VELOCITY, DISPLACEMENT AND

ENERGY RELATION VELOCITY AT ANY INSTANT.

Consider the diagram in the Figure below
At maximum displacements A and D, the
velocity is zero (V = 0) while the displacement y
is max. The kinetic Energy at these points is zero
(K.E = 0) while the potential energy P.E, is
maximum.
At point B (the equilibrium position), the
velocity is maximum while the displacement is
zero. K.E is maximum at this point due to the
maximum velocity while the P.E is zero.
At point C, the energy of the pendulum is partly Sin θ =
kinetic and partly potential. The value of the
y = A Sin θ (1)
velocity at this point is called instantantaneous
From circular motion
velocity
Ɵ = wt;
y = A sin wt (2)
Differentiates “y” with respect to ‘t’

But

(3)
V = Aw Cos θ

From (1), Sin wt =

From (2), Cos wt =

From trigonometry identity

Sin² wt + Cos² wt = 1

73 | P a g e
 Mechanisms Performing Simple Harmonic
Motion
w²y² + v² = A²w²
We shall consider few motions that produce
V² = A²w² - w²y²
sinusoidal curve such as a loaded spring,
V² = w² (A² - y²)
pendulum bob, a loaded U – tube in liqiud etc.
V=
Spring and Mass System

V= A helical spring is attached to a mass and to a

(3)
The expression above is known as the velocity of
an oscillating body at any instant.
When the oscillating body is at the equilibrium
position ‘C’, displacement at that point is zero
and recall that the velocity at that point is
maximum.
Hence, we have what is known as maximum
velocity and its expression is derived from
V=
y=0
rigid body as shown below. The mass and the
helical spring lay on a horizontal smooth plane.
When the mass is pulled slightly so that the
spring extends and then released, the system
vibrates with simple harmonic motion. Suppose
the extension ‘x’ of a spring is directly
proportional to the force ‘F’ in the spring
(Provided Hooke’s law is obeyed) F acts in the
opposite direction to x. So, F = -kx, where k is

V= known as the constant of the spring or stiffness.

From definition, F = ma and the force on the
V=
spring F = -kx
V=wA Therefore, ma = -kx
Then a =
NB: when the velocity is maximum,
displacement is zero (y = 0). Where - w²x =
Acceleration a = 0; since a = -w2y
But when velocity is zero (v = 0) with maximum
displacement (y = max), therefore, acceleration is
K = w²m (4)
maximum.
----- (*)

74 | P a g e
Then the motion of the body is S.H.M. and the
period is given by T = Oscillation of a Mass Suspended on a
Helical Spring
From equation (*)

2ߨ (5)

The expression above is the equation for period m

of a spring & mass system.

Simple Exercise
m
The displacement ‘y’ of a mass vibrating with
S.M.H is given by ‘y = 20 sin10πt, where y is in
milimeters and t in seconds. Calculate When a mass m is placed on it, the string

(a) The amplitude (b) the period (c) the stretches to a distance x

velocity at t = 0. Hence, F = ma = mg

Solution Mg = kx

Given y= 20 sin 10πt Where k is force constant of the spring; the

Compare to equation of S.H.M, tension ‘T’ of the spring = k (e + x) thus the

y = A sin 2πft resultant force act downwards

Amplitude, A = 20mm F = mg – K (e + x)

From y = 20 sin 10ߨt But F = - kx

mg – ke – kx = -kx
2πft = 10π t (by comparison)
but F = ma = mg – kx
f = 5 Hz
= mg – k (e + x)
T = 1/f
–kx = mg – ke – kx
T = 1/5 = 0.2 Sec.
ma = kx –ke – kx
The velocity at t = 0
ma = - ke
V = 0.020x 10π Cos 10π(0)
V = 0.6284 Cos 0
V = 0.6284 x 1 Recall a = – w²x
= 0.6284 m/s

75 | P a g e
But
Energy of System Performing SHM
Consider a helical spring. For compression to
occur, it must possess the potential energy. The
Recall, mg = ke,
potential energy is obtained by integrating -Fdx.
T= NB: F = -kx
W=
P
W=

Ɵ
T W=
L
Also this can be obtain from
y Work done = average spring force x distance
o
0
Mg sin = total force
Ɵ

W = mg
=½k
Simple Pendulum
From definition Since The energy of the mass is k.E, that is, k.E = ½

F = ma mv² from the displacement

- mg sin Ɵ = ma V= rw cos wt
But sin Ɵ = y/l To calculate the total energy exerted from the
spring and energy of the mass: the total energy is
equal to energy of spring + energy of mass
But a = -w²y
½k
Recall
and v = rw cos wt
and also v = wr
Total energy =

76 | P a g e
 = ½ k (r sin wt)² + ½ CHAPTER EIGHT
Note: w² = or k = w²m ROTATION OF RIGID BODIES

Also sin² Ɵ + Cos² Ɵ = 1 The moment of Inertia (I) of a body is defined as

(Trigonometric identity) the degree or a measure of resistance offered by a

Substituting eqn 6 in the relation above rigid body on its angular rotation. Unit is kg .

Total energy = ½ kr² sin² wt + ½ mw²r² cos² wt
Total energy = ½ mw²r² sin²wt + ½ mw²r² cos²
wt = ½ mw²r² (sin² wt + cos² wt)
Total energy = ½ mw²r² = constant
So the total energy of vibrating mass and spring
is constant when the KE of the mass is maximum
(energy = ½ mw²r² and mass passing through the
centre of oscillation). The PE of the spring is 0.
i.e. . Conversely when the
PE of spring is maximum (energy = ½ kr² = ½
mw²r² and mass at the end of the oscillation (the
KE of the mass is 0). Below is an illustration
It can also be defined as the twisting effect or
rotational effect that a body experience when
acted upon by a torque.
The moment of inertia of a point mass (m), with
respect to an axis which is a perpendicular
distance (r) away is given by
Kinetic Energy and Moment of Inertia
A
r
o

diagram showing the vibration of PE and KE

with displacement , the force ‘f’ extending
F
from the centre of oscillation. B

Energy E Potential
F

Kinetic
(+
Displacement

77 | P a g e
We now consider the kinetic energy of a rotating
object. In the figure above, the rotational kinetic
energy of the object x about o.
Sum of kinetic energy of all its individual masses
Kinetic energy
Centre of Mass of a Body: This is defined as the
point in the body in which it is assumed that all
the masses of the particles are concentrated only
as one mass.
Rotational Axis: This is defined as the axis in
which a rigid body or object rotated.
Radius of Gyration (K): This is defined as the
distance between the centre of mass of a rigid
body and the axis of rotation.
Parallel-Axis Theorem: The moment of inertia I
of a body about any axis parallel to the axis
passing through the centre of mass is given as
M = total mass of the body
H = perpendicular distance between the two-
parallel axis.
Perpendicular Axis Theorem: This law states
that the rotational inertia of a rigid body about a
given axis is the sum of the rotational inertia
about the two-perpendicular axis of a rigid body.
Stability of an Object
There are three types of equilibrium
1. Stable equilibrium
2. Unstable equilibrium
3. Neutral equilibrium
Stable Equilibrium
A body is said to be in a stable equilibrium if it
tends to return to its original position when
slightly displaced. Generally a low centre of
gravity (C.G) and a wide base will usually help
to put object in stable equilibrium.
Unstable Equilibrium
A body is said to be in an unstable equilibrium if
when slightly displaced, it tends to move further
away from its original position. e.g. A ball or a
sphere resting on an inverted bowl
Neutral Equilibrium
A body is said to be in neutral equilibrium if
when slightly displaced, it tends to come to rest
in its new position.
Condition that Keep a Rigid Body in
Equilibrium under Coplanar Forces
1. The vector sum of the external force or
torque acting on the body in equilibrium
78 | P a g e
 must be zero Conservation of Angular Momentum
The principle of conservation of angular
2. The total clockwise moment must be momentum states that the angular momentum
equal to the total anti-clockwise moment. about an axis of a given rotating body or system
3. The total forces acting upward must of bodies is constant, if no external couple
balance the total force acting downwards. (torque) acts about that axis.
Torque
Torque is defined as the turning or twisting effect I1w1 = I 2w2
of a force about an axis.
Newton Second Law of Angular Form
A torque , acting on a body having a moment of The Newton’s second law of angular rotation

inertia I, produces in it an angular states that the rate of change of angular

acceleration momentum is directly proportional to the applied

torque that causes the rotation.
is Nm (Newton metre)

Angular Momentum
Angular momentum of a particle of mass (m)
moving with a velocity (v), rotating about an axis
is defined as the moment of momentum about
Kinetic Energy of a Rolling Object
that axis. This is equal to the magnitude of its
When an object rolls on a plane, the object is
linear momentum (mv) multiplied by the radial
rotating as well as moving body along the plane;
(or perpendicular) distance.
therefore, it has rotational energy as well as
That is angular momentum L = (mv)r
translational energy.
The energy of the object is given by,

(i)
As an application of energy formula, suppose a
ring rolls along the plane, the moment of inertia

79 | P a g e
about the centre of gravity (or its centre) is Angular Impulse
Angular impulse has magnitude where t is the
time during which the constant torque acts on the
object in analogy to the linear case, an angular
=
impulse on a body causes a change in angular
momentum of the body given by

Moment of Inertia, I
Combined Rotation and Translation;
The K.E of a rolling ball or other rolling object
of mass m is the sum of (i) its rotational K.E
about an axis through its centre of mass and (ii)
the translational KE of an equivalent point mass
moving with the centre of mass. In other words,
putting it loosely, the total KE equals the KE
around the cm plus the KE of the cm in symbols. Rotating rigid body
Suppose a rigid object is rotating about a fixed
axis O, and a particle A of the object makes an

an axis through its mass centre. angle with a fixed line OY in space at some

(W) instant. The angular velocity, d /dt or , of

The work done on a rotating body during an every particle about O is the same, since we are

angular displacement by a constant torque is dealing with a rigid body, and the velocity of

given by where W is in joules and must A at this instant is given by , where OA.

be in radians (recall the translation equivalent, Thus, the kinetic energy of A =

W=fs) . Similarly, the kinetic

The Power energy of another particle of the
The power (p) transmitted to a body by a torque
body , where r2 is its distance from
is given by
O and m2 is its mass. In this way we see that the

80 | P a g e
kinetic energy, K.E., of the whole object is given several objects about a particular axis will first
by be calculated.

Moment of Inertia of Uniform Rod

(1) About axis through middle
The moment of inertia of a small element
about an axis PQ through its centre O

perpendicular to the length = ,

Where represents the sum of the
where is the length of the rod, M is its mass,
magnitudes of , for all the particles of the
and is the distance of the small element
object. We shall see shortly how the quantity
from O
can be calculated for a particular object.
The magnitude of is known as the
moment of inertia of the object about the axis
concerned, and we shall denote it by the symbol
I. Thus Moment of inertia – Uniform rod

Kinetic Energy, K.E., = Moment of inertia, I,

The units of I are kg m2. The unit of is rad s-1.

Thus, if I = 2 kg m2 and = 3 rad s-1, then
Thus, if the mass of the rod 60g and its length
K.E = =
is 20cm,
The kinetic energy of a particle of mass m M = 6 x 10-2kg, = 0.2m and
moving with a velocity v is . It will thus
2 x 10-4 kg m2.
be noted that the formula for the kinetic energy
(2) About the axis through one end, A.
of a rotating object is similar to that of a moving
In this case, measuring distances from A
particle, the mass m being replaced by the
instead of O,
moment of inertia J and the velocity v being
Moment of inertia,
replaced by the angular velocity . As we shall
require values of J, the moment of inertia of

81 | P a g e

Moment of Inertia of Ring
Every element of the ring is the same distance
from the centre. Hence the moment of inertia
about an axis through the centre perpendicular to
the plane of the ring = Ma2, where M is the mass
of the ring and “a” is its radius.
Moment of Inertia of Circular Disc
Moment of inertia-disc
Consider the moment of inertia of a circular disc
Thus if the disc weighs 60g and has a radius of
10 cm, M = 60 g = 6x10-2kg, a = 0.1 m
So that,
I=
Radius of Gyration
Radius of gyration of a body about a given axis
is the perpendicular distance of a point from the
axis, where if the whole mass of the body were
concentrated, the body will have the same
moment of inertia as with the actual distribution
of mass.
The moment of inertia of an object about an axis,
, is sometimes written as MK2, where M is
the mass of the object and k is a quantity called

about an axis through its centre perpendicular to the radius of gyration about the axis.

its plane. If we take a small ring of the disc When square of radius of gyration is

enclosed between radii and , its mass multiplied with the mass of the body gives the
moment of inertia of the body about the given
= , where “a” is the radius of the disc and
axis.
M is its mass. Each element of the ring is distant r2 r1
m m
m r3
from the Centre, and hence the moment of r4
m r5 m

inertia of the ring about the axis through O =

I
Therefore, moment of inertia of whole disk I = Mk 2 or k = .
M
Here k is called radius of gyration.

= From the formula of discrete distribution

2 2 2
I = mr1 + mr 2 + mr 3 + ....... + mr n2

82 | P a g e
 If m1 = m2 = m3 = ....... = m then I (1 2)MR 2 R
k= = =
2 2
I = m (r1 + r2 + r3 + .......... rn2 )
2 M M 2

(i)
From the definition of Radius of gyration,
I = Mk 2
k
M
(ii)
By equating (i) and (ii)
2 2 2
Mk 2 = m (r1 + r2 + r3 + .......... .. + rn2 )
So instead of disc we can assume a point a point

2 2 2 2 mass M at a distance (R / 2 ) from the axis of

nmk = m (r1 + r2 + r3 + .......... + rn2 )
rotation for dealing the rotational motion of the
[As M = nm ]
disc.
∴
For a given body inertia is constant whereas
2 2 2
r1 + r2 + r3 + .......... . + rn2
k= moment of inertia is variable.
n
Hence radius of gyration of a body about a given
Example
axis is equal to root mean square distance of the
The moment of inertia of a rod about an axis
constituent particles of the body from the given
through one end = .
axis.
Radius of gyration (k ) depends on shape and size Thus the radius of gyration, .
of the body, position and configuration of the The moment of inertia of a sphere about its
axis of rotation, distribution of mass of the body
centre = .
w.r.t. the axis of rotation. It does not depend on
the mass of body.
Thus the radius of gyration, k in
Significance of radius of gyration: Through this
concept a real body (particularly irregular) is this case
replaced by a point mass for dealing its rotational
motion.
Example: In case of a disc rotating about an axis
through its centre of mass and perpendicular to
its plane

83 | P a g e
 Relationship between Moment of Inertia
About C.G. and Parallel Axis
Theorem of parallel axes
Suppose I is the moment of inertia of a body
about an axis CD and I G is the moment of
inertia about a parallel axis PQ through the
centre of gravity, G, distant h from the axis CD.
If A is a particle of mass m whose distance from
PQ is , its moment of inertia about CD =
2 and OZ is an axis perpendicular to OX and
Now , where M is the
total mass of the object and , the
moment of inertia through the centre of gravity.
Also,
,
Since , is the sum of the moments about the
centre of gravity, is zero; this follows because the
moment of the resultant (the weight) about G is
zero.
From this result, it follows that the moment of
inertia, , of a disc of radius “a” and mass “M”
about an axis through a point on its
circumference = IG + Ma2, since h = a = radius
of disc in this case. But IG = moment of inertia
about the centre = Ma2/2.
Moment of inertia,
Similarly the moment of inertia of a sphere of
radius “a” and mass “M” about an axis through a
point on its circumference = IG + Ma2 = 2Ma2/5
+ Ma2 = 7Ma2/5, since IG, the moment of inertia
about an axis through its centre, is 2Ma2/5.
Relation between Moments of Inertia about
Perpendicular Axes
Suppose OX, OY are any two perpendicular axes
OY.The moment of inertia, I, of
A body about the axis OZ = , where r is
the distance of a particle A from OZ and m is its
mass. But r2 = x2 + y2, where x, y are the
distances of A from the axis OY, OX
respectively.
84 | P a g e
 system about the axis passing through the
centre of the disc and perpendicular to its
plane is?
Where, , are the moments of inertia about
We will not consider the moment of inertia of
OX, OY respectively.
disc because it doesn't have any mass so moment
As a simple application, consider a ring R and
of inertia of five particle system
two perpendicular axes OX, OY in its plane as
2
I = 5 mr 2 = 5 × 2 × (0 . 1)2 = 0 . 1 kg-m .
shown above in (ii). Then from the above result,
moment of inertia through O 2. A circular disc X of radius R is made from an
iron plate of thickness t, and another disc Y of
perpendicular to ring.
radius 4R is made from an iron plate of
t
thickness . Then the relation between the
But , by symmetry. 4

moment of inertia IX and IY is

1
Moment of Inertia of disc I = MR 2
2

This is the moment of inertia of the ring about 1 1

= (πR 2 tρ )R 2 = πtρ R 4
2 2
any diameter in its plane.
[As M =V×ρ = πR 2 tρ where t = thickness,
In the same way, the moment of inertia, , of a
ρ = density
disc about a diameter in its plane is given by
4
Iy ty  Ry 
∴ =   [If ρ = constant]
Ix t x  R x 

since the moments of inertia, , about the two Iy 1
⇒ = (4 ) 4 = 64
Ix 4
perpendicular diameters are the same and Ma2/2
is the moment of inertia of the disc about an axis tx
[Given Ry = 4 Rx , ty = ]
4
perpendicular to its plane.
⇒ I y = 64 I x
Therefore;
3. Moment of inertia of a uniform circular disc
about a diameter is I. Its moment of inertia
Examples about an axis perpendicular to its plane and
1. Five particles of mass = 2 kg are attached to passing through a point on its rim will be
the rim of a circular disc of radius 0.1 m and
negligible mass. Moment of inertia of the

85 | P a g e
Moment of inertia of disc about a diameter origin. The moment of inertia of this system
1
= MR 2 = I (given) ∴ MR 2 = 4 I about Z axis is
4

Now moment of inertia of disc about an axis z l

A B
perpendicular to its plane and passing through a 3 P

point on its rim l

O
l
x
3 3 2 1
= MR 2 = (4 I) = 6 I D C
2 2 y
l
4. Four thin rods of same mass M and same
length l, form a square as shown in figure.
Moment of inertia of this system about an Moment of inertia of the system about z-axis can

axis through centre O and perpendicular to its be found out by calculating the moment of inertia

plane. of individual rod about z-axis

Moment of inertia of rod AB about point ML 2

I1 = I 2 =
3
1
P= Ml 2 because z-axis is the edge of rod 1 and 2 and
12

Ml 2
2 I3 = 0 because rod in lying on z-axis
l
M.I. of rod AB about point O = + M 
12 2 ML 2 ML2 2 ML 2
∴ Isystem = I1 + I2 + I3 = + +0 = .
1 3 3 3
= Ml 2 [by the theorem of parallel axis]
3 6. Three point masses each of mass m are
And the system consists of 4 rods of similar type placed at the corners of an equilateral triangle
4 of side a. Then the moment of inertia of this
so by the symmetry ISystem = Ml 2 .
3
system about an axis passing along one side
This result is analogous to the case of a particle
of the triangle is
of mass m which undergoes an acceleration a
The moment of inertia of system about AB side
when a force F acts on it. Here F = ma.
of triangle
In place of F we have a couple C for a rotating
I = I A + I B + IC
rigid object; in place of m we have the moment
= 0 + 0 + mx 2
of inertia I; and in place of linear acceleration a,
2
a 3 
we have angular acceleration d2 /dt2 (d /dt). = m  = 3 ma 2
 2  4
 
5. Three rods each of length L and mass M are
placed along X, Y and Z-axes in such a way
that one end of each of the rod is at the

86 | P a g e
 side R . The moment of inertia of the system
C
m about an axis perpendicular to the plane of
a a square and passing through its centre will be
x
2
m m M. I. of sphere A about its diameter I O ' = Mr 2
A a
B 5

O′ r
A B
7. The moment of inertia of a rod of length l R/ 2
R
O O
about an axis passing through its centre of
D C
mass and perpendicular to rod is I. The
moment of inertia of hexagonal shape formed
Now M.I. of sphere A about an axis
by six such rods, about an axis passing
perpendicular to the plane of square and
through its centre of mass and perpendicular
passing through its centre will be
to its plane will be
2 2
 R  2 MR
Moment of inertia of rod AB about its centre and IO = IO ' + M   = Mr 2 +

 2 5 2
ml 2
perpendicular to the length = =I [by the theorem of parallel axis]
12

∴ ml 2 = 12 I Moment of inertia of system (i.e. four sphere)=

2 MR 2 
Now moment of inertia of the rod about the axis 4 IO = 4  Mr 2 + 
 5 2 
which is passing through O and perpendicular to

the plane of hexagon Irod=

ml 2
+ mx 2
=
2
5
[
M 4 r2 + 5 R 2 ]
12
Torque
[From the theorem of parallel axes]
If a pivoted, hinged or suspended body tends to
2
ml  3 
2
5 ml 2
= +m

l =

rotate under the action of a force, it is said to be
12  2  6
acted upon by a torque. or The turning effect of a
force about the axis of rotation is called moment
Now the moment of inertia of system Isystem
of force or torque due to the force.
2
5 ml
= 6 × Irod = 6 × = 5ml 2
6
Rotation Rotation
Isystem = 5 (12 I) = 60 I
P F
2
[As ml = 12 I ] r
O r F
O
8. Four spheres, each of mass M and radius
r are situated at the four corners of square of (A) (B)

87 | P a g e
If the particle rotating in xy plane about the →
F r = F cos φ = radial component of force ,
→
origin under the effect of force F and at any →
F φ = F sin φ = transverse component of force
→
instant the position vector of the particle is r As τ = r F sin φ
then, or τ = r Fφ = (position vector)
→ → →
Torque τ = r × F (transverse component of force)
τ = r F sin φ Thus the magnitude of torque is given by the
product of transverse component of force and its
r
Y
F sin φ
F F cos perpendicular distance from the axis of rotation
φ
P i.e., Torque is due to transverse component of
r
r φ
force only.
90o X
d
As τ = r F sin φ

or τ = F(r sin φ ) = Fd [As

d = r sin φ from the figure ]
[where φ is the angle between the direction of
i.e. Torque = Force  Perpendicular distance of
→ →
r and F ] line of action of force from the axis of rotation.
Torque is also called as moment of force
Y
and d is called moment or lever arm.
1
Maximum and minimum torque: As
2 3 → → →
τ = r × F or τ = r F sin φ
Y′

τ m aximum = rF When sin φ = max = 1 →

Torque is an axial vector. i.e., its direction is F is perpendicular to
i.e., φ = 90 ° →
always perpendicular to the plane containing r
→ → τ minimum = 0 When sin φ = min = 0 i.e. φ → →
vector r and F in accordance with right hand F is collinear to r
screw rule. For a given figure the sense of
rotation is anti-clockwise so the direction of
For a given force and angle, magnitude of torque
torque is perpendicular to the plane, outward
depends on r. The more is the value of r, the
through the axis of rotation.
more will be the torque and easier to rotate the
Rectangular components of force
body.

88 | P a g e
Example: (i) Handles are provided near the On tilting, a body will restore its initial position
free edge of the Planck of the door. due to torque of weight about the point O till the
(ii) The handle of screw driver is line of action of weight passes through its base
taken thick. on tilting; a body will topple due to torque of
(iii) In villages handle of weight about O, if the line of action of weight
flourmill is placed near the circumference. does not pass through the base.
(iv) The handle of hand-pump is
kept long.
Tilt G
G Tilt
(v) The arm of wrench used for opening the tap,

Torque
R R Torque
is kept long. O
O
If a body is acted upon by more than one force, W W
the total torque is the vector sum of each torque.
→ → → → Torque is the cause of rotatory motion and in
τ = τ 1 + τ 2 + τ 3 + ........
A body is said to be in rotational equilibrium if
→
rotational motion it plays same role as force
resultant torque acting on it is zero i.e. Σ τ = 0 .
plays in translatory motion i.e., torque is
rotational analogue of force. This all is evident
R
from the following correspondences between
l1 l2 rotatory and translatory motion.

F1 F2
Couple on a Rigid Body
A couple is defined as combination of two equal
In case of beam balance or see-saw the system
but oppositely directed forces not acting along
will be in rotational equilibrium if,
the same line. The effect of couple is known by
→ →
τ 1+ τ 2 =0 or F1 l1 − F2 l 2 = 0 ∴ its moment of couple or torque by a couple
→ → →
F1 l1 = F2 l 2 τ = r× F .
→ →
However if, τ 1 > τ2 , L.H.S. will move
F
→ → r
downwards and if τ 1 < τ 2 . R.H.S. will move
downward. and the system will not be in F
rotational equilibrium.

89 | P a g e
Generally both couple and torque carry equal Since the angular acceleration, , about O is
meaning. The basic difference between torque
the same for all particles.
and couple is the fact that in case of couple both
Total torque about O =
the forces are externally applied while in case of
torque one force is externally applied and the Where moment of inertia about O.
other is reactionary. The moment about O is produced by external
Consider a rigid body rotating about a fixed axis forces which together act as a couple of torque C
O with an angular velocity at some instant. say. Thus, for any rotating rigid body, Couple, C

Examples
1. A horizontal heavy uniform bar of weight W
is supported at its ends by two men. At the
instant, one of the men lets go off his end of
the rod, the other feels the force on his hand
changed to?
Couple on rigid body
Let the mass of the rod is M ∴ Weight (W) =
Mg
The force acting on the particle
Initially for the equilibrium F + F = Mg ⇒
A ,
F = Mg / 2

since . The moment of this force about

F F

the axis O = force x perpendicular distance from A B

O = , since the force acts Mg

perpendicularly to the line OA.

