Chapter 5 : Ferrous Materials

Chapter 5 : Ferrous Materials

I. Introduction
The basic component of ferrous materials are : iron + carbon + alloyant (nickel, chrome,...)
Ferrous materials are classified as follows :

 Steel : percentage of carbon less than 1.7 % .

 Cast-Iron : percentage of carbon between 1.7 and 6.67% .

II. Steel
1. Definition
Iron is the basic element of all kinds of steel. If it is not combined with other elements it is
simply called iron. An alloy of iron and carbon is called steel. Steel is an alloy of iron and carbon
that contains in addition to the impurities other alloys. The amount of carbon in steel is less than
1.7%. The chemical and mechanical properties of steel depend on the alloying elements included
. the kinds of steel are classified according to their usage and the chemical composition by the
national standards ( ACNOR,ASTM,SAE,AISI,AFNOR,DIN,...).

2. Classification

2.1. Classification according to their usage

2.2.1.1. Steel for general use
This kind of steel represents about 85% of the steel consumption. It contains impurities and
some alloys such as manganese, silicon, sulphur, and phosphorus.

2.2.1.2.. Heat treatment of steel

Their properties are modified by quenching. Quenching reduces crystallinity. Before
quenching the microstructure of the steel is uniform and lamellar grain structure. After
quenching , the microstructure of the material form into fine , needle-like grain structure .
the crystalline structures (Body-centered cubic , Face-centered cubic ,Hexagonal ) are influenced
by : the temperature before quenching , the composition, the cooling speed ,...
Consider a handle file , the color of handle is different than the body of the file . To be hard , the
body of the file is subjected to quench hardening at a high temperature and then cooled rapidly
(quenching by water or oil ). Being hard also leads to be brittle, that is why the handle of the file
is heated again and cooled in air . This way its hardness decreases but its ductility increases.

2.2.1.3. Tool steel

Tool steel are used in tools . For example the tool steel A-2 is used for cutting puposes and P-
20 is used in injection for molding.

O.Kalakesh Page 1
 Chapter 5 : Ferrous Materials

2.2.1.3. Stainless steel

The principal property of Stainless steel is that it does not readily corrode . Stainless steels
contain sufficient chromium to form a passive film of chromium oxide, which prevents further surface
corrosion. The chromium amount must be at least 12% but not more than 30%. That is why stainless
steels are expensive ( most of the time they contain up to 36% of nickel ).

2.2. Classification according to their hardness

a. Extra-mild steel : less than 0.15% of carbon
b. Mild steel :0.15 % to 0.3% of carbon
c. Medium-hard steel : 0.35% to 0.45% of carbon
d. Hard steel : 0.5% to 0.9% of carbon

Remark : Mild steel and medium-hard steel are used in the reinforced concrete.

2.3. The role of some alloys

 Manganese : increases the ductility and ensure a good response to heat treatment.
 Sulphide: increases the machinability
 Silicon : Act like a de-oxidant and increases the resistance of steel. it affects the
diffusion speed of zinc during the galvanization of the steel at high temperatures .
 Molybdenum : increases the hardness . when added in proportions of 2 to 4% it
increases the resistance of steel against chlorides .
 Chromium : if used in small quantities it ensures a good response to heat treatment
and abrasion. for higher quantities (12 to 25%) it increases the resistance to oxidation
and corrosion.
 Nickel :increases the hardness and the resistance to corrosion . in addition of that , it
increases the stability of the steel at high temperature.
 Lead : increases the machinability of the steel
 Phosphorus : decreases the ductility and resilience and increases the machiability and
the resistance to corrosion.
 Sulphur :decreases the transverse ductility and the resilience properties . it affects the
surface quality and weldability. it increases the machiability if combined with
manganese to give manganese sulphide .
 Aluminum : de-oxidant and grain refiner, it also affects the speed of zinc diffusion in
steel.
 Vanadium : delays the growth of grains and develops carbonitrides that increase the
resistance of steel HSLA during hot-rolling.
 Titan : Ensure the structure stability and increases the efficiency of hardening
elements in steel.

