
{0} / (?) = / (?) / {0} / {0} / (?) //Z / {0}
0 0 0 0

73
 .11.14 dpwqne 8.5 'bec itl zeqt`zn zepiievnd zexeagd day

-da . Z lr mfitxenened dpnn yi ik ,zil`ieeixh dpi` π2 (S 2 , s0 )

-y wiqdl lkep o`kn

.(?recn) η2 ̸∼ cs0 -y o`kne ,(20.6 dpwqn) π3 (S 3 , s0 ) ̸= {0} -y d`xp jyn

-enedlep dpi`y mipey micnina zexitq oia dwzrd ly dpey`xd `nbecd dzid z`f

.zixehqid dpigan dax zeaiyg η2 sted aeiql yi okle ,ziteh

11 wxtl milibxz 11.16

.11.2 dnl z` egiked 11.16.1

.11.7 dnl z` egiked 11.16.2

.11.10 dpwqne 11.9 dnl z` egiked 11.16.3

icnin-zlz xebq xeckn f : D3 → D3 dwzrd lkly 11.15 `nbec zxfra e`xd 11.16.4

.zay zcewp yi envrl

.9.5 dpwqn zgked e`x :fnx

74
 II wlg
zil`iviltniq dibeleteh
inia ,18-d d`na xak mvrae) dx`wp`et ztewza ,zixabl`d dibeletehd ly dzligz

:`ad xe`izl minid zeaxa dyabzdy ,zixehpianew dyiba dzid (xlie`

miil`iviltniq miqwltnew 12

,oebiletd byen ly micnin n -l dllkd `ed ,(yeliy mr) oe`t e` ,il`iviltniq qwltnew

(dfilp`a ile` caln) miyeniya miritend miibeletehd miagxnd axin .xeyina ,rlevn e`

z`e ,xicbdl xyt` mipe`td z` .df byen ly zeheyt zellkd e` ,mipe`tk dbvdl mipzip

fkxzp ep` .(ixehpianew) hytn e` ,(ibeleteh) ixhne`b :mipte` ipya ,x`zl ozip mdizepekz

.miqwltniqd :mipe`td ly oiipad ipa`a ligzpe ,oey`xd hwtq`a xwira

:dxcbd 12.1

affinely ) zipit` dielz-izla zi`xwp RN -a ⃗a0 , ⃗a1 , . . . , ⃗an (zecewp) mixehwe zveaw (`

m` ( independent
∑
n ∑
n
λi⃗a = ⃗0
i
mbe λi = 0 =⇒ λ0 = λ1 = . . . = λn = 0
i=0 i=0

i = 1, . . . , n
( -l ⃗v i := ⃗ai − ⃗a0 mixcbend) {⃗v 1 , . . . , ⃗v n } mixehwed m` ,zexg` milina e`

.zix`pil miielz izla

edylk icilwe` agxn ly σ agxn-zz `ed (geometric n-simplex) ixhne`b qwltniq- n (a

:dxevdn RN
∑
n ∑
n
σ = {⃗x ∈ RN | ⃗x = λi⃗ai , λi ≥ 0, λi = 1}
i=0 i=0

. RN -a zipit` miielz-izla {⃗a0 , ⃗a1 , . . . , ⃗an } xear

:ze`nbec

⃗a2r ⃗a2r
X

J XXXX
J

J Xp r
J r r r

p p p p p p p p p p p ⃗a3
⃗a0 ⃗a1 ⃗a0
ppp

p p p p p p p p p pJ
J
rp
pp p p JJr r
JJr
⃗a0 ⃗a1 ⃗a0 ⃗a1

qwltniq- 3 qwltniq- 2 qwltniq- 1 qwltniq- 0

(span) zeyxet ode , σ qwltniqd ly (vertices) micewcwd ze`xwp ⃗a0 , . . . , ⃗an zecewpd (b

. σ z`

75
 . σ := span(⃗a0 , . . . , ⃗an ) :oeniq
∑
zeinipt zecewp ze`xwp 0≤i≤n lkl λi > 0 zeniiwnd ⃗x = ni=0 λi⃗ai zecewpd (c

σ̇ . σ oneqi ly zeiniptd zecewpd sqe` σ . (interior points)

ly

. σn ly (dimension) cnind `xwp n (d

. n = dim(σ) :oeniq

oaena ⃗a0
, ici lr yxtpd icnin- 0 qwltniq ly zinipt dcewp cinz ⃗a0 dcewpd :dxdf`
mixwna mb oekp df . RN ly agxn-zzk) ibeletehd oaena zinipt dcewp dpi` ik s` - df

. n<N m` ,mixg`

:dnl 12.2

-ylk dcewp liknd K ixhne`ib il`iviltniq qwltnewa dlkda ixrfnd qwltniqd σ m`

x . ly ( carrier ) `ypd `xwp σ -e , σ ly zinipt dcewp x f` , K∋x id

 .libxz :dgked

:dxcbd 12.3
∑n 1
. σn ly (barycenter) caekd fkxn zi`xwp σ̂ n = ai
i=0 n+1 ⃗ dcewpd

(barycentric coordinates) (λ )n
∑n i i=0
-pd ly zeixhpvixa zehpicxe`ew mi`xwp mixtqnd

. σn ∋ i=0 λi⃗ai =: ⃗x dcew

:dnl 12.4

.cigi ote`a zerawp σn ∋ ⃗x dcewp ly zeixhpvixad zehpicxe`ewd

 .libxz :dgked

:dxcbd 12.5

micewcewd ly {⃗ai1 , . . . , ⃗aik } dveaw-zz ici lr yxtpd τ icnin- k -d qwltniqd-zz (`

.( τ ≼σ :oeniq) σ ly ( face ) d`t `xwp σ ly

. τ ≺σ :oeniq .(proper face) ynn d`t idef , k<n m` (a

. σ ly ( facet ) ly ot `xwp τ dim(τ ) = dim(σ) − 1

, m` hxta (b

:dprh 12.6

: RN -a ixhne`b qwltniq- n `ed σ m`

. RN -a dxiywe zihwtnew ,dxenw ,dxebq dveaw σ (1

.Cl(σ̇) = σ ,xnelk - zeiniptd zecewpd zveaw ly xebqd `id σ (2

76
lkend gezt rhwl zekiiy opi`y zecigid zecewpd ody] eicewcew ici lr rawpe raew σ (3

σ
.[ -a

RM , RN n σn τ n
∑n ∑n
-txene`ined miiw ,dn`zda -a miixhne`b miqwltniq- ipy -e m` (4

f ( i=0 λi⃗ai ) = ⃗ f : σn → τ n
.
i=0 λi bi :xcbend ix`pil mfi

 .libxz :dgked

miil`iviltniq miqwltnew

:dxcbd 12.7

ly K iteq sqe` `ed ( geometric simplicial complex ) ixhne`b il`iviltniq qwltnew

-y jk , R N
cg` icilwe` agxna milken mlek ,mipey micninn miqwltniq

. K∋τ f` , τ ≼σ -e K∋σ m` (`

.mdly ztzeyn d`t `ed ξ := τ ∩ σ -y e` , σ∩τ =∅ -y e` f` K ∋ σ, τ m` (a

v5
s
Q
σ7 Q σ6
 τ3 Q
v1 
s QQsv4
B
@ σ5 
B@ τ2  
σ1
B @ σ
B @ 3
σ  4
B τ @ 
B 1 @ 
Bs @s
v2 σ2 v3

:zexcbd 12.8

qwltniq ly ilniqwnd cnind `ed , dim(K) oneqnd , K ly (dimension) cnind i ( )

. K∋σ
(` z` miiwnd miqwltniq ly sqe`-zz `ed K ly (sub-complex) qwltnew-zz ( ii )

.12.7 'bd ly [(a mb okle]

miqwltniqd sqe` `ed K ly (m-skeleton) icnin- m -d clyd ( iii )

. skm K := {σ ∈ K | dim(σ) ≤ m}

. K ly qwltnew-zz edf

agxnd-zz `ed , |K| oneqiy , K ly (geometric realization) ixhne`bd yenind

∪ iv ( )

RN
. ly
σ∈K σ
∼
=
X
. ly (triangulation) yeliy `xwp X ibeleteh agxnl h : |K| −→ X mfitxene`ned ( v )

77
 :dxrd 12.9

ly iteq sqe` K -y dyixcd ila ixhne`ib il`iviltniq qwltnew xicbdl xyt` mvra

,xnelk - locally finite

( ) zinewn-iteq `ed qwltnewd cer lk ,lcad mey oi` .miqwltniq

iteq epi` K qwltnewd m` . K ly miqwltniq ly iteq xtqnl wx jiiy K ly cewcw lk

day ,( weak topology ) dylgd dibeletehl |K| ly dibeletehd z` zepyl epilr ,zinewn

mihxtl K⊇σ
. qwltniq lkl xebq A∩σ jeizgd m` wxe m` dxebq K⊇A dveaw

[Munkres]
. e`x

:dprh 12.10

: RN -a ixhne`b il`iviltniq qwltnew K m`

. R N
ly (meqge xebq hxtae) ihwtnew agxn-zz |K| (1

K
. ly cg` qwltniq weical zinipt |K| ly dcewp lk (2

σ̇ ∩ τ̇ = ∅ -y jk ,lirl (` z` miniwnd Rn -a miqwltniq ly K iteq sqe` lk (3

.il`iviltniq qwltnew `ed , σ ̸= τ xear

.il`iviltniq qwltnew L f` K ly qwltnew-zz L m` (4

. L∩M -e L∪M mb jk , K ly miqwltnew-zz M, L m` (5

. K∋σ lkl σ -a xebq X ∩σ ⇐⇒ dxebq dveaw `id X ⊆ |K| dveaw (6

⨿
.
σ∈K σ ly dpn agxn `ed |K| okl

 .libxz :dgked

:dxcbd 12.11

zi`xwp f : K0 → L0 divwpet ,miixhne`b miil`iviltniq miqwltnew L, K m` (`

qwltniq- n {⃗a0 , . . . , ⃗an }

miyxet -y mrt lk m` ( simplicial map ) zil`iviltniq dwzrd

yi m` ,jenp xzei cninn L ile`) ly qwltniq miyxet {f (⃗a0 ), . . . , f (⃗an )} mb , K ly

{f (⃗a0 ), . . . , f (⃗an )}
.( dveawa zexfg

induced ) zixyend zil`iviltniqd dwzrdd ,zil`iviltniq dwzrd f : K0 → L0 m` (a

:zxcben |f | : |K| → |L| simplicial map

(

∑
n ∑
n
. |f |( i
λi⃗a ) := λi f (⃗ai ) ∈ |L|
i=0 i=0

:dprh 12.12

.dtivx dwzrd |f | : |K| → |L| f` ,zil`iviltniq dwzrd f : K0 → L 0 m`

L∋τ
, qwltniq lkl τ -a dxebq dveaw A∩τ f` ,dxebq dveaw A ⊆ |L| m` :dgked
f −1 (A) xnelk , K∋σ lkl σ -a dxebq |f |−1 (A) ∩ σ okle , K∋σ lkl dtivx |f | mle`

 .lirl (6 12.10 dpekz itl |K| -a dxebq dveaw

78
agxn `edy ,ely yenind oia miipia byen `ed ixhne`ib il`iviltniq qwltnew :dxrd
:`ad xedhd ixehpianewd byend oial ,xac lkl ibeleteh

:dxcbd 12.13

-zz ly K sqe` `ed ( abstract simplicial complex ) hyten il`iviltniq qwltnew (`

:mi`pzd z` miniiwnd , V dveaw ly zeiteq zeveaw

;K∋A f` , A⊂B∈K m` (i)

. K ⊇ V (ii)
m`e K , ly miqwltniqd mi`xwp K ixai` . K ly micewcewd mi`xwp V ixai` (a

K V
,iteq m` .icnin- n qwltniq `xwp A f` ,micewcew n+1 dpen A = {a0 , . . . , an }
V = K0
. hxta ; Ki oneqi K i
-a miicnin- -d miqwltniqa lk sqe` .iteq qwltnew `xwp

-il`iviltniq miqwltnew iabl mb (i) 12.11-e (i)-(iii) 12.8 zexcbd ly mibyena ynzyp ep` :dxrd
.mihytn mi

:dprh 12.14

eay , K hytn il`iviltniq qwltnew mi`zn ixhne`ib il`iviltniq qwltnew lkl

. Ki := {σ ∈ K | dim(σ) = i} -e V := K0
, `id micwcwd zveaw

 .libxz :dgked

:dprh 12.15

K′ ixhne`ib il`iviltniq qwltnew epyi K (iteq) hytn il`iviltniq qwltnew lkl

′
itxenefi` 12.14 dprh itl el mi`znd K hytnd qwltnewdy df oaena ,eze` ynnnd

.oezpd K -l

{⃗e1 , . . . , ⃗eN } ihxcphqd qiqad z` xgap ,micwcw N V = {v1 , . . . , vN } yi -a m` :dgked

mi`zp K K ∋ A = {vi0 , . . . , vin }
ly n (qwltniq- K0′
) dveaw-zz lkle , xeza RN
ly

 RN σ := span(⃗ei0 , . . . , ⃗ein )
. -a ixhne`ibd qwltniq- nd z`

,ok lr xzi .(12.9 dxrd e`x) miiteqpi` mihytn miqwltnewl mb dpekp dprhd :dxrd
.icnin- n `ed K m` R2n+1
, -a K′ z` okyl ozip dyrnl

yenind `xwii K -l mi`zna ixhne`ibd qwltnewd ly |K ′ | ixhne`ibd yenind

. |K| oneqie , K ly ixhne`ibd

:dprh 12.16

mfitxene`ined zgz miitxene`ined K hytn mil`iviltniq miqwltnew ly miyenin ipy

.il`iviltniq

 .libxz :dgked

79
 :dxcbd 12.17

lk lr xcq yi m` ( ordered ) oeekn `xwp K (ixhne`ib e` hytn) il`iviltniq qwltnew

.( K∋σ qwltniq lk icwcw lr hxta okle) K ly micwcwd

12 wxtl milibxz 12.18

.12.6 dprh z` egiked 12.18.1

.12.10 dprh z` egiked 12.18.2

.12.2 dnl z` egiked 12.18.3

.12.4 dnl z` egiked 12.18.4

.12.14 dprh z` egiked 12.18.5

.12.16 dprh z` egiked 12.18.6

il`iviltniq aexiw 13

xywd mle` ,dixebihw mieedn (miixhne`ibd e` mihytnd) miil`iviltniqd miqwltnewd

oia dwzrd lk `ly `id zixwird dirad .xexa epi` zibeletehd dixebihwd oial dpia

-l`iviltniq dwzrd ly yenin dnvra `id miil`iviltniq miqwltnew ly miixhne`ib miyenin

:ditehened ick cr zegtl ,miiwzn ok df zeni`zn zegpday d`xp dzr .zi

:zexcbd 13.1

:idylk dcewp |K| ∋ x -e ,ixhne`b il`iviltniq qwltnew K `di

`id , NK (x) oneqzy , K -a x ly (simplicial neighborhood) zil`iviltniqd daiaqd (`

.mdly ze`td mr cgi σ∋x , σ∋K -y jk miqwltniqd sqe`

jk NK (x) ∋ σ miqwltniq mze` sqe` `ed , LK (x) oneqiy x

, ly (link) weyigd (a

. x ̸∈ σ -y

miqwltniqd ly miniptd cegi` `ed starK (σ)

, K ∋σ
oneqiy , ly (star) akekd (b

starK (σ) := ∪σ≼τ ∈K σ̇

. :mdly d`t σ -y K ly

:dprh 13.2

80
 . |K|
-a dgezt dveaw starK (σ) K ∋ σ , lkl (`

. star(σ) = |N (x)| − |LK(x)| f` , Int(σ) ∋ x m` (a

lken span(⃗x, ⃗y ) rhwd , |N (⃗x)| ∋ ⃗y lkly df oaena ,"dxenw hrnk" dveaw |N (⃗x)| (b

.|N (⃗x)| -a

 .libxz :dgked

:dnl 13.3

qwltniq miyxet K ixhne`ib il`iviltniq qwltnewa

∩n {v1 , . . . , vn } micwcw zveaw

.
i=1 starK (vi ) ̸= ∅ m` wxe m` K ly

 .libxz :dgked

:dxcbd 13.4

zi`xwp miixhne`b miil`iviltniq φ:K→L

miqwltnew oia zil`iviltniq dwzrd

oia f : |K| → |L| dtivx (simplicial approximation)

dwzrdl il`iviltniq aexiw

f (starK (a)) ⊆ starL (|φ|(a)) K ∋ a , cewcew lkl m` miyenind

. σ ∋ |φ|(x) -e σ ∋ f (x) -y jk L∋σ qwltniq miiw , x ∋ |K| lkl :oeirxd

:dnl 13.5

cewcew lkly `ed witqn i`pz f : |K| → |L|

, -l il`iviltniq aexiw miiw didiy icka

. f (starK (a)) ⊆ starL (b) -y jk b = φ(a) cewcew miiw a∋K

φ(a0 ), . . . , φ(an ) -y ze`xdl witqn ,zil`iviltniq dwzrd ok` φ -y ze`xdl ick :dgked
opeazdl witqn jk myl j` . K ∋ σ = span(a0 , . . . , an ) L m` ly qwltniq miyxet

x ∈ star(a0 ) ∩ . . . , star(an )
okle f` ik , σ̇ ∋ x-a

 . f (x) ∈ f (star(a0 )) ∩ . . . ∩ f (star(an )) ⊆ star(|φ|(a0 )) ∩ . . . ∩ star(|φ|(a0 ))

:dprh 13.6

f ≃ φ (rel A)
, f` , f : |K| → |L| dtivx dwzrdl il`iviltniq aexiw φ:K→L m`

. |φ|(x) = f (x) oday zecewpd sqe` A ⊆ |K| xy`k

 .libxz :dgked

:dprh 13.7

il`iviltniq aexiw ψ:L→M -e f : |K| → |L| -l il`iviltniq aexiw φ:K→L m`

. g ◦ f : |K| → |M | -l il`iviltniq aexiw ψ◦φ:K →M f` g : |L| → |M |

, -l

81
 .libxz :dgked

K = L = ∂∆[2] m` ,lynl .il`iviltniq aexiw odl oi`y zetivx zewzrd opyi :dxrd
deg(f ) ̸= ±1 dbxc zlra f : S1 → S1 dwzrdl j` , |K| = |L| ∼
= S1 f` ,(wixd yleynd)

.il`iviltniq aexiw oi` (7.13 ,bd)

:dxcbd 13.8

-tniq qwltnew ly (subdivision) dwelg-zz `xwp L ixhne`b il`iviltniq qwltnew

:m` K ixhne`b il`ivil

. K ly qwltniqa lken L ly σ qwltniq lk ( ) i

. L ly miqwltniq ly iteq xtqn ly cegi` `ed K ly qwltniq lk ( ii
)

:dxcbd 13.9

K ixhne`b il`iviltniq qwltnew ly ( barycentric subdivision ) zixhpvixad dwelgd

K
xy`k Sd K , ly dwelg-zz `ed

K ly σ miqwltniqd ly (12.3 'bd) σ̂ mixhpvixad md Sd K ly micewcwd ( ) i

σ0 ≺ σ1 ≺ . . . σk m` wxe m` {σ̂0 , σ̂0 . . . , σ̂k } ici-lr yxtp Sd K ly qwltniq- k ( ii
)

dlkda dler dxcq ly caekd ifkxn ici lr miyxtp dwelgd-zza miqwltniqd ,xnelk)

.( K ly miqwltniq ly

lkl Sdn+1 K := Sd(Sdn K) divwecpi`a xicbp zillke , Sd2 K := Sd(Sd K) onqp

1≤n
v̂2 v2
r r

J

J
τ := span(v̂2 , γ̂, σ̂)

JJ

β̂ r

Jrγ̂
J

Q

rQ JJ
Q
 β

Jγ

 σ̂ Q J )
  ξ := span(v̂1 , γ̂)
σ J

 Q
J
QJ JJr
r

r QJr r

v̂0 α̂ v̂1 v0 α v1

σ ly zixhpvixa dwelgd σ ixewnd qwltniqd

:dnl 13.10

. |K| ∼
= | Sd K| :miiwzn K ixhne`ib il`iviltniq qwltnew lkl

 .libxz :dgked

:dxcbd 13.11

zeidl xcben (X, d) ixhn agxna zeveaw ly A = {Ai }i∈I sqe` ly oecird zcin

:onqp ,ixhne`b il`iviltniq qwltnew K m` mesh(A) := supi∈I {diam(Ai )}

.(1.33 'bd)

. mesh(K) := mesh({σ ∈ Ki | i = 1, 2, . . . })