Moment or torque = When one man withdraws, the torque on the rod
l
Total moment of all forces on body about O, or τ = Iα = Mg
2
torque,
Ml 2 l
⇒ α = Mg [As I = Ml 2/ 3]
= 3 2

= ,

90 | P a g e
 F′ by applying a tangential force of 2 kgf with a
A B rope wound round the circumference, the

B′
radius of the wheel being 10 cm. Calculate
Mg
the angular acceleration of the flywheel.
What would be the acceleration if a mass of 2

⇒ Angular acceleration α =
3 g kg were hung from the end of the rope? (0. &
2 l
C.)
l 3g
and linear acceleration a= α = Solution
2 4

Now if the new normal force at A is F' then

Mg − F' = Ma

3 Mg Mg W
⇒ F ' = Mg − Ma = Mg − = = .
4 4 4

2. A heavy flywheel of mass 15 kg and radius

20 cm is mounted on a horizontal axle of
radius 1 cm and negligible mass compared
with the flywheel. Neglecting friction, find
(i) the angular acceleration if a force of 4 kgf
is applied tangentially to the axle, (ii) the Couple C =
angular velocity of the flywheel after 10
seconds.
Now C = 2 x 9.8 x0.1
Solution
Angular acceleration =
(i) Moment of inertia =
rad s-2
If a mass of 2kg is hung from the end of the
Couple C = 4 x 9.8 x 0.01 = 0.4 Nm
rope, it moves down with an acceleration “a”
Angular acceleration = as shown in the figure above. In this case, if
(ii) After 10 seconds, angular velocity = angular T is the tension in the rope,
acceleration x time mg – T = ma (1)
= 1.3 x 10 = 13 rad s-1 For the flywheel,
3. The moment of inertia of a solid flywheel T.r = couple = (2)
about its axis is 01 kg m2. It is set in rotation

91 | P a g e
 Where r is the radius of the flywheel. Now → → →
L = r× P
the mass of 2 kg descends a distance given by →
L = r P sin φ nˆ
r , where is the angle the flywheel has
Angular momentum is an axial vector i.e. always
turned. Hence the acceleration a = .
directed perpendicular to the plane of rotation
Substituting in (1), and along the axis of rotation.
mg – T = S.I. Unit: kg-m2-s–1 or J-sec.
Dimension: [ ML 2 T -1 ] and it is similar to
mg – T .r = (3)
Planck’s constant (h) .
adding (2) and (3), In Cartesian co-ordinates if
→ →
r = xˆi + yˆj + z kˆ and P = Px ˆi + Py ˆj + Pz kˆ

ˆi ˆj kˆ
→ → →

rad s-2 Then L = r × P = x y z =

Px Py Pz
Angular Momentum
The turning momentum of particle about the axis (yPz − z Py )ˆi − (xPz − zPx ) ˆj + (xPy − yP x ) kˆ
of rotation is called the angular momentum of the As it is clear from the figure radial component of
particle. →
momentum P r = P cos φ
or
Transverse component of momentum
The moment of linear momentum of a body with
→
respect to any axis of rotation is known as P φ = P sin φ

angular momentum. So magnitude of angular momentum

Y
r
F F cos
L = r P sin φ
L F sin φ
φ
L = r Pφ Y P
P P sin φ
r P r φ P cos φ
r φ
P
90o X
r φ
d

X
d
→ →
If P is the linear momentum of particle and r
its position vector from the point of rotation then
angular momentum.

92 | P a g e
Angular momentum = Position vector × → →
∴ L = mvr = mr 2 ω [As r ⊥ v and v = rω ]
Transverse component of angular momentum
or
i.e., the radial component of linear
L = Iω [As mr2 = I]
momentum has no role to play in angular → →
In vector form L = I ω
momentum.
→ →
Magnitude of angular momentum From L = I ω
L = P (r sin φ ) = L = Pd [As d = r sin φ from → →
dL dω → →

the figure.] ∴ =I = Iα = τ
dt dt
∴ Angular momentum = (Linear momentum) →
dω → → →

× (Perpendicular distance of line of action of force [As = α and τ = I α ]

dt
from the axis of rotation) i.e. the rate of change of angular momentum
Maximum and minimum angular momentum: is equal to the net torque acting on the particle.
→ → →
We know L = r × P [Rotational analogue of Newton's second law]
→ → → If a large torque acts on a particle for a small
∴ L = m [ r × v ] = m v r sin φ = P r sin φ
time then 'angular impulse' of torque is given by
→ →
[As P = m v ] → → → t2

Lm aximum = mvr When sin φ = max = 1 →

∫
J = τ dt = τ av ∫ t1
dt
v is
i.e., φ = 90 ° → → →

perpendicular or Angular impulse J = τ av ∆t = ∆ L

→ ∴ Angular impulse = Change in angular
to r
momentum
Lminimum = 0 When sin φ = min = 0 →
v is parallel
The angular momentum of a system of particles
or anti-
is equal to the vector sum of angular momentum
→
parallel to r → → → → →
of each particle i.e., L = L1 + L 2 + L 3 + ....... + L n .
According to Bohr theory angular momentum of
A particle in translatory motion always have an
an electron in nth orbit of atom can be taken as,
angular momentum unless it is a point on the line
h
of motion because L = mvr sin φ and L > 1 if φ L=n
2π
≠ 0 o or 180 o [where n is an integer used for number of orbit]
→ → → → →
In case of circular motion, L = r × P = m ( r × v ) =
mvr sin φ

93 | P a g e
LAW OF CONSERVATION OF ANGULAR legs closer to body, his moment of inertia I
MOMENTUM decreases. Hence ω increases.
Newton’s second law for rotational motion (3) A person-carrying heavy weight in his hands
→
and standing on a rotating platform can change
→ dL
τ =
dt the speed of platform. When the person suddenly
So if the net external torque on a particle (or folds his arms, its moment of inertia decreases
→ and in accordance the angular speed increases
dL
system) is zero then =0
dt
→ → → →
i.e. L = L1 + L 2 + L 3 + ....... = constant.
Angular momentum of a system (may be particle
or body) remains constant if resultant torque acting
on it is zero.
→
As L = Iω so if τ = 0 then Iω = constant
1 (4) A diver performs somersaults by Jumping
∴ I∝
ω
from a high diving board keeping his legs and
Since angular momentum Iω remains constant so
arms out stretched first and then curling his body.
when I decreases, angular velocity ω increases
(5) Effect of change in radius of earth on its time
and vice-versa.
period
Examples of law of conservation of angular
Angular momentum of the earth
momentum
L = Iω = constant
(1) The angular velocity of revolution of a planet
2 2π
around the sun in an elliptical orbit increases L= MR 2 × = constant
5 T
when the planet come closer to the sun and vice- ∴T ∝ R2
versa because when planet comes closer to the [if M remains constant]
sun, it's moment of inertia I decreases therefore If R becomes half, then the time period will
ω increases. 24
become one-fourth i.e. = 6 hrs.
(2) A circus acrobat performs feats involving 4

spin by bringing his arms and legs closer to his Examples

body or vice-versa. On bringing the arms and 1. Consider a body, shown in figure,
consisting of two identical balls, each of
mass M connected by a light rigid rod. If an

94 | P a g e
 impulse J = Mv is imparted to the body at one 2. The position of a particle is given by:
of its ends, what would be its angular r = (ˆi + 2ˆj − kˆ ) and momentum P = (3ˆi + 4 ˆj − 2kˆ ) .
velocity? The angular momentum is perpendicular to?
ˆi ˆj kˆ
→ → →
L = r× p = 1 2 −1 = 0ˆi − ˆj − 2 kˆ = − ˆj − 2 kˆ
3 4 −2
L
M M
J = Mv
and the X- axis is given by i + 0 ˆj + 0 kˆ
Dot product of these two vectors is zero i.e.
angular momentum is perpendicular to X-axis.
O 3. A smooth uniform rod of length L and mass
M 1 2 M
L/2 L/2 M has two identical beads of negligible size,
each of mass m , which can slide freely along
the rod. Initially the two beads are at the
Initial angular momentum of the system about
centre of the rod and the system is rotating
point O = Linear momentum × Perpendicular
with angular velocity ω 0 about an axis
distance of linear momentum from the axis of
perpendicular to the rod and passing through
L
rotation = Mv   (i) figure). There are
the midpoint of the rod (see
2

Final angular momentum of the system about no external forces. When the beads reach the

point O ends of the rod, the angular velocity of the

system is
= I1ω + I2ω = (I1 + I2 )ω
  L 2 L 
2
=  M   + M   ω (ii) Since there are no external forces therefore the
  2   2  
angular momentum of the system remains
Applying the law of conservation of angular
constant.
momentum
2
L L
⇒ Mv   = 2 M   ω
2
  2

v
⇒ ω =
L L/2 L/2

95 | P a g e
 Initially when the beads are at the centre of the Initial angular momentum of bullet + initial
rod angular momentum angular momentum of cylinder
 ML 2  = Final angular momentum of
L1 =  ω 0

(i)
 12  (bullet + cylinder) system
When beads reach the ends of the rod then ⇒ mvr + I1ω = (I1 + I 2 )ω '
angular momentum 1
⇒ mvr + I1ω =  Mr 2 + mr 2 ω '
  L 2 2 2 
L ML2 
= m   + m   + ω' …(ii)
 2 2 12 
 ⇒ 0 .5 × 5 × 0 .2 + 0 . 12 =
Equating (i) and (ii) 1 2 2
 2(0 . 2) + (0 .5 ) (0 . 2) ω '
 2 
ML2  mL 2 ML2 
ω 0 =  + ω '
12  2 12 

∴ ω ' = 10 .3 rad/sec.

Mω o
⇒ ω' = .
M + 6m Work, Energy and Power of Rotating Bodies
4. A solid cylinder of mass 2 kg and Work: If the body is initially at rest and angular
radius 0 .2 m is rotating about its own axis displacement is dθ due to torque then work done on
without friction with angular velocity the body.
3 rad / s . A particle of mass 0.5 kg and
∫
W = τ dθ [Analogue to work
moving with a velocity 5 m/s strikes the
in translatory motion W = ∫ F dx ]
cylinder and sticks to it as shown in figure.
What is the angular momentum of the Kinetic energy: The energy, which a body has by

cylinder before collision? Calculate the virtue of its rotational motion is called rotational

angular velocity of the system after the kinetic energy. A body rotating about a fixed axis

particle sticks to it possesses kinetic energy because its constituent

particles are in motion, even though the body as
3 rad/s a whole remains in place.

Angular momentum of the cylinder before collision

1 1
L = Iω = MR 2ω = (2) (0 . 2)2 × 3 = 0.12 J-s.
2 2

96 | P a g e
Rotational kinetic energy Analogue to Spinning: When the body rotates in such a
translatory kinetic manner that its axis of rotation does not move
energy then its motion is called spinning motion.
1 1
KR = Iω 2 KT = mv 2
2 2
In this condition axis of rotation of a body is
1 1
KR = Lω KT = Pv fixed.
2 2
Example: Motion of blades of a fan.
L2 P2
KR = KT = In spinning, body possess only rotatory kinetic
2I 2m
1
energy K R = Iω 2 .
2
Power: Rate of change of kinetic energy is
1 v2 1  K2 
defined as power or KR = mK 2 2 = mv 2  2 
2 R 2 
R 
d d 1  dω
P= (K R ) =  Iω 2  = Iω
dt dt  2  dt  K2 
i.e., Rotatory kinetic energy =  2  times
= Iωα = Iαω = τω R 
→ → translatory kinetic energy.
In vector form Power = τ ⋅ ω [Analogue to
K2
→ → Here is a constant for different bodies.
power in translatory motion P = F ⋅ v ] R2

K2 K2 1
Value of 2
= 1 (ring), 2
= (disc) and
SLIPPING, SPINNING AND ROLLING R R 2

Slipping: When the body slides on a surface K2 1

2
= (solid sphere)
R 2
without rotation then its motion is called slipping
motion. Rolling: If in case of rotational motion of a body

In this condition friction between the body and about a fixed axis, the axis of rotation also

surface F = 0 . moves, the motion is called combined translatory

Body possess only translatory kinetic energy and rotatory.

1
Example: (i) Motion of a wheel of cycle on a
KT = mv 2 .
2 road.
Example: Motion of a ball on a frictionless (ii) Motion of football rolling on a
surface. ω=0 surface.
In this condition friction between the body and
v
surface F ≠ 0 .

97 | P a g e
Body possesses both translational and rotational 1 1
KN = mv 2 + Iω 2
kinetic energy. 2 2

Net kinetic energy = (Translatory + Rotatory) [∴ As v = R ω ]

kinetic energy. 1 1
= mR 2 ω 2 + Iω 2
2 2
1 2
1 1 = ω [mR 2 + I]
K N = K T + K R = mv 2 + Iω 2 2
2 2
2 1 2 1
1 1
= mv 2 + mv 2 2
K = ω [I + mR 2 ] = I P ω 2
2 2 2 2
R
[As I P = I + mR 2 ]
1 2 K2 
∴ KN = mv  1 + 2 

2  R  ω

ω
v

By theorem of parallel axis, where I =

Rolling without moment of inertia of rolling body about its centre

Slipping In case of combined translatory and ‘O’ and IP = moment of inertia of rolling body

rotatory motion if the object rolls across a about point of contact ‘P’.

surface in such a way that there is no relative Linear velocity of different points in rolling: In

motion of object and surface at the point of case of rolling, all points of a rigid body have

contact, the motion is called rolling without same angular speed but different linear speed.

slipping. Let A, B, C and D are four points then their

Friction is responsible for this type of motion but velocities are shown in the following figure.

work done or dissipation of energy against

B B B
friction is zero as there is no relative motion v v 2v

between body and surface at the point of contact. v v

v= D
C D C D C
Rolling motion of a body may be treated as a v v
√2
v
A A v=0
pure rotation about an axis through point of Translati Rotation Rolling
+
contact with same angular velocity ω.
By the law of conservation of energy

98 | P a g e
Example m2, then the work done by the torque in two
1. A body of moment of inertia of 3 kg-m2 seconds will be
rotating with an angular velocity of 2 rad/sec ω 1 = 20 rad/sec, ω 2 = 0, t = 4 sec .
has the same kinetic energy as a mass of 12 So angular retardation
kg moving with a velocity of ω1 − ω 2 20
α= = = 5 rad / sec 2
1 t 4
Rotational kinetic energy of the body = Iω 2 and
2 Now angular speed after 2 sec
1 ω 2 = ω1 − αt = 20 − 5 × 2 = 10 rad/sec
translatory kinetic energy = mv 2
2
Work done by torque in 2 sec = loss in kinetic
1 1
According to problem = Iω 2 = mv 2
energy = I (ω12 − ω 22 ) = (0 .20 )((20 )2 − (10 )2 )
2 2 1 1
2 2
1 1
⇒ × 3 × (2)2 = × 12 × v 2 ⇒ v = 1 m /s .
2 2 1
= × 0 . 2 × 300 = 30 J.
2
2. A disc and a ring of same mass
4. If the angular momentum of a rotating body
are rolling and if their kinetic energies are
is increased by 200%, then its kinetic energy
equal, then the ratio of their velocities will be
of rotation will be increased by
 k2 
K disc
1
= mv d2  1 + 2  = 3 mv d2 2
2  R  4 L2 E2  L 2   3L 
2
  As E = ⇒ =   =  1  [As
  2I E1  L1   L1 
k2 1
 As 2 = for disc 
 R 2  L2 = L1 + 200 % .L1 = 3L1]
1  k2 
K ring = mv r  1 + 2  = mv r2 ⇒ E2 = 9 E1
2 R 
 
= E1 + 800 % of E1
 k2 
 As 2 = 1 for ring 
 R 

According to problem K disc = K ring ROLLING ON AN INCLINE PLANE

When a body of mass m and radius R rolls down
3
⇒ mv d2 = mv r2
4 on inclined plane of height ‘h’ and angle of
vd 4 inclination θ , it loses potential energy. However
⇒ = .
vr 3
it acquires both linear and angular speeds and
3. A wheel is rotating with an angular speed hence, gain kinetic energy of translation and that
of 20 rad / sec . It is stopped to rest by applying of rotation.
a constant torque in 4 s . If the moment of
inertia of the wheel about its axis is 0.20 kg-

99 | P a g e
By conservation of mechanical energy • Velocity, acceleration and time of descent
1  k2  (for a given inclined plane) all depends
mgh = mv 2  1 + 2 
2  R  k2
on . Lesser the moment of inertia of
R2
2 gh
Velocity at the lowest point: v =
k2 the rolling body lesser will be the value
1+ 2
R k2
of . So greater will be its velocity and
Acceleration in motion: From equation R2

v 2 = u 2 + 2 aS acceleration and lesser will be the time of

By substituting descent.

h 2 gh • If a solid and hollow body of same shape

u = 0, S = and v = we get
sin θ k2 is allowed to roll down on inclined plane
1+ 2
R
 k2   k2 
then as  2  <  2  , solid body will
g sin θ
a=  R S  R H
k2
1+ 2 reach the bottom first with greater
R
Time of descent: From equation v = u + at velocity.

By substituting u = 0 and value of v and a • If a ring, cylinder, disc and sphere runs a

from above expressions race by rolling on an inclined plane then

• as
1 2h  k2 
t= 1 + 
sin θ g  R2   k2 
  = minimum while
 R2 
  sphere
From the above expressions it is clear that,
 k2 
1 1 k2   = maximum , the sphere will
v∝ ; a∝ ; t ∝ 1 +  R2 
k2 k2 R2   Ring
1+ 1+ 2
R2 R reach the bottom first with greatest
Note: velocity while ring at last with least
 k2  velocity.
• Here factor  2  is a measure of
R  • Angle of inclination has no effect on
moment of inertia of a body and its value velocity, but time of descent and
is constant for given shape of the body acceleration depends on it.
and it does not depend on the mass and velocity ∝ θ ° , time of decent ∝ θ −1 and
radius of a body. acceleration ∝ θ .

100 | P a g e
 Rolling Sliding and falling of a Body
Figure Velocity Acceleration Time

k2 2 gh g sin θ 1 2h  k2 
Rollin ≠0 h 1+ 2 
g R2 1 + k2 R2 1 + K2 R2 sin θ g  R 
θ

Slidin k2 1 2h
=0 g sin θ
R2 2 gh
g sin θ g
θ

k2
=0
Fallin
R2 2h
2 gh g
g g
θ = 90o θ

Velocity, Acceleration and Time for different Bodies

Body k2 Velocity Acceleration Time of descent

2
R gsin θ
2 gh a= 1 2 h  k2 
v = 2 t= 1+ 2
sin θ g  R 
2
k k
1 + 1+
R
2
R2

Ring or 1 gh 1
g sin θ 1 4h
2 sin θ g
Hollow
cylinder
Disc or solid 1
or 0 .5 4 gh 2
g sin θ 1 3h
2 3 3 sin θ g
cylinder
Solid sphere 2
or 0 .4 10 5
g sin θ 1 14 h
gh
5 7 7 sin θ 5 g

Hollow sphere 2
or 0 . 66 6 3
g sin θ 1 10 h
gh
3 5 5 sin θ 3 g

101 | P a g e
Examples When solid sphere rolls down an inclined plane
1. A solid sphere and a disc of same mass and 10
the velocity at bottom v1 = gh but, if there is
7
radius starts rolling down a rough inclined
plane, from the same height the ratio of the no friction then it slides on inclined plane and the

time taken in the two cases is velocity at bottom v 2 = 2 gh

1 2h  k2  v1 5
Time of descent t = 1+ 2  ∴ = .
g  v2 7
sin θ R 

 2 
1 + k  2
tshpere  R 2  sphere 1+
 5 = 7 2 14
∴ = = × =
t disc  2  1 5 3 15
1 + k  1+
 R 2  disc 2


2. A solid sphere of mass 0 .1 kg and

radius 2 cm rolls down an inclined plane
1.4 m in length (slope 1 in 10). Starting from
rest its final velocity will be
2 gh 2 × 9 . 8 × l sin θ
v= = [As
k2 2
1+ 2 1+
R 5

k2 2 1
= , l= h and sin θ = given]
R2 5 sin θ 10

⇒
1
2 × 9 .8 × 1 .4 ×
v= 10 = 1 . 4 m / s.
7 /5

3. A solid sphere rolls down an

inclined plane and its velocity at the bottom
is v1. Then same sphere slides down the
plane (without friction) and let its velocity at
the bottom be v2. Which of the following
relation is correct

102 | P a g e
 Equation of Linear motion and Rotational Motion
Linear Motion Rotational Motion
(1) If linear acceleration is 0, u = constant If angular acceleration is 0, ω = constant
and s = u t. and θ = ωt
(2) If linear acceleration a = constant, If angular acceleration α = constant then
(u + v) (ω 1 + ω 2 )
(i) s = t (i) θ = t
2 2
v −u ω 2 − ω1
(ii) a = (ii) α =
t t

(iii) v = u + at (iii) ω 2 = ω 1 + αt
1 1
(iv) s = ut + at 2 (iv) θ = ω 1 t + αt 2
2 2

(v) v 2 = u 2 + 2as (v) ω 22 = ω 12 + 2αθ

1 α
(vi) s nth = u + a(2n − 1) (vi) θ nth = ω 1 + (2n − 1)
2 2

(3) If acceleration is not constant, the above If acceleration is not constant, the above
equation will not be applicable. In this equation will not be applicable. In this
case case
dx dθ
(i) v = (i) ω =
dt dt

dv d 2 x d ω d 2θ
(ii) a = = 2 (ii) α = = 2
dt dt dt dt

(iii) vdv = a ds (iii) ωd ω = α dθ

a. The angular acceleration

Excercise
(1) The flywheel of an engine is expected to
give up 400J of kinetic energy while its
angular velocity decreases from 84rad/s
to 72rad/s. evaluate the moment of inertia
required.
(2) A force of 5N is applied for 3s to the rim
of a uniform stationary wheel of mass
4kg and radius 0.5m, calculate
b. Final angular velocity
c. The numbers of revolution in that time
d. The energy gain by the wheel
e. The work done by the couple
(3) A flywheel weighing 100kg and of radius
80cm is traveling at 150rpm. A constant
force is applied tangentially to its rim,
which reduces its speed to 120rpm in