O.Kalakesh Page 2
 Chapter 5 : Ferrous Materials

2.4. Microscopic composition

 Steel with an amount of carbon lower than 0.5%
Polygonal grains of ferrite with pearlite at their joints.
Remark :
 For very low amount of carbon, small particles of cementite are observed.
 Ferrite : stage of iron and steel
 Cementite : Iron carbide
 Steel with an amount of carbon higher than 0.5%
The structure depends on the cooling speed . Higher amount of carbon leads to a higher
mass of pearlite. We observe :
 Grains of austenite
 Ferrite
 Pearlite
Remark :
 Pearlite : 89% ferrite +11% cementite
 Austenite : solid solution of carbon

2.5. Steel Manufacturing

The manufacturing process of steel involves three steps :

 Step 1 : the production of molten steel

 Step 2 : half products
 Step 3 : the actual steel manufacture (final products )

The products can be wrought , molded or fabricated according to the alloy powder. Rolling is the
process during it the metal is formed .

O.Kalakesh Page 3
 Chapter 5 : Ferrous Materials

O.Kalakesh Page 4
 Chapter 5 : Ferrous Materials

2.5.1. Step 1 : The production of molten steel

Through successive operations , the first step consists of combining the chemical components
that will quality the steel according to its future destination. Two procedures are possible :

Blast Furnace

Blat Furnace uses raw materials including iron ore, coal, limestone and recycled steel to
produce crude steel. Impurities are removed to obtain pure iron: cast Iron and blast furnace
slag are obtained. Elimination of the undesirable elements of cast iron and adjustment of the
steel chemical composition.

The electric arc furnace

Preparation (sorting, grading, grinding) and storage of scrap. Melting of the raw materials.
adjustment of the chemical composition of steel . This route is less expensive than the blast
furnace route in terms of the equipments used and the demanded energy. on the other hand this
technique presents lower capacity of production comparing to the blast furnace technique.

2.5.2. Step 2 : half products

Ingots casting

The molten steel is put in cast iron molds until solidification . After solidification, Ingots are
demolded and re-heated . Ingots are transformed to blooms and slabs .

Continuous casting

Continuous casting is the process whereby molten metal is solidified into a "semifinished"
billet, bloom or slab. From the ladle, the hot metal is transferred to a holding bath called
a tundish .The tundish allows a reservoir of metal to feed the casting machine while . Metal is
drained from the tundish through a shroud into the top of an open-base copper mold . The mold
is water-cooled to solidify the hot metal directly in contact with it . A solid bar is obtained and
cut as desired. "continuous casting" improves quality, productivity and cost efficiency .

2.5.3. Step 3 : the actual steel manufacture (final products )

This step consists of forming the steel into the desired shapes : Rolling . Rolling is a metal
forming process in which metal stock is passed through one or more pairs of rolls to reduce the
thickness and to make the thickness uniform. The initial breakdown of ingots into blooms and
billets are generally done by Hot rolling. Cool rolling provides thinner elements.

O.Kalakesh Page 5
 Chapter 5 : Ferrous Materials

2.6. Properties

The products used in building construction should satisfy to certain criterion specified by the
standards. These standards specify the properties of steels used in construction :

 Chemical and mechanical characteristics

 Geometrical characteristics of the sections (area, inertia, mass, linear meter,..)
 The mechanical and geometrical characteristics of fixing elements (bolts ,..)
 The characteristics of products used in welded joining.

2.6.1. Mechanical characteristics

The mechanical properties depend on the percentage of ferrite , pearlite and cementite. The
mechanical properties of steels used in construction are listed below :
o Yield strength : Re en N/mm2 ou MPa .
It is the maximum applied load per surface area , after which the zone of plastic
deformation begins. Below this value the geometry is conserved . It is used to determine
the stress in elements subjected to bending, shear, buckling,..

o Ultimate tensile strength : Rm en N/mm2 ou MPa.

It is the highest stress reached prior to fracture . It is used in fatigue calculation.

o Fracture Strain: A en %
It defines the ability of the material to elongate before fracture.
CM code ==> A ≥ 20 %

o Modulus of elasticity : E en N/mm2

It defines the stiffness of the metal .it is the slope of the stress-strain curve in the elastic
zone. For steel , E vaut 210 000 N/mm2. It is used in the calculation of flexural elements

o Resilience : KCV en J/cm2

Resilience is defined as the capacity of a material to absorb energy when it is deformed
elastically and then, upon unloading to have this energy recovered. In other words, it is
the maximum energy per volume that can be elastically stored. It is an important criterion
for steels used in welded construction.