82
 :dnl 13.12

f` , RN -a ixhne`b qwltniq- n σ = span(⃗a0 , . . . , ⃗an ) m`

. diam(σ) = max {∥⃗

ai − a⃗j ∥}
i̸=j

miiwzn RN ∋ ⃗x lkly ze`xdl witqn :dgked

, sup {∥⃗x − ⃗y }} = max {∥⃗x − ⃗ei ∥}

y ∈∆[n]
⃗ 0≤i≤n

-y ze`xdl witqn n lr divwecpi`ae

, max{∥x − e⃗1 ∥, ∥x − e⃗2 ∥} ≥ ∥x − (λe⃗1 + (1 − λ)e⃗2 )∥

. max{∥⃗v ∥, ∥w∥}
⃗ ≥ ∥λ⃗v + (1 − λ)w∥
⃗ ⃗v w
⃗ : , -l e⃗1 -y , e⃗2 -e
⃗0
-l ⃗x zffd ici lr ,e`

⃗v r
pppp ⃗
p* ⃗ + t(⃗v − w)
ut = w ⃗
r
p p p pppppp r
⃗0 m
⃗ 0≤t≤1
@
@
w⃗@ R
L

⃗0
( ziy`xl L xyid lr ⃗ut dcewpd wgxn reaix) f (t) = ∥w
⃗ +t(⃗v − w)∥
⃗ 2 :divwpetd j`

,(ziy`xd jxc xaer epi` L xyid ,xnelk - zix`pil miielz-izla ⃗v w

⃗ , m`) dxifbe dtivx

,meniqkn dl oi`e , L lr
⃗0 ly m
⃗ lhida il`aelb menipin zlawn `idy mircei ep`e

′
xebq [0, 1] rhwd j` . m
⃗ lhidl mi`znd t xear wx f (t) = 0 miiwzn R∋t -l okle

 .zeevwd cg`a gxkda `ede ,1.32 htyn itl my meniqkn mb zlawn f okl ,meqge

:dnl 13.13

.
n
n+1
diam(σ n ) ≥ xhew yi Sd(σ n ) ly τ ixhne`b qwltniq lkl

-l z`f ze`xdl witqn ,zix`pil divnxetqpxh zgz ∆[n] σn zpenz -y oeeikn :dgked
micewcewd ai , aj xear xy`k ∥ai −Bn ∥ diam(τ ) = maxi,j ∥ai −aj ∥
, lirl xen`d on . ∆[n]
icewcew e⃗0 , . . . , e⃗n xear eli`e ∥ai − aj ∥ ≤ n−1
,
n
diam ∆[n − 1] Sd(∂∆[n]) -e -a miritend

eli`e ,( j edyfi`l) ∥ai − Bn ∥ ≤ ∥ej − Bn ∥ :13.12 dnl itl miiwzn ∆[n]

1 ∑ ∑ 1 n
∥ej − Bn ∥ = ∥ej − ei ∥ = ∥ (ei − ej )∥
n + 1 i=0 i̸=j
n+1
1 ∑ n
≤ · ∥ei − ej ∥ = · diam ∆[n]
n + 1 i̸=j n+1

 .yxcpk

83
 :dpwqn 13.14

m -d zixhpvixad dwelga ritend ipit` qwltniq- n lk xhewy jk m miiw 0<ϵ lkl

. ϵ -n ohw didi ∆[n] ly

 .
n k
limk→∞ ( n+1 ) =0 -y dcaerdn raep :dgked

:dpwqn 13.15

n
. limn→∞ mesh(Sd K) = 0 :miiwzn K ixhne`b il`iviltniq qwltnew lkl

 .libxz :dgked

:il`iviltniqd aexiwd htyn 13.16

dwzrd f : |K| → |L| -e ,(miiteq) miixhne`ib miil`iviltniq miqwltnew L -e K m`

φ : SdN K → L
. il`iviltniq aexiw yi f -ly jk 0≤N yi f` ,dtivx

{starL (wi )}ni=1 ,(1 13.2 dprh itl f` ; L icewcw L0 = {wi }ni=1
zveaw -y gipp :dgked
. |K| ly gezt ieqik U := {f −1 (starL (wi )}ni=1 L okle , ly gezt ieqik

jk 0 ≤ N miiw 13.15 dpwqn itl .(1.35 dprh) U ly bal xtqn 0 < ε idi

N
`eti` gipdle , Sd K K -a z` silgdl xyt` zehytd ornle ,mesh(SdN K) < ε/2 -y

:miiwzn starK (v) ∋ x lkle K ly v cewcw lkly xne` df hxta mesh(K) < ε/2
. -y

.diam(starK (v)) ≤ ε okle , d(v, x) ≤ mesh(K) < ε/2

e` , starK (v) ⊆ f −1 (starL (wi(v) )) -y 1 ≤ i(v) ≤ n
jk miiw ,1.34 dxcbd itly o`kn

yi) .φ(v) := wi(x) φ:K→L :jk zil`iviltniq dwzrd xicbdl lkep :zexg` milina

.(izexixy ote`a mdn zg` K ∋v xgap ; lkl mi`zn i(v) xegal zg` jxcn xzei ile`

:(12.11 'bd) zil`iviltniq dwzrd ok` efy `ceel epilr

∩k
,
j=0 starK (vij ) ̸= ∅ f` ,K -a qwltniq- k `ed K ∋ span(vi0 , . . . , vik ) =: σ m`

okle

∩
k ∩
k ∩
k
starL (φ(vij )) ⊇ f (starK (vij )) ⊇ f ( starK (vij )) ̸= ∅
j=0 j=0 j=0
∩k
L -a qwltniq yxet {φ(vi0 ), . . . , φ(vik )} -y raep o`kn .
j=0 starL (φ(vij )) ̸= ∅ xnelk

.13.3 dnl itl

span(vi0 , . . . , vik ) =: σ ∋ x f φ
∑k
, -y gipp ,ok`e : -l il`ivijtniq aexiw -y ze`xdl xzep

0≤j ≤k
, lklstarK (vij ) ∋ x f` .(12.3 'bd) x = j=0 λj vij zixhpvixa dbvd mr

dnl e`x) τ̇ ∋ f (x) m`y o`kn .diipad itl starL (φ(vij )) ⊇ f (starK (vij )) ∋ f (x) okle

 |φ|(x) = . hxta okle 0≤j≤k

, τ ∋ φ(vij )
lkl f` ,(12.2

:dprh 13.17

. n>k xear πk (S n , s0 ) = {0}

dwzrd `edy f : Sk → Sn bivp miiw πk (S n , s0 ) ∋ [f ] lkl ,13.16 htyn itl :dgked

84
dwizrn f -y raep 13.4 dxcbdn .( Sk -e Sn ly mini`zn miyeliy qgia) zil`iviltneq

epi` f -y xne` df , n>k -y oeeikne ,( (iii)12.8 'bd) skk S n clyd jezl skk S k = S k z`

xyt` S n
ly mi`zn aeaiq ici-lr . S n \ Im(f ) ∋ P zegtl zg` dcewp yi okle Sn, lr

ahewd `id Sn ly qiqad zcewpye ,Sn ly (0, . . . , 0, 1) ipetvd ahewd `ed P -y gipdl

. (0, . . . , 0, −1) inexcd

:ici lr H : (S n \ {P }) × [0, 1] → S n xicbp dzr

(x1 , . . . , xn , (xn+1 + 1)t − 1)

. H(x1 , . . . , xn , xn+1 , t) :=
∥(x1 , . . . , xn , (xn+1 + 1)t − 1)∥

dxicbn H(f (⃗y ), t) hxtae ,(2.12 'bd) IdS n \{P } ly ditehenedlep mvra `id H f`

 . πi (S n , s0 ) = {0} okle f ∼ cs0

, -y epi`xd jka . f ly ditehenedlep

:dpwqn 13.18

π2 (S 2 , s0 ) ∼
=Z (`

∼
=
(η2 )# : πi (S 3 , s0 ) −→ πi (S 2 , s0 ) mfitxenefi` dxyn (11.7 dnl) η2 sted ly aeiqd (a

. 3≤i lkl

 .libxz :dgked

13 wxtl milibxz 13.19

.13.2 dprh z` egiked 13.19.1

.13.3 dnl z` egiked 13.19.2

.13.6 dprh z` egiked 13.19.3

.13.7 dprh z` egiked 13.19.4

.13.10 dnl z` egiked 13.19.5

.13.15 dprh z` egiked 13.19.6

.13.18 dpwqn z` egiked 13.19.7

.(11.15 yeniy e`x) sted ly aeiqd ly dkex`d zwiiecnd dxcqa eynzyd :fnx

85
 zeila` zexeag 14

zexeag . ∀g, h ∈ G, g · h = h · g :zitelig dxeagd zlert m` zila` `id G dxeag ,xekfk

letihl zegep xzei daxd (minlyd mixtqnd ly zixeaigd dxeagd) ⟨Z, +⟩ znbeck ,dl`k

dpi` cwepn ibeleteh agxn ly π1 (X, x0 ) ziceqid dxeagdy zexnl .zeillk zexeag xy`n

zexeagd ziixebihw jezl maexa eidi jynda mda oiiprzpy mixehwptd ,llk jxca zitelig

.zeila`d

zpneqn dxeagd zlert ,xnelk - zeila` zexeagl ixeaig aizka ynzydl bedp :dnkqen
xai`de ,(yxetna dxeagd z` oiivl dvxp m` , 0G -a e`) 0 -a oneqn yic`d xai`d , a+b
. −a oneqn icbpd

:ef dixebihw iabl zeiqiqa zecaere zexcbd xtqn dzr xewqp okl

:dxcbd 14.1

mdly (direct product) dxyi dltkn ,zeila` zexeag ly edylk sqe`

∏ {Gα }α∈A m` (`

dltknd idef ."zehpicxe`ew itl" zexcben dxeagd zelert mr ,

α∈A Gα dveawd `id

zexeag oze` ly dltknd mr ddcfn `idy (b 5.13 `nbecn mi`ex ep`e AbGp, -a zixebihwd

.Gp -a

dxeag-zzd `ed zeila` zexeag ly {Gα }α∈A sqe` ly (direct

∏ sum) xyid mekqd (a

ly iteq xtqn wx oday [(g

⊕α )α∈A ] zexcq oze`n zakxend
α∈A Gα dltknd ly

α∈A Gα oneqn xyid mekq .0α -n dpeygα zehpicxe`ew

:dprh 14.2

.(5.24 'bd e`x) AbGp dixebihwa dltkn-ewd `ed zeila` zexeag ly xyid mekqd

 .libxz :dgked

:dxrd 14.3

,xnelk - iteq sqe`d xy`k dxyid dltknd mr cklzn xyid mekqdy xexa dxcbdd on
⊕n ∏n
`ed A⊕B dxeagd ,lynl , B -e A zeila` zexeag izyly o`kn .
i=1 Gi = i=1 Gi
!dltkn-ewd mbe dltknd mb

:dxcbd 14.4

,zexg` milina - zeiteqpi` zeilwiv zexeag ly xyi

⊕ mekq `id ziyteg zila` dxeag

. A∋α lkl Gα ∼
= ⟨Z, +⟩ xy`k ,
α∈A Gα -l zitxenefi` AbGp ∋ G
{1α }α∈A dveaw-zzl mi`xewe , A ici lr (generated) G zxvep -y mixne` ep` df dxwna

.G (generators)
-l mixvei zveaw ( A -l e`) G ly

. G = FZ (A) :oeniq

86
 :dprh 14.5

'bd) l`nyn cenv `ede , FZ : Set → AbGp xehwpt dxicbn ziytegd zila`d dxeagd

. U : AbGp → Set ogkyd xehwptl (5.6

.(1 4.14 `nbeca xehwptd ly ihxt dxwn edf ,mvra)

 .libxz :dgked

:dpwqn 14.6

zraew ( G zila`d dxeagd ixai` zveaw jezl) f : A → U (G) zeveaw ly divwpet lk

. A∋α lkl f˜(1α ) = f (α) -y jk f˜ : FZ (A) → G

, cigi mfitxenened

:mkezl minfitxenened xagl xyt`y `id zeila` zexeag ly zecgeind zepekzd oia

:dprh 14.7

ψ, φ : G → A
, minfitxenened ipy lkl ,zila` dxeag ⟨A, +⟩ -e idylk dxeag ⟨G, ·⟩ m`

ly mfitxenened `id (ψ + φ)(g) := ψ(g) + φ(g) zxcbend ψ+φ : G → A divwpetd

.zexeag

:dgked

(ψ + φ)(g · h) =ψ(g · h) + φ(g · h) = (ψ(g) + ψ(h)) + (φ(g) + φ(h))

=(ψ(g) + φ(g)) + (ψ(h) + φ(h)) = (ψ + φ)(g) + (ψ + φ)(h)

 . A -a dxeagd zlert zeitelig llba

:dpwqn 14.8

(a 5.39 'bd) xehwptial dnxdl ozip HomAbGp (−, −) : AbGpop × AbGp → Set xehwptd

. Hom(−, −) : AbGpop × AbGp → AbGp

zeixabl` zeixebihw ly miccv mze`a wqerd dxabl`a "miipia megz" miiw :dxrd
yi meik .ibeletehd xywda miyexcd (milecen ly zexg` zeixebihwe , AbGp hxtae)

byen wx xikfpe ,dzr-zrl `yepa xeaicd z` aigxp `l .envr ipta meiw zekf df megzl

:jyndl yxciiy cg`

:dyingd znl 14.9

m`
α1 α2 α3 α4
C1 / C2 / C3 / C4 / C4

f1 f2 f3 f4 f5
 β1  β2  β3  β4 
D1 / D2 / D3 / D4 / D4

87
 f` ,zewiiecn (zeiwte`d) zexeyde ,(10.12 'bd) zeila` zexeag ly zitelig dnxb`ic

.lr f3 f` ,zikxr-cg-cg f5 -e lr f4 f2 , m` i
( )

.zikxr-cg-cg f3 f` lr f1 -e zikxr-cg-cg f4 f2 , m` ( ii)

.mfitxenefi` f3 mb ,mfitxenefi` f5 f4 f2 f1
, , , m` okle ( iii
)

:( diagram chase ) "zenxb`ic zeticx" idef :dgked

f5 (α4 (x3 )) = f4 (x4 ) = β3 (y3 )

f`e C4 ∋ x4
-y jk f4 D3 ∋ y 3
yi ,lr -y oeeikn , ozpida (`

′
-y jk C3 ∋ x miiw weicdn okle α4 (x4 ) = 0
, f5 β4 (β3 (y3 )) = 0
okle ,zikxr-cg-cg j` ,

f3 (x′ )−y3 ∈ Im(β2 ) = Ker(β3

, β3 (f3 (x′ )) = f4 (α3 (x′ )) = β3 (y3 )
xnelk , α3 (x′ ) = x4 f`e

f3 (x′ −α3 (x2 )) = f3 (x′ )−(f3 (x′ )− f3 (α2 (x2 )) = β2 (f2 (x2 )) = β2 (x2 )
:ep`vn xnelk okle

i f3 y3 ) = y3
.( ) zgpda ,lr okl ,

 .( ii
) zgpda ,zikxr-cg-cg f3 mi`xn dnec ote`a (a

:dxcbd 14.10

:zeila` zexeag G -e , B A , eidi

, F/R zila`d dxeagd `id B -e A ly A⊗B ( tensor product ) zixefphd dltknd (`

, A × B ∋ (a, b) zebef i"r zxvepd ziytegd zila`d dxeagd F := FZ (U (A × B)) xy`k

:zexevdn F -a miiehiad lk ici ly zxvep R miqgid zxeage

(a1 + a2 , b) − (a1 , b) − (a2 , b) e` (a, b1 + b2 ) − (a, b1 ) − (a, b2 )

. B ∋ b2 , b 1 , b -e A ∋ a2 , a1 , a -l

mekq `ed A⊗B -a xai` lk ; a⊗b oneqz A⊗B -a (a, b) ly zeliwyd zwlgn

.dl`k ly iteq xtqn ly

m` ( bilinear ) zix`pilia `xwiz f :A×B →G (!mfitxenene` `l) divwpet (a

f (a1 + a2 , b) = f (a1 , b) + f (a2 , b) -e f (a, b1 + b2 ) = f (a, b1 ) + f (a, b2 )

. B ∋ b2 , b1 , b -e A ∋ a2 , a1 , a lkl

:dprh 14.11

zil`qxaipe` `ide ,zix`pilia q(a, b) := a ⊗ b q : A×B → A⊗B zxcbend divwpetd

epyi G idylk zila` dxeag jezl f : A×B → G zix`pilia divwpet lkly df oaena

f =ϕ◦q . ϕ:A⊗B →G -y jk cigi mfitxenened

 .libxz :dgked

:dprh 14.12

− ⊗ − : AbGp × AbGp → AbGp

. (a 5.39 'bd) xehwptia dxicbn zixefphd dltknd (`

miraew ψ : B → H ϕ : A → G -e zeila` zexeag ly minfitxenened ipy lk ,hxta

88
 . ϕ⊗ψ :A⊗B →G⊗H mfitxenened

. Z⊗G∼
=G irah mfitxenefi` yi G zila` dxeag lkl (a

A⊗B ∼
. =B⊗A irah mfitxenefi` yi B -e A zeila` zexeag izy lkl (b

(A ⊗ B) ⊗ C ∼
. = A ⊗ (B ⊗ C) irah mfitxenefi` yi C -e B A , zeila` zexeag yely lkl (c

irah mfitxenefi` yi AbGp ∋ B {Ai }i∈I-e zeila` zexeag ly sqe` lkl (d

⊕ ⊕
.( Ai ) ⊗ B ∼
= (Ai ⊗ B)
i∈I i∈I

 .libxz :dgked

:dprh 14.13

H A := Hom(−, A) : AbGp → AbGp xehwptd ,(dreaw) idylk zila` dxeag A m`

TA := − ⊗ A : AbGp → AbGp
. xehwptl oinin cenv (14.8 dpwqn)

 .((c 5.7 'bec eeyd) libxz :dgked

zeila` zeixebihw

:dxcbd 14.14

:m` ( abelian category ) zila` dixebihw zi`xwp C dixebihw

; Obj(C) ∋ Y, X lkl HomC (X, Y ) lr zila` dxeag ly irah dpan epyi (`

mbe dltknd mb `idy , Obj(C) ∋ Y, X lkl X⊕Y ( biproduct ) dltkn-ec dpyi (a

;mdly dltkn-ewd

;(5.44 'bd) qt` mvr miiw (b

.(5.50 'bd) oirxb-ewe oirxb yi C -a ϕ:X→Y mfitxen lkl (c

-xenit` lke ,mfitxen edyfi` ly oirxb ly dpand zwzrd `ed (4.9 'bd) mfitxenepen lk (d

.mfitxen edyfi` ly) oirxb-ew ly dpand zwzrd `ed (4.8 'bd) mfit

:dprh 14.15

.zila` dixebihw `id AbGp dixebihwd

 .libxz - (d z` wx ze`xdl xzep :dgked

:dxcbd 14.16

:( 1 dcigi mr ,itelig) beg R m` ,xekfk

89
dlert mr cgi (M, +) zila` dxeag `ed left R-module R
( ) lrn (il`ny) lecen- R (`

:miiwzn M ∋ m, n -e R ∋ r, s R∋r
lkly jk -e M ∋m lkl r·m
;(r + s) · m = (r · m) + (s · m) i
( )

(rs) · m = r · (s · m)
; ( ii
)

1R · m = m ; ( iii
)

; r · (m + n) = (r · m) + (r · n) ( iv)

zeila` zexeag ly mfitxenened `idN -l M -n (miil`ny) milecen- R ly dwzrd (a

. M ∋m -e R∋r lkl r · φ(m) = φ(r · m) :miiwnd φ:M →N

.(6 4.2 'bec e`x) R Mod - xen`k zpneqn R lrn miil`nyd milecend ziixebihw

:dprh 14.17

.zila` dixebihw `id R Mod

- dixebihwd , R (dcigi mr itelig) beg lkl

 .libxz :dgked

:dxcbd 14.18

(miil`ny) milecen- R ipy ly zixefphd dltknd z` mb xicbdl xyt` R itelig beg lkl

F := xy`k F/K dpn zxeag aey idef zila` dxeagk . M ⊗R N N M

zpneqnd , -e

dxevdn miiehia ici-lr zxvepd dxeag-zzd K FZ (U (M ) × U (N )

-e

(a1 + a2 , b) − (a1 , b) − (a2 , b) e` , (a, b1 + b2 ) − (a, b1 ) − (a, b2 ) , (r · a, b) − (a, r · b)

. R∋r -e ,B ∋ b2 , b 1 , b -e A ∋ a2 , a1 , a -l

r·(a⊗b) := (r·a)⊗b = a⊗(r·b)

