Machine Design I

Chapter 3: Load Determination

 3.1 Load Classification
Any applied load can be classified with respect to
time in the following ways:
1. Static load - Load is gradually applied and
equilibrium is reached in a relatively short
time. The structure experiences no dynamic
effects.
2. Sustained load - Load, such as the weight of a
structure, is constant over a long time.
3. Impact load - Load is rapidly applied. An
impact load is usually attributed to an energy
imparted to a system.
4. Cyclic load - Load can vary and even reverse
its direction and has a characteristic period
with respect to time.
The load can also be classified with
respect to the area over which it is
applied:
1. Concentrated load - Load is applied
to an area much smaller than the
loaded member.
2. Distributed load - Load is spread
along a large area. An example
would be the weight of books on a
bookshelf.
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 3.1 Load Classification

Figure 3.1: Load classified as to location and method of application. (a) Normal, tensile; (b)
normal, compressive; (c) shear; (d) bending; (e) torsion; (f) combined.

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3.1 Load Classification

Table 3.1: Four types of support with

their corresponding reactions.
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 3.3 Load Analysis
Drawing Shear and Moment Diagrams by the Method of Sections

The procedure for drawing shear and moment diagrams by the method of sections is as
follows:

1. Draw a free-body diagram and determine all the support reactions. Resolve the
forces into components acting perpendicular and parallel to the beam's axis.
2. Choose a position, x, between the origin and the length of the beam, l, thus
dividing the beam into two segments. The origin is chosen at the beam's left end
to ensure that any x chosen will be positive.
3. Draw a free-body diagram of the two segments and use the equilibrium equations
to determine the transverse shear force, V, and the moment, M.
4. Plot the shear and moment functions versus x. Note the location of the maximum
moment. Generally, it is convenient to show the shear and moment diagrams
directly below the free-body diagram of the beam.
5. Additional sections can be taken as necessary to fully quantify the shear and
moment diagrams.

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 3.3 Load Analysis
Drawing Shear and Moment Diagrams by the Method of Sections

Figure 3.2: Simply supported bar. (a) Midlength load and reactions; (b) free-body diagram
for 0 < x < l/2; (c) free-body diagram for l/2 ≤ x ≤ l; (d) shear and moment diagrams.
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 3.3 Load Analysis
Drawing Shear and Moment Diagrams by the Method of Sections

Figure 3.3 : Beam for Example 2.8. (a) Applied loads and reactions; (b) Shear diagram with
areas indicated, and moment diagram with maximum and minimum values indicated.
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 3.9 Beam Loading – Singularity function

 A beam supported on pins or narrow supports at each end is said to be simply supported.
A beam fixed at one end and unsupported at the other is a cantilever beam
A simply supported beam that overhangs its supports at either end is an overhung beam
If a beam has more supports than are necessary to provide kinematic stability (i.e., make the
kinematic degree of freedom zero), then the beam is said to be over constrained or indeterminate.
An indeterminate beam problem cannot be solved for its loads using only equilibrium equations

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 3.9 Beam Loading – Singularity function
 Singularity Functions: are often denoted by a binomial in angled. The first quantity in the
brackets is the variable of interest, in our case x, the distance along the beam length. The second
quantity a is a user-defined parameter that denotes where in x the singularity function either acts
or begins to act.
Some general rules relating to singularity functions are:
1. If n > 0 and the expression inside the angular brackets is positive (i.e., x ≥ a), then fn(x) =
(x – a)n. Note that the angular brackets to the right of the equal sign are now
parentheses.
2. If n > 0 and the expression inside the angular brackets is negative (i.e., x < a), then fn(x)
= 0.
3. If n < 0, then fn(x) = 0.
4. If n = 0, then fn(x) = 1 when x ≥ a and fn(x) = 0 when x < a.
5. If n ≥ 0, the integration rule is

Note that this is the same as if there were parentheses instead of angular brackets.
6. If n < 0, the integration rule is

7. When n ≥ 1, then 9
3.9 Beam Loading – Singularity function

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 3.9 Beam Loading – Singularity function
A load analysis must find the magnitudes and spatial distributions of these shear forces and
bending moments on the beam. The shear forces V and the moment M in a beam are related to
the loading function q(x) by

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 3.9 Beam Loading – Singularity function

Problem: Determine and plot the shear and moment functions for the simply supported beam with
uniformly distributed load shown in Figure 3-22a.

Given: Beam length l = 10 in, and load location a = 4 in. The magnitude
of the uniform force distribution is w = 10 lb/inch

Solution:

The loading function, shear and bending moment are given by the
Following:

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 3.9 Beam Loading – Singularity function
2- The constants C1 and C2 are found by substituting the boundary conditions x = 0–,
V = 0, and x = 0–, M = 0 in of the shear force and bending moment respectively:

3- The reaction forces R1 and R2 can be calculated from the equations of shear and moment
Respectively by substituting the boundary conditions x = l+, V = 0, M = 0

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 3.9 Beam Loading – Singularity function
4- The largest absolute values of the shear and moment functions are of interest for the
calculation of stresses in the beam. The plots show that the shear force is largest at
x = l and the moment has a maximum Mmax near the center. The value of x at Mmax
can be found by setting V to 0 in equation and solving for x. (The shear function
is the derivative of the moment function and so must be zero at each of its minima
and maxima.) This gives x = 5.8 at Mmax. The function values at these points of
maxima or minima can then be calculated from equations b and c respectively by
substituting the appropriate values of x and evaluating the singularity functions. For
the maximum absolute value of shear force at x = l,

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 3.9 Beam Loading – Singularity function
Problem: To compare and contrast the two techniques for getting the shear and moment
equations we will look at the following example

Singularity Functions

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3.9 Beam Loading – Singularity function

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3.9 Beam Loading – Singularity function

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3.9 Beam Loading – Singularity function

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3.9 Beam Loading – Singularity function

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3.9 Beam Loading – Singularity function

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3.9 Beam Loading – Singularity function

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 3.9 Beam Loading – Singularity function
Find the maximum bending moment and its location of the following beam using the
singularity function

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 3.9 Beam Loading – Singularity function
Using the singularity functions, determine the maximum moment and its location of the
Simply supported beam shown in the following figure:

Solution

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3.9 Beam Loading – Singularity function

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3.9 Beam Loading – Singularity function

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