O.Kalakesh Page 6
 Chapter 5 : Ferrous Materials

The yield strength and tensile strength variation with temperature

 Re et Rm decrease when the temperature increases.

 When the temperature decreases, the tensile strength increases slower than the increase of the
modulus of elasticity. Thus, these two characteristics will be equal ( case of steel with α-iron ).

o Endurance (Resistance to fatigue )

Considering 80 cases of rupture due to fatigue :

 29% of these cases are due to surface defects.
 28% of these cases are due to macro geometry (form , ...)
 26% of these cases are due to steel and its thermal treatment
 17% of these cases are due to uncontrolled environmental conditions.

The endurance limit determined by the rotating bending test is related to the tensile strength of
steel :

 with 50 % risk of rupture :

 with 10 % risk of rupture :

O.Kalakesh Page 7
 Chapter 5 : Ferrous Materials

 with 2.3 % risk of rupture :

2.6.2. Physical properties

The linear expansion is the most important physical characteristic for metallic construction. This
coefficient determines the increase in the steel dimensions for a precise temperature value (true)
or between two temperatures (mean). Steel is a high thermal conductor. this property should be
taken into consideration in the case of heat transfer between the interior and the exterior.

Thermal Thermal Specific heat Melting Density Speed of Electrical

expansion conductivity C(kcal/°C.kg) point θ ρ sound resistivity
α (m/m.°C) λ (W/m.°C) (°C) (kg/m3) V(m/s) Ρ (Ω.m)

11.5 10-6 175 0.120 1400 7800 5900 17.10-8

The specific heat of a material is the quantity of energy needed to increase the temperature of 1
kg of the material by 1 degree of temperature.

The melting point of a material is the temperature at which exists both the solid and the liquid state.

2.6.3. Chemical properties

Steel present high reactivity to their environment. the corrosion of steel depends on the relative
humidity and air pollution. It lead to the degradation of the material in terms of its thickness,
weight and thus its performance. To prevent materials against these phenomenon , protective
coating can be used, metallic or not, as in the case of stainless steel.

2.7. Construction steel

Steel products used in construction are : flat products (sheets or coils) ,coated or not , long
products (bars, sections, tubes, wires,...) and molded products.

O.Kalakesh Page 8
 Chapter 5 : Ferrous Materials

2.7.1. Long products

they are characterized by their straight constant section and plain surface. The principal long
products are :
 merchant bars
 hollow sections
 Bars for reinforced concrete
 H,U,I,L girders (used in reconstituted welded girders, and asymmetric beams)

They are usually used in metallic frames , main building skeleton as well as in the construction
of beams and columns. they can also be used in foundations (generally with concrete) . Bars and
wires are used as reinforcement in welded mesh.

O.Kalakesh Page 9
 Chapter 5 : Ferrous Materials

Examples of steel used in reinforced concrete (mild steel)

 Mild steel bars : Round , mill steel with diameters varying from 5 to 40 mm. the length of
bars varies from 13 to 18 m or as coils for bars of diameters lower than 12 mm. they are
qualified as follows : E24 and E34 ( these numbers indicate the limit of elasticity in
daN/mm2)

 Deformed steel bars : improve the steel-concrete adhesion

 Welded mesh :
o formed of 3 to 12 mm wires of hardened mild steel .
o High limit of elasticity
o Assembled by electric welding
o square or rectangular meshes 50 to 30 cm
o Delivered by boards or rolls
welded mesh are used in the reinforcement of thin plates : slabs , floors, shell,...