. :ici lr xcben M ⊗R N lr (il`nyd) lecen- R -d dpan

:dxrd 14.19

M -y dxwnl zixefphd dltknd zxcbd z` lilkdl ozip ,itelig gxkda epi` R begd m` mb

,zila` dxeag wx `ed M ⊗R N f` la` - il`ny lecen- R `ed N -e ,ipni lecen- R `ed

.lecen- R `le

90
 14 wxtl milibxz 14.20

.14.2 dprh z` egiked 14.20.1

.14.5 dprh z` egiked 14.20.2

.(ii) 14.9 dnl z` egiked 14.20.3

.14.11 dprh z` egiked 14.20.4

.14.12 dprh z` egiked 14.20.5

.14.13 dprh z` egiked 14.20.6

.14.15 dprh z` egiked 14.20.7

.14.17 dprh z` egiked 14.20.8

dpekzd yi (R itelig beg lrn) milecen-R ly zixefphd dltknl mby e`xd 14.20.9

R
- ly zix`pilia divwpet dni`zn dxeva mixicbn m` ,14.11 dprh ly zil`qxaipe`d

.milecen

.(R itelig begl) milecen-R xear 14.12 dprh ly belp`d z` egikede egqp 14.20.10

zil`iviltniq dibelened 15

zeila` zexeag zxcq K il`iviltniq qwltnew lkl mi`zdl xyt` cvik d`xp dzr

ly dibelenedd zexeag ze`xwpd ,(cwepn ibeleteh agxn ly ditehenedd zexeagl dneca)

-l`d dibeletehd ly ziqiqad dyibd ly dpey`xd `nbecd eid dl` zixehqid dpigan . K
zgkedl `le aeyigl `l zegep opi` od ,d`xpy itk ,mle` .(ziceqid dxeagl liawna) zixab

ixeg`ny ziqiqad divi`ehpi`d z` zexiaqnd ,zexcbdl xarn oda wnrzp `l okle ,mihtyn

.zix`lebpiqd dibelenedd zi`xwpd (xzei zillke) xzei dgep dipa `iap jynda .dibelenedd byen

:dxcbd 15.1

`id K (ixhne`ib e` hytn) il`iviltniq qwltnew ly ( n-chains ) ze`xyxy- n -d zxeag

Cn (K) := onqpe , K ly miqwltniq- n d zveaw ici-lr zxvepd ziytegd zila`d dxeagd

.(14.4 'bd e`x) FZ (Kn )

91
K n Z K n
∑
: ly miqwltniq- ly ( lrn) ilnxet sexiv `id lr zxyxy- ,zexg` milina

. n, . . . , 1 = i -l Kn ∋ σin -e Z ∋ ai xear Cn (K) ∋ c = N n

i=1 ai σi

:dxcbd 15.2

dxyn micewcewd lk lr xcqd ,(12.17 'bd) oeekn hytn il`iviltniq qwltnew K m`

:xicbpe , σ n = span(vi0 , . . . , vin ) qwltniq- n lk icewcew ly xeciq

dni σ := span(vi0 , . . . , vc
ij , . . . , vin ) = span(vi0 , . . . , vij−1 , vij+1 , . . . , vin )

-e , 0 ≤ i ≤ n) -l

∑
n
. ∂n (σ) := (−1)i dni (σ)
i=0

dtyd xehxte` `xwpd ,14.6 dpwqn itl ∂n : Cn (K) → Cn−1 (K) mfitxenened dxyn df

C∗ . ly ( boundary operator )

:dxcbd 15.3

xear xy`k , 0<n -l K ly (cycles) mixefgn- n -d zxeag `xwp Zn (K) = Ker(∂n ) i ( )

. Z0 (K) := C0 (K) 0=n onqp

. K ly (boundaries) zety- n -d zxeag `xwp Bn (K) = Im(∂n+1 ) ii ( )

:dprh 15.4

. 1≤n lkl ∂n−1 ◦ ∂n = 0

dni (σ) = miiwzn σ := span(v0 , . . . , vn ) oeekn n

qwltniq- :dgked
lkl ,ziy`x

span(v0 , . . . , vbi , . . . , vn ) =: span(u0 , . . . , un−1 )

xear

{
vt 0≤t<i m`
. ut =
vt+1 i≤t<n m`

:`vnp j<i m` okle

, dn−1
j (dni (σ)) = span(u0 , . . . , ubj , . . . , un−1 ) = span(v0 , . . . , vbj , . . . , vbi , . . . , vn )

:`vnp j≥i xear eli`e

, dn−1
j (dni (σ)) = span(u0 , . . . , ubj , . . . , un−1 ) = span(v0 , . . . , vbi , . . . , vd
j+1 , . . . , vn )

:zedfd z` epgked jka

{
i−1 ◦ dj
dn−1 0≤j<i≤n
n
m`
(19) dn−1
j ◦ d n
i =
dn−1
i ◦ dnj+1 n≥i≤j≥0 m`

. 1≤n lkl

92
 :miiwzn dtyd mfitxenened zxcbd itl , σ oeekn qwltniq- n ozpida dzr

∑n ∑
n−1 ∑
n
∂n−1 (∂n (σ n )) = ∂n−1 ( (−1)i dni (σ)) = (−1)i+j djn−1 (dni (σ))
i=0 j=0 i=0

∑
n ∑
i−1 ∑
n−1 ∑
n−1
= (−1)i+j dn−1
j (dni (σ)) + (−1)i+j djn−1 (dni (σ))
i=0 j=0 i=0 j=i

∑
n ∑
i−1 ∑
n−1 ∑
n−1
= (−1)i+j dn−1
j (dni (σ)) + (−1)i+j dn−1
i (dnj+1 (σ))
i=0 j=0 i=0 j=i
∑ ∑
= (−1)i+j dn−1
j (dni (σ)) + (−1)i+k+1 din−1 (dnk (σ)) = 0
j<i i<k(=j+1)

 .yxcpk

:dpwqn 15.5

. Bn (K) ⊆ Zn (K)

:dxcbd 15.6

zil`iviltniqd dibelenedd zxeag , K (hytn e` ixhne`b) il`iviltniq qwltnew xear

. 0≤n -l Hn (K) := Zn (K)/Bn (K) dpnd zxeag `id zi- n -d

:dprh 15.7

icwcw lr xcqd zxigaa zeielz opi` K il`iviltniq qwltnew ly dibelenedd zexeag

. K

 .libxz :dgked

:`nbec 15.8

:( S1 lbrnl itxene`ined) wixd yleynd K xear

v2r

]J
σ3
J σ

J2

J

r -Jr
v0 σ1 v1

:`ed C∗ (K) ze`xyxyd qwltnew

; C0 (K) = FZ ({v0 , v1 , v2 }) (i)

; C1 (K) = FZ ({σ1 , σ2 , σ3 }) (ii)
, 2≤i xear Ci (K) = {0} (iii)

93
 :okl . ∂1 (σ3 ) = v2 − v0 -e ,∂1 (σ2 ) = v2 − v1 ∂1 (σ1 ) = d10 (σ1 ) − d11 (σ1 ) = v1 − v0
, xy`k

ly zeliwyd zwlgn `ed ⟨x⟩ xy`k) ⟨v0 ⟩ = ⟨v1 ⟩ = ⟨v2 ⟩ ici lr xvepd , H0 (K) ∼
=Z (`

x
;( xefgnd

; ⟨σ1 + σ2 − σ3 ⟩ ici lr xvepd , H1 (K) ∼

=Z (a

. 2≤i xear Hi (K) = 0 (b

:dprh 15.9

. n<i lkl Hi (K) = 0 f` ,icnin- n il`iviltniq qwltnew K m`

 .libxz :dgked

:dprh 15.10

. H0 (K) ∼
=Z f` ,zizliqn xiyw |K| -e il`iviltniq qwltnew K m` (`

. K ly dliqnd iaikxn zveaw A = π0 (|K|) xy`k , H0 = ZA zillk (a

 .libxz :dgked

:iynnd iaihwiiextd xeyind ly dibelenedd 15.11

itl .R ∋ λ ̸= 0 ⃗x ∼ λ · ⃗x
xear xy`k ,(1.18 RP 2 := (R3 \ {⃗0})/ ∼
'bd) xekfk

lkl (x, y, z) ∼ (−x, −y, −z) S 2/ ∼ xy`k , dpnd agxnl itxene`ined RP 2 ,1.19 dprh

lawzn iynnd iaihwiiextd xeyind ,xnelk .( S 0 = {±1} S 2 ∋ (x, y, z)

,1.17 'bdn xekfk)

.dlibxd zicnin-ecd dxitqd lr (zeil`cetihp`) zeiahw zecewp iedifn

:dnl 15.12

∂D2 ∋ (x, y) -l (x, y) ∼ (−x, −y) xy`k , D2 / ∼ dpnd agxnl itxene`ined RP 2

.(dcigid lebir zty lr zeiahw zecewp zedfl witqn ,xnelk)

r⃗v = (x, y)

RP 2 D2  ∂D

)
2

r
−⃗v = (−x, −y)

 .libxz :dgked

:jk [0, 1]2 ∼

= D2 z` ylyl ozip

94
 r r r r
  
  
  
 r   r
  
   D2
  
r   r
 Z
  Z
  Z
r 
r r Zr

icnin- 2 ixhne`b il`iviltniq qwltnew lawp ,dtyd lr miiahw micewcew iedif mr

: |P | ∼
= RP 2 -y jk , P

v0 v1 v2
r r r rv3
τ015 -    
 
v5 
 v  v 
r 6 r 7 r rv4
  
σ45 -  
 v 
 P
r
v4  v9 r 8 r rv5
 Z
  Z
  Z
r r
 r Zr
v3 v2 v1 v0

mdpia mirhwd ly miiedif mb eixg` xxeb dtyd lr miiahwd micwcwd iedify al eniy

σ45
.( `xwp ,lynl ,(!df xcqa) v5 v4-e ici-lr yxtpd icnin-cgd oeeknd qwltniqd xy`k)

,cnin eze`a P ly miqwltniqd ici-lr yxtp cnin lka ze`xyxyd qwltnewy oeeikn

:jk C∗ (P ) z` x`zl lkep

∂3 ∂2 ∂1
. . . C3 (P ) / C2 (P ) / C1 (P ) / C0 (P )

∼
= ∼
= ∼
= ∼
=
   
. . . {0} / Z18 / Z27 / Z9
0 ∂2 ∂1

:oeryd oeeik cbp mixceqn , P ly miqwltniq- 2-d mekq z` γ -a onqp m`e

γ := τ051 + τ156 + τ162 + τ267 + τ273 + τ374 + τ456 + τ496 + τ697

+ τ798 + τ478 + τ485 + τ394 + τ293 + τ289 + τ182 + τ081 + τ058

H2 (P ) ∼
= {0} xnelk xefgn epi` envr γ la` , γ ly dletk gxkda `ed xefgn- 2 lky `vnp

ik) 15.10 dprh itl H0 (P ) ∼

=Z jci`n .(dpieek dpi`y zicnin- n drixi lkl dxew dfe)

-y ze`xdl lkepe ,(zizliqn xiyw |P | ∼

= RP 2

β := σ01 + σ12 + σ23 + σ34 + σ45 + σ50

mvrae - H1 (P ) jeza Z/2 ly wzer yi okl .dty 2β la` ,dty epi`y mly xefgn `ed

. H1 (P ) ∼
= Z/2

95
 15 wxtl milibxz 15.13

.15.7 dprh z` egiked 15.13.1

.15.9 dprh z` egiked 15.13.2

.15.10 dprh z` egiked 15.13.3

.15.12 dnl z` egiked 15.13.4

. S 2 ⊃ D+
2
oeilrd xeckd ivg lr eayg :fnx

.H1 (P ) = Z/2-y e`xd ,15.11 sirqa 15.13.5

ze`xyxy iqwltnew 16
xywda zeyrl ozip zil`iviltniqd dibelenedd iabl epyiry dnn xkip wlgy d`xp dzr

:oihelgl ixabl`

:dxcbd 16.1

C∗ = zeila` zexeag ly dxcq `ed ⟨C∗ , ∂⟩ (chain complex) ze`xyxy qwltnew (`

lkl ∂n−1 ◦ ∂n = 0 -y jk ( n = 1, 2, . . . , ∂n : Cn → Cn−1

) minfitxenened mr (Cn )∞
n=0
2≤n
.

n-chain
.( ) zxyxy- n `xwii Cn -a xai`

.( Z0 (C∗ , ∂) := C0 -e) Zn (C∗ , ∂) := Ker(∂n ) `id ⟨C∗ , ∂⟩ ly mixefgn- n -d zxeag (a

. Bn (C∗ , ∂) := Im(∂n+1 ) `id ⟨C∗ , ∂⟩ ly zety- n -d zxeag (b

. Bn C∗ -e Zn C∗ xeviwa onqp minrtl

ly zi- n -d dibelenedd zxeag z` xicbdl lkep 0≤n , Bn C∗ ⊆ Zn C∗

lkl -y oeeikn (c

.( Hn C ∗ :xeviwa onqp aeye) Hn (⟨C∗ , ∂⟩) := Zn C∗ /Bn C∗ zeidl ⟨C∗ , ∂⟩

:oeniq 16.2

;mixefgn ly zeliwy zewlgn jkitl md ⟨C∗ , ∂⟩ ly zi- n -d dibelenedd zxeaga mixai`

. γ = ⟨cn ⟩ :onqp , Zn C∗ ∋ cn xefgn- n ici-lr bvein Hn C ∗ ∋ γ xai` m`

96
 :dxcbd 16.3

e`xwii dibeleneda Hn C∗ ∋ ⟨cn ⟩ = ⟨c′n ⟩ xai` eze` mibviind Cn ∋ cn , c′n mixefgn- n ipy

zniiwy jkl dxcbdd itl lewy cn ∼ c′n

df . :oeniq - dfl df(homologous) miibelened

∂n+1 (bn+1 ) = cn − c′n

. -y jk Cn+1 ∋ bn+1 zxyxy- (n + 1)

:dxcbd 16.4

mday ⟨C∗ , ∂⟩ (unbounded) milaben-izla ze`xyxy iqwltnew mb xicbdl mvra xyt`

miilily miqkcpi` mr zexeag mb zllekd zeila` zexeag ly dxcq `id C∗ = (Cn )n∈Z
ze`xyxy qwltnewl .(mly n lkl ∂n ◦∂n+1 = 0 miiwne xcben eiykr ∂n : Cn → Cn−1 -e)

.mly n lkl zi- n -d dibelened zxeag z` xicbdl oaenk ozip laben-izla

ze`xyxy qwltnew ly ihxt dxwnk libx ze`xyxy qwltnew lr aeygl gep mizirl

. 0>n lkl Cn = {0} eay ,laben izla

:dxcbd 16.5

qwltnewl ⟨C∗ , ∂⟩ ze`xyxy qwltnewn ϕ : C∗ → C∗′ (chain map) ze`xyxy zewzrd

′
∂n ◦ ϕn = -y 0≤njk ( ) ϕn : Cn → Cn′ minfitxenened zxcq `id ⟨C∗′ , ∂ ′ ⟩ ze`xyxy

:zitelig d`ad dn`xb`icd ,1<n lkl ,xnelk - ϕn−1 ◦ ∂n

ϕn
Cn / C′
n
′
∂n
∂n
 ϕn−1 
Cn−1 / C′
n−1

:dprh 16.6

oneqzy ,dixebihw mieedn ,minfitxen xeza ze`xyxy zewzrd mr ,ze`xyxy iqwltnew

.( ChainAbGp minrtl e`) Chain

 .libxz :dgked

:dprh 16.7

lkl ϕ∗ : Hn C∗ → Hn C∗′ dxyen mfitxenened dxicbn ϕ : C∗ → C∗′ ze`xyxy zwzrd

ϕ∗ (⟨cn ⟩) := ⟨ϕn (cn )⟩

. ici lr , 0≤n

:dgked

:xefgn `ed ϕn (cn ) -y ze`xdl epilr ,xnelk - xcben ϕ∗ (`

,( ∂n (cn ) = 0 ,xnelk) xefgn- n `ed cn m` okle ,ze`xyxy ϕ

zwzrd -y jkn raep df

okle - (zexeag ly mfitxenened ϕn−1 ik) ∂n′ (ϕn (cn )) = ϕn−1 (∂n (cn )) = ϕn−1 (0) = 0 f`

ϕn (cn )
.xefgn `ed mb

Hn C∗ ∋ dibelenedd zwlgnl c′n xg` bivp xgap m`y ze`xdl epilr :ahid xcben ϕ∗ (a

.dibeleneda xai` eze` lawp ⟨cn ⟩

,

97
oeeikn mle` . ⟨cn ⟩ = ⟨c′n ⟩ ⇔ cn ∼ c′n ⇔ ∃bn+1 ∈ Cn+1 , ∂n+1 bn+1 = cn − c′n ,ok`e

:miiwzn f` ,ze`xyxy zwzrd ϕ -y

′
∂n+1 (ϕn (bn+1 )) = ϕn (∂n+1 bn+1 ) = ϕn (cn − c′n ) = ϕn (cn ) − ϕ(c′n )

.yxcpk , ⟨ϕn (cn )⟩ − ⟨ϕ(c′n )⟩ okle , ϕn (cn ) ∼ ϕ(c′n ) ,xnelk

ik ,ahid xcben `edy epi`xdy rbxa iciin df j` ,mfitxenened ϕ∗ -y ze`xdl epilr (b

ϕ∗ (⟨cn ⟩ + ⟨c′n ⟩) =ϕ∗ (⟨cn + c′n ⟩) = ⟨ϕn (cn + c′n )⟩ = ⟨ϕn (cn ) + ϕn (c′n )⟩
=⟨ϕn (cn )⟩ + ⟨ϕn (c′n )⟩ = ϕ∗ (⟨cn ⟩) + ϕ∗ (⟨c′n ⟩)

Hn C∗ ∋ ⟨cn ⟩, ⟨c′n ⟩ lkl okle , Zn C∗ ly dpn zxeag `id Hn C∗ -y dcaera epynzyd e`k

′
 .Hn C -l
∗ dnecae , ⟨cn ⟩ + ⟨c′n ⟩ = ⟨cn + c′n ⟩ :miiwzn

:dprh 16.8

xy`k , Hn : Chain → AbGp xehwpt dxicbn zi- n -d dibelenedd 0 ≤ n

zxeag , lkl

ϕ : ⟨C∗ , ∂⟩ → ⟨C∗′ , ∂ ′ ⟩
. ze`xyxy zwzrd lkl Hn ϕ := ϕ∗ : Hn C∗ → Hn C∗′

ϕ
⟨C∗ , ∂⟩ −→ :ze`xyxy zewzrd ozpida ,xnelk - zeakxd cakn Hn -y `ceel epilr :dgked
ψ
lkl j` . ψ∗ ◦ ϕ∗ = (ψ ◦ ϕ)∗ : Hn C∗ → Hn C∗′′ -y ze`xdl jixv
′
∗
′
,⟨C , ∂ ⟩ −→ ⟨C∗′′ , ∂ ′′ ⟩
:miiwzn Hn C∗ ∋ ⟨cn ⟩

(ψ ◦ ϕ)∗ (⟨cn ⟩) = ⟨(ψ ◦ ϕ)(cn )⟩ = ⟨(ψ(ϕ(cn ))⟩

= ψ∗ (⟨(ϕ(cn ))⟩) = ψ∗ (ϕ∗ (⟨cn ⟩)) = (ψ∗ ◦ ϕ∗ )(⟨cn ⟩))

.yxcpk

 .16.7 dprha dxcbdd itl (IdC∗ )∗ = IdHn C∗ -y xexa

-xebihwd oia miipia cnrn yi ze`xyxy iqwltnew ly Chain dixebhwly xazqn :dxrd
Chain -a minvrd ,cg` cvn : AbGp oebk ,oihelgl zixabl` dixebihw oial zibeletehd di

ly byen oebk ,"miibeleteh" mihwtq` dnk da ex`yp ipy cvn j` ,ixabl` ote`a mixcben

:ditehened

:dxcbd 16.9

(Tn : minfitxenened zxcq ,ze`xyxy zewzrd izy ψ, ϕ : ⟨C∗ , ∂ C ⟩ → ⟨D∗ , ∂ D ⟩ m`

D
∂n+1 ◦ Tn + m` odipia (chain homotopy) ze`xyxy-ziitehened zi`xwp Cn → Dn+1 )∞ n=0
.zeitehened ze`xyxy zewzrd ψ ϕ -e -y xn`p df dxwna .n lkl Tn−1 ◦ ∂nC = ϕ − ψ

. T :φ∼ψ :oeniq

98
 :dprh 16.10

zexyend zewzrdd f` ,zeitehened ze`xyxy zewzrd ϕ, ψ : ⟨C∗ , ∂ C ⟩ → ⟨D∗ , ∂ D ⟩ m`