103 | P a g e
 22seconds. Find the magnitude of the
force.
(4) The propeller of an aircraft and the
rotating system attached to it has a total
moment of inertia 30 and rotate at
angular velocity of 314.2rad/s. Evaluate
the mean torque exerted by the engine if
it takes 10sec to develop this speed.
(5) A disc of moment of inertia
about its centre rotates steadily about
centre with an angular velocity of
20rad/s. Calculate
i. Its rotational energy
ii. Its angular momentum about the
centre
iii. The number of revolution per second
of the disc
(6) A constant torque of 200Nm turns a
wheel about its centre; the moment of
inertia about this axis is 100kgm2. Find
i. The angular velocity gained in 4s
ii. The kinetic energy gain over 20revs
(7) A flywheel has a kinetic energy of 200g,
calculate the number of revolution it
makes before coming to rest if a constant
opposing couple of 5Nm is applied to the
flywheel. If the moment of inertia of the
flywheel about its centre is 4kgm2, how
long does it take to come to rest?
(8) A constant torque of 500Nm turns a
wheel which has a moment of inertia
20kgm2 about its centre. Find the angular
velocity gained in 2s and the kinetic
energy gained.
(9) A ballet dancer spins with 24revs-1 with
her arms outstretched, when the moment
of inertia about the axis of rotation is I
with her arms folded, the moment of
inertia about the same axis becomes 0.6I.
Calculate the new rate of spin. State the
principle used in your calculation.
(10) A disc rolling along a horizontal plane
has a moment of inertia 2.5kgm2 about
its centre and a mass of 5kg. The velocity
along the plane is 2m/s. If the radius of
the disc is 1m, find
i. The angular velocity
ii. The total energy (rotational and
translation) of the disc
(11) A wheel of moment of inertia 20kgm2
about its axis is rotated from rest about its
centre by a constant torque and the
energy gained in 10s is 360J. calculate
i. The angular velocity at the end of 10s
ii.
iii. The number of revolutions made by
the wheel before coming to rest if is
removed at 10s and a constant
opposing torque of 4N/m is then
applied to the wheel.
(12) A uniform rod of length 3m is suspended
at one end so that it can move about an
104 | P a g e
 axis perpendicular to its length, the
moment of inertia about the end is 6kgm2
and the mass of the rod is 2kg. if the rod
is initially horizontal and then released,
find the angular velocity of the rod when
a. It is inclined at 300 to the horizontal
b. It reaches the vertical
(13) A recording disc rotates steadily at
45rev/min on a turntable. When a small
mass of 0.02kg is dropped gently on to
the disc at a distance of 0.04m from its
axis and sticks to the disc, the rate at
revolution falls to 36rev/min. calculate
the moment of inertia of the disc about its
centre, write down the principle used in
your calculation.
(14) A disc of moment of inertia 0.1kgm2
about its centre and radius 0.2m is
released from rest on a plane inclined at
300 to the horizontal; calculate the
angular velocity after it has rolled 2m
down the plane if its mass is 5kg?
(15) A flywheel with an axis 1.0cm in
diameter is mounted in frictionless
bearing and set in motion by applying a
steady tension of 2N to a thin thread
wound tightly round the axle; the moment
of inertia of the system about its axis of
rotation is 5.0 . Calculate
a. The angular acceleration of the
flywheel when 1m of the thread has
been pulled off the axle
b. The constant retarding couple which
must then be applied to bring the
flywheel to rest in one complete turn,
the tension in the thread having been
completely removed.
(16) Define the moment of inertia of a body
about a given axis. Describe how the
moment of inertia of a flywheel can be
determined experimentally.
A horizontal disc rotating freely about a
vertical axis makes 100rpm. A small
piece of wax of mass 10g falls vertically
on to the disc and adheres to it at a
distance of 9cm from the axis, if the
number of revolution per minute is
thereby reduced to 90; calculate the
moment of inertia of this disc.
(17) Defined the following terms; Rigid body,
Stable and unstable equilibrium
b. Consider a particle which starts
rotating with angular velocity wo and
angular acceleration .
i. Show that the equation of
rotational motion
(where all
symbols have their usual
meanings)
105 | P a g e
 ii. Starting from rest, the flywheel of
a motor attains an angular
velocity 100rad/s from rest in
10s. Calculate the angular
acceleration and angular
displacement in 10sec?
(IJMB 2015).
(18) A flywheel when slowed down from
60rev/min to 30rev/min loses 100J
energy. What is its moment of inertia and
change in the angular momentum?
(19) i. Define moment of inertia of a
body and state its units.
ii. Derive a simple expression for the
rotational kinetic energy of a body
in terms of moment of inertia.
iii. An electric motor exerts torque of
10Nm on a grindstone mounted
on its shaft, the moment of inertia
of grindstone is 2kgm2. If the
system starts from rest, find the
work done by the motor in 8sec
and kinetic energy at the end of
this time. Evaluate the average
power delivered by the motor.
CHAPTER NINE
STATICS
Statics is a subject which concerns the
equilibrium of forces, such as the forces which
act on a bridge. In the figure below (i), for
example, the joint O of a light bridge is in
equilibrium under the action of the two forces P,
Q acting in the girders meeting at O and the
reaction S of the masonry at O.
Figure: Equilibrium of forces
Parallelogram of Forces
A force is a vector quantity, i.e., it can be
represented in magnitude and direction by a
straight line. In the figure (ii) above, if AB, AC
represent the forces P, Q respectively at the joint
O, their resultant, R, is represented in magnitude
and direction by the diagonal AD of the
parallelogram ABDC which has AB, AC as two
of its adjacent sides. This is known as the
parallelogram of forces, and is exactly analogous
to the parallelogram of velocities. Alternatively,
a line ab may be drawn to represent the vector P
and bd to represent Q, in which case ad
represents the resultant R.
By trigonometry for triangle ABD, we have
106 | P a g e
AD2 = BA2 + BD2 - 2BA . BD Cos ABD.
R2 = P2 + Q2 + 2PQ Cos
Where = angle BAC; the angle between the
forces P, Q = 180o – angle ABD. This formula
enables R to be calculated when P, Q and the
angle between them are known. The angle BAD,
or say, between the resultant R and the force P
can then be found from the relation
Applying the sine rule to triangle
0
ABD = 180 . equilibrium. Suppose X, Y are the respective
Resolved component: it is already known that the
effective part, or resolved component, of a vector
quantity X in a direction inclined to it is given
by X cos . Thus the resolved component of a
force P in a direction making an angle of 30°
with it is P cos 30°; in a perpendicular direction
to the latter the resolved component is P cos 60°,
or P sin 30°. In the figure (i) above, the
downward component of the force P on the joint
of O is given by P cos BOS.
Forces in Equilibrium; Triangle of Forces
Since the joint O is in equilibrium, in the figure
above (i), the resultant of the forces P, Q in the
rods meeting at this joint is equal and opposite to
the reaction S at O. Now the diagonal AD of the
parallelogram ABDC in figure (ii) above
represents the resultant R of P, Q since ABDC is
the parallelogram of forces for P, Q; and hence
DA represents the force S. Consequently the
sides of the triangle ABD represent the three
forces at O in magnitude and direction:
This result can be generalised as follows. If three
forces are in equilibrium, they can be
represented by the three sides of a triangle taken
in order. This theorem in Statics is known as the
triangle of forces. In figure (ii) above, AB, BD,
DA, in this order, represent, P, Q, S respectively
in figure (i) above.
We can derive another relation between forces in
algebraic sums of the resolved components in
two perpendicular directions of three forces P, Q,
T in equilibrium as shown in figure (iv) below.
Then, since X, Y can each be represented by the
sides of a rectangle drawn to scale, their resultant
R is given by
R2 = X2 +Y2 (i)
Figure iv: Resolution of Forces
Now if the forces are in equilibrium, R is zero. It
then follows from equation (i) that X must be
zero and Y must be zero. Thus if forces are in
107 | P a g e
equilibrium the algebraic sum of their resolved
components in any two perpendicular directions
is respectively zero. This result applies to any
number of forces in equilibrium.
Moments
When the steering-wheel of a car is turned, the
applied force is said to exert a moment, or
turning-effect, about the axle attached to the
wheel. The magnitude of the moment of a force
P about a point O is defined as the product of the
force P and the perpendicular distance OA for all
the forces in figure (v-b), we have
Moment = P x AO.
The magnitude of the moment is expressed in
newton metre (N m) when
Figure v-a
F
igure v-
b Equilibrium of Parallel Forces
P is in newtons and AO is in metres. We shall
take an anticlockwise moment as positive in sign
and a clockwise moment as negative in sign.
Parallel Forces
If a rod carries loads of 10, 20, 30, 15, and 25N
at O, A, B, C, D respectively, the resultant R of
the weights, which are parallel forces, for all the
forces in figure (v-b), we have
Resultant, R, = 10 + 20 + 30 + 1 5
+ 25 = 100 N.
Experiment and theory show that the moment of
the resultant of a number of forces about any
point is equal to the algebraic sum of the
moments of the individual forces about the same
point. This result enables us to find where the
resultant R acts. Taking moments about O for all
the forces in Fig. 4.4 (ii), we have
because the distances between the forces are 0.6
m, 0.3 m, 0.4 m, 0.8 m, as shown. If m is the
distance of the line of action of R from O, the
moment of R about O =
:
from which .
The resultant of a number of forces in
equilibrium is zero; and the moment of the
108 | P a g e
resultant about any point is hence zero. It
therefore follows that the algebraic sum of the
moments of all the forces about any point is zero
when those forces are in equilibrium. This means
that the total clockwise moment of the forces
about any point = the total anticlockwise moment
of the remaining forces about the same point.
Figure vi: Example
As a simple example of the equilibrium of
parallel forces, suppose a light beam XY rests on
supports, A, B, and has loads of 10, 20, and 4 N
concentrated at X, O, Y respectively as shown in
figure vi above. Let R, S be the reactions at A, B
respectively. Then, for equilibrium in a vertical
direction,
R + S = 10 + 20 + 4 = 34
N (i)
To find R, we take moments about a suitable
point such as B, in which case the moment of S
is zero. Then, for the remaining four forces,
+ 10 (6) + 20 (1) – R (4) – 4 (4) =
0 Assuming the weight, W, of the ladder acts at its
from which R = 16 N. From equation (i) above, it
follows that S = 34 – 16 = 18 N.
Equilibrium of Three Coplanar Forces
If any object is in equilibrium under the action of
three forces, the resultant of two of the forces
must be equal and opposite of the third force.
Thus the line of action of the third force must
pass through the point of intersection of the lines
of action of the other two forces.
As an example of calculating unknown forces in
this case, suppose that a 12 m ladder of 20 kgf is
placed at an angle of 60° to the horizontal, with
one end B leaning against a smooth wall and the
other end.
Figure vii: Triangle of forces
A on the ground as shown in the figure (vii)
above, The force R at B on the ladder is called
the reaction of the wall, and if the latter is
smooth, R acts perpendicularly to the wall.
mid-point G, the forces W and R meet at O, as
shown. Consequently the frictional force F at A
passes through O.
109 | P a g e
The triangle of forces can be used to find the
unknown forces R, F. Since DA is parallel to R,
AO is parallel to F, and OD is parallel to W, the
triangle of forces is represented by AOD. By
means of a scale drawing R and F can be found,
since
A quicker method is to take moments about A for
all the forces. The algebraic sum of the moments
is zero about any point since the object is in
equilibrium, and hence
R (a) – W (AD) = 0
where “a” is the perpendicular from A to R. (F
has zero moment about A).
But a = 12 sin 60°, and AD = 6 cos 60°
.'.
Suppose is the angle F makes with the vertical.
Resolving the forces vertically, F cos
Resolving horizontally, F sin
F2cos2 + F2sin = F2 = 202 + 5.82
Conditions for Equilibrium
If a body is acted on by a number of coplanar
forces and is in equilibrium, then
(i) The components of the forces in both
of any two directions (usually taken at
right angle) must balance, and
(ii) The sum of the clockwise moments
about any point equals the sum of the
anticlockwise moments about the same
point.
** In brief, if a body is in equilibrium, the
forces and the moments must balance.
Couples and Torque
There are many examples in practice where two
forces, acting together, exert a moment or
turning-effect on some object. As a very pimple
case, suppose two strings are tied to a wheel at
X, Y, and two equal and opposite forces, F, are
exerted tangentially to the wheel as shown in
figure (viii) below If the wheel is pivoted at its
centre, O, it begins to rotate about O in an
anticlockwise direction.
Two equal and opposite forces whose lines of
action do not coincide are said to constitute a
couple in Mechanics. The two forces always
have a turning-effect, or moment, called a torque,
which is defined by
Since XY is perpendicular to each of the forces F
in figure (viii-a) below, the moment of the couple
acting on the
wheel .
110 | P a g e
 The moment or torque of the deflecting couple =
F x b, where b = XY = breadth of coil.
Hence,

Where A = b = area of coil. The opposing

couple, due to the spring S, is c , where c is its
elastic constant. Thus, for equilibrium, BAN I =

Viii-a c

Work Done by a Couple

Suppose two equal and opposite forces F act
tangentially to a wheel W, and rotate it through
an angle while the forces keep tangentially to the
wheel as shown in the figure (ix) below. The
moment of the couple is then constant.
viii-b
Figure Viii: Courple and Torque
Thus, if F =10 newton and the diameter is 2
metre, the moment of the couple or torque = 20
newton metre (N m).
In the theory of the moving-coil electrical
instrument, we meet a case where a coil rotates
when a current I is passed into it and comes to Figure ix: Work done by Couple
rest after deflection through an angle as shown The work done by each force
in the figure (viii-b) above. The forces F on the , since r is the
two sides X and Y of the coil are both equal to distance moved by a point on the rim if is in
BI N, where B is the strength of the magnetic radians.
field, is the length of the coil and N is the Total work done by couple
number of turns. Thus the coil is deflected by a
couple. But moment of couple

111 | P a g e
Therefore, sum of all the forces. The resultant is the weight
of the whole object, of course. In the case of a
It should be carefully noted that is in radians. rod of uniform cross-sectional area, the weight of
Thus, suppose F = 100 gf = 0.1 kgf = 0.1 x a particle A at one end, and that of a
9.8 newtons, r = 4 cm = 0.04 metre, and the corresponding particle A' at the other end, have a
wheel makes 5 revolutions while the moment of resultant which acts at the mid-point O of the rod
the couple is kept constant. Then (figure x-a).
Torque or moment of couple = 0.1 x 9.8 x
0.08 newton metre,
And angle of rotation = 2 x 5 radian
Work done = 0.9 x 9.8 x 0.08 x
2 x 5 = 2.5J
(x)a (x)b

Centre of Gravity
Every particle is attracted towards the centre of Figure x: Centre 0f gravity and mass

the earth by the force of gravity, and the centre of Similarly, the resultant of the similarly, the
gravity of a body is the point where the resultant resultant of the weight of a particle B, and that of

force of attraction or weight of the body acts. In a corresponding particle at B', have a resultant
the simple case of a ruler, the centre of gravity is acting at O. In this way, i.e., by symmetry, it

the point of support when the ruler is balanced. A follows that the resultant of the weights of all the
similar method can be used to find roughly the particles of the rod acts at O. Hence the centre of

centre of gravity of a flat plate. A more accurate gravity of a uniform rod is at its mid-point.
method consists of suspending the object in turn The centre of gravity, C.G., of the curved surface

from two points on it, so that it hangs freely in of a hollow cylinder acts at the midpoint of the
each case, and finding the point of intersection of cylinder axis. This is also the position of the C.G.

a plumb-line, suspended in turn from each point of a uniform solid cylinder. The C.G. of a
of suspension. triangular plate or lamina is two-thirds of the

An object can be considered to consist of many distance along a median from corresponding
small particles. The forces on the particles due to point of the triangle. The C.G. of a uniform right

the attraction of the earth are all parallel since solid cone is three- quarters along the axis from
they act vertically, and hence their resultant is the the apex.

112 | P a g e
 Centre of Mass
The 'centre of mass' of an object is the point
where its total mass acts or appears to act. It can
also be defined as the point at which an applied
force produces acceleration but no rotation.
Figure (x)b illustrates how the position of the
centre of mass of an object may be calculated,
using axes O , Oy.
If m1 is the mass of a small part of the object and
1 is the perpendicular distance to , then
The acceleration due to gravity, g, cancels in
numerator and denominator. It therefore follows
that the centre of mass coincides with the centre
of gravity. However, if the earth's field is not
uniform at all a part of the object, the weight of a
small mass m1 is then m1g1 say and the weight
of another small mass m2 is m2g2. Clearly, the
centre of gravity does not now coincide with the
centre of mass. A very long or large object has
different values of g at various parts of it.

m1 1 represents a product similar to the moment Example

1. A cylindrical can is made of material of mass
of a weight at m1 about . Likewise, m2 2 is a
10 g cm-2 and has no lid. The diameter of the
'moment' about , where m2 is another small
can is 25 cm and its height 50 cm. Find the
part of the object. The sum of the total 'moments'
position of the centre of mass when the can is
about of all the parts of the object can be half full of water (C).
written . The total mass say.
The distance of the centre of mass C from
is then given by

Similarly, the distance of the centre of mass C

from is given by
Solution

The area of the base ;

If the earth's field is uniform at all parts of the
body, then the weight of a small mass m of it is hence the mass is and acts
typically mg. Thus, by moments, the distance of
at A, the centre of the base in the figure above.
the centre of gravity from is given by
The mass of the curved surface of the centre

and acts at B, half-way along the axis.

113 | P a g e
The mass of water Solution

and acts at C. Moment = 70 N × 0.19 m = 13.3 N m

Calculate the tension in the support wire.
the mid-point of AB.
The component of T at 90° to the shelf must
Thus, the resultant mass in gram is
provide the moment to balance the moment of
the weight.
T cos 50° × 0.38 m = 13.3 N m
T cos 50° = 35 N

Taking moments about A, T = 54.5 N

Note that we take moments about point P. This is
because there is a third force which acts on the
Where is the distance of the centre of mass shelf; this is the contact force (or ‘reaction’) of

from A. the wall on the shelf. We do not know its

magnitude or direction but, since it acts through
point P, it has no turning effect about P.
(approx)
3. A uniform ladder 4m long, of mass 25 kg,
2. A uniform horizontal shelf of width 0.38 m is rests with its upper end against a smooth
attached to a wall a shown in the diagram. vertical wall and with its lower end on rough
The total weight of the shelf and books is 70 ground. Also it inclines at 60∘ with the
N. This weight acts from the middle of the horizontal without slipping. (g=10 ms-2)
shelf (0.19 m from the wall). Find (i) the magnitude and direction of the
reaction exerted on the lower end by the
T
ground. (ii) the coefficient of static friction
40
o between the ground and ladder.

70 N

Calculate the turning effect of the weight about

point P.

114 | P a g e
Since the ladder is in equilibrium. resolving (the length of the bar be 2 l )
vertically, N = 250 newtons (1)
resolving horizontally, Solution
f=µ N=S (2) Take moment about A
Taking moments about A, 20 l + 50 x 2 l = P2 l sin30∘
S = BC = W x AD P = 120N
S x 4 sin 60∘= 250 x 1 F + 120 sin 30∘= 20 + 50
S = 72.17 newtons ….. (3) N = cos30∘
f = 72.17 newtons
R= f 2 + N 2 = 104N
From 2,
f
tanθ=
a) R= f 2 + N 2 = 260.2 newtons N
tanθ= N / f f
θ = tan = 5.5
θ= 73.9∘ N

b) sub. (1), (3) into (2),

µ x 250 = 72.17
µ = 0.29
4. A sign of mass 5kg is hung from the end B of
a uniform bar AB of mass 2kg. The bar is
hinged to a wall at A and held horizontal by a
wire joining B to a point C which is on the
wall vertically above A. If angle ABC = 30∘,
find the force in the wire and that exerted by
the hinge. (take g = 10 ms-2)
Exercise
1.
The plank is set up as shown and the balance
zeroed. When the student lies on the plank the
reading is 600 N. The balance is 2 m from the
student’s feet and the centre of gravity of the
student is 1.5 m from their feet. What is the
student’s weight?
2. A rigid beam is hinged to a wall and held
(
horizontally by a string as shown in the
diagrams below. Calculate the tension in the
string T in each of the following situations

115 | P a g e
 In all calculations ignore the mass of the
beam.
a. A weight of 200 N is hung from the
beam as shown in diagram (a).
T
The string is shortened and tied to the middle of
the beam.
The 200 N weights remain in position and
the string remains tied to the same point
on the wall so the angle between string
and the beam is 50°. (Diagram d)

o
30 T

0.5 m
(a)
200 N
(d)
200 N 200 N
b. The 200 N weight is moved to the midpoint
of the beam. A van and trailer cross the bridge above, the axel
loads and the position of the vehicles are shown.
The single span bridge is supported at points
21m apart.
T

o
30

7 3.5 5.2 5.2

(b) m m 5m 5m
200 N
4 10 8
kN kN kN

a. A second 200 N weight is added as shown in

diagram (c). b. Calculate the vertical forces at each of the
supports caused by the van and trailer on the
T bridge.

o
c. The support forces are higher than you
30
calculated, explain why.

(c)
200 N 200 N

116 | P a g e
 Types of Equilibrium
Stability of equilibrium can be classified into 3
types. Consider that a sphere is displaced
slightly and then released.
a) Stable Equilibrium: The sphere will
move back to the equilibrium position.
b) Neutral Equilibrium: The sphere will
stay in any new position it moved.
c) Unstable Equilibrium:
Equilibrium at the lowest point as shown in
figure (i) above. Its potential energy is then a
minimum. This is the case for objects in any
field, gravitational, magnetic or electrical. The
equilibrium position corresponds to minimum
potential energy.
If the marble A is disturbed and displaced to B,
its energy increases. When it is released, the
marble rolls back to A. Thus the marble at A is
said to be in stable equilibrium. Note that the
centre of gravity of A is raised on displacement
to B. On this account the forces in the field return
the marble from B to A, where its potential
energy is lower.
Suppose now that the bowl S is inverted and the
marble is placed at its top point at A (figure ii). If
A is displaced slightly to C, its potential energy
and centre of gravity are then lowered. A now
continues to move further away from B under the
action of the forces in the field. Thus in figure
(ii), A is said to be in unstable equilibrium.

The sphere will roll along the convex surface.

If a marble A is placed on the curved surface of a
bowl S, it rolls down and settles in
(i)
Figure: Stable and unstable equilibrium
Common Balance
The common balance is basically a lever whose
two arms are equal as shown below. The
fulcrum, about which the beam and pointer tilt, is
an agate wedge resting on an agate plate; agate
wedges, B, at the ends of the beam, support the
(ii)
scale-pans. The centre of gravity of the beam and
pointer is vertically below the fulcrum, to make
the arrangement stable. The weights placed on

117 | P a g e
the two scale-pans are equal when there is a
'balance'.
Common balance
On rare occasions the arms of the balance are
slightly unequal. The mass W of an object is then
determined by finding the respective masses W1,
W2 required to balance it on each scale-pan.
Suppose a, b are the lengths of the respective
arms. Then, taking moments,
W1 . a = W . b, and W . a = W2 .
b Thus for a given value of (W1 — W2), the
W2 = W1W2
W=
Thus W can be found from the two masses W1,
W2
Sensitivity of a Balance
A balance is said to be very sensitive if a small
difference in weights on the scale-pans causes a
large deflection of the beam. To investigate the
factors which affect the sensitivity of a balance,
suppose a weight W1 is placed on the left scale-
pan and a slightly smaller weight W 2 is placed
on the right scale-pan. The beam AOB will then
be inclined at some angle to the horizontal,
where O is the fulcrum.
Theory of balance
The weight W of the beam and pointer acts at G,
at a distance h below O. Suppose AO = OB = a.
Then, taking moments about O,
difference of the weights on the scale-pans,
will increase when a increases and W, h both
decrease. In theory, then, a sensitive balance
must be light and have long arms, and the centre
of gravity of its beam and pointer must be very
close to the fulcrum. Now a light beam will not
be rigid. Further, a beam with long arrns will
take a long time to settle down when it is
deflected. A compromise must therefore be made
between the requirements of sensitivity and those
of design.
If the knife-edges of the scale-pan and beam are
in the same plane, corresponding to A, B and O
in the figure above, then the weights W1, W2 on
118 | P a g e
them always have the same perpendicular
distance from O, irrespective of the inclination of
the beam. In this case the net moment about O is
(W1 — W2)a cos . Thus the moment depends
on the difference, W1— W2, of the weights and
not on their actual values. Hence the sensitivity is
independent of the actual load value over a
considerable range.
When the knife-edge of the beam is below the
knife-edges of the two scale-pans, the sensitivity
increases with the load; the reverse is the case if
the knife-edge of the beam is above those of the
scale-pans.
Buoyancy Correction in Weighing
In very accurate weighing, a correction must be
made for the buoyancy of the air. Suppose the
body weighed has a density ρ and a mass m.
From Archimedes principle, the upthrust due to
the air of density a is equal to the weight of air
displaced by the body, and hence the net
downward force , since the
volume of the body is . Similarly, if the
weights restoring a balance have a total mass m1
and a density , the net downward force
. Since there is a balance,
Thus knowing the density of air, , and the
densities , lt the true mass m can be found in
terms of m1. The pressure and temperature of air,
which may vary from day to day, affects the
magnitude of its density , from the gas laws; the
humidity of the air is also taken into account in
very accurate weighing, as the density of moist
air differs from that of dry air.
Pressure in Fluids
Liquids and gases are called fluids. Unlike solid
objects, fluids can flow.
If a piece of cork is pushed below the surface of
a pool of water and then released, the cone rises
to the surface again. The liquid thus exerts an
upward force on the cork and this is due to the
pressure exerted on the cork by the surrounding
liquid. Gases also exert pressures. For example,
when a thin closed metal can is evacuated, it
usually collapses with a loud explosion.
Pressure in Liquid
The surrounding air now exerts a pressure on the
outside which is no longer counter-balanced by
119 | P a g e
the pressure inside, and hence there is a resultant
force.
Pressure is defined as the average force per unit
area at the particular region of liquid or gas. In
the figure above, for example, X represents a
small horizontal area, Y a small vertical area and
Z a small inclined area, all inside a vessel
containing a liquid. The pressure p acts normally
to the planes of X, Y or Z. In each case
Pressure and depth
To obtain a formula for the pressure, p, suppose
that a horizontal plate X of area A is placed at a
depth h below the liquid surface as shown in the
figure above. By drawing vertical lines from
points on the perimeter of X, we can see that the
force on X due to the liquid is equal to the weight
of liquid of height h and uniform cross-section A.
Since the volume of this liquid is Ah, the mass of
the liquid =

where F is the normal force due to the liquid on Weight

an area A of X, Y or Z. Similarly, the pressure p Where is 9.8, h is in m2, and is in kg m-3

on the sides L or M of the curved vessel act Pressure, p, on X
normally to L and M have magnitude F/A. In the
P= (i)
limit, when the area is very small, p = dF/dA.
When have the units already mentioned,
At a given point in a liquid, the pressure can act
the pressure p is in newton m-2 (N m-2).
in any direction. Thus pressure is a scalar, not a
1 bar = 106 dyne cm-2. To change 106 dyne cm-
vector. The direction of the force on a particular
2 to N m-2, we may proceed as follows;
surface is normal to the surface.
106 106

Formula for Pressure

Observation shows that the pressure increases
1 bar = 105 N m-2 (ii)
with the depth, h, below the liquid surface and
Pressure is often expressed in terms of that due to
with its density .
a height of mecury (Hg). One unit is the torr
(after Torricelli):
1 torr = 1 mmHg = 133.3 N m-2
(approx.)
Exercises
1. What are the two conditions for the
equilibrium of a set of co-planar forces?

120 | P a g e
Solution
i. Forces up = forces down // (algebraic)
sum of forces acting is zero
ii. (Algebraic) sum of the moments (of the 4. A
forces about any point) is zero
man opens a door by applying a force of 5 N
to the door. The distance from the point of
2. The diagram shows forces of 5 N applied to a
application of the force to the fulcrum is 120
water tap. Calculate the moment of the
cm. Calculate the moment of the applied
couple (torque)
force.
on the tap.