 Steel fibers :
o 0.25 to 0.6 mm diameter
o 25 to 60 mm length
o variety of forms
o Incorporated in mortar or concrete : 1 to 25% in volume or 3,5 to 9% in weight
which means 80 to 200 kg of fibers per m3 of concrete.
o use of small fibers in mortar
o use of larger fibers in concrete
Usage in BTP
o Industrial flooring
o Runway construction
o Parking construction
o Shell and mince plate construction
o Repair work

O.Kalakesh Page 10
 Chapter 5 : Ferrous Materials

 Sections
used in metallic framing systems as beams , columns, slabs,... and metallic joinery as in
the construction of metallic piles

a. H-Shaped cross section - HE A/B/M

H-shaped sections have large flange which leads to a higher resistance to buckling in both
directions. They are compact sections that can be included into a square : the flange width
is generally equal to the web height. The series HE : HEA,HEB,HEB have bearing
capacities varying with the web and flange thicknesses.
Possible dimensions : 100 to 600 mm
Usage : Columns

b. IPE/IPN sections

The form of this section can be included into a rectangle . It has thinner flange and
thicker web. Its height is less or equal to 300 mm : the flange width is equal to the half of
the web height. It is more flexible in the y direction that is why it is mainly used in
beams. Comparing H-section to IPE section with the same height, the masse the second
one is approximately half the mass of the first one . The flanges of the IPE are parallel
Possible dimensions : 80 to 500 mm (600 for IPN)
Usage : beams

O.Kalakesh Page 11
 Chapter 5 : Ferrous Materials

c. Hollow sections

Circular section : pipes , scaffoldings,...

Square and rectangular section
Steel pipes used for fluid transport (water, gas, oil,...)

2.7.2. Flat products

Remarks :
 Rolling : Is a continuous compression through passing between two rolls rotating in
opposite directions

 Hot rolling : is used to create shapes with the desired geometrical dimensions . Its
principal advantage is improving the mechanical characteristics ( stretching ).

 Cold Rolling : is generally used for plat products (steel sheets). cold rolling of previously
hot rolled strip is carried out to produce thinner strip ( less than 3 mm). Cold rolling
changes the mechanical characteristics (Local hardening ).

O.Kalakesh Page 12
 Chapter 5 : Ferrous Materials

Usage of plat products in construction :

 Floor and Slabs
 Elevations
 Coverage: Formed of thin metallic sheets of 2-3 mm thickness. Thermal insulation can be
applied .
 Formwork

2.7.3. Other products

a. Molded parts
Molded parts are obtained by the process of molding . Molding is the shaping of liquid steel
using a rigid frame called mold ( having a special form and special dimensions).
Usage : Supports and assembly parts.

b. Forged parts
Used in heavy construction . Forged parts require a multi-steps process to be obtained. After
steel forming by choc and under pressure , it will be formed in a matrix of special
dimensions that gives the shape of the piece to be used.
Usage : Supports and assembly parts.

O.Kalakesh Page 13
 Chapter 5 : Ferrous Materials

2.8. Steel protection

2.8.1. Against corrosion

A variety of coating types could be used in order to protect steel against corrosion. Three types
of sheet can be distinguished;
 Galvanized sheets : layer of zinc of 40 to 80 micrometers thickness
 Aluminate sheets : layer of aluminum of 25 to 50 micrometers thickness
 Prepainted sheets : galvanized or coated with special coating.

2.8.2. Against fire

Steel lose resistance and deform for temperatures higher than 500°C
The fire resistance depends on the ratio (surface/volume) of pieces
we protect steel by :
 Coating of :
 Plaster
 pearlite
 Mineral wool
 Intumescent paints: for internal structures
 Filling of the hollow sections with water ==> Irrigated structures
 Filling with concrete

2.9. Steel designation

2.8.1. Classification based on grades

Type S or E (French standard NF)

The choice of the steel grade depend on its destination . the steel grade gives the limit of
elasticity of steel. In building construction , the conditions of small deformations and condition
related to instability (buckling) , lead to the usage of mild steel of grade S 235,easily welded.

Principal of designation
The letter S followed by a number representing the minimum value of the limit of elasticity.

• EUROCODE
S 235
235 : Re=235 MPa

• French standard NF
E 36
E : Construction steel
36 : Re=36 daN/mm2

O.Kalakesh Page 14
 Chapter 5 : Ferrous Materials

2.8.2. Classification based on chemical composition

 Non alloy steel : Amount of manganese less than 1%
C 50
C : Carbone
50 : % of Carbone

Designation : letter C followed by the % of Carbone multiplied by 100

Non alloyed steel must be subjected to thermal treatment (tempered).