. ϕ∗ = ψ∗ :zedf (16.7 dprh) dibeleneda

b := Tn (c) onqp ,xefgn Zn C∗ ∋ cn m` .ze`xyxy-ziitehened T :ϕ∼ψ idz :dgked

:aygpe , Dn+1 -a

D D
, ∂n+1 (b) = ∂n+1 (Tn (c) = ϕ(c)−ψ(c)−Tn−1 (∂nC (c)) = ϕ(c)−ψ(c)−Tn−1 (0) = ϕ(c)−ψ(c)

 . ϕ∗ (⟨cn ⟩) = ⟨ϕn (cn )⟩ = ⟨ψn (cn )⟩ = ψ∗ (⟨cn ⟩) xnelk , ϕn (cn ) ∼ ψn (cn ) okl

:dprh 16.11

zewzrd ly zeakxd cakn `ede ,zeliwy qgi `ed ze`xyxy zewzrd oia ditehnedd qgi

.ze`xyxy

 .libxz :dgked

dpwqn 16.12

16.8 dprh ly dibelenedd ixehwpte ,ze`xyxy iqwltnew ly zitehened dixebhw zniiw

.(6.3 dprha enk) "zitehenedd dixebihwl zecxei"

ze`xyxy iqwltnew-zz

:dxcbd 16.13

-new ly (subcomplex) ze`xyxy qwltnew-zz ⟨D∗ , ∂ D ⟩

`xwp ze`xyxy qwltnew

milina : ∂nD = ∂n |Dn Cn -e ly dxeag-zz `ed Dn n , ⟨C∗ , ∂⟩

lkl m` ze`xyxy qwlt

ze`xyxy zwzrd zeedn 0 ≤ n in : Dn ,→ Cn

( ) zelkdd ,zexg`

. i : ⟨D∗ , ∂ D ⟩ → ⟨C∗ , ∂⟩

. ⟨D∗ , ∂ D ⟩ ⊆ ⟨C∗ , ∂⟩ :oeniq

:dnl 16.14

lr ∂ˆn mfitxenened dxyn ∂n f` ,ze`xyxy qwltnew-zz (D∗ , ∂ D ) ⊆ (C∗ , ∂) m`

.ze`xyxy qwltnew ok mb
ˆ
(C∗ /D∗ , ∂) -y jk Cn−1 /Dn−1 jezl Cn /Dn dpnd zexeag

 .libxz :dgked

:dxcbd 16.15

(k−1) ϕ(k−1) (k) ϕ(k) (k+1)

iqwltnew ly . . . → ⟨C∗ , ∂ (k−1) ⟩ −→ ⟨C∗ , ∂ (k) ⟩ −→ ⟨C∗ , ∂ (k+1) ⟩ → . . . dxcq

ze`x -yxy iqwltnew ly zwiiecn dxcq zi`xwp mdpia ze`xyxy zewzrde ze`xyxy

99
 (k−1) (k)
(k−1) ϕn (k) ϕn (k+1)
'bd) zwiiecn . . . → Cn −→ Cn −→ Cn → ... zeila` zexeag ly dxcqd m`

. n lkl (10.12

:htyn 16.16

i f
yi f` ,ze`xyxy iqwltnew ly dxvw zwiiecn dxcq 0 → A∗ −→ B∗ −→ C∗ → 0 m`

-y jk , 0<n lkl ∂n : Hn C∗ → Hn−1 A∗ (connecting homomorphism) dty zwzrd

∗ ∂n+1 i f∗ ∂
. . . → Hn+1 C∗ −→ Hn A∗ −→ Hn B∗ −→ Hn C∗ −→
n
Hn−1 A∗ → . . .
.dkex` zwiiecn dxcq

:dgked

∂∗ : zxcbd (`

miiw , Cn lr fn -y Cn ∋ c
oeeikn . Hn (C∗ ) ∋ ⟨c⟩
xefgn ici-lr eze` bviip , ozpida

irvn`d ipnid reaixd ,ze`xyxy f fn (b) = c

zwzrd Bn ∋ b
-y oeeikn . -y jk xai`

B B C C
∂n−1 (b) ,xnelk -fn−1 (∂n (b)) = ∂n (fn (b)) = ∂n (c) = 0 okle ,slgzn d`ad dn`xb`ica

B∗ Ker(fn−1 ) = Im(in−1 )
.( -a weicd llba) -l jiiy

in+1 fn+1
(20) 0 / An+1 / Bn+1 / Cn+1 /0
A
∂n+1 B
∂n+1 C
∂n+1
 in
 fn 
0 / An / Bn / Cn /0
A
∂n B
∂n C
∂n
 in−1  fn−1 
0 / An−1 / Bn−1 / Cn−1 /0
A
∂n−1 B
∂n−1 C
∂n
 in−2  fn−2 
0 / An−2 / Bn−2 / Cn−2 /0

(B∗ , ∂ B ) -y oeeikn ,ok lr xzi . in−1 (a) = ∂nB (b) -y jk An−1 ∋ a miiwy xne` df j`

B
,zikxr-cg-cg in−1 -y oeeikn .∂n−1 (∂nB (b)) = 0 :miiwzn i`ceea ,ze`xyxy qwltnhw

xicbdl lkepe , (A∗ , ∂ A ) -a icnin- (n − 1) xefgn ep`vn okl .

A
∂n−1 (a) = 0 mby xne` df

.∂∗ (⟨c⟩) := ⟨a⟩ ∈ Hn−1 (A)

:dibeleneda ahid xcben ∂∗ (a

⟨a⟩ dibelenedd zwlgn zelz-i` ze`xdl epilr ,zexiga izy eyrp ∂∗ zxcbday oeeikn

:odn zg` lka zlawznd

′ ′
f` , fn (b ) = c Bn ∋ b
-y jk Bn ∋ b xg` xai` mixgea epiid mewna eli` ,ziy`x

′
weicd llba b − b ∈ Ker(fn ) = Im(in ) fn (b − b) = fn (b′ ) − fn (b) = c − c = 0
′
okle ,

′
b = b + in (α)
f` j` . in (α) = b′ − b An ∋ α e` , Bn -y jk miiw ,xnelk : -a

. ∂nB (b′ ) = ∂nB (b + in (α)) = ∂nB (b) + ∂nB (in (α)) = in (a) + in−1 (∂nA (α)) = in (a + ∂nA (α))
df , a ∼ a + ∂nA (α) -y oeeikn . ∂∗ (⟨c⟩) zxcbda a′ := a + ∂nA (α) -a a z` silgdl epilr okl

. ⟨a⟩ = ⟨a′ ⟩ :dibelenedd zwlgn z` dpyn epi`

100
zniiw , ⟨c⟩ = ⟨c′ ⟩ -y dcaerdn f` ⟨c⟩
, -l Z n C ∗ ∋ c′ xg` bivp epxga eli` ,zipy

zxyxy zniiw Cn+1 , lr `id fn+1 -y llba c′ = c + ∂n+1

.
C
(e) Cn+1 ∋ e
-y jk zxyxy

f` j` fn+1 (g) = e
. Bn+1 ∋ g -y jk

B
, fn (∂n+1 C
(g)) = ∂n+1 C
(fn+1 (g)) = ∂n+1 (e) = c′ − c
:`vnpe b′ := b + ∂n+1
B
(g) -a Bn ∋ b z` silgdl lkepe c′ = c + fn (∂n+1
,
B
(g) okle

-y oeeikn . fn (b ) = fn (b) + fn (∂n+1 (g)) = c + (c′ − c) = c′

′ B

, ∂nB (b′ ) = ∂nB (b + ∂n+1

B
(g)) = ∂nB (b) + ∂nB (∂n+1
B
(g)) = ∂nB (b) + 0 = ∂nB (b)
.yxcpk , ∂∗ (⟨c⟩) = ⟨a⟩ = ∂∗ (⟨c′ ⟩) okle ,mcewnk An−1 ∋ a eze` weica lawpy ixd

.16.7 dprh zgkeda (b sirq enk :mfitxenened ∂∗ (b

: Hn−1 A∗ -a weic (c

.∂
B
n (b) ∼0 ik , i∗ (∂∗ (⟨c⟩) = i∗ (⟨a⟩) = ⟨in−1 (a)⟩ = =0 ⟨∂nB (b)⟩ dipadn

∂nB (c) = -y jk Bn ∋ b miiw f` ,dibeleneda i∗ (⟨a⟩) = ⟨in−1 (a)⟩ = 0 m` jci`n

c := fn (b)
:miiwn f` la` ; in−1 (a)
∂nC (c) = ∂nC (fn (b)) = fn−1 (∂nB (b)) = fn−1 ((in−1 (a)) = 0
. ∂∗ (⟨c⟩) = ⟨a⟩ :miiwzne ,xefgn `ed Zn C∗ ∋ c ,xnelk .( in−1 ◦ fn−1 = 0 ik)

: Hn B ∗ -a weic (d

f` ⟨fn (bn )⟩ = 0 ∈ Hn C∗
, m` .16.8 dprh itl ,f∗ ◦ i∗ = (f ◦ i)∗ = 0 dakxddy xexa

jk Bn+1 ∋ βn+1 xegal xyt` f` la` ;∂

C
n+1 (cn+1 ) = fn (bn )-y jk Cn+1 ∋ cn+1 miiw

la` . bn ∼ ∂n+1
B
(βn+1 ) + bn f`e ,lr f ik , fn+1 (βn+1 ) = cn+1 -y

fn (bn − ∂n+1
B
(βn+1 )) = fn (bn ) − fn (∂n+1
B
(βn+1 )) = fn (bn ) − ∂n+1
C
(fn ((βn+1 ))
= fn (bn ) − ∂n+1
C
(cn+1 ) = fn (bn ) − fn (bn ) = 0

jk An ∋ an miiw okle ,( Bn -a weicd llba) bn − ∂n+1

B
(βn+1 ) ∈ Ker(fn ) = Im(in ) xnelk

miiwzn ,dgpdd itl xefgn did bn-y oeeikn in (an ) = bn − ∂n+1

.
B
(βn+1 ) -y

∂nB (bn − ∂n+1

B
(βn+1 )) = ∂nB (bn ) − ∂nB (∂n+1
B
(βn+1 ))) = 0 − 0 = 0
:miiwzne ,xefgn `ed an mb okle , B∗ ly qwltnew-zz `ed A∗ j`

, i∗ ⟨an ⟩ = ⟨in (an )⟩ = ⟨bn − ∂n+1

B
(βn+1 )⟩ = ⟨bn ⟩
. Ker(f∗ ) ⊆ Im(i∗ ) xnelk

Hn C∗
: -a weic (e

⟨c⟩ = f∗ (⟨b⟩) = -e xefgn Zn B∗ ∋ b m` ik ,dibeleneda ∂∗ ◦f∗ = 0 dakxddy xexa aey

okle c = fn (b) f` , ⟨fn (b)⟩

. ∂∗ (⟨c⟩) = ⟨i−1 −1
n−1 (∂n (b))⟩ = ⟨in−1 (0)⟩ = ⟨0⟩ = 0 ∈ Hn−1 A∗
B

101
okle ∂nA (a′ ) = a
, An ∋ a′
-y jk yi f` ,dibeleneda ∂∗ (⟨c⟩) = ⟨a⟩ = 0 m` jci`n

∂nB (b′ ) = b′ := b − in (a′ )

f` , m` .∂
B
n (b) = in−1 (a) = in−1 (∂nB (a′ )) = ∂nB (in (a′ ))
-y oeeikne ,xefgn `ed Zn B∗ ∋ b′ ∂nB (b) − ∂nB (in (a′ )) = 0
,xnelk -

, fn (b′ ) = fn (b − in (a′ )) = fn (b) − fn (in (a′ )) = fn (b) − 0 = fn (b) = c

 . Ker(∂∗ ) ⊆ Im(f∗ ) -y epi`xd jkae - f∗ (⟨b′ ⟩) = ⟨c⟩ -y ixd

ze`xyxy-ew

:dxcbd 16.17

zeila` zexeag ly dxcq `ed ⟨C ∗ , δ⟩ (cochain complex) ze`xyxy-ew qwltnew (`

∗
δ n+1
◦δ =0 n
-y jk ( n = 0, 1, . . . , δ n : C n → C n+1
) minfitxenened mr C = (C n )∞
n=0
n-cochain
.( n ) zxyxy-ew- `xwii C n
-a xai` 0≤n. lkl

. Z n (C∗ ) := Ker(δ n ) `id ⟨C ∗ , δ⟩ ly mixefgn-ew- n -d zxeag (a

B 0 (C∗ , ∂) := -e) 1≤n -l B n (C ∗ , δ) := Im(δ n−1 ) `id ⟨C ∗ , δ⟩ ly zety-ew- n -d zxeag (b

.( {0}
cohomology
( ) dibelenedewd zxeag z` xicbdl lkep 0≤n , lkl B n C ∗ ⊆ Z n C∗ -y oeeikn (c

H nC ∗
.( :xeviwa onqp aeye) H (⟨C , δ⟩) := Z C /B n C ∗
n ∗ n ∗
zeidl ⟨C ∗ , δ⟩ ly zi- n -d

⟨D∗ , ε⟩ -e ⟨C ∗ , δ⟩ ze`xyxy-ew qwltnew oia (cochain map) ze`xyxy-ew zewzrd (d

εn ◦ ϕn = ϕn+1 ◦ δ n -y jk ( 0≤n ) ϕn : C n → D n minfitxenened zxcq `id

:dprh 16.18

dibelenedewd zxeag , 0≤n lkle ze`xyxy-ew iqwltnew ly co Chain dixebihw zniiw

. H : co Chain → AbGp
n
xehwpt dxicbn zi- n -d

 .libxz :dgked

:dprh 16.19

f` .( F ({0}) = {0} :qt`d mvr lr xney ,xnelk) cwepn xehwpt F : AbGp → AbGp `di

:ici-lr F∗ : Chain → Chain xehwpt xicbn `ed ,(4.11 'bd) ihp`ix`e-ew F m` (`

0≤n . ∂n′ := F (∂n )

lkl -e Cn′ := F (Cn ) xy`k , F∗ ⟨C∗ , ∂⟩ = ⟨C∗′ , ∂ ′ ⟩
:ici-lr F ∗ : Chain → co Chain xehwpt xicbn `ed ,ihp`ix`e-`xhpew F m` (a

0≤n
. δ n := F (∂n+1 )
lkl -e
n
D := F (Cn ) xy`k , F ⟨C∗ , ∂⟩ = ⟨D∗ , δ⟩
∗

 .libxz :dgked

102
 :ze`nbec 16.20

.(dreaw) idylk zila` dxeag G idz

xehwpt `ed FG (A) := A ⊗ G FG : AbGp → AbGp

xcbend xehwptd ,14.12 dprh itl (1

qwltnew lkl okl .(

∼
{0} ⊗ G = {0} ,xnelk) cwepn `edy ze`xl lwe ,ihp`ix`e-ew

xcbend ⟨C∗ , ∂ ′ ⟩ = (FG )∗ ⟨C∗ , ∂⟩

′
ze`xyxy qwltnew lawp ⟨C∗ , ∂⟩ ze`xyxy

. ∂n′ := ∂n ⊗ IdG -e Cn′ := Cn ⊗ G

F G (A) := Hom(A, G) xcbend F G : AbGp → AbGp xehwptd ,14.8 dprh itl (2

okl Hom({0}, G) = {0}

. -y ze`xl lwe ,ihp`ix`e-`xhpew xehwpt `ed (14.8 dpwqn)

⟨D∗ , δ⟩ = (F G )∗ ⟨C∗ , ∂⟩ ze`xyxy-ew qwltnew lawp ⟨C∗ , ∂⟩ ze`xyxy qwltnew lkl

xcbend

∗
. δ n := ∂n+1 : Hom(Cn , G) → Hom(Cn+1 , G) -e Dn := Hom(Cn , G)

oeeika F G (φ) ze`xyxy-ew zwzrd dxyn φ : C∗ → D∗ ze`xyxy zwzrd :al eniy

∗ G
φ : heyt eze` mipnqn llk jxca .ihp`ix`ee-dxhpew `ed F xehwptdy llba ,ipyd

.(4.13 dxrd e`x) F G (D∗ ) → F G (C∗ )

:(14.16 'bd) milecen- R -l (16.1 'bd) ze`xyxyd qwltnew zxcbd z` lilkdl ozip

:dxcbd 16.21

C∗ = (miil`ny) milecen- R R
ly dxcq `ed lrn ze`xyxy qwltnew , R itelig beg lkl

∂n−1 ◦ ∂n = 0 -y jk ( n = 1, 2, . . . , ∂n : Cn → Cn−1
) milecen- R ly zewzrd mr (Cn )∞
n=0
. 2≤n lkl

mewna xy`k ,16.9-e 16.5 'bda enk excbei ze`xyxy ziitehenede ze`xyxy zwzrd

.milecen- R ly zewzrd yexcp ,mzq minfitxenened

:dprh 16.22

zxeag , 0 ≤ n lkle , R lrn ze`xyxy iqwltnew ly ChainR-Mod dixebihw zniiw

Hn : ChainR-Mod → R Mod
. - xehwpt dxicbn zi- n -d dibelenedd

 .libxz :dgked

:dprh 16.23

zedf zewzrd zexyn zeitehened ody R lrn ze`xyxy iqwltnew ly ze`xyxy zewzrd

.dibeleneda

 .libxz :dgked

103
 16 wxtl milibxz 16.24

.16.6 dprh z` egiked 16.24.1

.16.11 dprh z` egiked 16.24.2

.16.14 dnl z` egiked 16.24.3

.16.18 dprh z` egiked 16.24.4

.16.19 dprh z` egiked 16.24.5

.16.22 dprh z` egiked 16.24.6

.16.23 dprh z` egiked 16.24.7

104
 III wlg
zix`lebpiqd dxezd
z` zepnl dxen` `id - ziaihi`ehpi` zernyn mpn` yi zil`iviltniqd dibelenedl

-ewd dite` llba ,dly zepekz gikedl dyw mle` - oezpd agxna cnin lkn "mixeg"d

itke ;dxear zetivx zewzrd ici-lr mixyen minfitxenened xicbdl dyw ;dywepd ixehpian

cexpihqe (Samuel Eilenberg) bxaplii` ,dl` zeira lr zeprl ick .daygl dyw mb ,epi`xy

dxe`kl zi`xpy ,dibelened ly zxg` `qxb 20-d d`nd rvn`a exicbd (Norman Steenrod)
mbe ,zil`iviltniqd dibelenedd on yeniyl daxda dgep `idy xazqn j` ,xzei zkaeqn

.xzei zillk

zixlebpiqd dveawde zeil`iviltniq zeveaw 17

oial ibeleteh agxn oia xexa xyw oi`y `id zil`iviltniqd dibeleneda zeirad zg`

byen z` zvw mililkn m`y xazqn .il`iviltniq qwltnew ly ixehpianewd byend

ote`a agxn lkl ,zil`iviltniq dveaw `xwpd ,ycg dpan mi`zdl xyt` ,qwltnewd

.ipep`w

miqwltniqd z` xicbdl xyt`y dpga`d dzid cexpihqe bxaplii` ly dyibd ceqia

z` silgp m` ;miihxcphq miqwltniq ly miix`pil mipekiyk il`iviltniq qwltnew ly

.miizexixy miibeleteh miagxnl dllkd lawp ,mzq zetivx zewzrda elld mipekiyd

:dxcbd 17.1

qwltniq- n -d `ed ∆[n]

, oneqnd ,(standard n-simplex ) ihxcphqd qwltniq- n -d

i
⃗ei := (0, . . . , 0, 1, 0, . . . , 0)
( ) {⃗e0 , . . . , ⃗en } ihxcphqd qiqad ici lr yxtpd ixhne`ibd

.(12.1 'bd) Rn+1 -a

wzer xeza - ⃗ek cewcewd leny df ∆[n]

,xnelk k
- ly -d otd lr aeygl xyt` :dxrd
mipt ly zelkd (n + 1) xicbdl jk ∆[n − 1]
ici lre , ly (!steg elit`) itxene`ined

ici lr (k = 0, 1, . . . , n) η k = ηnk : ∆[n − 1] ,→ ∆[n] :miicnin- (n − 1)

∑n−1 ∑
k−1 ∑
n−1
k
.η ( ti⃗ei ) = ti⃗ei + ti⃗ei+1
i=0 i=0 i=k

:i`pzd ici lr rawp `ed ,zix`pil dwzrdk xcben ηk -y oeeikn

{
ei 0≤i≤k m`
(21) ηnk (ei ) =
ei+1 k ≤i≤n−1 m`

:miiwzny ze`xl lw o`kn

{
span(e0 , . . . , êj , . . . , êk , . . . , en ) k>j m`
k
(ηn+1 ◦ ηnj )(span(e0 . . . en )) =
span(e0 , . . . , ek , . . . , êj+1 , . . . , en ) k≤j m`

105
 :xnelk

(22) k>j xear η k ◦ η j = η j ◦ η k−1

.(15.4 dprh zgkedl eeyd)