Solution
Moment = force ×
distance = 5 × .06 =
0.3 N m
Solution
Moment = 5 × 1.2 = 6 N m
3. A metre stick is suspended by a thread at the
5. The diagram shows a crane in equilibrium.
20cm mark as shown in the diagram. The
(i) Give one condition that is necessary for the
weight W of the metre stick acts through the
crane to be in equilibrium.
50cm mark. A weight of 2 N is placed at the
(ii) What is the moment of the 9000 N concrete
15cm mark.
slab about the axis of the crane?
(i) Calculate the moment of the 2 N weight
(iii) Calculate the value of the load marked X.
about the 20cm mark.
(ii) What is the moment of W about the 20cm
mark?
(iii) If the metre stick is in equilibrium, find
the value of W.
Solution
(i) M = F × d = 2 × 0.05 = 0.1N m
(ii) M = F × d = 0.3 W
(iii) 0.1 = 0.3W → W = 0.33 N

121 | P a g e
Solution
(i) The clockwise moments must equal the
anticlockwise moments.
(ii) Moment = F × distance = 9000 × 10 = 90000
N m.
(iii) 9000 × 10 = 30x
⇒ x = 3000 N.
Exercise
1. Consider two wheels, both of mass 3.5 kg and
both of radius 0.25 m. One wheel has all its
mass concentrated in a heavy rim and the
other is a uniform thin flat disc.
Calculate the rotational kinetic energy of
both if they are rotated at 10 rev s-1.
2. A uniform disc of mass 150 g has a diameter of
10 cm. Calculate the total energy of the disc
when rolling along a horizontal table with a
velocity of 20 cms-1.
3. A hammer of mass 6 kg is swung round an
athlete’s head in a horizontal circle of radius
1.5 m with a velocity of 8 ms-1. Calculate (a)
the moment of inertia of the hammer, (b) its
kinetic energy, and (c) the tension in the
wire.
4. Calculate the kinetic energy stored in a
helicopter rotor consisting of four blades
each 6 m long and with a mass of 50 kg if the
tips of the blades are moving at 200 ms-1.
5. A force of 15 N is applied for 1.5 s to the rim
of a stationary wheel in the form of a uniform
disc of mass 3 kg and radius 0.2m. Calculate:
(a) the angular acceleration, (b) the final
angular velocity, (c) the number of
revolutions in that time, (d) the energy
gained by the wheel, and (e) the work
done by the couple.
6. A cricket ball of mass 0.15 kg and diameter 8
cm is bowled at 12 ms-1, spinning about an
axis through the centre with angular velocity
75 rads s-1. Calculate: (a) its rotational
energy (b) its total kinetic energy
7. A uniform rod is pivoted with a movable pivot
so that the time of oscillation of the rod may
be taken for the rod pivoted at different
points along its length. The minimum time
period of oscillation is 1.85 s. What is the
length of the rod?
8. It has been suggested that it might be possible
to design a bus that is powered from the
energy stored in a flywheel. This flywheel
would be accelerated to 3000 r.p.m by
electric motors placed at stopping points
along its route. If the flywheel has a mass of
1000 kg and a diameter of 1.8 m, calculate
the following: (a) the maximum kinetic
energy that maybe stored in the flywheel (b)
the maximum time of one journey if the
power needed to run the bus is 19 kW, (c) the
maximum distance between any stopping
points at an average speed of 40 km per hour.
122 | P a g e
 (The flywheel may be taken as a uniform
disc.)
9. A flywheel of moment of inertia 0.4 kgm2 is
rotated steadily at 100 rad s-1 by a 60W
electric motor. Find: (a) the kinetic energy of
the flywheel, (b) the angular momentum of
the flywheel (c) the value of the frictional
couple opposing rotation, and (d) the
time taken for the wheel to come to rest after
the motor has been switched off
10. In a playground, there is a small stationary
roundabout with a radius of 1.5 m and a mass
of 120 kg. The radius of gyration is 1 m. A
child of mass 30 kg runs at a speed of 3 m s-1
along a tangent to the roundabout and then
jumps on. Neglecting friction, find the
resulting angular velocity of the child and
roundabout.
11. An electric sanding wheel and a large circular
saw will coast for a minute or more when
either is switched off, but an electric drill will
only coast for a few seconds. Explain why
this is so.
12. Two hollow tin cans of identical dimensions
are allowed to roll down a slope. One is
empty and the other is filled with water.
Which reaches the bottom first? Explain your
answer,
13. A flywheel in the form of a uniform solid
disc is mounted on a light axle of radius 2 cm
round which is wound a cord to which is
attached a mass of 0.4 kg. If the thickness of
the flywheel is 3 cm, its radius 10 cm and its
density 7800 kgm-3. Calculate: (a) the
tension in the cord and (b) the kinetic energy
of the flywheel when the attached mass has
descended a distance of 20 cm from rest.
14. A hub cap with a mass of 1.2 kg comes off
the wheel of a car that is moving at 30 ms-1.
The wheel has a diameter of 60 cm and the
frictional force between the hubcap and the
road is 10 N. (a) How far will the hubcap go
before it comes to rest? (b) Is the estimate of
the frictional force reasonable?
15. Meteoric material amounting to about 1 x
107 kg falls on the Earth’s surface every day
equally from all directions. The Earth is
approximately a sphere of radius 6x106 m
and moment of inertia 8x1037 kg m2. (a)
Explain why this arrival of material causes
the Earth’s rate of rotation to decrease. (b) By
what fraction would the Earth’s angular
speed have changed in the last 106 years?
(The moment of inertia of a thin spherical
shell about a diameter is 2/3 (mr2)
16.
he turntable of a record player rotates at a
steady angular speed of 3.5 rad s-1. A record
is dropped from rest on to the turntable.
Initially the record slips but eventually it
moves with the same angular speed as the
turntable. Calculate: (a) The angle through
123 | P a g e
 which the table turns while the record is
slipping is 0.25 rad. Find the average angular
acceleration of the record while it is attaining
the steady speed of the turntable. (b) If the
moment of inertia of the record about its axis
of rotation is 1.1x10-3 kgm2 what additional
torque must be applied by the turntable motor
to maintain the constant angular speed of the
turntable while the record is accelerating?
17.
A student of mass 60 kg sits on a piano stool
which has a top section that can rotate. The
mass of this section is 2 kg. The student is
holding a bicycle wheel of mass 2 kg and
radius 32 cm that is spinning at 5 revs per
second. The axle is initially held horizontal.
If they now flip the axle so that it is pointing
upwards with what angular speed will they
rotate.
18.
flywheel rotates about a horizontal axle
fitted into friction-free bearings. A light
string, one end of which is looped over a pin
on the axle, is wrapped ten times round the
axle and has a mass of 1.25 kg attached to its
free end. (a) What energy changes take place
as the mass falls? (b) If the moment of inertia
of the wheel and axle is 0.15 kg m2 and the
diameter of the axle is 4.0 cm, calculate the
angular velocity of the flywheel at the instant
when the string detaches itself from the axle
after ten revolutions.
19.
ll the parts of this question are about a small
roundabout in a play park. The roundabout is
given a push so that it spins. (a) what
happens to the rate of spin (angular velocity)
if a small boy gets onto the roundabout while
it is spinning? (b) what happens to the rate of
spin (angular velocity) if the small boy now
crawls round the edge of the roundabout in
the direction in which it is spinning? (c) what
happens to the rate of spin (angular velocity)
the small boy now crawls towards the centre
of the roundabout?
20.
he wheel of a car may be represented by a
uniform disc of mass 2 kg and radius 0.16 m
to the rim on which the tyre is fitted.
A
Assuming for the purpose of the calculation
that the tyre can be treated as a thin uniform
ring of mass 8 kg and radius 0.22 m which is
concentric with the disc, find the combined
moment of inertia of the wheel and tyre about
the axle. When the wheel with its tyre is
mounted on its axle for ‘balancing’ it always
comes to rest with one point P in the lowest
position. When displaced slightly it oscillates
with a period of 7s.
Find the mass which should be attached at
0.16 m from the axis in order that the wheel
124 | P a g e
may come to rest in any position. The period CHAPTER TEN
of oscillation T of a solid object of mass m Thermometry
and moment of inertia I is given by Period The branch of physics (or heat) relating to the
(T) = 2 √I/mgh. Where h is the distance measurement of temperature of a body is called
from the centre of gravity of the object to the thermometry. Thermometer is an instrument used
axis of rotation. to measures the temperature of a body. The
thermometer makes use of a physical property of
a thermometric substance which changes
continuously with temperature. The physical
properties of the materials which changes
uniformly with temperature and used for
measuring the temperature are called
thermometric properties and the materials used
for making thermometers are called
thermometric substances.
For example, in a mercury thermometer, the
principle of expansion of mercury with rise in
temperature is used. The platinum resistance
thermometer is based on the principle of the
change in resistance with change in temperature.

125 | P a g e
 Thermometric Substance and Property • Its variation should be measurable.
The following table shows some of the
thermometric properties of matter that are used in Volume as Thermometric Property
the various thermometers: Most solids or liquids or gases expand and
Thermometric Thermometer contract their volume when the temperature
Property around them changes.
Volume expansion of a Gas thermometer
gas
Volume expansion of a Laboratory or clinical
liquid thermometer

Volume expansion of a Bi-metallic strip

solid thermometer

Mercury is the only elemental metal that is liquid

Pressure change of a Constant – volume at ordinary temperatures. Mercury is silvery
fixed mass of gas gas white and freezes into a soft solid like tin or lead
thermometer at about -39 °C. Mercury does not wet glass or
cling to it, and this property, coupled with its
Changes in e.m.f. Thermocouple
uniform volume expansion throughout its liquid
range, makes it useful in liquid-in-glass
thermometers.
Changes in electrical Resistance
Gases such as nitrogen or simply air are also
resistance thermometer or
suitable substances for use in volumetric gas
thermistor
thermometers. Typically, these gas thermometers
work best at measuring very low temperatures.
A good thermometric property of matter should
vary: Bimetallic strip
• Continuously with temperature Solid strips of different materials such as copper
• Uniquely over the range of temperature to and aluminium can be made to stick together (bi-
be measured metallic strip). When the temperature of its

126 | P a g e
surroundings changes, the different materials
expand at different amounts, causing the
bimetallic strip to bend, providing an indication
to the change in temperature.
When heat is given to a body and its state does
not change, the temperature of the body rises and
if heat is taken from a body its temperature falls
i.e. temperature can be regarded as the effect of
cause “heat”.

Thermal Equilibrium
Two bodies may be at different temperature –
one hot and the other cold. The hot one is said to
possess more heat energy than the colder body.
In another sense, the temperature of the hot body
Concept of Temperature
is higher than the colder body. However, if the
The concept of temperature is one of the
two bodies are now in contact with each other,
fundamental concepts in physics. Qualitatively,
heat energy flows from the hot body to the cold
temperature of a body is the degree of hotness or
body until the temperatures of the two bodies are
coldness of a body. However, this answer does
the same. The two bodies are then described as
not lead us to the quantitative definition of
being in thermal equilibrium with each other.
temperature or its operational definition. This is
Therefore, a thermal equilibrium exists between
because the sensations of hotness and coldness
two bodies when they are in thermal contact with
are highly subjective. The way you feel is not the
each other and there is no net flow of heat
same as any other person. Other adjectives used
between them. It is the temperature of a body
include cold, cool, tepid, warm, etc. Using our
that determines the direction of flow of heat from
feeling of heat to estimate degree of
that body to another. It will flow until two
hotness/coldness (temperature) is very personal
temperatures are the same i.e. there is a thermal
and very unreliable since its measurement is
equilibrium. Once there is a thermal equilibrium
personal and not a standard one. Hence when we
between two bodies, then it means that the two
say the temperature of a body is cold, hot or
temperatures are the same – no net flow.
lukewarm such descriptions are rather too vague
to comprehend quantitatively. Consequently, an
independent scale of temperature measurement is
therefore highly essential.

127 | P a g e
 Thermometers
A thermometer is an instrument used to measure
the temperature of a body. It works by absorbing
some heat from the body, so the temperature
recorded by it is lesser than the actual value
unless the body is at constant temperature.
Thermometers may be classified according to the
thermometric properties used in constructing
such thermometers. Some common types of
thermometers are:
1. Liquid-in-Glass Thermometers
The liquid-in-glass thermometers are contact-
type thermometers and makes use of liquids such
as alcohol or mercury for is operation. The
mercury-in glass thermometers are commonly
used in the laboratory or in the hospitals as
clinical thermometers. Whereas, the alcohol-in-
glass thermometers are used in temperate
countries because alcohol has a much lower
melting point than mercury.
5 1 2 3 4
This thermometer consists of a glass bulb 1,
which is connected with a glass capillary tube 2.
A scale 3 in degrees of Celsius or Fahrenheit is
placed behind the capillary tube. The bulb, the
capillary tube and the scale are placed in a glass
tube 4 to protect them against the damage. A
thermometric liquid 5 fills the bulb and a part of
the capillary tube. The operational principle of
these thermometers is based on the difference
between the volume expansion of liquids and
glass with temperature. The relationship that
governs the operation of this device is
VT = VT0 × (1 + β × ∆T )
where, VT volume of liquid at temperature T ,
m3 ;
VT0 volume of liquid at temperature T0 , m 3 ;
∆T = T − T0 difference of temperatures, K ;
1
β volumetric thermal expansion coefficient, .
K
The volumetric thermal expansion coefficient of
glass is much less than that of liquids. The
variation of temperature (up and down) of the
bulb causes liquid in the system to expand or
decrease its volume, respectively. As a result of
such changes (the internal volume of the glass
bulb and the glass capillary varies negligible),
the length of the liquid column in the capillary
tube goes up or down proportionally to the
variation of temperature. The table below
presents the most common types of liquids used
in these types of thermometer.
Types of thermometric liquids
Among these liquids, mercury is the most widely
used, because:
128 | P a g e
• Mercury is easy obtainable with high quickly to to reach its
chemical purity; temperature surrounding
• Mercury does not wet glass (this increases changes) temperature)
the accuracy of measurement/ reading); Uniform expansion Non-uniform
• Mercury remains in liquid state in a wide expansion
temperature range. Does not wet glass Wets glass
Poisonous liquid Safe liquid
Expensive Cheap
Alcohol as a Thermometric Substance Very dense liquid Less dense liquid

Advantages Disadvantages Small thermal Large thermal

expansion expansion
Safe liquid Wets the tube
(Scale markings on (Scale marking on
Low freezing point Low boiling point stem are stem are far apart
(−115∘∘C) (78∘C) very close to one Easy to read)
Large expansivity Does not react another
quickly to Hard to read)
temperature
changes Among disadvantages inherent to mercury-in-
Cheap Needs to be dyed glass thermometers we can mention the
since it is colourless following:
Non-uniform • Mercury is a poisonous element, which
expansion affects the central and peripheral nervous
system, its vapour is the most toxic;
Advantages & Disadvantages of Using • Small volumetric thermal expansion
Mercury or Alcohol In Thermometers coefficient for mercury, therefore,
Mercury Alcohol mercury is used in thermometers with
Silver Colourless, usually capillaries of small internal diameter;
dyed red
High thermal Low thermal When air above mercury in the capillary is
conductivity conductivity removed, a mercury-in-glass thermometer can be
(Can respond very (Takes a longer time used at temperatures below 300°C, because the

129 | P a g e
boiling temperature of mercury at atmospheric • It is difficult to perform readings due to
pressure is equal 356.9°C. In order to increase low visibility of the scale;
this temperature range it is necessary to increase • They are not capable of distance
the boiling temperature of mercury (saturation transmission of a measuring signal,
temperature). This can be achieved by increasing therefore, they are used as locally placed
pressure in the capillary. Usually, the space devices;
above mercury in the capillary is filled by inert • Impossibility to repair;
gas (such as nitrogen, argon) under pressure. • High values of time lag;
Liquid-in-glass thermometers with organic • Low visibility of mercury in the capillary.
thermometric liquids are used for temperature
measurements from -200 to 200°C. One The increase in length (L) of the mercury-in-
advantage of these thermometers is: glass thermometer is used as a property as the
• A higher volume thermal expansion temperature increases. Using the Celsius scale
coefficient comparing with that for therefore, the temperature t is defined as:
mercury (six times higher in average).
Disadvantage of thermometers with organic
where, Lt = length of the mercury column at toC
liquids is:
L100 = length of the mercury at 100oC
• These liquids wet glass, therefore, in
Lo = length of the mercury at 0oC
order to increase the accuracy of
measurement/reading, glass capillaries
2. Gas thermometers:
with bigger internal diameters (up to 1
These are of two types
mm) are used.
(i) Constant pressure gas thermometers
Principle V ∝ TK (if P =
Advantages of liquid-in-glass thermometers are
constant)
as follows:
Vt − V0
• They are simple in design; Formula: Tc = × 100 ° centigrade
V100 − V0
• They are relatively highly accurate in
V
temperature measurement. or TK = 273 . 16 kelvin
VTr
There are several disadvantages inherent to (ii) Constant volume gas thermometers
liquid-in-glass thermometers
Principle P ∝ TK (if V =
• They are fragile;
constant)

130 | P a g e
 P − P0 form a closed circuit called thermocouple and the
Formula: Tc = × 100 °centigrade or
P100 − P0 difference in temperature is maintained between
P their junctions, an emf is developed. The emf is
TK = 273 . 16 kelvin
PTr
called thermo-emf and if one junction is at 0°C,
Range of temperature: Hydrogen gas
it varies with temperature as e = aTc + bT c2
thermometer – 200 to 500°C
where a and b are constants.
Nitrogen gas
Temperature range: Copper-iron
thermometer – 200 to 1600°C
thermocouple 0°C to 260°C
Helium gas thermometer – 268 to 500°C
Iron-constantan thermocouple 0°C to 800°C
These are more sensitive and accurate than liquid
Tungsten-molybdenum thermocouple
thermometers as expansion of gases is more than
2000 0C to 3000 0C
that of liquids.
5. Pyrometers:
3. Resistance thermometers:
These are the devices used to measure the
Resistance of metals varies with
temperature by measuring the intensity of
temperature according to relation.
radiations received from the body. They are
R = R 0 (1 + α Tc ) where α is the
based on the fact that the amount of radiations
temperature coefficient of resistance. emitted from a body per unit area per second is
Usually platinum is used in resistance directly proportional to the fourth power of
thermometers due to high melting point and large temperature (Stefan’s law).
value of α. These can be used to measure temperatures
R − R0 ranging from 800°C to 4000°C.
Formula: Tc = × 100 °centigrade or
R100 − R 0
They cannot measure temperature below 800°C
R because the amount of radiations is too small to
TK = 273 . 16 kelvin
R Tr
be measured.
Temperature range: Platinum resistance
6. Vapour pressure thermometer:
thermometer = – 200°C to 1200°C
These are used to measure very low
Germanium
temperatures. They are based on the fact that
resistance thermometer = 4 to 77 K
saturated vapour pressure P of a liquid depends
4. Thermoelectric thermometers:
on the temperature according to the relation
These are based on “Seebeck effect” according
c
log P = a + bT K +
to which when two distinct metals are joined to TK

131 | P a g e
The range of these thermometers varies from 120 temperature against the thermometric property,
K to 0.71 K for different liquid vapours. we should get a straight-line graph.

Scale of Temperature Centigrade scale

A thermometer is useless without a temperature
scale (the markings on the thermometer). In
order to define a temperature scale, the following
steps are required:
1. Choose a thermometric substance with a
suitable thermometric property.
2. Select two fixed points which are easily
Centigrade Scale
obtainable and reproducible. (Fixed
points are explained in more details
The two fixed points used in the Centigrade scale
below.)
are:
3. Divide the temperature range between the
• Steam point (upper fixed point) – The
two fixed points into equal divisions.
temperature at which pure water boils at
one atmospheric pressure and is assigned
Fixed Points
the value of 100 °C.
Fixed points are used in calibrating
• Ice point (lower fixed point) – The
thermometers. To calibrate a thermometer is to
temperature at which pure ice melts at
mark a thermometer so that you can use it to
one atmospheric pressure and is assigned
measure temperature accurately. A fixed point is
the value of 0 °C.
a standard degree of hotness or coldness such as
Determination of ice point
the melting point of ice or boiling point of water.
1. The bulb of the thermometer is immersed
This method of using two fixed points to
into a container filled with pure melting
calibrate a thermometer assumes that temperature
ice. In order to ensure that the contact
changes linearly with the thermometric property.
between the bulb and ice is good, ice
This means that the physical property (that is
shavings can be used.
chosen) changes evenly and regularly with
2. When the level indicated by the
temperature and if we draw a graph of
thermometric substance remains steady

132 | P a g e
 after some time, a mark will be made at
that point. This mark will correspond to
the ice point (lower fixed point) and is
assigned the value of 0 °C.
Determination of steam point
1. The bulb of the thermometer should be
placed into a container filled with pure
boiling water OR placed just above the
container (such that it is in contact with
the emerging steam). It is important to
ensure that the pressure of the
environment/room is the same as the
atmospheric pressure outside of the
environment/room. Different atmospheric
conditions will result in the thermometer
showing different/wrong temperature
readings.
2. When the level indicated by the
thermometric substance remains steady
after some time, a mark will be made at
that point. This mark will correspond to
the steam point (upper fixed point) and is
assigned the value of 100 °C.
For the Centigrade scale, the distance between
the ice point and the steam point is divided into
100 equal parts. Each mark on the thermometer
is a measure of 1 °C.
Calculation of temperature on Centigrade
scale
• Use an unmarked mercury thermometer
• Place the thermometer just above pure
boiling water (upper fixed point) and
record its length of mercury thread, l100°,
from a reference level (such as base of
the reservoir). Repeat the same for the
pure melting ice (lower fixed point) and
record its length of mercury thread, l0°.
• Now place the same thermometer in an
unknown temperature, θ°C and record its
length of mercury thread, lθ°.
• The temperature θ°C can be calculated by
simple proportion:
Note: X is the thermometric property which
varies uniformly with temperature. In the case of
a laboratory thermometer or clinical
thermometer, X will be the length of the mercury
thread.
133 | P a g e
 Kelvin (Absolute) Scale Temperature Kelvin Celcius Scale
Scale
Absolute Zero 0K −273∘C

Ice Point 273 K 0∘C

Steam Point 373 K 100∘C

Note that absolute zero is defined as the coldest

possible temperature whereby all the particle
motion stops.
In addition to kelvin temperature scale, there are
The figure above shows the comparison between other temperature scales also like Celsius,
the Celsius scale (centigrade scale, °C) and the Fahrenheit, Reaumer, Rankine etc.
Kelvin scale.
The unit for the Kelvin scale is the Kelvin (K),
which is the SI unit for temperature. 1 K is
defined as the 1/273.16 of the temperature of the
triple point of water. The triple point of water is
the temperature at which saturated water vapour
pure water and ice all coexist in equilibrium (at
0.01 °C).
The intervals on both Kelvin and Celsius scales
are the same, such that a difference of 1 K is
equivalent to a difference of 1 °C.
You can convert temperature from Celcius scale
(centigrade scale) to Kelvin scale and vice versa
by using:

134 | P a g e
 Name of the Symbol for Lower fixed Upper fixed Number of divisions on
scale each degree point (LFP) point (UFP) the scale
Celsius °C 0°C 100°C 100
Fahrenheit °F 32°F 212°F 180
Reaumer °R 0°R 80°R 80
Rankine °Ra 460 Ra 672 Ra 212
Kelvin K 273.15 K 373.15 K 100
Tc − 0 x − x0
From these equations =
Temperature on one scale can be converted into 100 − 0 x 100 − x 0

other scale by using the following identity. x − x0

∴ Tc = × 100 °centigrade
x 100 − x 0
Readingon any scale− Lowerfixedpoint(LFP)
= Constantfor
Inall scalesthermometry instead of two fixed
modern
Upperfixedpoint(UFP)− Lowerfixedpoint(LFP)
points only one reference point is chosen (triple
C −0 F − 32 K − 273 . 15 R −0 Ra − 460point of water 273.16 K at which ice, water and
= = = =
100 212 − 32 373 . 15 − 273 . 15 80 − 0 672 − 460water vapours co-exist) the other is itself 0 K

where the value of thermometric property is

C F − 32 K − 273 R Ra − 460
or = = = = assumed to be zero.
5 9 5 4 10 . 6
In old thermometry, two arbitrarily fixed So if the value of thermometric property at 0 K,
points ice and steam point (freezing point and 273.16 K and TK K is 0, xTr and x respectively
boiling point at 1 atm) are taken to define the then by linear variation (y = mx + c) we can say
temperature scale. In celsius scale freezing point that
of water is assumed to be 0°C while boiling point 0 = a×0 +b …..(i)
100°C and the temperature interval between 273 . 16 = a × x Tr + b …..(ii)
these is divided into 100 equal parts. TK = a × x + b …..(iii)
So if the thermometric property at TK x
From these equation =
temperature 0°C, 100°C and Tc°C is x0, x100 273 .16 x Tr
and x respectively then by linear variation (y =  x 
∴ TK = 273 .16   kelvin
mx + c) we can say that  x Tr 
0 = ax 0 + b …..(i)
100 = ax 100 + b …..(ii)
T c = ax + b …..(iii)

135 | P a g e
Examples resistance is 1Ω. The resistance of wire
will be 2Ω at
1. The freezing point on a thermometer is Resistance of wire varies with temperature as R
marked as 20° and the boiling point at as = R 0 (1 + αTc )
150°. A temperature of 60°C on this where α is temperature coefficient of resistance
thermometer will be read as?
R 27 R (1 + 27 α ) 1
⇒ = 0 =
Temperature on any scale can be converted into R Tc R 0 (1 + αTc ) 2
X − LFP
other scale by = Constant for all 1 + 54 α
UFP − LFP ⇒ Tc =
α
scales
1 + 54 × 0 . 00125
X − 20 ° C − 0° = = 854°C
∴ = 0 . 00125
150 ° − 20 ° 100 ° − 0 o
∴ TK = (854 + 273 ) = 1127 K
C × 130 °
⇒X= + 20 °
100 °
60 ° × 130 ° Thermodynamics
= + 20 ° = 98 °
100 ° Thermodynamics is a branch of science which
3. A thermometer is graduated in mm. It deals with exchange of heat energy between
registers – 3mm when the bulb of bodies and conversion of the heat energy into
thermometer is in pure melting ice and mechanical energy and vice-versa.
22mm when the thermometer is in steam Thermodynamics is the study of energy in
at a pressure of one atm. The temperature matter. It allows us to predict whether a chemical
in °C when the thermometer registers reaction occurs or not, but tells us nothing about
13mm is? how fast a reaction occurs. i.e., thermodynamics
can’t explain kinetics and vice versa
For a constant volume gas thermometer Thermodynamic system: A collection of an
temperature in °centigrade is given as extremely large number of atoms or molecules
P − P0
Tc = × 100 °C confined within certain boundaries such that it
P100 − P0
has a certain value of pressure, volume and
13 − (−3) 16
⇒ Tc = × 100 °C = × 100 = 64 °C temperature is called a thermodynamic system.
22 − (−3) 25

4. The temperature coefficient of resistance Anything outside the thermodynamic system to

of a wire is 0.00125 per °C. At 300K its which energy or matter is exchanged is called its
surroundings.

