Sinusoidal steady-state response

2.1 Sinusoids
2.2 Phasors and Phasor Diagrams
2.3 Phasors Relationships for Circuit Elements
2.4 Ohm's law and Kirchhoff's Laws in Frequency domain
 2.5 Power Analysis
2.6 Maximum Average Power Transfer
2.7 Transfer Function and Resonant Circuits

Created by: Nguyen Phuoc Bao Duy - HCMUT

2.5 Power Analysis
■ The instantaneous power (in watts) is the power at any instant of time.
p(t) = u(t).i(t)
■ Let the voltage and current be: u(t)
u(t)  Um cos(t  u )

 i(t)  Im cos(t   i )
1 1
 p(t)  UmIm cos(t  u ) cos(t   i )  UmIm cos(u   i )  UmIm cos( 2t  u   i )
2 
   2
constant

Fig 2.5.1: The instantaneous power

Created by: Nguyen Phuoc Bao Duy - HCMUT

2.5 Power Analysis
■ The average power or active power (or effective power, real power),
measured in watts (W), is the average of the instantaneous power over
one period. 1
T
P
T 
0
p(t)dt

■ The reactive power represents the energy alternately stored and released
by inductors or capacitors, measured in Volt-Amperes-Reactive (VAR).
■ Let the voltage and current be:
u(t)  Um cos(t  u ) 1 1 1   
  P  UmIm cos(u   i )  UmIm cos  ReU I 
 i(t)  Im cos(t   i ) 2 2 2  
1 1 1   
And Q  UmIm sin(u   i )  UmIm sin  ImU I 
2 2 2  

Created by: Nguyen Phuoc Bao Duy - HCMUT

2.5 Power Analysis
Elements P Q

Resistor R 1 1 2 2
1 URm
P  URmIRm  RIRm  Q0
2 2 2 R
Inductor L 1 1 2
1 ULm
P0 Q  ULmILm  LILm 
2

2 2 2 L
Capacitor C 1 2
1 ICm 1
P0 Q   UCmICm     CUCm
2

2 2 C 2
Source can be negative (supplying can be negative or positive
power) or positive
(absorbing power)
Created by: Nguyen Phuoc Bao Duy - HCMUT
2.5 Power Analysis
■ The apparent power is the combination of active power and reactive
power, measured in Volt-Amperes - VA:
2 2 1 P  S cos 
S  P  Q  UmIm  
2 Q  S sin

■ The power factor is the cosine of the phase difference between voltage
and current. It is also the cosine of the angle of the load impedance.
P
pf  cos(u   i )  cos 
S

Created by: Nguyen Phuoc Bao Duy - HCMUT

2.5 Power Analysis
■ The complex power is the product of the voltage phasor and the
conjugate of current phasor:
~ 1 
S  U I  P  jQ
2

u(t) element

Fig 2.5.2: The voltage and current Fig 2.5.3: Power triangle
phasors associated with an element

Created by: Nguyen Phuoc Bao Duy - HCMUT

2.5 Power Analysis
■ Example 2.5.1: The voltage across a load is u(t) = 60cos(t – 10o) V and the
current through the element in the direction of voltage drop is i(t) =
1.5cos(t + 50o) A. Find:
– the complex and apparent powers
– the real and reactive power
– the power factor and the load impedance.

Created by: Nguyen Phuoc Bao Duy - HCMUT

2.5 Power Analysis
■ The principle of conservation of power applies to AC circuits as well as DC
circuits.
P  0
Q  0 u(t) element
~
 0
S

■ In fact, all forms of AC power are conserved: instantaneous, real, reactive

and complex.

§ Please keep in mind that: the real and complex powers of a source can be negative or
positive, while those of a resistor, an inductor or a capacitor have fixed signs.

Created by: Nguyen Phuoc Bao Duy - HCMUT

2.5 Power Analysis
■ Example 2.5.2: For the circuit in figure 2.5.4, iS(t) = 6cos(103t) A.
– calculate ix
– determine the real, reactive and complex powers of all elements in
the circuit
– check the powers conservation
– calculate pf of the source

Fig 2.5.4: Circuit for Example 2.5.2

Created by: Nguyen Phuoc Bao Duy - HCMUT
2.5 Power Analysis
■ The process of increasing the power factor without altering the voltage or
current to the original load is known as power factor correction.

U U
U

Fig 2.5.5: Power factor correction: (a)

original inductive load, (b) inductive
load with improved power factor Fig 2.5.6: Phasor diagram showing the
effect of adding a capacitor in parallel
with the inductive load

Created by: Nguyen Phuoc Bao Duy - HCMUT

2.5 Power Analysis
■ Example 2.5.3: When connected to a 120V (rms), 60-Hz power line, a load
absorbs 4kW at a lagging power factor of 0.8. Find the value of
capacitance necessary to raise the pf to 0.95.
■ Solution:
P
the apparent power: S1   5000VA
cos 1
the reactive power: Q1 = S1sin1 = 3000VAR
When the pf is raised to 0.95:
P
new apparent power: S2   4210.5VA
cos 2
new reactive power: Q2 = S2sin2 = 1314.7VAR
 QC = Q2 – Q1 = -1685.6VAR Fig 2.5.7: Power triangle illustrating
power factor correction
 C = 310.5µF
Created by: Nguyen Phuoc Bao Duy - HCMUT
 Sinusoidal steady-state response

2.1 Sinusoids
2.2 Phasors and Phasor Diagrams
2.3 Phasors Relationships for Circuit Elements
2.4 Ohm's law and Kirchhoff's Laws in Frequency domain
2.5 Power Analysis
 2.6 Maximum Average Power Transfer
2.7 Transfer Function and Resonant Circuits
2.6 Maximum Average Power Transfer
■ Consider a DC circuit as shown in figure 2.6.1, E and RS are fixed, determine
the value of load RL in order to maximize the load power.

2 E 2RL E2
PL  I RL  2
 E
(RS  RL ) 4RS
UL

■ The maximum load power:

Fig 2.6.1: Maximum average
E2 power transfer in DC – circuit
PL max  when RL  RS
4RS

Created by: Nguyen Phuoc Bao Duy - HCMUT

2.6 Maximum Average Power Transfer
■ Consider an AC circuit as shown in figure 2.6.2, E and R S , X S are fixed,
determine the value of load RL and XL in order to maximize the average
load power.
1 Em2 RL Em2
PL  2 2

2 (RS  RL )  ( X S  X L ) 8RS

■ The maximum load power: Fig 2.6.2: Maximum average

power transfer in AC – circuit
Em2  RL  RS
PL max  when  or ZL  Z S*
8RS  XL   X S

Created by: Nguyen Phuoc Bao Duy - HCMUT

2.6 Maximum Average Power Transfer
■ Example 2.6.1: Determine the load impedance ZL that maximizes the
average power drawn from the circuit of figure 2.6.3. What is the
maximum average power?

■ Answers:
• ZL = 2.933 – j4.467Ω
• Pmax = 2.368W

Fig 2.6.3: For Example 2.6.1

Created by: Nguyen Phuoc Bao Duy - HCMUT