:dxcbd 17.2

e`l) dtivx dwzrd `ed X ibeleteh agxna (singular n-simplex) ixlebpiq qwltniq- n (`

σ : ∆[n] → X
. (!oekiy `weec

`xwp S• (X) := (S(X)n )∞

n=0 -e , Sn (X) oneqi miixlebpiqd miqwltniq- n-d lk sqe` (a

. X ly (singular set) zixlebpiqd dveawd

zix`lebpiqd dveawd ly ( k-th face map k) zi- -d miptd zwzrd 0 ≤ k ≤ n

, lkl (b

zxcben di : Sn (X) → Sn−1 (X)

n
divwpetd `id n ( cnina)

. dni (σ) := (ηin )∗ (σ) = σ ◦ ηin

. dk (σ) heyt aezkpe ,xywdd on oaei n cnind llk jxca :dxrd

,(c 4.14 'bec e`x) reaw X -l HomT op (−, X) xehwptd ly zeihp`ix`ee-dxhpewd llba

:miiwzn 1≤n lkly (22)-n wiqdl lkep

{
i−1 ◦ dj
dn−1 0≤j<i≤n
n
m`
(23) dn−1
j ◦ dni =
dn−1
i ◦ dnj+1 0≤i≤j≤n m`

.(19)-a enk

xeza (12.7 'bd) K miixhne`ibd miil`iviltniqd miqwltnewd z` epxcbd xekfk :dxrd

jk xg` .( K ly yenind) |K| ibeletehd agxnd ly dvgnl-zixehpianew dhytd oirn

mle` .(12.13 'bd) hytnd il`iviltniqd qwltnewd byena cala ixehpianew xe`izl eprbd

xazqn dzr ."miaeh" miniieqn miibeleteh miagxnl wx mi`zd xe`izd mixwnd ipya

:mieqn oaena ,ibeleteh agxn lkl mi`znd xe`iz lawl lkep ztqep dhytd ici-lry

:dxcbd 17.3

(En )∞
,
n=0 zeveaw ly dxcq `id ( reduced simplicial set ) znvnevn zil`iviltniq dveaw (`

.(23) z` zeniiwnd , 0≤i≤n 1≤n -e dni : En → En−1

lkl zeivwpeta zciievnd

edylk xyw gxkda mdl oi`y zexnl) miqwltniq- n mcewnk e`xwii En ixai`

.(miixhne`ib miqwltniql

fn : zeivwpet zxcq `id F• -l E• -n zenvnevn zeil`iviltniq zeveaw ly dwzrd (a

. 0≤i≤n lkl fn−1 ◦ dni = dni ◦ fn -y jk E n → Fn

106
 :ze`nbec 17.4

K
: ly miqwltniq- n -d zeveaw zxcq ,(12.17 'bd) oeekn il`iviltniq qwltnew K m` (1

dni zeivwpetd z` xicbp m` ,zvnevn zil`iviltniq dveaw deedn - (Kn )∞

n=0 ,xnelk -

.(19) it-lr z`fe ,15.2 dxcbda enk

X ibeleteh agxn ly S• (X) = (Sn (X))∞

n=0 zix`lebpiqd dveawd ,lirl xen`d itl (2

.znvnevn zil`iviltniq dveaw deedn

:dprh 17.5

zenvnevn zeil`iviltniq zeveaw ly zewzrd mr ,zenvnevnd zeil`iviltniqd zeveawd

. Simpred oneqzy ,dixebihw deedn ,minfitxen xeza

 .libxz :dgked

:dprh 17.6

. S• : T op → Simpred xehwpt dxicbn zixlebpiqd dveawd

 .libxz :dgked

:jaeqn xzei zvw dpan yi S• (X) lr mvra

:dxcbd 17.7

zeivwpet (En )∞
mr ,
n=0 zeveaw ly dxcq `id ( simplicial set ) zil`iviltniq dveaw (`

snj : En → En+1 face maps

-e ( - mipt zewzrd xen`k ze`xwpd) dni : En → En−1
:oke ,(23) z` zeniiwnd 0 ≤ i, j ≤ n
, degeneracy maps
lkl ( - oeeip zewzrd)



sj−1 ◦ di
n−1 n
i<j m`

(24) di ◦ sj = IdEn
n+1 n
i = j, j + 1

m`

 n−1 n
sj ◦ di−1 j+1<i m`

{
j+1 ◦ si
sn+1 i≤j
n
m`
(25) sn+1
i ◦ s n
j =
sj ◦ si−1
n+1 n
j<i m`

fn : En → Fn zeivwpet zxcq `id F• -l E• -n zeil`iviltniq zeveaw ly dwzrd (a

. 0 ≤ i, j ≤ n lkl fn+1 ◦ snj = snj ◦ fn -e fn−1 ◦ dni = dni ◦ fn -y jk

:dprh 17.8

xy`k ,zil`iviltniq dveaw deedn X ibeleteh agxn ly S• (X) zix`lebpiqd dveawd

lr) ζjn : ∆[n + 1] → ∆[n] zeil`iviltniqd zewzrdd ici lr zexyen oeeipd zewzrd

:i`pzd ici lr mirawpd (miihxcphqd qwltniqd

{
⃗ei i≤j m`
ζjn (⃗ei ) =
⃗ei−1 i>j m`

107
 . snj (σ) := (ζjn )∗ (σ) = σ ◦ ζjn f`e

 .libxz :dgked

:dprh 17.9

deedn ,minfitxen xeza zeil`iviltniq zeveaw ly zewzrd mr ,zeil`iviltniqd zeveawd

. U : Simp → Simpred ogky xehwpt yie , Simp oneqzy ,dixebihw

 .libxz :dgked

,zil`iviltniq dveaw ly dpan zzl xyt`-i` (oeekn) il`iviltniq qwltnewl :dxrd

dveaw xy`n ipekqg xzei byen `ed z`f dpigan ."mipeepn miqwltniq" ea oi`y meyn

-enedd zxeza ifkxn mewn yi zeil`iviltniq zeveawly xazqn mle` .zil`iviltniq

,miaeiq ,ditehened zexeag ,ditehened ly mibyend lk z` xicbdl ozip ,mvra - diteh

zxez ly "divwecx" zeyrl jkae ,odylk zeil`iviltniq zeveaw xear cere ,dibelened

-ep zeiptde xe`iz `evnl elkei mitqep mihxta mipiipernd .dwixehpianewl ditehenedd

.[ Goerss & Jardine ] xtqa zetq

:dxcbd 17.10

[n] xy`k , Obj(∆) = {[n]}∞

n−0 day ,zeiteqd zexecqd zeveawd ly dixebihwd `id ∆
zewzrd md ∆ ly minfitxende , 0 < 1 < 2 < ... < n dxecqd ziteqd dveawd `ed

.(xcq zexney ,xnelk) zeipehepen

:dnl 17.11

:mi`ad mixvei minfitxend ly dakxdk xe`izl ozip ( Id[n] zedfd caln) ∆ -a mfitxen lk

:xcbend ,η
i
n
: [n − 1] → [n]
{
k k<i m`
ηin (k) =
k+1 k≥i m`

xcbend , ζjn : [n + 1] → [n] -e

{
k k<j m`
ζjn (k) =
k−1 k≥j m`

 .libxz :dgked

:dprh 17.12

mixehwpt oial E• := (En )∞

n=0 zeil`iviltniq zeveaw oia lre zikxr-cg-cg dn`zd dpyi

.(` 5.14 'bd) Set -a zen`xb`ic- ∆op ,xnelk , E : ∆ → Set mihp`ix`e-dxhpew

 .libxz :dgked

108
 :dpwqn 17.13

. Set
∆op
oial Simp oia (5.5 'bd) zeixebihw ly zeliwy yi

:dxcbd 17.14

associated chain
) deelpd ze`xyxyd qwltnew ,znvnevn zil`iviltniq dveaw E• m`

:xcben ⟨C∗s (E• ), ∂⟩ ( complex

ici-lr zxvepd ziytegd zila`d dxeagd idef ,xnelk - (14.4 'bd) Cns (E• ) := FZ (En ) (i)
. E• ly miqwltniq- n -d

:`gqepd ici-lr En ∋ e -e 1≤n lkl xcben ∂n : Cns → Cn−1

s
(ii)

∑
n
∂n (e) := (−1)i dni (e)
i=0

.(14.6 dpwqn it-lr ,cigi ote`a ∂n mfitxenenedd z` raew df)

:dprh 17.15

.(16.1 'bd) ze`xyxy qwltnew ok` `ed ⟨C∗s (E• ), ∂⟩

dprh zgkeda enk (23)-n raep dfe , 1≤n lkl ∂n−1 ◦ ∂n = 0 -y `ceel wx epilr :dgked

. .(1 17.4 'bec it lr ,17.15 dprh ly ihxt dxwn mvra `edy) 15.4

:dprh 17.16

. C∗s : Simpred → Chain xehwpt xicbn deelpd ze`xyxyd qwltnew

 .libxz :dgked

109
 17 wxtl milibxz 17.17

.17.5 dprh z` egiked 17.17.1

.17.6 dprh z` egiked 17.17.2

.17.8 dprh z` egiked 17.17.3

.17.9 dprh z` egiked 17.17.4

.17.11 dnl z` egiked 17.17.5

.17.12 dprh z` egiked 17.17.6

.S• : T op → Simp xehwpt dxicbn mvra S -y e`xd 17.17.7

.17.16 dprh z` egiked 17.17.8

zix`lebpiq dibelened 18

dibelened ly byen xicbdl epicia eiykr ,17-e 16 miwxt ly zeprhde zexcbdd zxcq xg`l

:heyt ic ote`a ibeleteh agxn lkl

:dxcbd 18.1

: X ibeleteh agxn lkl

`ed X ly ( singular chain complex ) ix`lebpiqd ze`xyxyd qwltnew (`

. ⟨C∗ (X), ∂⟩ := C∗s (S• (X))

n n
∑N
miqwltniq- ly il`nxet mekq heyt `id zix`lebpiq zxyxy- -y dxcbddn mi`ex ep`

.( i = 1, . . . , N ) Z ∋ ai -e σin : ∆[n] → X xear Cn (X) ∋ c = i=1 ai σin miix`lebpiq

:ezpenz ly xebqd `ed σ : ∆[n] → X ix`lebpiq support

qwltniq ly ( ) jnezd (a

∑N
c= ai σi supp(σ) Cl(Im(σ))
∪
cegi` `ed zixlebpiq zxyxy ly jnezy . oneqi `ed ;
i=1
supp(c) := N
.
i=1 supp(σi ) :miqwltniqd iknez

zpneqnd , X ly (singular homology group) n

zi- -d zixlebpiqd dibelenedd zxeag (b

ze`xyxyd qwltnew ly n zi- -d dibelenedd zxeag `id Hn (X) := Hn (⟨C∗ (X), ∂⟩)
,

C∗ (X)
. ixlebpiqd

110
 :dprh 18.2

. C∗ : T op → Chain xehwpt xicbn ix`lebpiqd ze`xyxyd qwltnew (`

. Hn : T op → AbGp xehwpt dxicbn zixlebpiqd dibelenedd zxeag , 0≤n lkl (a

:dgked

dl`e ,C
s
∗ : Simpred → Chain mr S• : T op → Simpred zakxd ici-lr zxcben C∗ (`

.17.16-e 17.6 zeprh itl mixehwpt

dl`e , Hn : Chain → AbGp mr C∗ : T op → Chain zakxd ici-lr zxcben Hn (a

 .16.8 dprhe (` itl mixehwpt

lr zix`lebpiqd dibelenedd ly zegtl cg` oexzi mi`ex ep` oey`x alya xak :dxrd
dwzrd lk hxtae ,zil`ixehwpt `idy xexa dxcbddn :zil`iviltniqd dibelenedd ipt

lkl Hn (f ) : Hn (X) → Hn (Y ) mfitxenened dxyn miibeleteh miagxn oia f :X→Y

:lynl - dfn xzei milawn zeil`ixehwptdn la` 0≤n.

dnl 18.3

h∗ : Hn (X) → Hn (Y ) mfitxenefi` dxyn miagxn oia h:X →Y mfitxene`ened lk

. 0≤n lkl

 .libxz :dgked

:oeniq 18.4

dtivx dwzrd ici-lr ix`lebpiqd ze`xyxyd qwltnewa zixyend ze`xyxyd zwzrd

zexeaga dxyend mfitxenenedd ,z`f znerl f# : C∗ (X) → C∗ (Y )

. oneqz f :X→Y
.(4.13 dxrd e`x) 0≤n lkl f∗ : Hn (X) → Hn (Y ) oneqi dibelenedd

ep` .dibelenedd zexeag z` aygl ixyt`-izla hrnky d`xp eipt lr ,ipy cvn :dxrd
dibelenedd xear dyrnl miynzyn oday mikxcd ,mvra - oekp `l dfy jynda d`xp

wwcfp jk myl la` .zix`lebpiqd dibelenedd iabl dcin dze`a zeniyi zil`iviltniqd

:xzeia heytd dxwna aygl ozip z`f lka .`ad wxta gztp mze`y ,mitqep milkl

:cnind htyn 18.5

{
Z n=0
. Hn (P ) ∼
= :f` ,zg` dcewp oa agxn P = {pt} m`

{0} n>0

lka cg` ixlebpiq qwltniq wx yi) n lkl Sn (P ) = {∗} zixlebpiqd dveawd :dgked
i`/ibef xtqn znkqn heyt ∂n dtyd zwzrde n≥0
, lkl Cn (P ) ∼
=Z okle ,(cnin

111
 :`ed P ly ixlebpiqd ze`xyxyd qwltnew okl .mitlgzn mipniq mr xveid ly ibef

∂4 ∂3 ∂2 ∂1
. . . C4 (P ) / C3 (P ) / C2 (P ) / C1 (P ) / C0 (P )

∼
= ∼
= ∼
= ∼
= ∼
=
    
Z /Z /Z /Z /Z
IdZ 0 IdZ 0

wx xzep .ibef-i` n xear Zn (P ) = Bn (P ) eli`e ,iaeig ibef n Zn (P ) = {0}

xear -y o`kn

 . H0 (P ) = C0 (P )/B0 (P ) = Z/{0} ∼
=Z

:dxcbd 18.6

dwzrd dxyn i : A ,→ X dlkdd ,(2.15 'bd) (X, A) miibeleteh miagxn bef lkl

C∗ (A) okle , i∗ : S• (X) → S• (A) zenvnevn zeil`iviltniq zeveaw ly zikxr-cg-cg

.(?recn) C∗ (X) ly qwltnew-zz

befd ly ix`lebpiqd ze`xyxyd qwltnew `xwp C∗ (X)/C∗ (A) dpnd qwltnew (`

C∗ (X, A) . oneqne (X, A)

,

ziqgid zixlebpiqd dibelenedd zxeag zi`xwp C∗ (X, A) ly zi- n -d dibelenedd zxeag (a

. Hn (X, A) zpneqne ,(X, A) befd ly zi- n -d ( relative homology )

:dprh 18.7

:dibeleneda (10.12 'bd) dkex` zwiiecn dxcq yi (X, A) miibeleteh miagxn bef lkl

∗ i ∂
. . . → Hn A → Hn X → Hn (X, A) →∗ Hn−1 (A) → . . .

.befd ly dkex`d zwiiecnd dxcqd zi`xwpd

 .16.16 htynn raep df :dgked

:htyn 18.8

. 0≤n lkl Hn (X) ∼

= ⊕α∈A Hn (Xα ) f` , X ly dliqnd iaikxn md {Xα }α∈A m`

 .libxz :dgked

:dxcbd 18.9

Hurewicz ) uiaxed mfitxenened z` xicbp 1≤n (X, x0 ) , lkle cwepn ibeleteh agxn lkl

hn ([f ]) = ⟨f# (qn )⟩ :ici lr hn : πn (X, x0 ) → Hn (X)

, n homomorphism oneqnd , cnina (

,dpn zwzrd `id qn : (∆[n], ∂∆[n]) → (S , s0 )

n
f : (S , s0 ) → (X, x0 )
n
xy`k , lkl

∆[n]/∂∆[n]
. n
dpnd agxn mr zicnin- -d dxitqd z` ddfnd

.( Sn -a ix`lebpiq qwltniq- n -k qn lr miayeg o`k)

112
 :dxrd 18.10

n ∇ n f,g
xy`k) S → Sn ∨ S → X -e f, g : S n → X ozpida ik , 1≤n lkl mfitxenened ok` edf

:d`vnp Hn (S n ∨S n ) ∋ x⊕y lkl f` ,(10.1 dxcbda ritend xeina l`nyn dwzrdd `id ∇
. [∇ ◦ (f ∪ g)]∗ (x ⊕ y) = f∗ x + g∗ y
,xnelk - n-connected
( n ) xiyw- `ed (X, x0 ) m`y ze`xdl xyt` ,ok lr xzi

hn+1 : πn+1 (X, x0 ) → Hn+1 (X) f` , 1 ≤ n -l - 0 ≤ i ≤ n -l πi (X, x0 ) = {0}

gkedy ,1 cnina df htynl belp`d z` d`xp j` ,o`k z`f gikep `l .mfitxenefi` `ed

:dx`wp`et ici-lr dpey`xl

:dx`wp`et htyn 18.11

mr ,lr zwzrd h1 : π1 (X, x0 ) → H1 (X) X ∋ x0 f` , -e zizliqn xiyw agxn X m`

π := π1 (X, x0 )
.( ly mixeh`henewd zxeag) [π, π] oirxb

:dligz gikep

:dnl 18.12

.zeix`lebpiq ze`xyxy- 1 -k mnekql ibelened zeliqn xeyxy

qwltniq xicbdl ozip , α(1) = β(0) -y jk α, β : [0, 1] → X zeliqn izy lkl :dgked
:`gqepd ici-lr σ = σ(α,β) : ∆[2] → X icnin-ec ix`lebpiq

{
α(2t2 + t1 ) t2 ≥ t0 m`
σ(t0 , t1 , t2 ) :=
β(t2 − t0 ) t0 ≤ t2 m`

jka . ∂(σ) = α + β − α ∗ β d2 (σ) = α okle , -e , d1 (σ) = α ∗ β d0 (σ) = β , -y `vnp f`e

 C1 (X)/B1 (X)
.yxcpk , dpnd zxeaga α∗β α+β
-l lewy mekqdy epi`xd

q1 : [0, 1] → S 1
, dpnd zwzrd ⟨q1 ⟩
ici lr bvein H1 (S 1 )
:htynd zgked ly xai`d

dligznd) α : ([0, 1], {0, 1}) → (X, x0 ) h1 : π1 (X, x0 ) → H1 (X, x0 )

d`lell mi`zn okle

S1 (X) ∋ α
. x0
ixlebpiqd qwltniqd z` ( qiqad zcewpa zniizqne

dliqn X ∋ x dcewp lkl cinzle zg`X xegal lkep ,zizliqn xiyw -y oeeikn

dtivx zeidl (dleki dpi` llk jxcae) dkixv dpi` efk dxiga . x x0 X γx -l -n -a zniieqn

φ : [0, 1] → X 1
(dliqn) ix`lebpiq qwltniq- x lkn xevil lkep jk ici-lr . ly divwpetk

−1
ibelened S1 (X) ∋ φ̃
(xvei) φ̃ := γφ(0) ⋆ φ ⋆ γφ(1)
lirl xen`d x0 itl . : -a dxebq d`lel

γφ(0) + φ − γφ(1)
∑N
.(mixvei ly mekq) xefgnl

ixd ∂(c) = 0
, X Z1 (X) ∋ c = i=1 ni φi
-y oeeikn , -a icnin-cg xefgn ozpida dzr

mipniqa zebefa milhanzn ni ( {φi (0), φi (1)}N

mini`znd miieaixd mr)
i=1 zeevwd lky

okle ,mini`znd

∑
N ∑
N
, c = ni φi = ni (γφ(0) + φi − γφ(1) )
i=1 i=1
∑N
,zexeag ly mfitxenened h1 -y oeeikn mle` . c′ := i=1 ni φ̃i -l 18.12 dnl itl ibelened dfe

:miiwzn

, [c] = [c′ ] = h1 (φ̃n1 1 ⋆ φ̃n2 2 ⋆ . . . ⋆ φ̃nNN

113
 . H1 (X) lr h1 -y epi`xd jkae

lr mfitxenened dxyn h1 okle ,ila` H1 dzr

, h : π1 (X, x0 )/[π1 (X, x0 ), π1 (X, x0 )] →

→ H1 (X)

h1 (α) = 0 ⟨α⟩ ∈ π1 (X, x0 ) h

∑
,xnelk - -y jk `di okl .zikxr-cg-cg -y ze`xdl witqne

edf ,ccea ix`lebpiq qwltniq `ed α -y ψi ∈ S2 (X)

oeeikn . xear α = ∂( N i=1 ni ψi )
x`y lke , α = dj ψi0 -y jk j ∈ {0, 1, 2} 1 ≤ i0 ≤ N
-e miiwy xne` dfe S1 (X)
, xvei ly