136 | P a g e
Example: Gas enclosed in a cylinder fitted with a
piston forms the thermodynamic system but the
atmospheric air around the cylinder, movable
piston, burner etc. are all the surroundings.
Thermodynamic system may be of three types
• Open system: It exchanges both energy
and matter with the surrounding.
• Closed system: It exchanges only energy
(not matter) with the surroundings.
• Isolated system: It exchanges neither
energy nor matter with the surrounding.
Thermodynamic variables and equation of
state: A thermodynamic system can be described
by specifying its pressure, volume, temperature,
internal energy and the number of moles. These
parameters are called thermodynamic variables.
The relation between the thermodynamic
variables (P, V, T) of the system is called
equation of state.
For µ moles of an ideal gas, equation of
state is PV = µRT and for 1 mole of an it ideal
gas is PV = RT
For µ moles of a real gas, equation of state is
 aµ 2 
P +  (V − µ b) = µ RT and for 1 mole of a real gas it
 V 2 
 
 a 
is  P + 2 (V − b) = RT
 V 
State Functions
A State Function is a thermodynamic quantity
whose value depends only on the state at the
moment, i. e., the temperature, pressure, volume,
etc. The value of a state function is independent
of the history of the system.
The fact that internal energy is a state function is
extremely useful because it we can measure the
energy change in the system by knowing the
initial energy and the final energy.
Types of Energy and Energy Changes
There are two types of energy changes
1. Heat – q
- chaotic change in molecular motion
- related to temperature
- heating increases (or decreases) molecular
motion in all directions
- not a state function (must know history)
- sign convention
+q = heat gained by system
- q = heat lost by system
2. Work – w
- concerted change in molecular motion
- Work = Force × distance ⇒ w = F × d
- movement against force is work
- work increases (or decreases) molecular motion
in a specific direction
- in gases, w = - p∆V
- not a state function (must know history)
137 | P a g e
- sign convention thermodynamic equilibrium, the following
+w = work done on system conditions must be fulfilled.
(compression) • Mechanical equilibrium: There is no
- w = work done by system (expansion) unbalanced force between the system and
There are three types of energy its surroundings.
1. Internal Energy – U • Thermal equilibrium: There is a uniform
- Internal Energy is the sum of kinetic and temperature in all parts of the system and is
potential energy in a thermodynamic system. same as that of surrounding.
- it is a state function • Chemical equilibrium: There is a uniform
2. Enthalpy – H chemical composition throughout the
- modified form of internal energy system and the surrounding.
- H = + pV
- state function Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics
- value is very close to value of internal energy If systems A and B are each in thermal
for most chemical systems. equilibrium with a third system C, then A and B
- change in enthalpy for constant pressure are in thermal equilibrium with each other.
process is equivalent to heat The zeroth law leads to the concept of
- ∆H = Hf – Hi = qp temperature. All bodies in thermal equilibrium
must have a common property which has the
3. Gibbs Free Energy – G same value for all of them. This property is
- modified form of enthalpy called the temperature.
- G = H – TS (S – entropy) The zeroth law came to light long after the first
- 3 very helpful uses and seconds laws of thermodynamics had been
1. Predict whether reaction is spontaneous discovered and numbered. Because the concept
2. Give amount of useful work of temperature is fundamental to those two laws,
3. Relate how completely a reaction will proceed the law that establishes temperature as a valid
Thermodynamic equilibrium: When the concept should have the lowest number. Hence it
thermodynamic variables attain a steady value is called zeroth law.
i.e. they are independent of time, the system is
said to be in the state of thermodynamic
equilibrium. For a system to be in

138 | P a g e
 First Law of Thermodynamics
It is a statement of conservation of energy in
thermo-dynamical process.
According to it heat given to a system (∆Q) is
equal to the sum of increase in its internal energy
(∆U) and the work done (∆W) by the system
against the surroundings.
∆Q = ∆U + ∆W
From the law,it can be deduced that;
It makes no distinction between work and heat as
according to it the internal energy (and hence
temperature) of a system may be increased either
by adding heat to it or doing work on it or both.
∆Q and ∆W are the path functions but ∆U is the
point function.
In the above equation all three quantities ∆Q, ∆U
and ∆W must be expressed either in Joule or in
calorie.
Just as zeroth law of thermodynamics introduces
the concept of temperature, the first law
introduces the concept of internal energy.
When a thermos bottle is vigorously shaken:
No heat is transferred to the coffee ∆Q = 0
[As thermos flask is insulated from the
surrounding]
Work is done on the coffee against viscous force
∆W = (–)
Internal energy of the coffee increases ∆U = (+)
and temperature of the coffee also increases ∆T =
(+)
Limitation
First law of thermodynamics does not indicate
the direction of heat transfer. It does not tell
anything about the conditions, under which heat
can be transformed into work and also it does not
indicate as to why the whole of heat energy
cannot be converted into mechanical work
continuously.
Enthalpy
Most processes are conducted under constant
pressure. For these situations, it is convenient to
define a new state function enthalpy H which is
defined as: H = U + pV.
For a system with expansion work only,
dH= d(U) + d(pV) = dq - pdV + pdV +
Vdp = dq + Vdp
and in the case of system under constant
pressure dH = qp.
where qp stands for heat under constant pressure.
Similarly, under constant volume: dU = qV (if
only expansion work is considered)
Heat Capacities
Two heat capacities are derived from the above
definitions:
CV - Heat capacity under constant volume
conditions
CV ≡ δ qV /dT = (∂U/∂T )V
Cp - Heat capacity under constant pressure
conditions
Cp ≡ δ qp /dT = (∂H/∂T )p
139 | P a g e
Both heat capacities are extensive variables, are
extracted experimentally, and are function of
temperature (Recall the freezing of the degrees of
freedom with temperature). At a given state, Cp
is always larger than CV since in addition to
increasing internal energy in the heating process
work of expanding against external pressure is
performed. (Cp and Cv, the molar heat-capacities,
are intensive variables). The inverse conclusions
are that the change in H as a function of
temperature can be expressed as: ∆H = ∫Cp dT,
and respectively the change in the internal energy
∆U = ∫CV dT over the relevant temperature
range.
The relation between CV and Cp:
Let us try now to estimate quantitatively the
difference between the two heat capacities:
Cp - CV = (∂H/∂T )p - (∂U/∂T )V = (∂U/∂T )p +
p(∂V/∂T )p + (V(∂p/∂T )p =0) - (∂U/∂T )V
Since dU = (∂U/∂V )T dV+(∂U/∂T )V dT ⇒
(∂U/∂T )p = (∂U/∂V )T (∂ V /∂T)p +(∂U/∂T )V
Cp - CV = [ p+(∂U/∂V )T] (∂ V /∂T)p = [
p+(∂U/∂V )T] Vα
Where α is the thermal expansion coefficient.
Thermodynamic Process
The process of change of state of a system
involves change of thermodynamic variables
such as pressure P, volume V and temperature T
of the system. The process is known as
thermodynamic process. Some important
processes are
(i) Isothermal process (ii) Adiabatic process
(iii) Isobaric process (iv) Isochoric (isovolumic
process) (v) Cyclic and non-cyclic process
(vi) Reversible and irreversible process.
Isothermal Process
When a thermodynamic system undergoes a
physical change in such a way that its
temperature remains constant, then the change is
known as isothermal changes.
In this process, P and V change but T = constant
i.e. change in temperature ∆T = 0
Essential condition for isothermal process
• The walls of the container must be perfectly
conducting to allow free exchange of heat
between the gas and its surrounding.
• The process of compression or expansion
should be so slow so as to provide time for
the exchange of heat.
Since these two conditions are not fully realised
in practice, therefore, no process is perfectly
isothermal.
Equation of state: From ideal gas
equation PV = µRT
If temperature remains constant then
PV = constant i.e. in all isothermal process
Boyle’s law is obeyed.
Hence equation of state is PV = constant.
140 | P a g e
 If volume increases ∆W = + Area under
Conducting curve and if volume decreases ∆W = – Area
walls
Gas under curve
Specific heat: Specific heat of gas during
isothermal change is infinite.
Q Q
As C= = =∞
Example of isothermal process m ∆T m × 0

• Melting process [Ice melts at constant [As ∆T = 0]

temperature 0°C] Isothermal elasticity: For isothermal process PV
• Boiling process [water boils at constant = constant
temperature 100°C]. Differentiating both sides PdV + VdP = 0

Indicator diagram dP Stress

⇒ P dV = − V dP ⇒ P = = = Eθ
− dV / V Strain

P P P ∴ Eθ = P i.e. isothermal elasticity

T1<T2<
is equal to pressure

T3
θ At N.T.P. isothermal elasticity of gas =
T2 Wor
T1
V V V
Atmospheric pressure = 1 . 01 × 10 5 N / m 2
Work done in isothermal process
Vf Vf µRT
W = ∫
Vi
P dV = ∫Vi V
dV
Curves obtained on PV graph are called
isotherms and they are hyperbolic in nature. [As PV = µRT]

Slope of isothermal curve: By differentiating PV

= constant. We get  Vf  V 
W = µRT log e   = 2 .303 µRT log 10  f 
 V 
P dV + V dP = 0 ⇒ P dV = − V dP  Vi   i
or
dP P
⇒ =−
dV V
dP P P   
∴ tan θ = =− W = µRT log e  i  = 2 . 303 µRT log 10  Pi 
dV V P  P 
 f   f 
Area between the isotherm and volume axis
represents the work done in isothermal process.

141 | P a g e
 Adiabatic Process Isobaric Process
When a thermodynamic system undergoes a When a thermodynamic system undergoes a
change in such a way that no exchange of heat physical change in such a way that its pressure
takes place between it and the surroundings, the remains constant, then the change is known as
process is known as adiabatic process. In this isobaric process.
process P, V and T changes but ∆Q = 0. In this process V and T changes but P remains
Essential conditions for adiabatic process constant. Hence Charle’s law is obeyed in this
• There should not be any exchange of heat process.
between the system and its surroundings. All Equation of state: From ideal gas equation
walls of the container and the piston must be PV = µRT
perfectly insulating. If pressure remains constant V ∝ T or
• The system should be compressed or allowed V1 V2
= = constant
T1 T2
to expand suddenly so that there is no time
for the exchange of heat between the system Indicator diagram: Graph I represent isobaric

and its surroundings. expansion, graph II represent isobaric

Since, these two conditions are not fully realised compression.

in practice, so no process is perfectly adiabatic. dP

Slope of indicator diagram =0
dV
Examples of isobaric process
Insulating • Conversion of water into vapour phase
walls
Gas (boiling process)
When water gets converted into vapour phase,
then its volume increases. Hence some part of
Example of some adiabatic process
absorbed heat is used up to increase the volume
• Sudden compression or expansion of a gas in
against external pressure and remaining amount
a container with perfectly non-conducting
of heat is used up to increase the internal
walls.
potential energy of the molecules (because
• Sudden bursting of the tube of bicycle tyre.
interatomic forces of attraction takes place
• Propagation of sound waves in air and other
between the molecules of system and when the
gases.
distance between them increases, then its
• Expansion of steam in the cylinder of steam
potential energy increases. It must be noted that
engine.

142 | P a g e
during change of state since temperature remains expansion, temperature increases and heat
constant, hence there will be no increase in flows into the system.
internal kinetic energy of the molecules). • Isobaric expansion of the volume of a gas
From first law of thermodynamics is given by Vt = V0 (1 + γ V t )
∆ Q = ∆ U + ∆ W = ∆U K + ∆ U P + ∆W where
= 0 + ∆ U P + P∆ V
1
γV = per °C = coefficient of
273
P volume expansion.
A I B
P1

II C
P2 D Isochoric or Isometric Process
When a thermodynamic process undergoes a
V
physical change in such a way that its volume
remains constant, then the change is known as
∴ ∆ U P = ∆Q − P [V f − Vi ] isochoric process.

or ∆U P = mL − P[V f − Vi ] In this process P and T changes but V = constant.

Hence Gay-lussac’s law is obeyed in this
[As ∆Q = mL]
process.
• Conversion of ice into water
Equation of state: From ideal gas equation PV =
µRT
∆ Q = ∆ U + ∆ W = ∆U P + ∆ U K + ∆ W
If volume remains constant P ∝ T or
mL = ∆U P + 0 + P [V f − Vi ]
P1 P
= 2 = constant
[ ∆U K = 0 as there is no change in T1 T2

temperature]
P D
∆U P = mL
A
II
[when ice convert into water then change in I
C
volume is negligible] B

Note: V1 V2 V

• In isobaric compression, temperature

increases and internal energy flows out in Indicator diagram: Graph I and II represent
the form of heat energy, while in isobaric isometric decrease in pressure at volume V1 and
isometric increase in pressure at volume V2

143 | P a g e
respectively and slope of indicator • The direct and reverse processes must take
dP place infinitely slowly.
diagram =∞
dV
• The temperature of the system must not differ
Specific heat: Specific heat of gas during
appreciably from its surroundings.
f
isochoric process C V = R Examples of reversible process are
2
• All isothermal and adiabatic changes are
Bulk modulus of elasticity:
reversible if they are performed very slowly.
∆P ∆P
K= = =∞
− ∆V / V 0 • When a certain amount of heat is absorbed by
Work done in isobaric process: ice, it melts. If the same amount of heat is
∆ W = P ∆ V = P [ V f − Vi ] removed from it, the water formed in the

[As V = 0] direct process will be converted into ice.

∴ ∆W = 0 • An extremely slow extension or contraction

Reversible and Irreversible Process of a spring without setting up oscillations.

Reversible process • When a perfectly elastic ball falls from some

A reversible process is one which can be height on a perfectly elastic horizontal plane,

reversed in such a way that all changes occurring the ball rises to the initial height.

in the direct process are exactly repeated in the • If the resistance of a thermocouple is

opposite order and inverse sense and no change negligible there will be no heat produced due

is left in any of the bodies taking part in the to Joule’s heating effect. In such a case

process or in the surroundings. For example if heating or cooling is reversible. At a junction

heat is absorbed in the direct process, the same where a cooling effect is produced due to

amount of heat should be given out in the reverse Peltier effect when current flows in one

process, if work is done on the working direction and equal heating effect is produced

substance in the direct process then the same when the current is reversed.

amount of work should be done by the working • Very slow evaporation or condensation.
substance in the reverse process. The conditions It should be remembered that the conditions
for reversibility are mentioned for a reversible process can never be

• There must be complete absence of realised in practice. Hence, a reversible process

dissipative forces such as friction, viscosity, is only an ideal concept. In actual process, there

electric resistance etc. is always loss of heat due to friction, conduction,

radiation etc.

144 | P a g e
Irreversible process
Any process which is not reversible exactly is an
irreversible process. All natural processes such as
conduction, radiation, radioactive decay etc. are
irreversible. All practical processes such as free
expansion, Joule-Thomson expansion, electrical
heating of a wire are also irreversible. Examples
of irreversible processes are
• When a steel ball is allowed to fall on an
inelastic lead sheet, its kinetic energy
changes into heat energy by friction. The
heat energy raises the temperature of lead
sheet. No reverse transformation of heat
energy occurs.
• The sudden and fast stretching of a spring
may produce vibrations in it. Now a part
of the energy is dissipated. This is the
case of irreversible process.
• Sudden expansion or contraction and
rapid evaporation or condensations are
examples of irreversible processes.
• Produced by the passage of an electric
current through a resistance
irreversible.
• Heat transfer between bodies at different
temperatures is also irreversible.
Cyclic and Non-cyclic Process.
A cyclic process consists of a series of changes
which return the system back to its initial state.
In non-cyclic process the series of changes
involved do not return the system back to its
initial state.
In case of cyclic process as U f = U i
∴ ∆U = U f − U i = 0 i.e. change in internal
energy for cyclic process is zero and also
∆U ∝ ∆T
∴ ∆T = 0 i.e. temperature of system
remains constant.
From first law of thermodynamics
∆Q = ∆U + ∆W
∆Q = ∆W i.e. heat supplied is equal to
the work done by the system. [As ∆U = 0]
For cyclic process P-V graph is a closed curve and
area enclosed by the closed path represents the
work done.
If the cycle is clockwise work done is
positive and if the cycle is anticlockwise work
done is negative.
is
P
A B
Positive work

• Joule-Thomson effect is irreversible D C

because on reversing the flow of gas a

V
similar cooling or heating effect is not
observed.

145 | P a g e
 P
Isothermal ⇒ ∆T = 0
A D

Negative Isobaric ⇒ ∆p = 0
work
B C Isochoric ⇒ ∆V = 0

V Adiabatic ⇒ q = 0
Definition of work: w = − ∫ p ex ⋅ dV
Work done in non-cyclic process depends upon
Definitions for heat:
the path chosen or the series of changes involved
qp = ∆H
and can be calculated by the area covered
between the curve and volume axis on PV qV = ∆U

diagram. Sign conventions for heat and work

-w – work done by system (expansion for pV
work)
P C
+w – work done on the system (compression
B for pV work)
A -q – heat transferred away from body (heat
WABC= + Shaded area V lost)
+q – heat transferred into body (heat gained)
Reversibility: p = pex
P
B A n i − n i,0
Extent of Reaction: ξ =
C
D νi
Definition of Heat Capacities

WABCD= – Shaded area V  ∂q   ∂H 

Cp =   =  
 ∂T p  ∂T p

 ∂q   ∂U 
Cv =   =  
In summary  ∂T  v  ∂T  v

First Law: dU = đq + đw ⇒ ∆U = q + w ⇒ ∆U = C dT − p ex dV
Examples
1) One mole of O2 gas having a volume equal to 22.4 litres at 0°C and 1 atmospheric pressure in
compressed isothermally so that its volume reduces to 11.2 litres. The work done in this process is?
Work done in an adiabatic process

146 | P a g e
  Vf  11.2 
W = µ RT loge   = 1 × 8.3 × 273× loge   = 8.3 × 273× (− 0.69) ≈ −1572J
  22.4 
 Vi 
2) How much energy is absorbed by 10 kg molecule of an ideal gas if it expands from an initial pressure
of 8 atm to 4 atm at a constant temperature of 27°C
Work done in an isothermal process
P  8
W = µ RTloge  i  = (10×103 )×8.3 × 300×loge   = 104 ×8.3 × 300×0.693= 1.728×107 J
 Pf  4
 
3) 5 moles of an ideal gas undergoes an isothermal process at 500K in which its volume is doubled. The
work done by the gas system is
 Vf  2V 
∆W = µ RT log e   = 5 × 8 . 3 × 500 × log e   = 5 × 8 . 3 × 500 × 0 .69 ≈ 14400 J .

 Vi   V 

147 | P a g e
 CHAPTER ELEVEN produced (Q) always remains the same and
Heat and Energy constant, represented by J.
Energy is the capacity to do work. A plenty of W
=J or W = JQ
energy is needed to sustain industrial growth and Q

agricultural production. J is called mechanical equivalent of heat and has

The energy associated with configuration and value 4.2 J/cal. J is not a physical quantity but a

random motion of the atoms and molecules with conversion factor which merely express the

in a body is called internal energy and the part of equivalence between Joule and calories.

this internal energy which is transferred from one 1 calorie = 4.186 Joule ≃ 4.12 Joule

body to the other due to temperature difference is Work is the transfer of mechanical energy

called heat. irrespective of temperature difference, whereas

As heat it is a type of energy, it is a scalar. heat is the transfer of thermal energy because of

Dimension: [ML2 T −2 ] temperature difference only.

Generally, the temperature of a body rises when
Units : Joule (S.I.) and calorie (Practical unit)
heat is supplied to it. However, the following two
One calorie is defined as the amount of heat
situations are also found to exist.
energy required to raise the temperature of one
(i) When heat is supplied to a body either at its
gm of water through 1°C (more specifically from
melting point or boiling point, the temperature of
14.5oC to 15.5°C).
the body does not change. In this situation, heat
As heat is a form of energy it can be transformed
supplied to the body is used up in changing its
into others and vice-versa.
state.
e.g. Thermocouple converts heat energy into
(ii) When the liquid in a thermos flask is
electrical energy, resistor converts electrical energy
vigorously shaken or gas in a cylinder is
into heat energy. Friction converts mechanical
suddenly compressed, the temperature of liquid
energy into heat energy. Heat engine converts heat
or gas gets raised even without supplying heat. In
energy into mechanical energy.
this situation, work done on the system becomes
Here it is important that whole of mechanical
a source of heat energy.
energy i.e. work can be converted into heat but
The heat lost or gained by a system depends not
whole of heat can never be converted into work.
only on the initial and final states, but also on the
When mechanical energy (work) is converted
path taken up by the process i.e. heat is a path
into heat, the ratio of work done (W) to heat

148 | P a g e
dependent and is taken to be positive if the
system absorbs it and negative if releases it.
There are different forms of energy inexistence
all around us. There is energy in the
light from the sun and energy in the waves on the
sea. Energy in your body helps keep you warm
and allows you to move around. Energy is
measured in Joules. We use the symbol J to
represent this.
The concept of energy conservation
A fundamental law that has been observed to
hold for all natural phenomena requires the
conservation of energy—i.e., that the total energy
does not change in all the many changes that
occur in nature. The conservation of energy is
not a description of any process going on in
nature, but rather it is a statement that the
quantity called energy remains constant
regardless of when it is evaluated or what
processes—possibly including transformations of
energy from one form into another—go on
between successive evaluations.
The law of conservation of energy is applied not
only to nature as a whole but to closed or isolated
systems within nature as well. Thus, if the
boundaries of a system can be defined in such a
way that no energy is either added to or removed
from the system, then energy must be conserved
within that system regardless of the details of the
processes going on inside the system boundaries.
A corollary of this closed-system statement is
that whenever the energy of a system as
determined in two successive evaluations is not
the same, the difference is a measure of the
quantity of energy that has been either added to
or removed from the system in the time interval
elapsing between the two evaluations.
Energy can exist in many forms within a system
and may be converted from one form to another
within the constraint of the conservation law.
These different forms include gravitational,
kinetic, thermal, elastic, electrical, chemical,
radiant, nuclear, and mass energy. It is the
universal applicability of the concept of energy,
as well as the completeness of the law of its
conservation within different forms, that makes it
so attractive and useful.
Forms of Energy
Kinetic Energy: This is the energy an object may
have due to its movement. Any moving object
has kinetic energy. e.g. A car driving along the
road will have Kinetic energy.
Gravitational Energy: This is the energy an
object may have due to its position above a
certain point. e.g. A bird flying above the ground
will have gravitational energy.
Chemical Energy: This is a form of stored
energy. All fuels are stores of Chemical energy.
e.g. Coal contains stored energy which can be
burned to produce heat and light.
149 | P a g e
Light Energy: This energy is given out by
luminous objects. Any object which glows gives
off light energy. e.g. A candle flame is luminous;
it gives off light
Heat Energy: This energy can be felt in the
warmth of an object. Almost every object
contains some heat energy, cold objects have
only a small amount of heat energy. e.g. Your
body contains heat energy.
Sound Energy: This energy is produced by
vibrating objects. Any object which wobbles
backwards and forwards quickly enough can
produce a sound wave. e.g. a guitar string can
wobble the air to produce a sound.
Nuclear Energy: This energy is contained within
the centre of atoms. It is possible to split some
atoms and use the nuclear energy from them. e.g.
Polaris submarines use nuclear energy.
Stored Elastic Energy: This energy is contained
by any object which has been squeezed or
squashed and tries to return towards its original
shape. e.g. a tennis ball will attempt to spring
back into shape if it is squashed.
Electrical Energy: This energy is due to the
collection or movement of electrical charges. The
collection of still electrical charges produce static
electricity. If the charges move, we have current
electricity. e.g. a lightning strike contains huge
amounts of electrical energy.
Mechanical energy: Mechanical energy is the
energy due to the motion (kinetic) and position
(potential) of an object. When objects are set in
motion or are in a position where they can be set
in motion, they have mechanical energy.
Mechanical Potential energy: Potential energy is
stored energy. Mechanical potential energy is
related to the position of an object. A stretched
rubber band has potential energy. Water behind a
dam has potential energy because it can fall
down the dam.
Mechanical Kinetic energy: Kinetic energy is the
energy an object has due to its motion.
Mechanical kinetic energy increases as an object
moves faster. A moving car has kinetic energy. If
the car moves faster, it has more kinetic energy.
Classification of Energy
It is broadly classified into
1. Conventional energy: is in practice for
long duration of time and well established
technology is available to tap and use
them. e.g. Coal, oil, natural gas, hydro
power, nuclear power etc.
2. Non-conventional energy: source can be
used with advantage for power generation
as well as other applications in a large
number of locations and situations. These
energy sources cannot be easily stored
and used conveniently. e.g. Solar, wind,
tidal and geothermal etc.
150 | P a g e
Based upon nature, energy sources are classified
as
1. Renewable energy sources are
inexhaustible and are renewed by nature
itself. Solar, wind, tidal, hydro and
biomass are few examples.
2. Non-renewable energy sources are
exhaustible within a definite period of
time depending upon its usage. Fossil
fuels (coal, oil, gas) and nuclear fuels are
few examples.
Solar Energy
The surface of the earth receives about 1014 kW
from sun in the form of solar energy which is
approximately five orders of magnitude greater
than that currently being consumed from all
resources. It is evident that sun will last for 1011
years.
There are two obvious obstacles to harnessing
solar energy. Firstly, it is not constantly available
on earth. Thus, some form of storage is needed to
sustain solar energy through the night and during
rainy season. Secondly the solar energy is
diffused. Although the total amount of energy is
enormous, the collection and conservation of
solar energy into useful forms must be carried
out over a large area which entails large capital
investments.
Solar Water Heating
By using solar radiation, water or any fluid can
be heated by using a solar collector. Such
systems can provide hot water for different
applications in industries directly or as boiler
feed and also in hostels, hotels and canteens.
There are two types of solar collectors in use:
1. Flat plate collector
2. parabolic or concentrating collector.
Flat plate collector:
The absorber plate is metallic. It is usually coated
black to absorb more heat energy. Tubes,
passages or channels integral with the collector
carry water or other working fluid. Insulation
should be provided at the back and at the sides to
minimize the heat losses. Usually glass wool is
used as insulation material. A transparent cover
(glass) will be provided at the top to permit the
radiation from the sun to the metal plate.
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Parabolic or concentrating collector
Highly polished metallic surfaces are used as the
reflector. The reflector will have a parabolic
shape so that the sun rays striking the profile will
be reflected on its focal point. If a tube carrying a
fluid is kept along the focal line, the fluid will be
heated to a very high temperature.

Solar Thermal Conversion

1. Low temperature system
2. High temperature system

Low temperature system

This system uses a flat plate collector, which can
heat water up to about 800C only. Water is
circulated through the flat plate collector. Heat
exchanger is used to vaporize a low boiling fluid
(butane) and the butane vapor will run the
turbine, butane vapor is condensed and reused.

152 | P a g e
 Advantages
1. Renewable source of energy
High temperature system
2. Pollution free
Solar power tower is employed for high
3. After the capital cost, the cost of power
temperature system. A receiver is mounted on
generation is quite low
the tower which is 100 to 500m high and
4. Wide range of applications, powering
designed to withstand the weight of the receiver.
street lights to satellites
Here reflecting mirrors are known as heliostat.
The heliostats are arranged in such a way that
Disadvantages
they direct the solar energy on the receiver
1. Capital cost is very high
throughout the day. This is achieved by a
2. Large area of land is required
microprocessor based tracking system, which
3. Large number of solar panels are required
turns the heliostats depending on the position of
4. Affected by seasons.
sun. The receiver is designed and positioned in
such a way to intercept, absorb and transfer
Wind Energy
maximum heat to working fluid. The temperature
The electrical energy can be generated by wind
achieved is 1500°C to 1700°C. Steam generated
energy by utilizing the kinetic energy of wind.
in the receiver runs the turbine, condensed to
The wind energy which is an indirect source of
water and recycled.
energy can be used to run a wind mill which in
turn drives a generator to produce electricity.

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Wind Mill:
Wind mills are classified into two types
1. Horizontal axis wind turbine
2. Vertical axis wind turbine
Horizontal Axis Wind Turbine
Horizontal axis wind turbines have the main
rotor shaft running horizontally.
The figure shows a schematic arrangement of a
horizontal axis machine. This system consists of
a tower mounted two bladed or multi bladed
rotor facing the wind, rotating around a
horizontal axis and turning an electrical
generator.
The Blades are generally made of composite
material, usually fibre reinforced plastic (FRP)
because of its high strength and light weight.
Wind mills are manufactured with a capacity
from a few kilowatts to several megawatts in
Europe, the USA, and other parts of the world
including India.
Vertical Axis Wind Turbine
Vertical axis wind turbines have the main rotor
shaft running vertically. The tower construction
is simple here because the generator and gear
box can be placed at the bottom, near the ground.
Vertical axis wind turbine can be
classified into two types
1. Darrieus type
2. Savonius type
Darrieus type rotor
This wind mill needs much less surface area. It is
shaped like an egg beater and has two or three
blades shaped like aero foils.
Savonius type rotor
Savonius turbine is S-shaped if viewed from top.
This turbine turns relatively slow, but yields high
torque. It is used for grinding grains and for
pumping water.
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 Tidal Power Plant
A Tidal power plant mainly consists of the
following:
1. A barrage with gates and sluices
2. One or more basins
3. A power house
A barrage is a barrier constructed across the sea
to create a basin for storing water. The barrage
Advantages has to withstand the pressure exerted by the
1. Wind is Renewable and free of cost water head and also should resist the shock of the
2. Pollution free waves.
3. Can be installed in remote villages, thus A basin is the area where water is retained by the
reducing costly transmission lines barrage. Low head reversible water turbine are
installed in the barrage separating the sea from
Disadvantages the basin.-
1. Capital cost is very high
2. Large area of land is required
3. Maintenance cost is very high
Tidal Energy
The periodic rise and fall of water level of sea
which are carried by the action of the sun and
moon on water of the earth is called “tide”. The
large scale up and down movement of sea water
represents an unlimited source of energy.
The main feature of the tidal cycle is the
difference in water surface elevations at the high
tide and at the low tide. If the differential head
could be utilized in operating a hydraulic turbine,
the tidal energy could be converted into electrical
energy by means of an attached generator.