 Alloy steel :

O.Kalakesh Page 15
 Chapter 5 : Ferrous Materials

2.10. Numbers

Steel production in Europe in 2008

3. Cast Iron
Cast iron is an alloy of iron, silicon and more than 1.7% of carbon (1.7 % - 6.67 %). the high
percentage of carbon exceeds the limit of solubility in iron. Cast iron is mainly used in casting.

3.1. Classification
Gray cast iron
Ductile cast iron (GS)
White cast iron
Malleable cast iron

Graphite : is a form of crystalline carbon (graphite , diamond, lonsdaleite, ...)

O.Kalakesh Page 16
 Chapter 5 : Ferrous Materials

3.1.1. Grey cast iron

In this kind of cast iron , the carbon is under graphite form.
Lamellar grey cast iron : graphite is under the form of flakes .
It is a very hard material offering very good castability and machinability.
Excellent coefficient of friction : high ability to absorb vibrations.
Its compressive strength is 3 to 5 times higher than its tensile strength.
It shows little shrinkage after sand casting.
It is used in the manufacturing of engine blocks and machine frames in all dimensions.
The corrosion of the cast iron surface create a protective layer. Despite the rusty aspect of the
material , the grey cast iron has a good resistance to corrosion.

3.1.2. GS cast iron (Ductile cast iron )

Graphite is under the form of spherical nodule.

This kind of cast iron shows elastic behavior in tension similar to the steel behavior.
Higher tenacity comparing to lamellar graphite grey cast iron.
higher cost comparing to lamellar graphite grey cast iron.
GS cast iron (spherical graphite cast iron or ductile ) has high ductility that could be considerably
improved.
It is used in the manufacturing of crankshafts , gears and pieces exposed to chocks.
Identically to grey cast iron , ductile cast iron is an easy molded material resistant to corrosion.
Visit the site of « Sorelmetal » (www.sorelmetal.com) for more information about this type and other
types of cast iron.

3.1.3. Other types of cast iron

There are other types of cast iron:
 White cast iron : very hard cast iron and very brittle material. In the final step of white
cast iron, all the carbon are under the form of carbide. the presence of many carbides
produced by adding alloys, gives the white cast iron its very high hardness and its
resistance to abrasion as well as its brittle behavior.
 Malleable cast iron : It is obtained by thermal treatment . It is a competitor to the ductile
cast iron : It contains graphite under the form of nodules. It is mainly used in the
manufacturing of small mechanical pieces.

Remarks :
 A carbide is a chemical component of carbon with a second chemical element other than
the oxygen.
 Abrasion : It is the wear and tear due to the friction between particles or between two
surfaces with at least one of them is abrasive.

3.2. Comparison cast Iron-steel

Comparing to steel , cast iron is an economical material but it can only be formed by smelting as
its deformation cannot be plastic.
Cast iron shows higher resistance to corrosion than steel, because of the protective layer formed
by the rusted surfaces. The cast iron ductility is lower than the steel ductility , but the first one
shows higher resistance to wear and tear .

O.Kalakesh Page 17
 Chapter 5 : Ferrous Materials

3.3. Mechanical properties

Tensile Longitudinal modulus Longitudinal modulus Poisson's ratio γ Poisson's

stress of elasticity of elasticity ( malleable cast ratio γ
σ(Mpa) (Classical cast iron) ( Grey and malleable cast iron ) ( Grey cast
E(Mpa) iron ) iron )
E(Mpa)
150-600 900000-120000 170000-190000 0.17 0.29

The tensile strength variation and the elongation at fracture variation with respect to temperature
(gray cast iron )

The Young's modulus variation with respect to temperature (gray cast iron)

O.Kalakesh Page 18
 Chapter 5 : Ferrous Materials

3.4. Physical properties

3.5. Usage in BTP

 Ductile Cast Iron Pipes For Water Sanitation (6 To 160 Cm Diameter)

 Pipes Used In Water Supply , Cold And Hot Water Distribution (Gas Distribution )
 Pipes Used In Drainage (5 To 30 Cm Diameter)
 Building Hardware

Ductile cast iron pipe

O.Kalakesh Page 19