:aezkp m` okl .milhazn ilnxetd mekqa mixai`d

ui := [ψ̂i (0) ⋆ d2 ψi ⋆ ψ̂i (1)] ⋆ [ψ̂i (1) ⋆ d0 ψi ⋆ ψ̂i (2)] ⋆ [ψ̂i (2) ⋆ d1 ψi ⋆ ψ̂i (0)]

w = m` okle ,( i : ∂∆[2] ,→ ∆[2] -l ditehenedlep deedn Id∆[2] ik) cx0 ≃ u1 f`e

ik(π1 X/[π, π] -a [w] ≡ [α] divfila` ixg` jci`n . π1 X -a w=0 f` un1 1 · . . . · unmm
,

∑ ˆ
`ed h1 ,xnelk - my [α] = 0 okle , α = ∂( ni ψi ) weica x`ype milhazn ψ̂, ψ̂-d

 .yxcpk ,ikxr-cg-cg

:dpwqn 18.13

. H1 (S 1 ∨ S 1 ) ∼
=Z⊕Z -e H1 (S 1 ) ∼
, =Z

ly divfila`d eli`e ,zila` dxeag Z-y dcaerde ,8.7 `nbec ,7.12 htynn raep df :dgked
 .(?recn) mixvei mze` lr ziytegd zila`d dxeagd `id ziyteg dxeag

114
 dibelened(ew) ly zexg` ze`qxb

cer il`iviltniqd ze`xyxyd qwltnewn lawl mileki ep` ,16.20 'bece 16.19 dprh itl

:miibeleteh miagxn ly zeibeleteh zexeny

:dxcbd 18.14

: G zila` dxeage X ibeleteh agxn lkl

`ed ( with coefficients in G G ) -a mincwn mr X ly ix`lebpiqd ze`xyxyd qwltnew (`

zxyxy- n -y dxcbddn mi`ex ep` aey .(1 16.20 ⟨C∗ (X; G), ∂⟩ := C∗s (S• (X)) ⊗ G
'bec)

n G
∑
:miix`lebpiq miqwltniq- ly il`nxet mekq heyt `id -a mincwn mr zix`lebpiq

i = 1, . . . , N G ∋ gi
.( ) -e σi : ∆[n] → X
n
Cn (X) ∋ c = N
xear
n
i=1 gi σi
,

`id X ly G -a mincwn mr zi- n -d zixlebpiqd dibelenedd zxeag (a

. Hn (X; G) := Hn (⟨C∗ (X; G), ∂⟩)

:dprh 18.15

(5.39 'bd) xehwptia dxicbn G -a mincwn mr zixlebpiqd dibelenedd zxeag 0≤n

, lkl

. Hn (−; −) : T op op
× AbGp → AbGp

 .libxz :dgked

:zpzep 18.5 htyn lr dlw div`ixe

:dprh 18.16
{
G n=0
Hn (P ; G) ∼
. = :f` ,zila` dxeag G -e ,zg` dcewp oa agxn P = {pt} m`

{0} n > 0

 .libxz :dgked

:dxcbd 18.17

:ici lr ε : C0 (X; G) → G divhpnbe` xicbdl ozip G lrn ze`xyxy qwltnew lkl

∑N ∑
N
. ε( 0
gi σi ) := gi ∈ G
i=1 i=1

okle , 0 = ε ◦ ∂0 -y wecal xyt`

ε ∂
G ← C0 (X; G) ←0 C1 (X; G) ← . . . ← Cn (X; G) ←
dibelenedd zi`xwp ely dibelenedde , C̃∗ (X; G) oneqnd ,ze`xyxy qwltnew ozep aey

. H̃∗ (X; G) :zpneqne , G-a mincwn mr X ly (reduced homology) znvnevnd

115
 :dprh 18.18

: G zila` dxeage X ibeleteh agxn lkl

. 1≤n xear H̃n (X; G) ∼

= Hn (X; G) (`

ε∗
zixyen ε∗ xy`k , 0 → H̃0 (X) → H0 (X) → H0 (P ) → 0 :dxvw zwiiecn dxcq dpyi (a

ε
X −→ P := {pt}
. :(zixyt`d dcigid) dwzrdd ici lr

. 0≤n xear Hn (X) ∼

= Hn (P ) ⊕ H̃n (X) (b

 .libxz :dgked

:dxcbd 18.19

.( acyclic ) ilwiv` `xwp 0≤n lkl H̃n (X) ∼

= {0} exeary X ibeleteh agxn

:dxcbd 18.20

: G zila` dxeage X ibeleteh agxn lkl

-a mincwn mr X ly ( singular cochain complex ) ix`lebpiqd ze`xyxy-ewd qwltnew (`

zix`lebpiq zxyxy-ew ,xnelk - ⟨C ∗ (X; G), δ⟩ := Hom(C∗ (X), G)

(2 16.20 'bec) `ed G
φ : Cn (X) → G
. zeila` zexeag ly mfitxenened `id

`id G -a mincwn mr X ly zi- n -d zixlebpiqd dibelenedewd zxeag (a

H n (X; G) := H n (⟨C ∗ (X; G), δ⟩)

.(c 16.17 'bd)

mfitxenened dxyn miibeleteh miagxn oia f :X →Y dwzrd n G

, -e :al eniy
lkl

.(4.13 dxrd e`x) f∗ heyt eze` onqp llk jxca . H n (f ) : H n (Y ; G) → H n (X; G)

:dprh 18.21

H n (−; −) : xehwptia dxicbn G -a mincwn mr zixlebpiqd dibelenedewd zxeag 0≤n

, lkl

. T op × AbGp op
→ AbGp

 .libxz :dgked

:dxrd 18.22

ze`xdl ozip ok`e ;dibelenedewa e` ,mincwn mr dibeleneda zlrezd dxexa `l eipt lr

ipy mdl yi z`f lka .zelibxd dibelenedd zexeag ici lr ixabl` ote`a mirawp mdipyy

:zepexzi

R bega mincwn mr dibelenedewd zexeag lk z` cgi mitxvn m`y xazqn ,ziy`x

∗
dlert zniiw ,xnelk - "bxecn beg" ly dpan dfl yi f` , H (X, R) :zg` "zbxecn dxeag"l

116
,zix`pil-ia `idy 0 ≤ i, j lkl ∪ : H i (X; R) × H j (X; R) → H i+j (X; R) zix`pia

:miiwzn ,xnelk - zbxecn-zitelige ,ziveaiw

. H j (X; R) ∋ bj -e H i (X; R) ∋ ai -l ai ∪ bj = (−1)i+j bj ∪ ai

zix`lebpiq dibelened xy`n G -a mincwn mr dibelened aygl lw xzei minrtl ,zipy

zeila` zexeaga xy`n miixehwe miagxna miaeyig rval xzei lwy llba ,lynl - dlibx

:miiwzne ,mzq

:dprh 18.23

H n (X; F )
-e Hn (X; F ) zexeagl X yi ibeleteh agxn lkle 0≤n lkl f` ,dcy F m`

minfitxenenedd f :X →Y
, dwzrd lkl hxtae) F lrn ixehwe agxn ly irah dpan

zewzrd md f ∗ : H n (Y ; F ) → H n (X; F ) -e f∗ : Hn (X; F ) → Hn (Y ; F ) mixyend

.zeix`pil

 .libxz :dgked

18 wxtl milibxz 18.24

.18.3 dnl z` egiked 18.24.1

.18.8 htyn z` egiked 18.24.2

.18.15 dprh z` egiked 18.24.3

.18.16 dprh z` egiked 18.24.4

.18.18 dprh z` egiked 18.24.5

.18.21 dprh z` egiked 18.24.6

.18.23 dprh z` egiked 18.24.7

zixlebpiqd dibelenedd ly zeneiqk`d 19

dze` oiit`l ick zewitqnd ,zeiqiqa zepekz dnk zixlebpiqd dibelenedl yiy xazqn

:mfitxenefi` ick cr ,cigi ote`a

117
dxeny H∗ -y ziciin raep miibeleteh miagxn lr H∗ ly zeil`ixehwptd jezn ,ziy`x

mfitxenefi` f∗ : H∗ (X) → H∗ (Y ) f` ,mfitxene`ined f :X→Y m` ,xnelk :zibeleteh

htyn z` dligz lilkp jk myl .zitehened zeliwyl mf oekp dfy d`xp .(18.3 dnl e`x)

:18.5

:dprh 19.1

. 0<n lkl Hn (X) = {0} f` ,(1.37 'bd) dxenw dveaw RN ⊇ X m`

:ici lr Tn : Sn (X) → Sn+1 (X) 0≤n xicbp lkle reaw X∋x xgap :dgked
{
(1 − t0 ) · σ( 1−t
t1 tn+1
, . . . , 1−t ) + t0 x 0 ≤ t0 < 1 m`
Tn (σ)(t0 , . . . , tn+1 ) := 0 0

x t0 = 1 m`

.Rn+2 ⊇ ∆[n + 1] ∋ (t0 , . . . , tn+1 ) lkl

e⃗0 = (1, 0, . . . , 0)
-y llba , -a mb ,dtivx dwzrd ok` ef

[ ]
t1 tn−1
, lim ∥τ (σ)(t0 , . . . , τn+1 ) − x∥ ≤ lim (1 − t0 ) ∥σ( ,..., )∥ + ∥x∥
t0 →1 t0 →1 1 − t0 1 − t0
. RN ⊇ X -a σ zpenz ly zeihwtnewd llba meqg ∥σ( 1−t
t1
0
tn−1
, . . . , 1−t 0
)∥ + ∥x∥ iehiade

znerle ,( σ `ed e⃗0 cewcewd leny otl τ (σ) ly mevnvd,xnelk) τ (σ) ◦ ηn+1
0
=σ dzr

okle , 1≤k ≤n+1 lkl τ (σ) ◦ ηn+1

k
= σ ◦ ηnk−1 z`f

∂n+1 Tn (σ) + Tn−1 (∂n σ) = σ

Zn (X) ∋ c zxyxy- n lkl dxwi dfy ze`xl xyt` ∂n zeix`piln Sn (X) ∋ σ. lkl

Hn (X) ∼
= {0} -y o`kne ,( Tn (c) ly) dty- n `ed xefgn- n lk hxta σ okle ,( mewna)

 .
∼
H0 (X) = Z 1≤n eli`e , -l

0-l IdC∗ (X) = (IdX )# oia (16.9 'bd) ze`xyxy ziitehened deedn (Tn )∞
n=0 mvra :dxrd
.16.10 dprhn 19.1 dprh z` wiqpe ,zitehenedlep IdC∗ (X) -y epi`xd ,xnelk -

:htyn 19.2

f ∼g:X→ ozpida ,xnelk - dibeleneda mfitxenened eze` zexyn zeitehened zewzrd

. f∗ = g∗ : H∗ (X) → H∗ (Y ) :miiwzn 0≤n lkl f` , Y

.zeitehened g # f#
, ze`xyxyd zewzrdy ze`xdl witqn 16.10 dprh itl :dgked

-y xne` df ,ditehened F :f ∼g m` ,ok`e

X = X × {0}
LL
LL f
LL
i0 LL
 LL
L%
X × [0, 1] F /9 Y
O rrr
r
rr
i1
rrrg
rr
X = X × {1}

118
(i1 )# ∼ (i0 )# -y ze`xdl `eti` witqn g = F ◦ i1 f = F ◦ i0
. , mr ,zitelig dnxb`ic

.(` 18.2 dprh) C∗ ly zeil`ixhwptd llba ,ze`xyxy zewzrdk

:dnxb`icd zeitelig llba ,ok lr xzi

∆[n] = ∆[n] × {0}

σ / X × {0} = X

j0 i0
 
∆[n] × [0, 1]
σ×Id / X × [0, 1]

ziitehened epxcbdy divwecpi`a gipp okle ,X = ∆[n] xear dprhd z` gikedl witqn

-y jk ,( X -a zirah) , i<n Ti : Ci (X) → Ci+1 (X)

lkl ze`xyxy

. ∂i+1 ◦ Ti + Ti−1 ◦ ∂i = (i0 )# − (i1 )#

n=0
. -l wix ote`a divwecpi`d z` miligzn

:zxyxya opeazp , σ : ∆[n] → ∆[n] ixlebpiq qwltniq- n ozpida dzr

, c = (i0 )# (σ) − (i1 )# (σ) − Tn−1 (∂n (σ))

:aygpe

∂ n (c) = ∂n ((i0 )# (σ)) − ∂n ((i1 )# (σ)) − ∂n (Tn−1 (∂n (σ)))

= (i0 )# (∂n (σ)) − (i1 )# (∂n (σ)) − [(i0 )# (∂n (σ)) − (i1 )# (∂n (σ)) − Tn−2 (∂n−1 (∂n (σ)))] = 0

ly dty `ed c xefgnd 19.1 dprh Rn+2

itl , -a dxenw ∆[n] × [0, 1]
dveaw -y oeeikn

:lawp ok`e , Tn (σ) := b :xicbp . Cn+1 (∆[n] × I) ∋ b zxyxy idyefi`

, ∂n+1 (Tn (σ)) + Tn−1 (∂n (σ)) = (i0 )# (σ) − (i1 )# (σ)
:xicbdl lkep τ : ∆[n] → X lk xear zeirahne

, TnX (τ ) := (τ × (Id[0,1] )# Tn∆[n] (Id∆[n] )

 .yxcpk , T : f# ∼ g # z` lawne

-ened da mixgeae ,zilwiv` "zilqxaipe` `nbec" mi`ven day ,ef dgked zhiy :dxrd
.( acyclic models ) "miilwiv` milcen" zi`xwp ,diteh

:dpwqn 19.3

.mfitxenefi` f∗ f` ,zitehened zeliwy f :X→Y m`

:dpwqn 19.4
{
Z n=0
. Hn X ∼
= ,xnelk - (18.19 'bd) ilwiv` `ed f` ,uieek agxn X m`

{0} n > 0

 .18.5 htyne 19.3 dpwqn itl :dgked

119
 ueviwd htyn

xne`d ,`ad htynd `ed zix`lebpiqd ditehenedd zexeag aeyigl ixwird ipkhd ilkd

.dibelenedd z` zepyl ila (X, A) bef jezn A⊇U dgezt dveaw (excise) uvwl xyt`y

Hn (X, A) -a xai` bviiny "ohw witqn" σ : ∆[n] → X ixlebpiq qwltniqy `ed oeirxd

. U -a rbti `l `linn

:dxcbd 19.5

dpi`y RN ∋ P dcewp xear . RN -a P0 , . . . , P n ici lr yxtpd qwltniq- nσ idi (`

yxtpd xecqd qwltniq- (n+1) -d z` P #σ -a onqp ,(12.1 'bd) P0 , . . . , Pn -a zipit` dielz

.σ P -e ly (join) sexivd zi`xwp ef dlert P, P0 , . . . , Pn

. ici lr

mixebqd mirhwd cegi` z` K#L -a onqp RN

, -a L K , zeveaw izy lkl ,zillk (a

. L -a zecewpl K -a zecewp mixagnd

∑N
ze`xyxy qwltnewa (15.1 'bd) zil`iviltniq zxyxy- n `ed c = i=1 ai σin m` (b

,{σ } K ∋ P
n N
i i=1 icewcwa zipit` ielz epi`y cewcw lkl , K ixhne`b il`iviltniq

:ici lr P -e c ly sexivd zi`xwpy P #c zil`iviltniq zxyxy- (n + 1) xicbp

∑
N
. P #c := ai (P #σi n )
i=1

:dnl 19.6

:miiwzn (b 19.5 dxcbdak w cewcwe c zil`iviltniq zxyxy- n xear , 1≤n m` (`

∂n (w#c) = c − w#∂n c
∂n (w#c) = c
.( ,xefgn c m` hxta)

∑ℓ
Z ∋ ε(c) := i=1 ai xy`k , ∂(w#c) = c − ε(c)[w] f` ,zicnin- 0 zxyxy c m` (a

w . cewcwl dni`znd zicnin- 0 -d zxyxyd `ed [w] -e ,(18.17 'bd) divhpnbe`d

:dgked

dielz izla R ∋w
N
-e R
,
N
-a
n
σ = span(v0 , . . . , vn ) (ipit`) ixhne`b qwltniq xear (`

okle , w#σ n = span(w, v0 , . . . , vn ) :miiwzn , {v0 , . . . , vn } -a zipit`

∂n (w#σ) = span(v0 , . . . , vn ) − span(w, v1 , . . . , vn ) + span(w, v0 , v2 , . . . , vn ) + . . .

+ (−1)n−1 span(w, v1 , . . . , vn−2 , vn ) + (−1)n span(w, v1 , . . . , vn−1 )
= σ n − w#∂n (σ n )
. ∂n (w#c) = c − w#∂n c :miiwzn ze`xyxyl mb dtyd mfitxenened zeix`pil llba okle

 .dxcbdd on raep (a

ly zixhpvixa dwelga ynzyp , σ : ∆[n] → X ∑ ixlebpiq qwltniq "oihwdl" ick

.(12.3 'bd e`x - ∆[n] ly caekd fkxn `ed ∆[n] ∋ Bn := ni=0 1

⃗e
n+1 i
xy`k) megzd

120
 :dxcbd 19.7

-piqd ze`xyxyd qwltnew lr Sd : C∗ (X) → C∗ (X) dwelg-zz xehxte` xicbdl ick

:dnxb`icd ,xnelk) irah didiy jk X agxn ly ixleb

SdX
C∗ (X) / C∗ (X)

f# f#
 
C∗ (Y ) / C∗ (Y )
SdY

"zilqxaipe`d `nbec"d lr exicbdl witqn ,( f :X→Y dwzrd lkl ztlgzn

δn := Id∆[n] : ∆[n] → ∆[n]

ilnxet mekq `id X -a zixlebpiq zxyxy- n 0≤n

lky meyn , lkl ,( Cn (∆[n]) -a xai`)

sb`a xy`k) σ = σ# (δn ) :miiwzn cinze σ : ∆[n] → X

, miixlebpiq miqwltniq- n ly

:wiqdl ick zeiraha miynzyne ,( ∆[n] → X dtivx dwzrdk σ lr miayeg oini

SdX (σ) = SdX ◦σ∗ (δn ) = σ∗ (Sd∆[n] (δn ))

. Sd(δn ) = Bn # Sd(∂(δn )) :divwecpi`ae , Sd(δ0 ) = δ0 xicbp 0 cnina

:dprh 19.8

. IdC∗ (X) zedfl zitehened Sd : C∗ (X) → C∗ (X) ze`xyxyd zwzrd

:dnxb`icdy oaena , X -a irah ,aey - Tn : Cn (X) → Cn+1 (X) xicbp :dgked

TnX
Cn (X) / Cn+1 (X)

f# f#
 
Cn (Y ) / Cn+1 (Y )
TnY

. f :X→Y dwzrd lkl ztlgzn

:zeidl T (δn ) z` xicbdl witqn zeirahdne , 0≤n lr divwecpi`a

. Tn (δn ) := Bn #[δn − Sd(δn ) − Tn−1 (∂n (δn ))]

:zpeepn `id mvra ,zixlebpiq zxyxy- (n + 1) -a xaecny zexnly al eniy

v2r

JJ
r
Jr

Q J

Q Q
r

 Q JJ

 Q
QJ


r r QJr
v0 v
| B
{z }1
σ=span(v0 ,v1 )
121
 :ok`e . ∂n ◦ Sd = Sd ◦∂n ,xnelk - ze`xyxy zwzrd Sd -y wecap

. ∂n (Sd(δn )) = ∂n (Bn #[Sd(∂n (δn ))] = Sd(∂n (δn )) − Bn #[∂n−1 (Sd(∂n (δn )))]
:xy`k ,19.6 dnl itl

Bn #[∂n−1 Sd ∂n (δn )] = Bn #[Sd(∂n−1 (∂n (δn )))] = 0

:aygp .divwecpi`d zgpd itl

∂n+1 Tn δn = ∂n+1 (Bn #δn ) − ∂n+1 (Bn # Sd(δn )) − ∂n+1 (Bn #Tn ∂n (δn ))
= δn − Bn #(∂n (δn )) − [Sd(δn ) − Bn #(∂n (Sd(δn )))]
− [Tn (∂n (δn )) − Bn #(∂n+1 (Tn (∂n (δn ))))]
= δn − Sd(δn ) − Tn (∂n (δn )) + Bn #[−∂n (δn ) + Sd(∂n (δn )) + ∂n+1 (Tn (∂n (δn )))]
= δn − Sd(δn ) − Tn (∂n (δn ))+
Bn #[−∂n (δn ) + Sd(∂n+1 (δn )) + (∂n (δn ) − Sd(∂n (δn )) − Tn (∂n+1 (∂n (δn ))))]
= δn − Sd(δn ) − Tn (∂n (δn ))