155 | P a g e

During high tide, water will flow from sea to
tidal basin through turbine, thus producing
electricity. During low tide, water will flow from
tidal basin to sea through turbine producing
electricity.
Advantages
1. It is inexhaustible source of energy
2. No problem of pollution
3. The cost of power generation is quite low
4. High output can be obtained compared to
solar or wind energy
Disadvantages
1. Capital cost is very high
2. As the head is not constant, variable
output is obtained
3. As the head is low, large amount of water
is necessary for the turbine
4. It will not operate when the available
head is less than 0.5m
Geothermal Energy
Geothermal power plants derive energy from the
heat of the earth’s interior. The average increase
in temperature with depth of the earth is 10C for
every 30-40m. At a depth of 10-15km, the
earth’s interior is as hot as 1000-12000C. In
certain areas of our planet, the underground heat
has raised the temperature of water to over
2000C which bursts out as hot steam through the
cracks in the earth’s crust. These are called
thermal springs. This steam can be utilized for
power production.
Geothermal Sources
The following five general categories of
geothermal sources have been identified:
1. Hydrothermal convective systems
(i) Vapor dominated or dry steam fields
(ii) Liquid dominated or wet steam fields
(iii) Hot water fields
2. Geo-pressure resources
3. Petrothermal or hot dry rocks
156 | P a g e
 4. Magma resources
5. Volcanoes
The hydro thermal convective systems are best
resources for geothermal energy exploitation at
present. Hot dry rock is also being considered.
Geothermal Power Plants
Geothermal wells are drilled at suitable locations.
Water vaporized into steam comes out of the
earth’s surface in a dry condition at around
200°C and 8 bar. The moisture is removed by a
centrifugal separator and this steam will run the
turbine coupled with a generator. Steam is
condensed in a condenser and re injected back
into the ground by a rejection well.
Advantages
1. Geothermal energy is cheaper
2. Used as space heating for buildings
3. Used as industrial process heat
4. Geothermal energy is inexhaustible
Disadvantages
1. Low overall power production efficiency
(about 15%)
2. Large areas are needed foe exploitation of
geothermal energy
Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion
OTEC uses the temperature difference of the sea
water at different depths to generate electricity
OTEC utilizes the temperature difference that
exists between the surface waters heated by the
sun and the colder deep (up to 1000m) waters to
run a heat engine. This source and sink provides
a temperature difference of 20°C in ocean areas
within 20 of the equator. These conditions exist
in tropical coastal areas, roughly between the
157 | P a g e
tropic of Capricorn and the tropic of cancer. Such CHAPTER TWELVE
a small temperature difference makes energy CALORIMETRY
extraction difficult and expensive. Hence, Calorimetry is the measurement of heat; here we
typically OTEC systems have an overall shall be concerned with the measurement of
efficiency of only 1 to 3%. The OTEC is shown specific heat capacities and specific latent heats.
in fig. A calorimeter is a device used to measure
changes in thermal energy or heat transfer. More
specifically, it measures calories. A calorie is the
amount of energy required to raise one gram of
water by one degree Celsius. As such, the
calorimeter measures the temperature change of
a known amount of water. If a reaction is carried
out in the reaction vessel, or if a measured mass
of heated substance is placed in the water of the
calorimeter, the change in the water temperature
allows us to calculate the change in thermal
energy.

The function of the calorimeter depends on the

conservation of energy in a closed, isolated
system. Calorimeters are carefully insulated so
that heat transfer in or out is negligible.

158 | P a g e
Heat (Thermal) Capacity, Specific Heat Specific Heat Capacities
Capacity Substance Specifi Substance Specifi
The heat capacity of a body, such as a lump of c Heat: c heat:
metal, is the quantity of heat required to raise its J kg-1 J kg-1
temperature by 1 degree. It is expressed in joules K-1 K-1
per degree K (J/K-1). Aluminu 0.91 x Ice 2.1 x
The specific heat capacity of a substance is the m 103 103
heat required to warm unit mass of it through 1 Brass 0.38 Paraffin 2.9
degree; it is the heat capacity per unit mass of the wax
substance. Specific heat capacities are expressed Copper 0.39 Quartz 0.7
in joule per kilogram per deg K (Jkg-1K-1) or in Iron 0.47 Rubber 1.7
joule per gram per deg K (J g-1 K-1). The Lead 0.13 Stone 0.9
specific heat of water, cw, is about 4.2 J g-1K-1, Mercury 0.14 Wood 1.7
or 4200 J kg -1 K-1 or 4.2 kJ kg-1 K-1, where 1 Nickel 0.46 Alcohol 2.5
kJ = 1 kilojoule = 1000 J. Platinum 0.13 Brine (25% 3.4
Formerly, specific heat capacities were expressed by wt.)
in calories per g per deg C. Silver 0.24 Carbon 0.84
From the definition of specific heat capacity, it tetrachlorid
follows that e
heat capacity, C = mass x Solder 0.18 Ether 2.4
specific heat capacity. Steel 0.45 Glycerine 2.4
The specific heat capacity of copper, for Ebonite 1.7 Paraffin 2.1
example, is about 0.4 J g-1 K-1 (or 400 J kg-1 K- Glass 0.7 Turpentine 1.76
1). Hence the heat capacity of 5 kg of copper = 5
x 400 = 2000 J K-1 = 2 kJ K-1. Method of Mixtures
A common way of measuring specific heat
capacities is the method of mixtures, used by
Wilcke. The figure below shows how we may
apply it to a solid, such as a

159 | P a g e
 (The heat gained by the thermometer and stirrer
may be neglected if high accuracy is not
required).
Therefore, if c is the specific heat of the solid,
Cw that of water and Cc that of the calorimeter:
mc(

Specific heat capacity by mixtures

metal. We weigh the specimen (m g) and hang it Hence,
on a thread in a steam jacket, J, fitted with a
thermometer. The jacket is plugged with cotton
wool to prevent loss of heat by convection.
While the solid is warming, we weigh a thin- Liquid

walled copper vessel A called a calorimeter (mc The specific heat capacity of a liquid can be

g), then run about 50 cm3 of water into it, and by found by putting some in a calorimeter and

subtraction find the mass m1 of this water. We dropping a hot solid, of known specific heat

put the calorimeter into a draught-shield S, and capacity c, into it. If m1 and c1 are the mass and

take the temperature, , of the in it. After we specific heat capacity of the liquid, then the
product m1c1 replaces m in equation (1) above,
have given the given the specimen time to warm
from which c1 can be calculated.
up – say half an hour – we read its temperature,
; then we slide under the jacket, and drop the
Calculation
specimen into it. After stirring the mixture, we
As an illustration of a specific heat capacity
measure its final temperature, . If no heat
determination, suppose a metal of a mass 200g at
leaves the calorimeter by radiation, conduction,
100oC is dropped into 80 g of water at 15 oC
or convection after the hot specimen has been
contained in a calorimeter of mass 120 g and
dropped into the calorimeter, we have:
specific heat capacity 0.4 kJ kg-1 K-1. The final
heat lost by solid in cooling from to = heat
temperature reached is 35 oC. Then;
gained by water and calorimeter in warming Heat capacity of calorimeter = 120 x
from to . 0.4 = 48 J K-1

160 | P a g e
 Heat capacity of water = 80 x 4.2 = 336
J K-1
Heat gained by water + calorimeter = (333 + 48)
x (35 – 15) J
and heat lost by hot metal = 0.2 x c x (100 – 35) J
0.2 x c x 65 = 384 x 20
c =
Kg-1 K-1 (approx.)
Heat Losses
In a calorimetric experiment, some heat is always
lost by leakage. Leakage of heat cannot be
prevented (as leakage of electricity can, by
insulation) because even the best insulator of
heat still has appreciable conductivity.
When convection is prevented, gases are the best
thermal insulators. Hence, calorimeters are often
surrounded with a shield S, as shown in the
figure above and the heat loss due to conduction
is made small by packaging S with insulating
material or by supporting the calorimeter on an
insulating ring, or on threads. The loss by
radiation is small at small excess temperatures
over the surroundings. In some simple
calorimetric experiments, the final temperature
of the mixture is reached quickly so that the time
leakage is small. The total loss of heat is
therefore negligible in laboratory experiments on
specific heats of metals, but not on the specific
heat capacities of bad conductors, such a rubber,
which give up their heat slowly. Then great
accuracy is required, the loss of heat by leakage
is always taken into account.
Newton’s law of cooling
Newton was the first person to investigate the
J heat lost by a body in air. He found that the rate
of loss of heat is proportional to the excess
temperature over the surroundings. This may
easily be verified by raising a thermometer some
20 or 30oC above the temperature of the room
and observing its fall. Plotting the logarithm of
excess of temperature against the time, the result
will be found to be a straight line.
This result, called Newton's law of cooling, is
approximately true in still air only for a
temperature excess of about 20°C or 30°C; but it
is true for all excess temperatures in conditions
of forced convection of the air, i.e. in a draught.
With natural convection, Dulong and Petit found
that the rate of loss of heat was proportional to
, where is the excess temperature, and this
appears to be true for higher excess temperatures,
such as from 50°C to 300°C. At low excess
temperatures, however, less than 1°C, G.T.P
Tarrant has pointed out that radiation, not
convection, is the major contributing factor to the
rate of cooling of an object.
To demonstrate Newton's law of cooling, we plot
a temperature ( )-time (t) cooling curve for hot
water in a calorimeter placed in a draught (Fig.
161 | P a g e
a). If R is the room temperature, then the excess and find a straight line passing through the
temperature of the water is ( - R). At various origin. Since the heat lost per second by the
temperatures, such as in Fig. b, we drew water and calorimeter is proportional to the rate

tangents such as APC to the curve. The slope of of fall of the temperature, Newton's law is thus

the tangent, in degrees per second, gives us the verified.

rate of fall of temperature, when the water is at

the temperature : Specific Heat Capacity of Liquid by Cooling
Specific heat capacities of liquids which react
with water are often measured by the so-called
method of cooling. The cooling curve of a
calorimeter is plotted, first when it contained a
known volume of hot water, and then when it
contains an equal volume of hot liquid. The
volumes are made equal so as to make the
temperature distribution, over the surface of the
calorimeter, the same in the

Specific heat capacity by cooling

Experiment. From the curves, the respective
times t1 and tw are found which the calorimeter
Newton’s law of cooling
and contents take to cool from 1 to 2.
Rate of fall =
Whatever the contents of the calorimeter, it gives
We then plot these rates against the excess
off heat at a rate which depends only on its
temperature, — R, as shown in figure c above,

162 | P a g e
excess temperature, since the area and nature, of Fusion
its surface are constant. The specific latent heat effusion of a solid is the
Therefore, at each temperature between 1 and heat required to convert unit mass of it, at its
2, the calorimeter gives off heat at the same rate melting-point, into liquid at the same

whatever its contents. Thus, the average rate at temperature. It is expressed in joules per

which it loses heat, over the whole range, is the kilogramme (J kg-1). High values can be more

same with water and with liquid. Consequently conveniently expressed in kJ kg-1.
Melting-Points and Specific Latent Heat of
Fusion
where m1, c, are the mass and specific heat
capacity of the liquid, m, cw that of water, and C
is the heat capacity of the calorimeter. Thus

Specific Latent Heat

Substance M.P (oC) S.L.H (J kg- Substance M.P (oC) S.L.H (J kg-
1) 1)
Aluminium 658 393 x 103 Acetic acid 17.5 184 x 103
Antimony 630 163 Beeswax 62 176
Bismuth 271 58 Brass 900 -
Copper 1083 180 Naphthalene 80 146
Gold 1063 67 Paradichlorbenzene 53 -
(non-flammable)
Iron 1530 205 Ice 0 333
Lead 327 25 Paraffin wax 50-60 -
Mercury -38.9 12.5 Solder (soft) c. 180 50-85
Nickel 1452 272 Solder (hard) c. 900 -
Platinum 1773 113 Steel 1400 -
Sulphur 113-119 38 Glass 300-400 -
Silver 960.8 109 Quartz (fused) 1700 -

163 | P a g e
 Sodium 97.5 113 Hypo 48.2 c.170
Tin 232 58 Tungsten 3380 -
Zinc 419 419 109
by blotting paper, until the temperature reaches a
Ice is one of the substances whose specific latent value as much below room temperature as
heat of fusion we are likely to have to measure. was above. In this case a 'cooling correction' is
To do so, place warm water, at a temperature not necessary. Weigh the mixture, to find the
a few degrees above room temperature, inside a mass m of ice which has been added. Then the
calorimeter. Then add small lumps of ice, dried specific latent heat l is given by:

follows. It consists of a test-tube T fused into a

, wider tube Y. The wider tube leads to a capillary
Where m1 = mass of water and cw = specific C, and is filled with mercury from X to Y. The
heat capacity, C = thermal capacity of space above Y is filled with water from which all
calorimeter, and = initial temperature. dissolved air has been boiled
Except for the capillary, the whole apparatus is
Hence, .
placed in ice-water in the vessel V, and, after
some time, it all settles down to 0°C. A little
Bunsen's Ice Calorimeter ether is then poured into T, and air is blown
Bunsen's ice calorimeter is a device for through it via a thin tube; the ether evaporates
measuring a quantity of heat by using it to melt and cools the tube T, so that ice forms on the
ice. outside of it. A pad of cotton wool is then
When ice turns to water, it shrinks; the volume of dropped to the bottom of T and the apparatus is
1 g of ice at 0°C is 1.0908 cm3, whereas that of 1 left for some more time, to allow the newly
g of water at 0°C is 1.0001 cm3. formed ice to settle down to 0°C.
Thus, the melting of 1 g of ice causes a When the apparatus is ready for use, the end of
contraction of 0.0907 cm3. the mercury thread in C is observed by a
In the Bunsen calorimeter, the contraction due to travelling microscope. If the specific heat
the melting is measured, and from it, the mass of capacity of a solid is to be measured, the
ice melted is calculated. The apparatus is show as specimen is weighed (m g) and left to come to

164 | P a g e
room temperature . The solid is then gently
dropped into the tube T. As it cools, it melts ice,
and causes the mercury thread to run back along
the capillary. When the thread has ceased to
move, its end is again observed. If it has moved
through l cm, and the cross-section of the
capillary is a cm2, then the contraction is al cm3.
The mass of ice melted is therefore al/0.0907 g,
and the heat absorbed is 334 al/0.0907 joules.
This heat is given out by m g of solid cooling
from to 0°C; the specific heat capacity c of the
solid is therefore given by
In practice, the cross-section is not measured,
and the instrument is calibrated by dropping into
it a solid of known mass, m1, and specific heat
capacity, c1 If the room temperature is constant,
then
where l1 is the displacement of the mercury in
the calibration experiment. Thus, c can be found.
Advantages of the Ice Calorimeter
The advantages of the ice calorimeter are:
i. No correction for heat capacity of the
container: the specimen tube starts at 0°C
and finishes at 0°C — all the heat from
the specimen is used to melt ice, at
constant temperature;
ii. No heat losses from the apparatus — it is
surrounded by a bath at the same
temperature as itself, and therefore
neither loses heat to the outside, nor gains
any from it;
iii. No loss of heat from the specimen before
it enters the calorimeter — the specimen
starts at room temperature, and therefore
gives up no heat until it enters the
specimen tube (contrast the method of
mixtures, in which the specimen is heated
to 100°C or so): this is a great advantage
when the specimen is small;
iv. Easy and therefore accurate, thermometry
— the only temperature to be measured is
the room temperature, which is constant
and can be determined at leisure.
An advantage sometimes asserted is that
specimens can be added one after another,
without having to re-set the apparatus. That is
true, because each specimen comes to 0°C in
turn, and then behaves simply like part of the
apparatus, taking no heat from any following
specimen. But it does not mean that the
calorimeter has the advantage of speed— the
time taken to set it up would be enough for half a
dozen measurements by the method of mixtures.
A disadvantage of this calorimeter is that it never
settles down completely — the mercury is
always slowly creeping along the capillary, and
165 | P a g e
the creep during an experiment must be Glycerine 290 -
estimated and allowed for. Turpentine 161 -
The calorimeter was devised in 1871; it is rarely Mercury 351 272
used nowadays, because electrical methods of Platinum 3910 -
calorimetry are more convenient and accurate. Sodium 877 -
However, it has been used for measuring the Sulphur 444.6 -
specific heat capacities of rare earths of which
only small specimens were available. To find the specific latent heat of evaporation of
Evaporation water, we pass steam into a calorimeter with
The specific latent heat of evaporation of a liquid water. On its way the steam passes through a
is the heat required to convert unit mass of it, at vessel, T in the figure, which traps any water
its boiling-point, into vapour at the same carried over by the steam and is called a steam-
temperature. It is expressed in joule per trap. The mass m of condensed steam is found by
kilogramme (J kg-1), or, with high values, in kJ weighing. If 1 and 2 are the initial and final
kg-1. temperatures of the water, the specific latent heat
l is given by:
Boiling-Points and Specific Latent Heats of
Evaporation
Substance B.P (oC) S.L.H (J kg-
1)
Aluminum 1800 -
Acetone 56.7 -
Alcohol (ethyl) 78.3 867 x 103
Alcohol (methyl) 64.7 1120
Benzene 80.2 389
Carbon 46.2 351
disulphide Latent heat of evaporation of water
Carbon 76.7 193
tetrachloride
(non-flam.)
Either 34.6 370

166 | P a g e
 G into the glass spiral S, which is surrounded by
water in a calorimeter. The vapour condenses in
the spiral, and collects in the vessel V, where it
can afterwards be weighed.
= boiling-point of liquid.
c = specific heat capacity of liquid,
m = mass of liquid condensed.
= initial temperature of water.
= final temperature of water, corrected for
cooling.
m1 = mass of water of specific heat c w .
C = thermal capacity of calorimeter + glassware
Berthelot’s apparatus for latent heat of
below joint.
evaporation
Then

ml + Hence,

=
where and C have their usual meanings.
Example 1
Hence, A 0.500 kg sample of water in a calorimeter is at
15.0ºC. A 0.0400 kg block of zinc at 115.0ºC is
placed in the water. The specific heat of zinc is
The accepted value of the specific latent heat of
388 J/kg ºC. Find the final temperature of the
evaporation of water is about l = 2260 kJ kg-1 or
system.
2260 J g-1
The heat lost by the block of zinc will equal the
Berthelot's Apparatus: An apparatus suitable for
heat gain by the water in the calorimeter. In order
use with liquids other than water was devised by
to set heat gain mathematically equal to heat loss,
Berthelot in 1877 as shown above. The liquid is
either one of the terms must be made negative or
boiled in the flask F, and its vapour passes out
the temperature change must be reversed. You
through the tube T. This fits with a ground joint

167 | P a g e
should also note that the final temperature of the
water and the block of zinc will be the same
when equilibrium is reached.
mwcw (t2 – t1)w = mznczn (t2 – t1)
(0.500 kg) (4180 J/kg oC) (x – 15 oC) = (0.0400
kg) (388 J/kg oC) (115 oC – x)
2090 x – 31350 = 1785 – 15.52 x
2105.52 x = 33135
x = 15.7 oC
Example 2
A 100. g block of aluminium at 100.0ºC is placed
in 100 g of water at 10.0ºC. The final
temperature of the mixture is 25.0ºC. What is the
specific heat of the aluminium as determined by
the experiment?
mw Cw (t2 – t1) w = mAl CAl(t1 – t2)Al
(0.100 kg) (4180 J/kg oC) (25 oC – 10 oC)
= (0.100 kg) (x) (100 oC – 25 oC)
6270 = 7.50 x
x = 836 J/kg oC
Example 3
An electric kettle has a 750 W – 240 V heater
and is used on a 200 V mains. If the heat
capacity of the kettle is 400 J K-1 and the initial
water temperature is 20oC, how long will it take
to boil 500 g of water, assuming the resistance of
the heater is unaltered on changing to the new
mains.
Firstly, find the new power absorbed on the 200
V mains. Since the resistance R is constant and P
= V2/R, it follows that P V2.
new power = = 520 W (approx.)
heat supplied to the water = 520 J per second
(i)
Secondly, assuming 100oC is the boiling point
and 4.2 kJ kg-1 K-1 (4.2 J g-1 K-1) is the
specific heat capacity of water,
Heat gained by water and kettle = 500 x 4.2 x
(100 – 20) + 400 x (100 – 20)
= (500 x 4.2 + 400) (100 – 20)
= 610 x 80 J
From eqn (i), time t, = = 385 seconds
(approx.) = 6.4 min.
Example 4
Water flows at the rate of 150 g min-1 through a
tube and is heated by a heater dissipating 25.2 W.
The inflow and outflow water temperatures are
15.2°C and 17.4°C respectively. When the rate of
flow is increased to 231.8 g min-1 and the rate of
heating to 37.8 W, the inflow and outflow
temperatures are unaltered. Find (i) the specific
heat capacity of water, (ii) the rate of loss of heat
from the tube.
Suppose cw is the specific heat of water in J g-1
K-1 and h is the heat lost in J s-1. Then, since 1
W = 1 J per second,
25.2 = (1)
168 | P a g e
and
37.8 =
(2)
Subtracting (1) from (2),
37.8 – 25.2 =
J g-1 K-1 = 4.2 kJ kg-1 K-1
Substituting for in (1),
J s-1.
Example 5
Define latent heat. Describe the measurement of
the specific latent heat of evaporation of water
under school laboratory conditions.
A copper calorimeter of mass 70.5 g contains
1000 g of water at 19.5°C. Naphthalene (M.P
79.9°C) is melted in a test tube, cooled to 80°C,
and then poured into the calorimeter. If the
highest temperature reached by the water after
stirring is 28.7°C and the final mass of the
calorimeter and its contents is 188.3 g. Calculate
the latent heat of fusion of naphthalene. (Specific
heat capacity of copper 0.4, of naphthalene 1.3 kJ
kg-1 K-1)
First part:
The specific latent heat of a substance is the heat
required to change unit mass of the solid at the
melting-point to liquid at the same temperature
(fusion), or the heat required to change unit mass
of the liquid at the boiling-point to vapour at the
same temperature (vaporization).
The measurement of the specific latent heat of
evaporation of water requires the following,
among other points: (i) use of a steam trap, (ii) a
rise in temperature of the water in the calorimeter
of about 10°C, (iii) a 'correction' to 100°C as the
steam temperature, if the barometric pressure is
not 76 cm mercury, (iv) a cooling correction.
Second part:
The mass of naphthalene = 188.3— 170.5 = 17.8
g
Heat lost by naphthalene = heat gained by water
and calorimeter.
17.8l + 17.8 x 1.3 x (79.9 – 28.7) = 100 x 4.2 x
(28.7 – 19.5) + 70.5 x 0.4 x (28.7 – 19.5)
l= 164 J g-1 (approx.) = 164 kJ kg-1
Example 6
In an X-ray tube, 1018 electrons per second
arrive with a speed of 2 x 106 m s-1 at a metal
target of mass 200 g and specific heat capacity
0.5 J g-1 K-1. If the mass of an electron is 9.1 x
10-31 kg, and assuming 98% of the incident
energy is converted into heat, find how long the
target will take to rise in temperature by 50°C
assuming no heat losses.
The kinetic energy of a moving object is
joules, where m is the mass in kg
and v is the speed in m s-1. Assuming the initial
speed is zero,
energy per second of incident electrons
169 | P a g e
= x (1018 x 9.1 x 10-31) x (2 x 106)2 J
= 1.8 J (approx.).
Heat gained by target = 200 x 0.5 x 50 J
= 50000 J
time = = 2780 seconds (approx.)
= 46.3 min.
Exercise
1. A 300.0 g sample of water at 80.0ºC is
mixed with 300.0 g of water at 10.0ºC.
Assuming no heat loss to the
surroundings, what is the final
temperature of the mixture?
2. A 400.0 g sample of methanol at 16.0ºC
is mixed with 400.0 g of water at 85.0ºC.
Assuming no heat loss to the
surroundings, what is the final
temperature of the mixture? The specific
heat of methanol is 2450 J/kg ºC.
3. A 100.0 g brass block at 100.0ºC is
placed in 200.0 g of water at 20.0ºC. The
specific heat of brass is 376 J/kg ºC.
Assuming no heat loss to the
surroundings, what is the final
temperature of the mixture?
CHAPTER THIRTEEN
TRANSFER OF HEAT ENERGY
The heat source for our planet is the sun. Energy
from the sun is transferred through space and
through the earth's atmosphere to the earth's
surface. Since this energy warms the earth's
surface and atmosphere, some of it is or becomes
heat energy. There are three ways heat is
transferred; conduction, convection and
radiation.
Conduction
Have you ever left a metal spoon in a pot of soup
being heated on a stove? After a short time, the
handle of the spoon will become hot. This is due
to transfer of heat energy from molecule to
molecule or from atom to atom. Also, when
objects are welded together, the metal becomes
hot (the orange-red glow) by the transfer of heat
from an arc.
Heat is transmitted by conduction when it passes
from the hotter to the colder parts of the medium
material without any movement of the medium
itself and all intermediate parts of the material
being warmed in the process. e.g. Metal rod held
at one end in a fire after a period of time the top
end becomes hot and all intermediate parts also
are warm.
170 | P a g e
 Symbol k
Q kA (T 2 − T 1 )
=
t x
Where
Q = Heat energy flowing through the material
A = Area of the material through which the
heat flows
A metal contain some free (conduction) electrons
T2 = Temperature at face 2 i.e the higher
which are free to move through the material.
temp
When a metal is heated these free electrons gain
T1 = Temperature at face 1 the lower temp
kinetic energy and their speed is increased. The
t = time taken
higher energy electrons drift towards the cooler x = length of the material through which the
parts of the material thereby increasing the
heat flows
average kinetic energy and heating.
k = Thermal conductivity of the material
Recall that the kinetic energy of the electrons of S.I. Units of k
the material is proportional to the temperature of
Rearranging the equation making k the subject
the material. gives
Most metals are good conductors i.e they easily Qx
k =
tA (∆ T )
transmit heat energy by conduction. Units are
Joules metre Joules Watts
= =
Bad conductors are called insulators i.e they do seconds metre 2 (Kelvin ) seconds metre (Kelvin ) metre ( Kelvin )

not easily transmit heat by conduction e.g. wool,

Typical Values of Thermal Conductivity
wood, most liquids and gases.
Substance k (W/m K)
Conduction can happen in solids, liquids and
Copper 400
gasses, but is most noticeable in solids and to a
Lead 36
lesser extent in liquids.
Steel 50
Thermal Conductivity
Glass 1.05
Thermal conductivity is defined as the heat
Polystyrene 0.035
energy flowing through a piece of material per
Loss of heat by conduction is reduced by
second which is 1m in length, 1 m2 in cross-
construction of double walls with the space
sectional area and has a temperature difference of
between them packed with a substance with low
1oC between its ends.