:miiwzn (zeirahd llba) xnelk

∂n+1 Tn = Id − Sd −Tn−1 ∂n
 . Id oial Sd oia ditehened ok` (Tn )∞
n=0 okle

:dpwqn 19.9

.dibeleneda zedfd z` dxyn Sd : C∗ (X) → C∗ (X)

 .16.10 dprh itl :dgked

:dxcbd 19.10

miixlebpiqd miqwltniq- n -d sqe` z` SnU (X) X

-a onqpe , ly ieqik {Uα }α∈A =: U `di

Uα ⊇ Im(σ) -y jk σ : ∆[n] → X mze` ,xnelk U - ixa`a zelken mdizepenzy X -a

xaegn lky ze`xyxy- n -d zxeag `id CnU (X) := ZSnU (X) dneca . A ∋ α edyfi`l

U ." zgz" qwltniq- n `ed mdly ilnxet

Uα ⊇ Im(σ ◦ ηnk ) i`ceea f` Uα ⊇ Im(σ) C∗ (X)m` ik , ly qwltnew-zz edf

U
dxyne ,ze`xyxy zwzrd jkitl i : C∗ (X) → C∗ (X)
`id dlkdd . 0 ≤ k ≤ n lkl

.dibelenedd zexeag oia i∗ mfitxenened

:dprh 19.11

. 0≤n lkl mfitxenefi` i∗ : Hn (C∗U (X)) → Hn (C∗ X))

U := {σ −1 (Uα )}α∈A -y ixd ,ixlebpiq qwltniq- n `ed σ : ∆[n] → X m` :dgked

'bd)U -l0 < δ bal xtqn miiw ∆[n] zeihwtnewne ∆[n]
, ly gezt ieqik deedn

122
jk A ∋ α miiw , diam(C) < δ mr ∆[n] ⊇ C dxebq dveaw lkl ,xnelk - (1.34

. C ⊆ (σ −1 (Uα ) -y

o`kne Sd (δn )
,
m
-a ritend τ lkl diam(τ ) ≤ δ -y jk N∋m miiw 13.14 dpwqn zxfra

lkl m(σ) ≥ m(σ ◦ ηk ) f`e) dfd ixrfnd m -d z` m(σ) -a onqp .Sdm (σ n ) ∈ CnU (X) -y

0≤k≤n.(

okle ,19.8 dprh itl ∂n+1 Tn + Tn−1 ∂n = Sd − Id dzr

, ∂n+1 ◦ Tn ◦ Sdk−1 + Tn−1 ◦ Sdk ◦∂n = Sdk − Sdk−1

:mekiq ici lre

∂n+1 ◦ Tn ◦ (Id + Sd + . . . + Sdk−1 ) + Tn−1 ◦ (Id + Sd + . . . + Sdk−1 ) ◦ ∂n = Sdk − Id

:miiwn T̂n (σ) := Tn (Id + Sd + . . . + Sdm(σ) ) okle

∑
n
(∂n+1 ◦ T̂n + T̂n−1 ◦ ∂n )(σ) = (−1)k (Tn (Id + . . . + Sdm(σ)−1 )σ) ◦ ηnk
k=0
∑
n
+ (−1)k Tn−1 (Id + . . . + Sdm(σ◦k)−1 )(σ ◦ ηnk )
k=0

onqp m`

∑
n
, Φ(σ) := Sdm(σ) (σ) − (−1)k Sdm (σ ◦ ηnk )
k=0

Φ i -e okle . Φ ◦ i∗ = Id -e , ∂n+1 T̂n + T̂n−1 ∂n = i# ◦ Φ − Id mbe Φ(σ) ∈ CnU (X) `vnp

 .dibeleneda mfitxenefi` mixyn mde ,ditehened ick cr ,miikted

ici lr bvein [α] ∈ Hn (X) xai` lk :dfk geqipl zpzip

∑N zilnxet zegt dgked :dxrd
i∗ Sdm (α) i=1 ai σi = α ∈ Cn (X)
n
xnelk ,19.8 dprh α
itl -l ibelened okle , xefgn- n
.lr i∗
jk m `evnl β ∈ Cn+1 (X)
lkep , ∂n+1 β = i∗ (α) CnU (X) ∋ α
xear -e m` jci`n

U
i∗ okle ,
m
∂n+1 (Sd (β)) = α i# (α) = ∂n+1 (i# (Sdm (β)))
okle Sdm (β) ∈ Cn+1 (X) f`e -y

.ikxr-cg-cg

:ueviwd htyn 19.12

(X \ dlkdd f` , U ⊆ Int(A) -y jk dgezt dveaw X ⊇U -e , X ly agxn-zz A m`

j
.ziqgid dibeleneda mfitxenefi` dxyn U, A \ U ) ,→ (X, A)

ieqik edf ,htynd i`pza .U = {Int(A), Im(X \ U } X ici lr ly ieqika opeazp :dgked
. A U ′ = {Int(A), Int(A \ U )}
ly gezt ieqik okle , X ly gezt

123
 :dnxb`ica zeikp`d zewzrdd lk ,14.9 dnl it lry o`kn

′ q∗
. . . Hn (C∗U (A))
i∗
/ Hn (C U (X)) / Hn (C U (X)/C U ′ (A)) ∂∗
/ Hn−1 (C U ′ (A)) . . .
∗ ∗ ∗ ∗

j∗ k∗ ℓ∗ j∗
 i∗
 q∗
 ∂∗

. . . Hn (A) / Hn (X) / Hn (X, A) / Hn−1 (A) . . .
(26)

0≤n
. lkl minfitxenefi` od

mle`e

C∗U (X) ∼
= C∗ (X \ U ) + C∗ (Int(A))
:dnec ote`ae ,[!xyi mekq `l]

, C∗U (A) ∼
′
= C∗ (A \ U ) + C∗ (Int(A))
iyilyd mfitxenefi`d htyn itl okle

. C∗U (X)/C∗ (A) ∼ U′

= C∗ (X \ U )/C∗ (A \ U )
itl zpzep oininy ef eli`e , H∗ (X \ U, A \ U ) `id oinin dpnd qwltnew ly dibelenedd

 . H∗ (X, A) z` (26)

:dxrd 19.13

wx - X ly gezt ieqik didi U -y yexcl mikixv eppi` 19.11 dprh

∪
zgkedly al eniy

dpwqn .(gezt ieqik mieedn U ixai` lk ly miniptdy ,xnelk) . X = i∈I Int(Ui ) -y

:`id ef dprhn ztqep

: (Mayer-Vietoris) htyn 19.14

:dkex` zwiiecn dxcq yi f` , X = Int(A) ∪ Int(B) -e X ly miagxn-zz B A , m`

iA ⊕iB j A −j B ∂
(27) . . . → Hn (A ∩ B) ∗→∗ Hn (A) ⊕ Hn (B) ∗→ ∗ Hn (X) → Hn−1 (A ∩ B) → . . .
.zelkdd iA : A ∩ B → A iB : A ∩ B → B j A : A → X j B : B → X
, , , xy`k

:ze`xyxy qwltnew ly dxvw zwiiecn dxcq lawp f` , U = {A, B} m` :dgked

iA ⊕iB j A −j B
0 → C∗ (A ∩ B) ∗→∗ C∗ (A) ⊕ C∗ (B) ∗→ ∗ C∗U (X) → 0
 .16.16 htyne 19.11 dprh itl (27) z` dxyn `ide

:dprh 19.15

.(18.17 'bd) znvnevnd dibeleneda qixehiie-xi`n ly dkex` zwiiecn dxcq yi

 .libxz :dgked

:zxeva epgkedy zeixwird zepekzd z` mkql lkep

124
 :zixlebpiqd dibelenedd ly zeneiqk`d 19.16

zitehenedd dixebhwd on xehwpt `ed Hn : ho T op → AbGp 0 ≤ n , lkl :ditehened (I)

.(19.2 htyne 18.2 dprh) zeila` zexeagl

:dkex` zwiiecn dxcq yi (X, A) bef lkl :dkex` zwiiecn dxcq (II)

∗ i j∗ ∂
. . . → Hn (A) → Hn (X) → Hn (X, A) →∗ Hn−1 (A) → . . .

.(18.7 dprh)

mfitxenefi` dxyn dlkdd f` , Û ⊆ Int(A) -e X -a dgezt U m` :ueviw (III)

Hn (X \ U ), A \ U ) ∼
= Hn (X, A)

.(19.12 htyn) 0≤n lkl

⨿
yi f` ,zizliqn mixiyw miagxn ly xf cegi` X = α∈A Xα m` :minekq (IV)
.(18.8 htyn) ⊕α Hn (Xα ) ∼
= Hn (X) :(zelkdd ici lr dxyen) irah mfitxenefi`

{
Z n=0
htyn) Hn (P ) ∼
= :f` ,zg` dcewp oa agxn P = {pt} m` :cnin (V)
{0} n > 0
.(18.5

.(18.17 'bd e`x) 0≤n lkl H̃n (P ; G) ∼

=0 :jk mb gqpl ozip cnind zneiqk` z`

- (mfitxenefi` ick cr) cigi ote`a H∗ (−) z` zeraew elld zeneiqk`dy xazqn :dxrd
.miil`iviltniq miqwltnew oebk ,"mixiaq" miagxnl zegtl

mixg` mipiiprn mixehwpt ipin lk yi ,dpexg`d dyixcd z` mihinyn m` ,z`f znerl

,mficxeaew ,K zxez) zellken dibelened zxez ze`xwp dl`e , (I)-(IV) z` miniiwnd

.(cere

19 wxtl milibxz 19.17

:xehwpt dxicbn G-a mincwn mr dibelenedd ,G dxeag lkly e`xd 19.17.1

. 0≤n lkl Hn (−, G) : ho T op → AbGp

.ueviwd htyn z` zniiwn G-a mincwn mr dibelenedd ,G dxeag lkly e`xd 19.17.2

?19.12 htyn zgkeda miyxcp miiepiy eli`

mincwn mr dibeleneda bef ly dkex` zwiiecn dxcq yi ,G dxeag lkly e`xd 19.17.3

. G-a

125
 .mekqd zneiqk` z` zniiwn G-a mincwn mr dibelenedd ,G dxeag lkly e`xd 19.17.4

.19.15 dprh z` egiked 19.17.5

zixlebpiqd dibelenedd iyeniy 20

oaygl eplekiy ila ,odizepekze dibelenedd zexeag ly zkaeqn ic zkxrn epgzit o`k cr

dcin-dpwa miaeyigl milk epicia yi dyrnly d`xp eiykr .miil`ieeixh mixwna `l`

:zeneiqk`d zxfra ,lynl ,zexitq ly dibelenedd z` aygl lwy xazqn .agxp

:htyn 20.1

:miiwzn 0≤n lkl

{
Z i=n
H̃i (S n ) ∼
= (I)n
{0} i ≠ n
{
Z i=n
H̃i (Dn , S n−1 ) ∼= (II)n
{0} i ̸= n
{
n ∼ Z i=n
H̃i (S n , D+ )= (III)n
{0} i ̸= n

. Sn -a dpeilrd dxitqd ivg

n
D+ -e ,icnin- n -d xebqd xeckd Dn xy`k

n
. lr divwecpi`a :dgked

.(1.17 'bd) zecewp izy oa agxn S 0 = {1, −1} xy`k ,cnind zneiqk`n raep (III)0 (`

dxcqdn ,ditehenedde cnind zneiqk` itl H̃∗ (D+ n

) = H̃∗ (Dn ) = {0} -y oeeikn (a

n n
(I)n−1
, -l lewy (II)n -y mi`ex (S , D+ )-e (Dn , S n−1 ) zebefd ipy ly dkex`d zwiiecnd

.(ipetvd ahewd ueviw zxfra) (II)n -l lewy(III)n (III)n -e , -l lewy (I)n

 .(a-e (`-n divwecpi`a raep elek htynd

:dprh 20.2
{
G i = 0, n
Hi (S n ; G) ∼
m`
. = :miiwzn 0≤n -e G dxeag lkl

{0} zxg`

 .libxz :dgked

126
 :dprh 20.3

. Dn+1 icnin- (n + 1) -d xeckd ly hwxhx dpi` Sn zicnin- n -d dxitqd 1≤n

, -l

r ◦ i = IdS n
, mr r : Dn+1 → S n divwxhx zniiwe ,dlkdd i : S n → Dn+1 m` :dgked
:lawp (18.2 dprh) zixlebpiqd dibelenedd zeil`ixehwptn f`

. r∗ ◦ i∗ = (r ◦ i)∗ = (IdS n )∗ = IdHn (S n ) = IdZ

dpwqn itl Hn (Dn+1 ) ∼

= Hn ({pt}) = {0} eli`e ,20.1 htyn itl Hn (S n ) ∼
=Z mle`

ly dakxd didz Z minlyd zxeag ly zedfd mfitxenenedy okzii `l .2.11 dprhe 19.4

dgked jkae ,dxizql eprbd okl .zil`ieeixhd dxeagd jxc mixaerd ,minfitxenened ipy

 .dprhd

:(xe`xa ly zayd zcewp htyn) dpwqn 20.4

. 1≤n -l ,zay zcewp yi f : Dn → Dn dwzrd lkl

 .20.3-e 9.2 zeprh itl :dgked

:dprh 20.5

. 0≤n -l zevieek opi` Sn zexitqd

 .20.3 dprhe 19.2 htyn ,18.5 htynn raep df :dgked

:dpwqn 20.6

. 1≤n lkl πn (S n , s0 ) ̸= {0}

 .20.5-e 2.13 zeprhn raep :dgked

:dpwqn 20.7

.zitehenedlep dpi` (11.7 dnl) η2 : S 3 → S 2 sted zwzrd

 .20.6-e 13.18 zepwqnn raep :dgked

:llkend ocxe'f htyn

iaikxn ipyl eze` wlgn xeyina xebq heyt mewry oreh iq`lwd ( Jordan ) ocxe'f htyn

ze`vez dnkl wwcfp htynd zgked myl .xzei mideab micninl dllkd gikep ep` .zexiyw

:zeipkh

127
 :dprh 20.8
∪∞
(a 5.32 'bec) Hp X = colim Hp (Ui ) n ≥ 0 , lkl f` (dler gezt cegi`) X= i=1 Ui m`

:f` (1 ≤ k ≤ n < ∞)
, jk,n : Uk ,→ Un zelkdd -e in : Un → X m` ,xnelk -

,n edyfi`l Im(in )∗ -a `ed α ∋ Hp X lk (`

. k≥N lkl (in,k )∗ (α) = 0 -y jk n<N yi f` (in )∗ (α) = 0 m` (a

deedn (Un ∩ C)∞

n=1 ik)C ⊆ Un n -y jk yi f` ,zihwtnew dveaw C⊆X m` :dgked
edyfi`l (a 18.1 'bd) Un ⊇ supp(c) c , zixlebpiq zxyxy- p lkl okle C,( ly gezt ieqik

 ∂n (c) .( xear) (a-e (c xefgn xear) (` raep o`kn . n

:dxcbd 20.9

:miiwzn f : Y ,→ S n oekiy lkl m` xcpqkl` zpekz yi Y ihwtnew agxnly xn`p

. H̃∗ (S n \ f (Y )) = {0}

:dprh 20.10

. Z = Y × [0, 1] mb jk ,xcpqkl` zpekz yi Y -l m`

. H̃p (S n \ f (Z)) ∋ α0 ̸= 0 -y gippe ,oekiy f : Z = Y × [0, 1] → S n `di :dgked

U0 ∩ U1 = S n \ f (z)
, f` . U1 := S n \ f (Y × [ 12 , 1]) -e U0 := S n \ f (Y × [0, 12 ]) onqp

.(dgpdd itl ilwiv` dfe) U0 ∪ U1 = S n \ f (Y × { 12 }) el`e

:(27) qixehiie-xi`n zxcqa opeazp

∼
H̃p+1 (U0 ∪ U1 )
0 / H̃p (U0 ∩ U1 ) = / H̃p (U0 ) ⊕ H̃p (U1 ) 0 / H̃p (U0 ∪ U1 )
O O O
= =

{0} 0 ̸= α0 {0}

. 0 ̸= j∗ (α0 ) ̸∈ H̃p (S n \ f (Y × [0, 12 ])) = H̃p (U0 ) zeillkd zlabd ila f`

mirhw zxcq divwecpi`a lawp , [0, 1] mewna [0, 12 ] mr lirl wenipd lr xefgp m`

, [0, 1] = I0 ⊃ I1 ⊃ I2 ⊃ . . . ⊃ In ⊃ . . .

ici lr dfl df miwzren) αk ̸∈ H̃p (S n \ f (Y × Ik )) -e 2−k

, `ed Ik ly jxe`d xy`k

.(zelkdd

htyn itl . V0 ⊂ V1 ⊂ V2 .∪. . -e := S n \ f (Y × Ik )

Vk ∩ dgezt dveaw `id -y al eniy

∞
0 ̸= ⟨α0 ⟩ la` - Vk = S n \ f (Y × {x})
ilwiv`
k=0 Ik ∋ x -e , dcigi dcewp yi ,1.36

 .dxizq Hp (S \ f (Y ))
n
- colimi Hp (Vi )
-a il`ieeixh `l xai` zzl jixv -a

:dpwqn 20.11

.xiyw hxtae ,ilwiv` S n \ f (Dr ) f : Dr ,→ S n

, oekiy lkle , r≥0 lkl

128
dgkedd . Dn ∼
= S n \ {s0 } -l itxene`ined `ed ik ,xcpqkl` zpekz lra Y = D0 :dgked
.20.10 dprh zxfra r lr divwecpi`a

:dprh 20.12

,oekiy f : Sr → Sn m`

{
H̃p (S n−r−1 ) = Z p=n−r−1
H̃p (S n \ f (S r )) ∼
m`

=
0 zxg`

: 0≤r lr divwecpi`a :dgked

. S n \ f (S 0 ) ∼
= Rn \ {pt} ≃ S n−1 : r=0 xear (`

U− := S n \ f (S−r )
, onqp .oekiy f : S r ,→ S n -e , (r − 1) -l oekp htyndy gipp (a

eli`eS n \ f (S r ) = U+ ∩ U− f` .(lirl dpwqnd itl miilwiv` mdipy) U+ := S n

\ f (S+r )
 .yexcd z` lawp (27) qixehiie-xi`n zxcqn okle , U+ ∪ U− = S n \ f (S r−1
)

: Jordan-Brouwer ly dcxtdd htyn 20.13

cg` lk .zexiyw aikxn ipy weica S n \ f (S n−1 ) milynl f` ,oekiy f : S n−1 ,→ S n m`

n−1
f (S )
. `id mdn cg` lk ztye ,(18.19 'bd) ilwiv` mdn

:dgked

:miiwzn 20.12 dprh itl (`

{
Z⊕Z p=0
, Hp (S n \ f (S n−1 )) ∼
m`

=
0 p>0 m`

.ilwiv` mdn cg` lke , V -e U ,xn`p - miaikxn ipy S n \ f (S n−1 ) -l okle

okle ,1.31 htyn itlSn -a (dxebq hxtae) zihwtnew K := f (S n−1 )

dveaw dzr

Bε (x) ⊆ U -y jk 0<ε miiw S \K ∋ xn

lkl okl .dgezt dveaw S n \ K = S n \ f (S n−1 )
. x ̸∈ ∂V ∪ ∂U Bε (x) ⊆ Vhxtae , e`

miiw f` f (a) ̸∈ ∂U
, -e edylk S n−1 ∋ a ∂V ⊆ K
m` dzr f (a) ̸∈ ∂U . mbe -y o`kn (a

n−1 ∼ n−1
Y := S \ f (S n−1 \ Bϵ (a))
n
okle D̂, =S \ Bϵ (a)
r
U ∩ f (Bϵ (a)) = ∅ j` . -y jk 0<ϵ
.lirl dpwqnd itl dxiyw `idy ,dgezt dveaw

f` . f (Bϵ (a)) z` dlikne Sn \ U -a zlkend Sn -a f (a) ly Ndgezt daiaq idz

okle , U ∩ (V ∪ N ) = ∅ m` - Y = U ∪ V ∪ f (Bϵ (a)) ⊆ U ∪ V ∪ N

, Y = (U ∩ Y ) ∪ ((V ∪ N ) ∩ Y )

.zexiywl dxizqa - zewix `l zegezt zeveaw ly xf cegi` Y ,xnelk

. f (a) ∈ ∂V dnecae f (a) ∋ ∂U

, -y o`kne - f (a) ̸∈ ∂U -y dgpddn rap df

129
xnelk S n−1 ∋ a
, edyfi` xear f (a) ̸∈ ∂U -y ∂U = ∂V = K
gipp , -y ze`xdl ick (b