171 | P a g e
conductivity (insulator). This process is called
lagging.
Exercise
The thermal conductivity of good conductors is a
high value e.g copper = 400 W/m oC
The thermal conductivity of a good insulator is
low e.g. polystyrene = 0.035 W/m oC
What does this value mean?
Convention
Convection is the transfer of heat energy in fluids
(i.e. liquid and gas). This type of heating is most
commonly seen in the kitchen when you see
liquid boiling. Convection occurs when a gas or
liquid has different temperatures within its
boundaries. The fluid with the higher
temperature is less dense than that with the lower
temperature. The cooler fluid will sink and the
warmer fluid will rise. This creates a mixing
effect that moves heat energy from the bottom to
all other areas of the fluid.
When water boils, hot water at the bottom rises
to the top and cold water at the top sinks to the
bottom.
Heat from the sun warms the ground. The
atmosphere is heated from the ground by
convection
Convection currents in the atmosphere can create
a low pressure area. This often happens in cities
where the asphalt and concrete get hotter than the
surrounding rural areas.
Air in the atmosphere acts as a fluid. The sun's
radiation strikes the ground, thus warming the
rocks. As the rock's temperature rises due to
conduction, heat energy is released into the
atmosphere, forming a bubble of air which is
warmer than the surrounding air. This bubble of
air rises into the atmosphere. As it rises, the
bubble cools with the heat contained in the
bubble moving into the atmosphere.
As the hot air mass rises, the air is replaced by
the surrounding cooler, denser air, what we feel
as wind. These movements of air masses can be
small in a certain region, such as local cumulus
clouds, or large cycles in the troposphere,
covering large sections of the earth. Convection
172 | P a g e
currents are responsible for many weather
patterns in the troposphere
In fluids, convective heat transfer takes place
through both diffusion – the random Brownian
motion of individual particles in the fluid – and
by advection, in which matter or heat is
transported by the larger-scale motion of currents
in the fluid.
Density is defined as mass per unit volume. As
the fluid is heated the volume increases, the mass
is constant therefore the density decreases.
Hot fluids are less dense than cold fluids and will
rise therefore convection currents (circular
currents or movement within a fluid) due to
different densities of the hotter and cooler parts
are set up.
When heat is transferred by the circulation of
fluids due to buoyancy from the density changes
induced by heating itself, then the process is
known as free or natural convective heat transfer.
How does a radiator heat an entire room? The
key is convection currents. The hot radiator sets
up convection currents that transfer thermal
energy to the rest of the room and eventually heat
the entire room. How do convection currents
work?
The hot radiator warms the air that is closest to
the radiator. The warm air expands, becomes less
dense and rises to the top of the room. When the
air reaches the top of the room it is pushed
sideways towards the far wall by the more
recently warmed air rising from the radiator
below. In this way warm air moves to the other
side of the room. Once on the other side of the
room the air drops down both because it has
cooled a little and because the air behind it
continues to push on it. The air then continues to
circulate back to the radiator and repeat the
process.
By continuing to circulate, the convection current
transfers heat energy to the other side of the
room and heats the entire room. This process can
work in any fluid, whether a liquid or a gas.
Because matter must circulate for convection
currents to transfer thermal energy convection
currents cannot work in a solid. However they
can efficiently transfer heat in a fluid.
Other examples of convection
1. Domestic heating system: With a convection
circulation system set up, the hot water
storage tank gradually becomes filled with
hot water from the top downwards.
173 | P a g e

When hot water is run off, an equal volume from
the cold supply tank enters the hot storage tank at
the bottom. The whole system is thus kept
constantly full of water and no air can enter.
2. Land and sea breezes
Because water has a much higher specific heat
capacity that do sands or other crustal materials,
for a given amount of solar irradiation water
temperature will increase less than
temperature. Regardless of temperature scale,
during daytime, land temperatures might change
by tens of degrees, while water temperature
change by less than half a degree.
Conversely, water's high specific heat capacity
prevents rapid changes in water temperature at
night and thus, while land temperatures may
plummet tens of degrees, the water temperature
remains relatively stable. Moreover, the lower
heat capacity of crustal materials often allows
them to cool below the nearby water
temperature.
Air above the respective land and water surfaces
is warmed or cooled by conduction with those
surfaces. During the day, the warmer land
temperature results in a warmer and therefore,
less dense and lighter air mass above the coast as
compared with the adjacent air mass over the
surface of water. As the warmer air rises by
convection, cooler air is drawn from the ocean to
fill the void. The warmer air mass returns to sea
at higher levels to complete convection current.
Accordingly, during the day, there is usually a
cooling sea breeze blowing from the ocean to the
shore. The greater the temperature differences
between land and sea, the stronger the land
breezes and sea breezes.
land
After sunset, the air mass above the coastal land
quickly loses heat while the air mass above the
water generally remains much closer to its
daytime temperature. When the air mass above
the land becomes cooler than the air mass over
174 | P a g e
water, the wind direction and convection currents
reverse and the land breeze blows from land out
to sea.
Radiation
If you have stood in front of a fireplace or near a
campfire, you have felt the heat transfer known
as radiation. The side of you nearest the fire
warms, while your other side remains unaffected
by the heat. Although you are surrounded by air,
the air has nothing to do with this transfer of
heat. Heat lamps, that keep food warm, work in
the same way. Radiation is the transfer of heat
energy by electromagnetic radiation.
Most of the electromagnetic radiation that comes
to the earth from the sun is in the form of visible
light. Light is made of waves of different
frequencies. The frequency is the number of
instances that a repeated event occurs, over a set
time. In electromagnetic radiation, the frequency
is the number of times an electromagnetic wave
moves past a point each second.
Our brains interpret these different frequencies
into colors, including red, orange, yellow, green,
blue, indigo, and violet. When the eye views all
these different colors at the same time, it is
interpreted as white. Waves from the sun which
we cannot see are infrared, which have lower
frequencies than red, and ultraviolet, which have
higher frequencies than violet light.
Most of the solar radiation is absorbed by the
atmosphere and much of what reaches the earth's
surface is radiated back into the atmosphere to
become heat energy. Dark colored objects such
as asphalt absorb more of the radiant energy and
warm faster that light colored objects. Dark
objects also radiate their energy faster than
lighter colored objects.
Any object that is hot gives off light known as
Thermal Radiation (or sometimes Blackbody
Radiation). The hotter an object is, the more light
it emits. And, as the temperature of the object
increase, it emits most of its light at higher and
higher energies. (Higher energy light means
shorter wavelength light.) The relationship
between the amount of light emitted, its
wavelength and its temperature is an equation
known as the Planck Law, named after the
German physicist Max Planck, who first
discovered it. For a hot object at a given
temperature, T, the equation gives the amount of
light emitted at each wavelength.
175 | P a g e
 of a material medium and does not heat the space
through which it travels.
All hot bodies radiate the also absorb radiant
heat.
If, Rate of heat absorbed = Rate of heat radiated,
Then the body has a constant temperature.
The rate at which a body radiates heat depends
on
• Temperature of the body
• Surface area of the body
• Nature of the surface
Thermal Radiation from Astronomical Objects

Object Temperature Peak Region The Stefan–Boltzmann law, also known as

(K) Wavelength Stefan's law, states that the total energy radiated
per unit surface area of a body in unit time is
Cosmic Microwave directly proportional to the fourth power of the
3 1mm
Background (IR-Radio) body's temperature in Kelvin T (also called
absolute temperature):
Molecular
10 300µm Infrared Q
Cloud = R = εαAT 4
t

Humans 310 9.7µm Infrared Where

R = Rate of energy emitted in Watts
Incandescent 1µm α Stefans constant = 5.67x10-8 W/m2K4
3000 IR/Visible
Light Bulb 10,000Å ε emissivity of the material
T = Temperature of the surface in Kelvin
Sun 6000 5000Å Visible
A = Surface area in m2
Hot Star 30,000 1000Å Ultraviolet
A black body is an object that absorbs all
electromagnetic radiation that falls on it.
Heat is transmitted by Radiation when it is The emissivity of a material (usually written ε) is
passed from one place to another without the aid a measure of a material's ability to radiate

176 | P a g e
absorbed energy. A true black body would have
an ε = 1 while any real object would have ε < 1.
Area, s = 104 cm2
Emissivity is a dimensionless quantity (does not
Time, t, = 30 x 60= 1800 sec.
have units).
Hence,
In general, the duller and blacker a material is,
Q=0.005 x (5 x 104 x 1800) =45 x 104 heat
the closer its emissivity is to 1. The more
units.
reflective a material is, the lower its emissivity.
(ii) Weight of ice formed
Highly polished silver has an emissivity of about
gm.
0.02.
Volume of ice

= 6.1*103 c.c
Thickness =

Methods of heat transfer
Example
Water contained in an open tank is covered with
ice 3 cm thick. If the area of the tank be 1 m2,
and if the coefficient of thermal conductivity of
ice be 0.005, calculate the amount of heat
transmitted in 30 minutes through the ice when
the temperature of the air is -15oC. Also, if the
latent heat of water be 80 units, calculate what
increase in the thickness of the ice will take place
during this interval.
Solution
The fall of temperature per unit thickness,
Exercise
1. A glass window 0.40cm thick measures
83cm by 36cm. How much heat flows
through this window per minute if the inside
and outside temperatures differ by 13oC ?
2. Two metal rods of equal length-one
aluminium, the other stainless steel-are
connected in parallel with a temperature of
14oC at one end and 130 oC at the other end.
Both rods have a circular cross section with a
diameter of 3.00cm. Determine the length
the rods must have if the combined rate of
heat flow through them is to be 40.0 J per
second.
3. Water is boiled in a rectangular steel tank
heated through a base which is 5 mm thick.

177 | P a g e
 If the water level falls at a rate of 1 cm every Law of Distribution of Energy.
5 minutes calculate the temperature of the The theoretical explanation of black body
lower surface of the base of the tank. radiation was done by Planck.
4. Consider a double-paned window consisting If the walls of hollow enclosure are maintained at
of two panes of glass, each with a thickness a constant temperature, then the inside of
of 0.550cm and an area of 0.740 m2, enclosure are filled with the electromagnetic
separated by a layer of air with a thickness of radiation.
2.00 cm. The temperature on one side of the The radiation coming out from a small hole in
window is 00C; the temperature on the other the enclosure are called black body radiation.
side is 23oC. In addition, note that the According to Max Planck, the radiation inside
thermal conductivity of glass is roughly 36 the enclosure may be assumed to be produced by
times greater than that of air. Approximate a number of harmonic oscillators.
the heat transfer through this window. A harmonic oscillator oscillating with frequency
5. The silica cylinder of a radiant wall heater is ν can possesses energies, which are integral
60 cm long and has a radius of 5 mm. If it is multiples of hν. Where h is a constant, called
rated at 1.5 kWatts estimate its temperature Planck's constant. Thus the harmonic oscillator
when in operation. Assume 5.67 x 10-8 W / can posses energies given by E = nh ν where n is
an integer.
m2 K4
According to Planck's law
6. Assuming your skin temperature is 37.2oC
8πhc 1
and the temperature of your surroundings is Eλ dλ = 5 hc / λKT
dλ
λ [e − 1]
23.4 oC, determine the length of time
This law is valid for radiations of all
required for you to radiate away the energy
wavelengths ranging from zero to infinite.
gained by eating a 320-Calorie ice cream
For radiations of short wavelength
cone. Let the emissivity of your skin be 0.915
 hc 
and its area be 1.27 m2.  λ << 
 KT 
1 Calorie = 1000 calories
Planck's law reduces to Wien's energy
1 calorie = 4.186 J.
A
distribution law E λ d λ = 5
e − B / λT d λ
λ
For radiations of long wavelength
 hc 
 λ >> 
 KT 

178 | P a g e
 Planck's law reduces to Rayleigh-Jeans dQ dT
= mc (ii)
8πKT dt dt
energy distribution law E λ d λ = dλ
λ4 From equation (i) and (ii)
dT
mc = eA σ (T 4 − T04 )
Stefan's Law. dt

According to it the radiant energy emitted by a ∴ Rate of fall of temperature or rate of cooling,

perfectly black body per unit area per sec (i.e. dT eA σ 4

= (T − T04 ) (iii)
dt mc
emissive power of black body) is directly
i.e. when a body cools by radiation the rate
proportional to the fourth power of its absolute
of cooling depends on
temperature,
(a) Nature of radiating surface i.e. greater the
i.e. E ∝ T 4 or E = σT 4
emissivity, faster will be the cooling.
where σ is a constant called Stefan’s constant
(b) Area of radiating surface, i.e. greater the area
−3 −4
having dimension [MT θ ] and value of radiating surface, faster will be the cooling.
−8 2 4
5 .67 × 10 W / m K . (c) Mass of radiating body i.e. greater the mass
(i) If e is the emissivity of the body then of radiating body slower will be the cooling.
E = e σT 4 (d) Specific heat of radiating body i.e. greater the
(ii) If Q is the total energy radiated by the body specific heat of radiating body slower will be
Q cooling.
then E = = e σT 4 ⇒ Q = A t eσT 4
A×t (e) Temperature of radiating body i.e. greater the
(iii) If a body at temperature T is surrounded by a temperature of body faster will be cooling.
body at temperature T0, then Stefan's law may be (f) Temperature of surrounding i.e. greater the
put as temperature of surrounding slower will be
E = e σ (T 4 − T04 ) cooling.
(iv) Cooling by radiation: If a body at
temperature T is in an environment of Wien's Law
temperature T0(< T), the body is losing as well as Wien's Law tells us that objects of different
receiving so net rate of loss of energy temperature emit spectra that peak at different
dQ wavelengths.
= eA σ (T 4 − T04 ) (i)
dt • Hotter objects emit most of their radiation at
Now if m is the mass of body and c its specific shorter wavelengths; hence they will appear
heat, the rate of loss of heat at temperature T is to be bluer.

179 | P a g e
• Cooler objects emit most of their radiation at
longer wavelengths; hence they will appear
to be redder.
Furthermore, at any wavelength, a hotter object
radiates more (is more luminous) than a cooler
one.
Prevost proposed that free radiant heat is a very
rare fluid, rays of which, like light rays, pass
through each other without
disturbance of their passage. Prevost's theory of
exchanges stated that each body radiates to, and
receives radiation from, other bodies.
Kirchhoff’s Law
Many people have a problem getting their head
around Kirchhoff’s Law, which states that the
absorptivity of a body is equal to its emissivity at
every wavelength. They don’t have a problem
that, when spectrally averaged, the two have to
yield energy balance. They don’t get why they
have to be equal at each wavelength.
The classical argument begins with considering a
body placed in a blackbody cavity at temperature
T. Energy balance for the body requires that it
emits as much energy as it absorbs, and thus
doesn’t heat up or cool down. That is,
∫ Fλ , BB α λ dλ = ∫ Fλ , BB ε λ dλ
where the integral is over all wavelengths, and
represents an average over the whole surface of
the body in the cavity. This basically says that
the Planck-weighted average absorptivity equals
the Planck-weighted average emissivity, α = ε .
The contrarian’s argument goes: “If the average
emissivity equals the average absorptivity, then
we still have energy balance… Why does it have
to be in balance at each individual wavelength?
detectable Can’t you absorb a little more at one wavelength
and then emit a little more at another and still be
in equilibrium?”
The answer is “Not if the system is in
thermodynamic equilibrium.” But the
explanations in the text are neither completely
satisfying to me nor general, nor do they
emphasize the key insights Kirchhoff started
with. The key insights are:
1) Thermo requires that, over time, the body
must acquire the same temperature as the cavity.
2) Thermo also requires that if they are at the
same temperature, the net energy flowing into
the body equals that flowing out (this is what we
already asserted above).
3) The emission by the body is only a function of
its temperature – not a function of the incoming
radiation. Thus if the body is at the same
temperature T outside the cavity, it will still emit
the same amount of radiation at the same
wavelengths as it does inside the cavity.
180 | P a g e
Similarly, the absorptivity, is solely a function molecules are raised to “excited states” that they
of its temperature, not of its environment. wouldn’t achieve without all those high
frequency photons around. If these excited states
The third insight may sound innocuous, but ends emit photons back, those photons will be higher
up resulting in the very specific requirement that energy than would normally be emitted by those

as opposed to the less strict α = ε . molecules at that temperature. Thus the

“emissivity” at short wavelengths will be greater

These three rules (and the cavity assumption) than one.

define a condition called “Thermodynamic Examples

Equilibrium” (TE) in which the energetic 1) The heat is flowing through a rod

properties of a space are entirely determined by a of length 50 cm and area of cross-section 5

single temperature T. That includes radiation, cm2. Its ends are respectively at 25oC and

molecular velocities, (and if you carry it to 125oC. The coefficient of thermal

extremes, chemical states). In its purest sense, conductivity of the material of the rod is

TE requires that any irreversible process in that 0.092 kcal/m s oC. The temperature gradient

space has run its course. The matter and in the rod is;

radiation that passes into the space is identical to Solution

the matter and radiation that passes out of it. It Temperature gradient

basically resembles the inside of a cavity. ∆θ θ 2 − θ1 125 − 25

= = = = 2 o C / cm .
∆x ∆x 50
2) Consider two rods of same length and
To understand what TE really is, it’s useful to
different specific heats (s1 and s2),
consider what it is NOT. Consider the difference
conductivities K1 and K2 and areas of cross-
between a parcel of air in the atmosphere having
section (A1 and A2) and both giving
temperature T, and that same parcel enclosed
temperature T1 and T2 at their ends. If the
within a cavity whose walls are at temperature T,
rate of heat loss due to conduction is equal,
and for which any irreversible process has run its
then
course. The first key difference is that during the
Solution
daytime the atmosphere is bombarded by high
According to problem, rate of heat loss in
energy solar photons that simply wouldn’t be
dQ dQ
there in a cavity at atmospheric temperature. both rods are equal i.e.   =  
 dt  1  dt  2
When these photons are absorbed, the absorbing

181 | P a g e
 K 1 A 1 ∆θ 1 K A ∆θ W/moC. The two ends of this rod must be
⇒ = 2 2 2
l1 l2
kept at a temperature difference of
∴ K 1 A1 = K 2 A 2 [As ∆θ 1 = ∆θ 2 = (T1 – T2) Solution
and l1 = l 2 given] dQ KA ∆θ
From =
dt l
3) Two rods (one semi-circular and
l dQ
other straight) of same material and of same ⇒ ∆θ = ×
K × A dt
cross-sectional area are joined as shown in 0 .1
= × 4000
the figure. The points A and B are maintained 400 × (100 × 10 − 4 )

at different temperature. The ratio of the heat = 100oC

transferred through a cross-section of a semi- 5) A room is maintained at 20oC by
circular rod to the heat transferred through a a heater of resistance 20 ohm connected to
cross-section of the straight rod in a given 200 volt mains. The temperature is uniform
time is through out the room and heat is transmitted
through a glass window of area 1 m2 and
thickness 0.2 cm. What will be the temperature
Semi circular
rod outside? Given that thermal conductivity K for
A Straight rod B glass is 0.2 cal/m × oC × sec and J = 4.2 J/cal
Solution
As the temperature of room remain constant
Solution therefore the rate of heat generation from the
dQ KA ∆θ heater should be equal to the rate of flow of
= , For both rods K, A and ∆θ are
dt l
heat through a glass window
same
1 V2  ∆θ
dQ 1  t  = KA .t
∴ ∝ J  R l
 
dt l

(dQ / dt ) semi circular l straight 1 (200 ) 2 0 .2 × 1 × (20 − θ )

So = =
2r
=
2
. ⇒ × =
(dQ / dt ) straight l semicircular πr π 4.2 20 0 .2 × 10 − 2

4) A heat flux of 4000 J/s is to be ⇒ θ = 15.24oC

passed through a copper rod of length 10 [where θ = temperature of outside]

cm and area of cross-section 100 cm2. The 6) A point source of heat of power P is placed at

thermal conductivity of copper is 400 the centre of a spherical shell of mean radius
R. The material of the shell has thermal

182 | P a g e
 conductivity K. If the temperature difference Solution
between the outer and the inner surface of the λ m T = constant
shell is not to exceed T, then the thickness of (λ m ) 2 T 200 1
⇒ = 1 = =
the shell should not be less than (λ m )1 T 2 1000 5

Solution (λ m )1 14 µ m
⇒ (λ m ) 2 = = = 2.8 µm.
5 5
Rate of flow of heat or power (P)
9) The energy spectrum of a black
KA ∆θ K 4πR 2 T
= = body exhibits a maximum around a
∆x ∆x

4πR 2 KT wavelength λ0 . The temperature of the black

∴ Thickness of shell ∆x = .
P body is now changed such that the energy is
7) There are three thermometers – one in 3 λ0
maximum around a wavelength . The
4
contact with the skin of the man, other in
power radiated by the black body will now
between the vest and the shirt and third in
increase by a factor of
between the shirt and coat. The readings of
Solution
the thermometers are 30oC, 25oC and 22oC
According to Wien's law wavelength
respectively. If the vest and shirt are of the
corresponding to maximum energy decreases.
same thickness, the ratio of their thermal
When the temperature of black body
conductivities is
increases
Solution
i.e. λ m T = constant
Rate of flow of heat will be equal in both vest
and shirt T2 λ λ0 4
⇒ = 1 = =
T1 λ 2 3λ0 / 4 3
K vest A.∆θ vest t K shirt A ∆θ shirt t
∴ =
l l Now according to Stefan's law
4 4
Kvest ∆θ shirt E 2  T2  4 256
⇒ = =  =  = .
K shirt ∆θ vest E1  T1  3
  81
Kvest 25 − 22 3 10) Two black metallic spheres of radius 4m, at
⇒ = = .
K shirt 30 − 25 5
2000 K and 1m at 4000 K will have ratio of
8) A black body at 200 K is found to emit
energy radiation as
maximum energy at a wavelength of 14 µm.
Solution
When its temperature is raised to 1000 K, the
Q = σ A t T4
wavelength at which maximum energy is
emitted is

183 | P a g e
⇒ CHAPTER FOURTEEN
4 4 2 4 PHASES OF MATTER
Q1 A T  π r2  T1  4  2000  1
= 1  1  = 1


T
 =   ×
  = 16 × = 1:1
Q2 A 2  T2  π r22  2  1
   4000  16 Density
. Matter is a substance which has mass and
occupies space. The density of matter refers to
how much mass is in a given volume. Said
differently, you can imagine the density to be the
amount of mass packed into a given volume.
Density =

If we consider a bar of soap and a bar of steel

with the same volume, the steel will have more
mass because it has a greater density. The density
is greater in steal because more atoms are closely
packed in comparison to the soap. Although they
are both the same size, the bar of steel will be
"heavier" because it has more mass.
Example
A bar of aluminium (Al) has dimensions 2cm x
3cm x 5cm with a mass of 81g. A bar of lead
(Pb) has dimensions 3cm x 3cm x 5cm and a
mass of 510.3g. Calculate the density of the
aluminium and lead.