−1
f (S \ Cl(U ))
n
mb f`e ,dgezt dveaw efy f (a) ∋ S n \ Cl(U ) okle , f (a) ̸∈ Cl(U )
f ici lr wzren Bϵ (a) ⊆ S n−1 -y jk 0 < ϵ miiw S n−1 a okle , -a ly dgezt daiaq

f (B)2 (a)) ∩ U = ∅
. ,xnelk - S n \ Cl(U ) -l

-l okle , Dn−1 -l itxene`ined milynd ,gezt xeck S n−1 dxitqdn mi`iven m`

dgezt dveaw Y -e ,(20.11 dpwqn itl) ilwiv` `edy , Y Sn , -a milyn f (S \ Bϵ (a))

n−1

.( S n
-a mb okle , K := f (S n−1
) -a dxebq dzpenz okle ,dxebq dveaw S \ Bϵ (a)
n
ik)

z` dliknd) Sn \ U -a f (a) ly N dgezt daiaq yi okle , f (a) ∈ Y :miiwzn

.( f (Bϵ (a))
Bε (a) f (a)
s
@
@
R
as ppppppp pppppp pp pp pp 
pppppp 9
f (B (a))
 ε
ppppppppppppN
ppppppppp pppppppppppppp pp
pppppp pp pp pp p p
f -
V U
Sn
Y

S n−1


K = f (S n−1 )

`vnp

. Y = U ∪ V ∩ f (Bϵ (a)) ⊆ U ∪ (V ∪ N )
xnelk ,xf cegi` `ed U ⨿ (V ∪ N ) :oinin cegi`d okle ,U ∩N = ∅ U ∩V = ∅ -e mle`

Y U V N
, , , ik) zegezt dl`d zeveawd izye ,(xf cegi`) Y = (U ∩ Y ) ⨿ ((V ∪ N ) ∩ Y )
eze`neK = ∂U , -y `eti` `vei .zeilwiv`l dxizqa - xiyw Y epi` -y o`kn .(zegezt

 K = ∂V . lewiy

:dpwqn 20.14

,zexiyw iaikxn ipy weica yi Rn \ f (S n−1 ) -a f` ,oekiy f : S n−1 ,→ Rn -e 2≥n m`

n−1
. H∗ (S ) -l zitxenefi` dibelened mre meqg izla ipyde ,ilwiv`e meqg cg`

jk - V ∋ x xgape ,(xf cegi`) S n \ f (S n−1 ) = U ⨿ V :20.13 htyn itl :dgked

. S \ {x} = R
n ∼ n -y

lawp H̃∗ (V ) = {0} -y dcaerde (V, V \ {x}) befd ly dkex`d zwiiecnd dxcqdn

, H̃p (V \ {x}) ∼
= Hp+1 (V, V \ {x})
j` .19.12 htyn itl Hp+1 (V, V \ {x}) ∼
= Hp+1 (Dn , Dn \ {0}) -e

Hp+1 (Dn , Dn \ {0}) ∼

= H̃p (Dn \ {0})
(Dn , Dn \ {0})
-e , befl dkex`d zwiiecnd dxcqdn

H̃p (Dn \ {0}) ∼= H̃p (S n−1 )

 .zitehened zeliwy llba

130
 :dpwqn 20.15

`ede , X -a gezt f (Dn ) \ f (S n−1 ) f` ,oekiy f : Dn ,→ X X = Rn -e e` X = Sn m`

X \ f (S n−1 )
. ly zexiyw aikxn

U0 ,zexiyw iaikxn ipy S n \ f (S n−1 ) -l f` : X = Sn dxwna lthl witqn :dgked

okle ,(20.11 dpwqn itl) zilwiv` dgezt dveaw A0 := S n \ f (Dn \ S n−1 ) jci`n . U0 -e

. S \ f (S
n n−1
) -a A0 ly milynd `id A1 := f (Dn \ S n−1 ) eli`e ,dxiyw

oeeikn . A0 ⊆ U0 :zeillkd zlabd ila - A0 ⊆ U1 e` A0 ⊆ U0 okle ,dxiyw A0 j`

A0
, -l dxffe ,1.24 dprh itl dxiyw A1 ezpenz mb ,xiyw `ed (geztd xeckd) Dn \ S n−1 -y

 . A1 = U1 -e A0 = U0 :oeieeiy yie A1 ⊆ U1 okl . A0 ∪ A1 = U0 ∪ U1 -e

:dxcbd 20.16

X∋x n (topological manifold)

lkl m` zicnin- zibeleteh drixi `xwp X ibeleteh agxn

parametric neighbourhood
ly ( ) zixhnxt daiaq zi`xwpd X Ux , -a dgezt daiaq yi

∼
n =
ϕx (0) = x (. -y gipdl xyt`e) ϕx : R → Ux mfitxene`inede , x

:ze`nbec 20.17

; Sn zicnin- n -d dxitqd i
( )

; Rn icilwe`d agxnd ( ii
)

; T 2 := S 1 × S 1 qexehd iii
( )

.(1.18 'bd) RP n icnin- n -d iynnd iaihwiiextd agxnd ( iv

)

.(cnind z` oiivn qwcpi`d dl`d mixwnd lka)

.zicnin- 2n drixi `ed (1.18 'bd) CP n akexnd iaihwiiextd agxnd ( v)

.zicnin- n drixi `id Rn icilwe` agxna U dgezt dveaw lk ( vi

)

:dprh 20.18

dwzrd f f` ,zikxr-cg-cge dtivx f : M → Rn -e zicnin- n zibeleteh drixi M m`

.dgezt

witqne , Rn-a dgezt dveaw f (V ) -y ici lr , V ⊆ M dgezt dveaw lkl :dgked

zxcbday Ux xear lynl , M ∋ x lk aiaq dphw witqn V lkl oekp dfy ze`xdl

.zibeletehd drixid

,dgezt dveaw ϕx ( ly megzd) Rn B n := Dn \ S n−1

-a zpenz zncewd dpwqnd itl

`id f ◦ ϕx : D n → R n dzr M . -aUx hxtae , -a dgezt dveaw ϕx (B n ) mb okle

okle ,oekiy `ed okle ,sxecqe`d agxnl zihwtnew dveawn zikxr-cg-cg dtivx dwzrd

131
okl . f (Ux ) -a zlkene , f (x) z` dliknd ,20.15 dpwqn itl dgezt dveaw (f ◦ ϕx )(B n )
 .dgezt f xnelk , f (x) ly daiaq f (Ux )

: Invariance of domain htyn 20.19

.dgezt f f` ,dtivxe zikxr-cg-cg f :M →N -e zeicnin- n zeibeleteh zerixi N -e M m`

V idzRn ∼= Ux
.( ) M ∋x Ux -l beqdn dgezt dveawa lkzqdl witqn aey :dgked
W := f −1 (V )
, onqp m` Rn . -l zitxene`ined N
, -a f (x) ly dgezt zixhnxt daiaq

dprh itl dgezt `id okle ,dtivxe zikxr-cg-cg dwzrd `id f |W : W → V ∼ = Rn f`

ly dgezt daiaq lr dze` dwizrn f

-e , x ly dgezt daiaq `id mb Ux ∩ W j` .20.18

 .dgezt f okle , f (x) ly daiaq `id f (Ux ) f (x)

-y o`kn .

: Invariance of dimension htyn 20.20

-xene`ined) M∼
=N -e zicnin- n zibeleteh drixi N -e zicnin- m zibeleteh drixi M m`

. m=n f` ,(mfit

∼
=
φn |Dm = f : Dm → Ux -e mfitxene`ined φx : Rn → Ux idi ,edylk M ∋x xear :dgked
:mi`znd oekiyd

{
Z i=m
Hi (M, M \ {x}) ∼
= Hi (Dm , Dm \ {0}) ∼
m`

= H̃i−1 (S m−1 ) =
0 i ̸= m m`

 . h:M ∼
=N mfitxene`ined zgz oaenk xnyp dfe

mle`-weqxea htyn

:dxcbd 20.21

Φ : G×X → X divwpet `id X dveaw lr G dxeag ly ( left action ) (l`nyn) dlert (`

:zniiwnd

,(yic`d xai`d G∋e xy`k) X∋x lkl Φ(e, x) = x i ( )

. G ∋ g, h -e X∋x lkl Φ(g · h, x) = Φ(g, Φ(h, x)) ii ( )

. Φ(g, x) mewna g·x onqp mizrl

f: zekitd zeivwpet ,xnelk) X ly minfitxenehe`d zxeag z` Aut(X) -a onqp m`

zraew Φ f` IdX
,( yic` xai` mr ,zeivwpet zakxd zgz dxeag zeednd , X → X
-e G ∋ g -l ϕ(g)(x) = Φ(g, x) xcbend ,ϕ : G → Aut(X) zexeag ly mfitxenened

. X∋x

dtivx `id X lr G dxeag ly Φ: G×X →X dlerty xn`p ,ibeleteh agxn X m` (a

X
.( ly invr mfitxene`ined gxkda okle) dtivx ϕ(g) divwpet lk m`

132
X ∋ x g ̸= e
. -e lkl Φ(g, x) ̸= x m` ( free ) ziyteg zi`xwp Φ : G×X → X dlert (b

Φ(g, x) ̸= x -y jk X∋x edyfi` miiw G ∋ g ̸= e lkl m` ( effective ) dliri zi`xwp `id

g ̸= e
. lkl ϕ(g) ̸= IdX m` ,zexg` milna -

f : (dwzrd e`) divwpetY X , -e (miagxn e`) zeveaw izy lr zlret G dxeag m` (c

X ∋ x lkl f (g · x) = g · (f (x)) m` ( equivariant ) zihp`ixe-iew` zi`xwp X → Y

G∋g
. -e

dveawd `id Φ : G×X → X dlert zgz X ∋ x xai` ly orbit

( ) lelqn (d

. {g(x) | g ∈ G} ⊆ X

:dprh 20.22

okle , X ly dwelg mieedn X (agxn e`) dveaw lr G dxeag ly dlert zgz milelqnd

. X lr ∼ zeliwy qgi miraew md

 .libxz :dgked

:dxcbd 20.23

xaecn m` ;dlertd ly milelqnd zveaw zi`xwp df zeliwy qgi zgz X ly dpnd zveaw

( orbit space ) milelqnd agxn `xwp X/ ∼ f` , X ibeleteh agxn lr G ly dtivx dlerta

dlerta xaecny yibcdl mivex m` , G\X mipnqn minrtl) . X/G oneqne ,dlertd ly

(.l`nyn

:`nbec 20.24

xy`k , RP n := S n / ∼ n `ed icnin- -d iynnd iaihwiiextd agxnd ,1.18 dxcbdn xekfk

,xnelk - 2:1 q : S n → RP n
`id dpnd zwzrd Rn+1
.( -a zeiahew zecewp) ⃗x ∼ −⃗x
. RP n ∋ [⃗x] lkl {⃗x, −⃗x} = q −1 ([⃗x])
okle , g ◦ g = IdS 2 f` g(⃗x) := −⃗x
, ziahwd dwzrdd z` g : Sn → Sn -a onqp m`

agxn .ϕ(0) = IdS 2 -e ϕ(1) = g :ici lr S n

lr Z/2 ly (ziyteg) dlert dxicbn g
RP n ∼
. = S 2 /(Z/2) `ed milelqnd

:dxrd 20.25

lkl g(x) ̸= x -y oeeikn .(17.2 'bd) S• (RP n ) S• (S n )

-e zeix`lebpiqd zeveawa opeazp

ozpid ω : ∆[n] → S n
. ixlebpiq qwltniq- n ω ̸= g# (ω) := g ◦ ω
lkl -y ixd Sn ∋ x
,

:`ad ote`a zxcbend , σ̂ ∈ Sp (S ) σ

n
-l ly dnxd dpyi , Sp (RP n ) ∋ σ
-a zecewpd izyn zg` ly dxiga) q(⃗y0 ) = [⃗x0 ] -e σ(v0 ) = [⃗x0 ] ∈ RP n -y xn`p

ici lr ⃗y0
.["ipetv ahew"=] -a efkxny Sn -a geztd dxitqd D+n
ivg `di .( q −1 (⃗x0 )
σ -l yi q(D+ ) ⊇ Im(σ)
n
okle , -y zeillkd zlabd ila gipdl xyt` dni`zn dwelg-zz

, (g ◦ σ̂)(v0 ) = −⃗y0 σ̂(v0 ) = ⃗y0jci`n . -y jk (dxigaa ielz did df) σ̂ -l dcigi dnxd

.dipyd dnxdd `id g ◦ σ̂ okle

133
 :dxcbd 20.26

-cwn mr X ly ix`lebpiqd ze`xyxyd qwltnew `ed C∗ (X; Z/2) X , agxn lkl xekfk

.(` 18.14 'bd) Z/2 -a min

zeidl τp : Cp (RP n ; Z/2) → Cp (S n ; Z/2) transfer map ( ) dxardd zwzrd z` xicbp

τp (σ) := σ̂ + g ◦ σ̂
. :zniiwnd ze`xyxyd zwzrd

:dnl 20.27

. q# ◦ τ p = 0 -e , y0 zxigaa ielz izla τp (`

:dibeleneda zirah dkex` zwiiecn dxcq yi (a

τp q∗ ∂p
(28) . . . Hp (RP n ; Z/2) → Hp (S n ; Z/2) → Hp (RP n ; Z/2) → Hp−1 (RP n ; Z/2) . . .

:dgked

. q∗ (σ̂ + g ◦ σ̂) = 2σ = 0 ∈ Z/2 (`

∑ ∑N
c = τ( N
.
i=1 σi ) xnelk , c= i=1 σi +g◦σ̂i f` , Ker(q∗ ) -l jiiy Cp (S n ; Z/2) ∋ c m` (a

:ze`xyxy qwltnew ly dxvw zwiiecn dxcq yiy o`kn

τ q#
0 → C∗ (RP n ; Z/2) → C∗ (S n ; Z/2) → C∗ (RP n ; Z/2) → 0

 .16.16 htyn itl dibeleneda dkex` zwiiecn dxcq yi okle

:htyn 20.28

,zexitqd izya Z/2 zlertl qgia (c 20.21 'bd) zihp`ixeiew` dwzrd ϕ : Sn → Sm m`

n≤m
. f`

.(28) n>m
zwiiecnd dxcqa opeazpe , -y dlilyd jxca gipp :dgked

zwzrd q∗ : Hp (S ; Z/2) → Hp (RP ; Z/2)

`id
n
0 ≤ p n
-y lr divwecpi`a d`xp

: 1≤p≤m ∂p : Hp (RP ; Z/2) → Hp−1 (RP m ; Z/2)

xear mfitxenefi`
m
-ye ,qt`d

:wecal witqn ,20.2 dprh itl i ̸= 0, m -l {0} = Hi (S m ; Z/2) -y oeeikn

zwzrd g∗ : Hm (S m ; Z/2) q∗ : Hm (S m ; Z/2) → Hm (RPm ; Z/2)

-y oeeikn . -a opeazp (`

okle ,o`k zety oi`) Cm (S m ; Z/2) -a cg` xefgn yie ,xefgnl xefgn zgwel `id ik) zedfd

ixd ,ixlebpiq qwltniq- m τp ◦ q# (σ) = (1 + g# )(σ)

lkl Hm (S m ; Z/2) -e ( -a miiedif oi`

0 = τ ∗ ◦ q∗ 2
. : Id = g∗
elecen okle , τ∗ ◦ q∗ = Id +g∗ m` ,dibeleneda -y

RP m−1 ∪ -k RP m z` bivdl xyt` Hm+1 (RP m ; Z/2) = {0}

:cnin ilewiyn mle`

-xi`na ynzydle , RP m = S m / ∼= Int(Dm ) ∪ S m−1 ∪ / ∼ Int(Dm ) dbvdd ici lr

.divwecpi` + qixehiie

, q∗ = 0 mb τ∗ ◦ q∗ = 0 m` okle ,ikxr cg-cg τ∗ : Hm (RP ; Z/2) → Hm (S m )

n
okl

τ∗
.mfitxenefi` mvra -y raep dfne

134
dwzrd ici lr dxyend mfitxenened lkl oekp df) mfitxenefi` `ed q∗ ,p=0 cnina (a

. 0-d zwzrd τ∗ : H0 (RP m ) → H0 (S m ) okle ,(mixiyw miagxn oia

ψ : RP n → RP m dtivx dwzrd dxyn ϕ : Sn → Sm zihp`ixeiew` dwzrd dzr

:zitelig dn`xb`ic lawp (28) zeirahn okle ,(1.13 htyne dpnd zibeleteh zxcbd itl)

∂p
Hp (RP n ; Z/2) / Hp−1 (RP n ; Z/2)

ψ∗ ψ∗
 
Hp (RP m ; Z/2) / Hp−1 (RP m ; Z/2)
∂p

minfitxenefi` md ∂p -d ipy cer lk mfitxenefi` lawp 0 ≤ p−1 ≤ m lr divwecpi`ae

1≤p≤m . -l ,xnelk -

:lawp xg` mewna (28) zeirahn eiykr

τ∗ / Hm (S n ; Z/2) = {0}
Hm (RP n ; Z/2)
ψ∗ ∼
= ∼
= ϕ∗
 τ∗ /

Hm (RP m ; Z/2) Hm (S m ; Z/2) = Z/2

 !dxizq efe

:dprh 20.29
{
Z/2 0 ≤ i ≤ n
Hi (RP n ; Z/2) ∼
m`
. = :miiwzn 0≤n lkl

{0} zxg`

 .libxz :dgked

:mle`-weqxea htyn 20.30

. f (⃗x) = f (−⃗x) -y jk S n ∋ ⃗x, −⃗x zeiahw zecewp zeniiw f : S n → Rn dwzrd lkl

:ici lr dtivx ϕ : S n → S n−1 xicbdl lkep ,`l m` :dgked

f (⃗x) − f (−⃗x)
, ϕ(⃗x) :=
∥f (⃗x) − f (−⃗x)∥
 .20.28 htynl dxizq - zihp`ixeiew` ϕ xnelk , ϕ(−⃗x) = −ϕ(⃗x) :miiwzne

:'uiacpqd htyn 20.31

zicnin- (m−1) dixyi zniiw f` Rm -a zeneqge bal zecicn zeveaw A1 , . . . , Am dpiidz

.dcin-ieey mi`vg ipyl Ai lk dvegd R ⊇H m

(ziy`xd jxc `wec e`l ,xeyin lr)

lkl⃗x = (x1 , . . . , xm ) 7→ (x1 , . . . , xm , 1)

. dxeva Rm+1 -a okeynk Rm lr aeygp :dgked
R × {1}
m
(m − 1)
-a zicnin- -d dixyid z` H⃗x -a onqp R
,
m+1
⊇ S m ∋ ⃗x dcigi xehwe

135
`id < ⃗x, ⃗y > xy`k (Rm × {1}) ∩ {⃗y ∈ Rm+1 | < ⃗x, ⃗y >= 0}
H⃗x :=∑ , ⃗x
: -l zavipd

< ⃗x, ⃗y >= 0 okle , < ⃗x, ⃗y >:= m+1i=1 xi yi Rm+1 zxcbend , -a dlibxd zix`lwqd dltknd

oeeika Rm × {1} -a icnin- m V⃗x ⃗y

-d agxnd-ivg z` -a onqp .dfl df miavip -e ⃗x
-y eyexit

V⃗x := (Rm × {1}) ∩ {⃗y ∈ Rm+1 | < ⃗x, ⃗y >≥ 0} H⃗x

: : -a laebd ⃗x ly

p ppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppp p p
p  p p p pp p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p ppp pp pppp 
p p pp pp pp pp pp pp pp pp pp pp pp pp pp pp pp pp pp ppp ppp ppp pp pp ppi p pp 
 p pp ppp pppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppVpppppp⃗xppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppp p P H⃗x pp 
 p p p p ppppp p 
p ppppp ppp ppp ppp ppp ppp ppp ppp ppp ppp ppp ppp ppp ppp ppp ppp ppp ppp ppp ppp
p p pp p p
pp
p 

⃗x  q q q q q q q q q q q q r⃗0






ly bal zcin `id µ(A) i = 1, . . . , m xy`k , -l fi (x) = µ(V⃗x ∩ Ai ) xicbp eiykr

zetivx fi -d) F = (f1 , . . . , fm ) : S m → Rm dtivx divwpet xicbn df Rm+1

. -a A dveaw

.(zeneqg Ai -dy llba

0 0 0 0
fi (⃗x ) = epiidc F (⃗x ) = F (−⃗x )
, -y jk ⃗x dcigi xehwe miiwy 20.30 htyn itl o`kn

`ed H⃗x0 = V−⃗x0 ∩ V⃗x0 V⃗x0 okle , ly milynd weica `ed V−⃗x0 j` . i lkl fi (−⃗x0 )
 .dyexcd dixyid

20 wxtl milibxz 20.32

.20.2 dprh z` egiked 20.32.1

.20.22 dprh z` egiked 20.32.2

.20.29 dprh z` egiked 20.32.3

136
 zextq 21

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