184 | P a g e
Solution
First we calculate the volume of Al and Pb
Volume = length x width x height
For aluminium: volume = 2 x 3 x 5 = 30 cm3
For lead: volume = 3 x 3 x 5 = 45 cm3
We can now calculate the densities using the
mass and volume of each material.
For aluminium: density = = 2.7 g/cm3
For lead: density = = 11.34 g/cm3
Now that you know the density of aluminium
and lead, which object would be bigger (larger
volume): 1kg of Lead or 1kg of Aluminium?
1kg of aluminium will be much larger in volume
than 1kg of lead. Aluminium has a smaller
density so it will take a lot more of it to have a
weight of 1kg. Lead is much denser, so it will
take less for it to weigh 1kg.
The density of liquids and gases can be
calculated the same way as in solids. If the mass
and volume of a liquid is known, the density can
be calculated. We can often determine which
liquid has a greater density by mixing two liquids
and seeing how they settle. The denser liquid will
fall towards the bottom, or 'sink'. If you have
ever added olive oil to water, you have seen it
sits on the surface, or 'floats'. This is because
olive oil is less dense than water. Fog occurs
when water vapor becomes denser than air ("a
cloud that sinks in air").
This principle can be used with solids and
liquids. In fact, it is the density of an object that
determines if it will float or sink in water.
Objects with densities greater than water will
sink.
Objects Floating in Water
Example
Ivory soap is famous for "soap that floats". If a
5cm x 3cm x 10cm bar of ivory soap weighs 1.35
Newtons, show that its density is less than water.
Solution
Volume = 3 x 5 x 10 = 150 cm3
Now we must determine the mass of the bar
based on its weight. We will use Newton's
Second law (F = ma):
Weight = mass x gravity
Mass = = 0.138 kg
Using the mass and the volume we determine the
density of the soap:
Density = = 0.92 g/cm3
Water has a density of 1 g/cm3, therefore the
soap is less dense than water, allowing it to float.
Phases of Matter
Matter can exist in three phases (or states) which
include solid, liquid and gas. Generally, as a
solid is heated (or as pressure decreases), it will
change to a liquid form, and will eventually
become a gas. For example, ice (frozen water)
melts into liquid water when it is heated. As the
water boils, the water evaporates and becomes
185 | P a g e
water vapour. Sometimes, a solid will go
directly from solid to gas - this is called
subliming. An example of sublimation is dry ice,
the solid (frozen) form of carbon dioxide, CO2,
which turns into gaseous carbon dioxide at
standard temperature and pressure - there is no
liquid phase of CO2 at standard temperature and
pressure.
Phase Transitions
Solid
A state change of any material due to
A solid is matter in which the molecules are very
temperature or pressure change is a phase
close together and cannot move around.
transition. A phase transition is a physical change
Examples of solids include rocks, wood, and ice
(or reaction).
(frozen water).
Solid to gas → Sublimation Gas to solid →
Deposition
Liquid
Solid to liquid → Melting Liquid to
A liquid is matter in which the molecules are
Solid → Freezing/Solidification
close together and move around slowly.
Gas to liquid → Condensation Liquid to
Examples of liquids include drinking water,
gas → Vaporization/Evaporation
mercury at room temperature, and lava (molten
Sublimation Deposition
rock).
SOLID GAS SOLID
Gas
Melting Freezing
A gas is matter in which the molecules are
SOLID LIQUID SOLID
widely separated, move around freely, and move
Condensation Vaporization
at high speeds. Examples of gases include the
GAS LIQUID GAS
gases we breathe (nitrogen, oxygen, and others),
the helium in balloons, and steam (water vapor).
The Solid State
Substances exist in the solid, liquid or gaseous
state. In the solid state, a body has a regular,
geometrical structure. Sometimes this structure
gives the body a regular outward form, as in a
crystal of alum; sometimes, as in a strand of

186 | P a g e
wool, it does not. But X-rays can reveal to us the
arrangement of the individual atoms or
molecules in a solid; and whether the solid is
wool or alum, we find that its atoms or molecules
are arranged in a regular pattern. This pattern we
call a space-lattice; its form may be simple, as in
metals, or complicated, as in wool, proteins, and
other chemically complex substances.
We consider that the atoms or molecules of a
solid are vibrating about their mean positions in
its space-lattice. And we consider that the kinetic
energy of their vibrations increases with the
temperature of the solid: its increase is the heat
energy supplied to cause the rise in temperature.
When the temperature reaches the melting-point,
the solid liquefies. Lindemann has suggested
that, at the melting-point, the atoms or molecules
vibrate so violently that they collide with one
another. The attractive forces between them can
then no longer hold them in their pattern, the
space-lattice collapses, and the solid melts. The
work necessary to overcome the forces between
the atoms or molecules of the solid, that is, to
break-up the space-lattice, is the latent heat of
melting or fusion.
The Liquid State
In the liquid state, a body has no form, but a
fixed volume. It adapts itself to the shape of its
vessel, but does not expand to fill it. We consider
that its molecules still dart about at random, as in
the gaseous state, and we consider that their
average kinetic energy rises with the liquid's
temperature. But we think that they are now
close enough together to attract one another —
by forces of a more-or-less gravitational nature.
Any molecule approaching the surface of the
liquid experiences a resultant force opposing its
escape (Surface Tension). Nevertheless, some
molecules do escape, as is shown by the fact that
the liquid evaporates: even in cold weather, a
pool of water does not last forever. The
molecules which escape are the fastest, for they
have the greatest kinetic energy, and therefore
the greatest chance of overcoming the attraction
of the others. Since the fastest escape, the slower,
which remain, begin to predominate: the average
kinetic energy of the molecules falls, and the
liquid cools. The faster a liquid evaporates, the
colder it feels on the hand — petrol feels colder
than water, water feels colder than paraffin. To
keep a liquid at constant temperature as it
evaporates, heat must be supplied to it; the heat
required is the latent heat of evaporation.
Melting and Freezing
When a solid change to a liquid, we say it
undergoes a change of state or phase. Pure
crystalline solids melt and freeze sharply. If, for
example, paradichlorbenzene is warmed in a test
tube until it melts, and then allowed to cool, its
temperature falls as shown in Fig. 1 (a).
187 | P a g e
 Fig. 1. Cooling curves showing freezing
A well-defined plateau in the cooling curve
indicates the freezing (or melting) point. While
the substance is freezing, it is evolving its latent
heat of fusion, which compensates for the heat
lost by cooling, and its temperature does not fall.
An impure substance such as paraffin wax, on
the other hand, has no definite plateau on its
cooling curve; it is a mixture of several waxes,
which freeze out from the liquid at slightly
different temperatures (Fig. 1 (b)).
Pressure and Melting
The melting-point of a solid is affected by
increase of pressure. If we run a copper wire over
a block of ice, and hang a heavy weight from it,
as in Fig. 2, we find that the wire slowly works
through the block. It does not cut its way
through, for the ice freezes up behind it; the
pressure of the wire makes the ice under it melt,
and above the wire, where the pressure is
released, the ice freezes again. The freezing
again after melting by pressure is called
regelation.
Fig. 2. Melting of ice under pressure
This experiment shows that increasing the
pressure on ice makes it melt more readily; that
is to say, it lowers the melting-point of the ice.
We can understand this effect when we
remember that ice shrinks when it melts; pressure
encourages shrinking, and therefore melting.
The fall in the melting-point of ice with increase
in pressure is small: 0.0072°C per atmosphere. It
is interesting, because it explains the slipperiness
of ice; skates for example, are hollow ground, so
that the pressure on the line of contact is very
high, and gives rise to a lubricating film of water.
Ice which is much colder than 0°C is not
slippery, because to bring its melting-point down
to its actual temperature would require a greater
pressure than can be realized. Most substances
swell on melting; an increase of pressure opposes
the melting of such sub- stances, and raises their
melting-point.
Freezing of Solutions
Water containing a dissolved substance freezes
below 0°C. The depression of the freezing-point
188 | P a g e
increases at first with the concentration, but
eventually reaches a maximum. The lowest
freezing-point of common salt solution is -22°C,
when the solution contains about one-quarter of
its weight of salt. When a solution does freeze,
pure ice separates out; an easy way of preparing
pure water is therefore to freeze it, remove the
ice, and then melt the ice. The water which is
mixed with the ice in determining the ice-point
of a thermometer must be pure, or its temperature
will not be 0°C.
When ice and salt are mixed, the mixture cools
below 0°C, but remains liquid. As the proportion
of salt is increased, the temperature of the
mixture falls, until it reaches a minimum at -
22°C. A mixture of ice and salt provides a simple
means of reaching temperatures below 0°C, and
is called a 'freezing mixture'.
Evaporation
Evaporation differs from melting in that it takes
place at all temperatures; as long as the weather
is dry, a puddle will always clear up. In cold
weather the puddle lasts longer than in warm, as
the rate of evaporation falls rapidly with the
temperature.
Solids as well as liquids evaporate. Tungsten
evaporates from the filament of an electric lamp,
and blackens its bulb; the blackening can be
particularly well seen on the headlamp bulb of a
bicycle dynamo set, if it has been frequently
over-run through riding down-hill. The rate of
evaporation of a solid is negligible at
temperatures well below its melting-point, as we
may see from the fact that bars of metal do not
gradually disappear.
Saturated and Unsaturated Vapours
Fig. 3 (a) shows an apparatus with which we can
study vapours and their pressures. A is a glass
tube, about a metre long, dipping in a mercury
trough and backed by a scale S. Its upper end
carries a bulb B, which is fitted with three taps T,
of which T1 and T2 should be as close together
as possible. Above T1 is a funnel F. With T1
closed but T2 open, we evacuate the bulb and
tube through T3, with a rotary pump. If the
apparatus is clean, the mercury in A rises to the
barometer height H. Meanwhile we put some
ether in the funnel F. When the apparatus is
evacuated, we close T3 and T2. We now open
and close T1, so that a little ether flows into the
space C. Lastly, we open T2 , so that the ether
evaporates into the bulb B. As it does so, the
mercury in A falls, showing that the ether-
vapour is exerting a pressure (Fig. 3 (b)). If h is
the new height of the mercury in A, then the
pressure of the vapour in mm of mercury is equal
to H — h.
189 | P a g e

Fig. 3. Apparatus for studying vapours
By closing T1, opening and closing T2, and then
exposing T1 again, we can introduce more ether
into the space B. At first, we find that, with each
introduction, the pressure of the vapour, H — h,
increases. But we reach a point at which the
introduction of more ether does not increase the
pressure, the height of the mercury column
remains constant at h'. At this point we notice
that liquid ether appears above the mercury in A
(Fig. 3 (c)). We say that the vapour in B is now
saturated; a saturated vapour is one that is in
contact with its own liquid. Before the liquid
appeared in the above experiment, the pressure
of the vapour could be increased by introducing
more ether, and we say that the vapour in B was
then unsaturated.
Behaviour of Saturated Vapour
To find out more about the saturated vapour, we
may try to expand or compress it. We can try to
compress it by raising the mercury reservoir M.
But when we do, we find that the height h' does
not change: the pressure of the vapour, H — h', is
therefore constant (Fig. 3 (d)). The only change
we notice is an increase in the volume of liquid
above the mercury. We conclude, therefore, that
reducing the volume of a saturated vapour does
not increase its pressure, but merely makes some
of it condense to liquid.
Similarly, if we lower the reservoir M, to
increase the volume of the vapour, we do not
decrease its pressure. Its pressure stays constant,
but the volume of liquid above the mercury now
decreases; liquid evaporates, and keeps the
vapour saturated. If we increase the volume of
the vapour until all the liquid has evaporated,
then the pressure of the vapour begins to fall,
because it becomes unsaturated.
Kinetic Theory of Saturation
Let us consider a vapour in contact with its
liquid, in an otherwise empty vessel which is
closed by a piston (Fig. 4). The molecules of the
vapour, we suppose, are rushing randomly about,
like the molecules of a gas, with kinetic energies
whose average value is determined by the
temperature of the vapour. They bombard the
190 | P a g e
walls of the vessel, giving rise to the pressure of
the vapour, and they also bombard the surface of
the liquid.
Fig. 4. Dynamic Equilibrum
The molecules of the liquid, we further suppose,
are also rushing about with kinetic energies
deter- equilibrium, mined by the temperature of
the liquid. The fastest of them escape from the
surface of the liquid. At the surface, therefore,
there are molecules leaving the liquid, and
molecules arriving from the vapour. To complete
our picture of the conditions at the surface, we
suppose that the vapour molecules bombarding it
are not reflected — as they are at the walls of the
vessel — but are absorbed into the liquid. We
may expect them to be, because we consider that
molecules near the surface of a liquid are
attracted towards the body of the liquid.
We shall assume that the liquid and vapour have
the same temperature. Then the proportions of
liquid and vapour will not change, if the
temperature and the total volume are kept
constant. Therefore, at the surface of the liquid,
molecules must be arriving and departing at the
same rate, and hence evaporation from the liquid
is balanced by condensation from the vapour.
This state of affairs is called a dynamic
equilibrium. In terms of it, we can explain the
behaviour of a saturated vapour.
The rate at which molecules leave unit area of
the liquid depends simply on their average
kinetic energy, and therefore on the temperature.
The rate at which molecules strike unit area of
the liquid, from the vapour, likewise depends on
the temperature; but it also depends on the
concentration of the molecules in the vapour, that
is to say, on the density of the vapour. The
density and temperature of the vapour also
determine its pressure; the rate of bombardment
therefore depends on the pressure of the vapour.
Now let us suppose that we decrease the volume
of the vessel in Fig. 4 by pushing in the piston.
Then we momentarily increase the density of the
vapour, and hence the number of its molecules
striking the liquid surface per second. The rate of
condensation thus becomes greater than the rate
of evaporation, and the liquid grows at the
expense of the vapour. As the vapour condenses
its density falls, and so does the rate of
condensation. The dynamic equilibrium is
restored when the rate of condensation, and the
density of the vapour, have returned to their
original values. The pressure of the vapour will
then also have returned to its original value.
191 | P a g e
Thus, the pressure of a saturated vapour is
independent of its volume. The proportion of
liquid to vapour, however, increases as the
volume decreases.
Let us now suppose that we warm the vessel in
Fig. 12.4, but keep the piston fixed. Then we
increase the rate of evaporation from the liquid,
and increase the proportion of vapour in the
mixture. Since the volume is constant, the
pressure of the vapour rises, and increases the
rate at which molecules bombard the liquid.
Thus, the dynamic equilibrium is restored, at a
higher pressure of vapour. The increase of
pressure with temperature is rapid, because the
rate of evaporation of the liquid increases rapidly
— almost exponentially — with the temperature.
A small rise in temperature causes a large
increase in the proportion of molecules in the
liquid moving fast enough to escape from it.
Boiling
A liquid boil when its saturated vapour pressure
is equal to the atmospheric pressure. To see that
this is true, we take a closed J-shaped tube, with
water trapped in its closed limb (Fig. 5 (a)). We
heat the tube in a beaker of water, and watch the
water in the J-tube. It remains trapped as at (a)
until the water in the beaker is boiling. Then the
water in the J-tube comes to the same level in
each limb, showing that the pressure of the
vapour in the closed limb is equal to the pressure
of the air outside (Fig. 5 (b)).
The J-tube gives a simple means of measuring
the boiling-point of a liquid which is in-
flammable, or which has a poisonous vapour, or
of which only a small quantity can be had. A few
drops of the liquid are imprisoned by mercury in
the closed limb of the tube, all entrapped air
having been shaken out (Fig. 5 (c)). The tube is
then heated in a bath, and the temperature
observed at which the mercury comes to the
same level in both limbs. The bath is warmed a
little further, and then a second observation made
as the bath cools; the mean of the two
observations is taken as the boiling-point of the
liquid.
Fig. 5. Use of J-tube for boiling-point
Boiling differs from evaporation in that a liquid
evaporates from its surface alone, but it boils
throughout its volume. If we ignore the small
hydrostatic pressure of the liquid itself, we may
say that the pressure throughout a vessel of liquid
is the atmospheric pressure. Therefore, when the
saturated vapour pressure is equal to the
192 | P a g e
atmospheric pressure, a bubble of vapour can
form anywhere in the liquid.
Generally, the bottom of the liquid is the hottest
part of it, and bubbles form there and rise
through the liquid to the surface. Just before the
liquid boils, its bottom part may be at the
boiling-point, and its upper part below. Bubbles
of vapour then form at the bottom, rise in to the
colder liquid, and then collapse. The collapsing
gives rise to the singing of a kettle about to boil.
Variation of Saturated Vapour Pressure with
Temperature
We can now see how the relationship between
the pressure of a saturated vapour and its
temperature can be measured. We must apply
various known air pressures to the liquid, heat
the liquid, and measure the temperature of its
vapour. Fig. 6 shows a suitable apparatus, due to
Regnault. The flask F contains the liquid, water
in a
Fig. 6. Apparatus for variation of S.V.P. with
temperature.
laboratory experiment, and the flask R is an air
reservoir. The pressure of the air in R is shown
by the mercury manometer M; if its height is h,
the pressure in mm mercury is
p = H – h,
where H is the barometer height.
We first withdraw some air from R through the
tap T, with a filter pump, until p is about 700
mm. We then close T and heat the water gently.
The water vapour condenses in the condenser,
and runs back to the flask. After a few minutes
the water boils steadily. The temperature of the
vapour, , and the pressure, p, become constant
and we record their values. We next remove the
flame from the flask F, and let the apparatus cool
for a minute or two. Then we withdraw some
more air from R, close T again, and repeat the
observations.
If we wish to find the saturated vapour pressure
when it is above atmospheric, that is to say, when
the temperature is above the normal boiling-point
of the liquid, air is pumped into the reservoir R
— with a bicycle pump — instead of drawing it
out. The manometer M then shows the excess
pressure, and
p=H+h
Boiling Point of a Solution
At a given pressure, the boiling-point of water
containing a dissolved substance is higher than
that of pure water. The temperature of the steam
evolved from the solution, however, is the
193 | P a g e
temperature of saturated steam at the prevailing
pressure. Traces of dissolved substances in the
where p is the saturated vapour pressure of water,
water therefore do not affect the steam point in
and p is the lowering by solution. Thus, the
thermometry.
lowering simply depends on the number of
Since a liquid boil when its saturated vapour
particles hindering evaporation.
pressure is equal to the atmospheric pressure, we
Effect of Altitude on Boiling Point
must conclude that dissolving a substance in
The pressure of the atmosphere decreases with
water lowers its saturated vapour pressure, at a
increasing height above the earth's surface,
given temperature (Fig. 7). We may explain this
because the thickness, and therefore the weight,
by supposing that the molecules of the dissolved
of the belt of air above the observer decreases.
substance, which do not evaporate, hinder the
The rate of fall in pressure is almost uniform
escape of the molecules of the water.
over fairly small heights — about 85 mm
mercury per km. But at great altitudes the rate of
fall diminishes. At the height of Everest, 9000 m,
the atmospheric pressure is about 280 mm of
mercury. On account of the fall in atmospheric
pressure, the boiling point of water falls with
increasing height. Cooking-pots for use in high
mountainous districts, such as the Andes, are
Fig. 7. Effect of solute on saturated vapour
therefore fitted with clamped lids. As the water
pressure.
boils, the steam accumulates in the pot, and its
The lowering of the vapour pressure of water by
pressure rises above atmospheric. At about 760
a dissolved solid gives striking support to the
mm mercury a safety valve opens, so that the
kinetic theory of evaporation. For measurements
pressure does not rise above that value, and the
of the vapour pressure show that reduction does
cooking is done at 100°C.
not depend on the nature of the solute; it depends
The fall in the boiling-point with atmospheric
only on the number of dissolved particles in the
pressure gives a simple way of determining one's
solution expressed as a fraction of the total
height above sea-level. One observes the steam
number of particles (solute plus water
point with a thermometer and hypsometer.
molecules). In fact, if there are n solute particles
Knowing how the steam point falls with
to every 100— n water molecules, then
pressure, and how atmospheric pressure falls

194 | P a g e
with increasing height, one can then find one's
altitude. The hypsometer was, in fact, devised for
this purpose, and takes its name from it ; hypsos
is Greek for height. Hypsometers have been
carried up Himalayan peaks; and one was found
by Scott and his companions in Amundsen's
abandoned tent at the South Pole.
Variation of Latent Heat with Temperature
When we speak of the latent heat of evaporation
of a liquid, we usually mean the heat required to
vaporize unit mass of it at its normal boiling-
point, that is to say, under normal atmospheric
pressure. But since evaporation takes place at all
temperatures, the latent heat has a value for every
temperature. Regnault measured the latent heat
of steam over a range of temperatures, by boiling
water at controlled pressures, as in measuring its
saturated vapour pressure. His apparatus was in
principle similar to Berthelot's; but he connected
the outlet tube to an air reservoir, manometer,
and pump, as in Fig. 6. Modern measurements
give, approximately,
l = 2520-2-50
where l is the specific latent heat in kJ kg-1 at
0°C.
Internal and External Latent Heats
The volume of 1 g of steam at 100°C is 1672
cm3. Therefore, when 1 g of water turns into
steam, it expands by 1671 cm3; in doing so, it
does work against the atmospheric pressure. The
heat equivalent of this work is that part of the
latent heat which must be supplied to the water to
make it overcome atmospheric pressure as it
evaporates; it is called the 'external latent heat'.
The rest of the specific latent heat — the internal
part — is the equivalent of the work done in
separating the molecules, against their mutual
attractions.
Water vapour in the atmosphere
The water vapour in the atmosphere is important
because it affects our comfort. Except in cold
weather, we sweat continuously: the water in the
sweat evaporates, draws its latent heat of
evaporation from the skin, and so keeps us cool.
Beads of sweat appear only when the water
cannot evaporate as fast as it reaches the surface
of the skin; we then feel uncomfortably hot.
On the other hand, if water evaporates from the
skin too rapidly, the skin feels parched and hard;
around the mucous membranes — at the mouth
and nose — it tends to crack.
The rate at which water evaporates, from the skin
or anywhere else, depends on the pressure of the
water vapour surrounding it. If the water vapour
above the skin is far from saturated, evaporation
is swift. If the vapour is already saturated, water
reaching the skin comes immediately into
dynamic equilibrium with it; individual
molecules are exchanged between liquid and
vapour, but no mass of liquid is lost, and water
accumulates.
195 | P a g e
 The Partial Pressure of Atmospheric Water
The atmosphere contains other gases besides
water-vapour, such as oxygen and nitrogen. In
speaking of the water-vapour, therefore, we must
refer to its 'partial pressure'.
Water-vapour in the atmosphere is also important
because it affects the weather. Let us suppose
that the atmosphere has a temperature of 20°C —
a warm day — and that the water vapour in it has
a partial pressure of 12 mm mercury. It will have
a density of about 12 mg per litre. The density of
saturated water vapour at 20°C is 17.3 mg per
litre, and its pressure 17.5 mm mercury. The
water vapour in the atmosphere is therefore not
saturated. Now let us suppose that
atmosphere cools to 14°C, without changing its
composition. The 6°C fall in temperature will
hardly affect the density of the water vapour, but
it will bring the atmosphere to saturation. For the
pressure of saturated water vapour at 14°C is 12
mm mercury, and its density about 12 mg per
litre. If the atmosphere cools any further, water
vapour will condense out of it, forming drops of
liquid water — that is, of fog or cloud.
Critical Temperature
De la Tour made a tube of strong glass, as shown
in Fig. 8. In the bulb, he had water, round the
bend mercury, and at the top — where the tube
was sealed off — air. He heated the tube in a
bath to over 300°C. The expansion of the liquids
was taken up by the compression of the air, from
which de la Tour estimated the pressure; it went
beyond 100 atmospheres. Above about 100°C he
observed what we would expect; that a meniscus
formed in bulb, showing that steam was pre- sent
as well as water. But above about 300°C he
noticed that the meniscus vanished: that there
was no observable distinction between liquid and
vapour. The temperature at which the meniscus
vanished, he called the critical temperature.
the
Fig. 8. Cagniard de la Tout’s experiment
If we consider the nature of a saturated vapour,
the phenomenon of the critical temperature need
not surprise us. For as its temperature rises a
saturated vapour becomes denser, whereas a
liquid becomes less dense. The critical
temperature is, we may suppose, the temperature
at which liquid and saturated vapour have the
same density.
Gases and Vapours
A gas above its critical temperature cannot be
liquefied. Early attempts to liquefy gases such as
air, by compression without cooling, failed; and
the gases were wrongly called 'permanent' gases.
We still, for convenience, refer to a gas as a
196 | P a g e
vapour when it is below its critical temperature,
and as a gas when it is above it. But the
distinction is not the same as that between an
ideal gas and one which is far from ideal. For a
gas which is near its critical point, though it may
be a little above its critical temperature, does not
obey Boyle's law. On the other hand, a vapour
which is far from saturation obeys Boyle's law
fairly well.
Refrigeration
The action of a refrigerator depends on the
absorption of its latent heat by a liquid — the
working substance— in evaporating. The
working substance must be one whose vapour
has a critical temperature above normal
atmospheric temperatures, so that it can be
liquefied by compression alone. Common
working substances are ammonia, carbon
dioxide, sulphur dioxide, and specially developed
compounds such as the two varieties of Freon:
CCl2F2, and C2C12F4. The working substance
is compressed by a pump, P, in Fig. 9, and
passed through a metal pipe C; there the heat of
compression is carried away by circulating water,
and the substance liquefies. The liquid passes to
a reservoir R. From the reservoir, liquid escapes
through a throttle valve V into the coil D, which
is connected to the low-pressure side of the
pump. The coil D lies round the walls of the
space to be cooled (not shown).
Fig. 9. Refrigeration
When the liquid escapes from the reservoir, it
starts to evaporate, because of the low pressure.
It draws its latent heat from its own heat content,
and cools. Not all of the liquid evaporates as it
emerges, and the mixture of cool liquid and
vapour passes round the metal coil D. If the
atmosphere in the chamber containing D is
warmer than the liquid, the liquid evaporates
further. The latent heat which it requires is
furnished by the surroundings of D, which are
therefore cooled.
Inter-Atomic Forces
Intermolecular forces are forces that act between
molecules while Interatomic forces are forces
that act between atoms. If there were no
intermolecular forces, then all matter would exist
as gases. Intermolecular forces are one of the
main reasons that matter exists in different states
(solids, liquids and gases).
197 | P a g e
 move past each other and actually get closer
Interatomic Intermolecular together as liquid water.
forces forces How did the motion and arrangement of the
water molecules change as the ice melted?
Atoms or Forces Forces between As energy is transferred to the water
molecules between molecules molecules in the ice, the motion of the
atoms molecules increases. The motion of the
Strength Strong forces Relatively weak molecules increases enough that it
of forces forces overcomes the attractions the water
Distance Very short Larger distances molecules have for each other causing the
between distances than bonds ice to melt.
atoms or Comparing the state changes of most substances
molecules to the state changes of water;
The motion of water molecules in each state of
Melting of Ice matter is similar to what happens for most
• Melting is a process that causes a substances. Adding energy increases the
substance to change from a solid to a motion of the molecules and causes them
liquid. to move further apart. Removing energy
• Melting occurs when the molecules of a decreases the motion of the molecules
solid speed up enough that the motion and causes them to move closer together.
overcomes the attractions so that the But, water does something very unusual
molecules can move past each other as a when it freezes to become ice. The
liquid. molecules, which were moving closer and
The water molecules in ice vibrate but don’t closer together, move further apart as
move past each other. As the temperature they organize themselves into the open
increases they begin to vibrate more. Eventually ring pattern shown below for ice. This is
their movement overcomes their attractions and why ice expands when it freezes
they can no longer stay in their orderly crystal
structure. As the ice melts, the orderly How are the state changes of water similar to
arrangement collapses and the water molecules and different from the state changes in most
other substances?

198 | P a g e
 For water or any other substance,
molecular motion increases when energy
is added and decreases when energy is
removed. The main difference between
water and other substances is the
arrangement between the molecules of
the solid and the liquid. In water, the
molecules in ice are further apart than
they are in liquid water. This is unusual
because the molecules of solids in most
other substances are closer together than
they are as a liquid.
Where do you think the energy came from to melt
the ice?
The energy comes from the air and from
the surface that the ice is placed on, both
of which are at room temperature. Since
room temperature is warmer than the
temperature of the ice, energy is
transferred from the surface and the air to
the ice.
What do you think happened to the speed of the
molecules in the ice when it was heated?
The water molecules moved faster.
CHAPTER FIFTEEN
GAS LAWS
A gas can be defined as one of the physical state
of matter whose molecules or atoms moves
freely throughout the whole space.
A gas could be an element e.g. Oxygen gas O₂
Chlorine gas cl₂, iodine gas 1₂.
A gas could also be a compound e.g. Carbon (iv)
oxide (Co₂), Hydrogen chloride (Hcl), Ammonia
(NH₃).
Characteristics of Gases
1. They have no fixed volume but expand to
take any space available to them
2. They have no fixed shape
3. They are transparent. One can see through
them
4. When heated, they expand
5. They diffuse rapidly in all direction.
Boyle’s Law
In 1660, Robert Boyle performed an experiment
and the result was published. Hence, Boyle’s law
states that the volume of a given mass of a gas is
inversely proportional to the pressure provided
the temperature remains constant.
By variation:
V
V=
Pv = k
I.e. P1V1 = P2V2 = PnVn
199 | P a g e
Where, P₁ P₂ is the initial and final pressure V₁ P1 = 1.92x105
V₂ are the initial and final volumes. V₁ = 1.968x10⁻² m3

V can be represented as P The pressure P₂ = 1.37x10ᶾ pa

V₂ = ?
of a given mass of a gas at a constant
P1V1 = P2V2
temperature is inversely proportional to the
volume. V₂ =

Examples on Boyle’s Law V₂ = 2.758 10⁻²m3

1. Certain volume of a gas at 20⁰c has a Escape Volume = V₂ - V1
pressure of 500mmHg. If at the same = 2.758 10⁻² 1.968 10⁻ˡ
temperature, this pressure is decreased to
= 7.9 10⁻ˡ m3
250mmHg, the gas now occupying a volume
Charles’s Law
of 100cmᶾ. Calculate the initial volume of the
Charles law state that the volume of a given mass
gas.
of a gas is directly proportional to the
Solution
temperature provided the pressure remains
`P1V1 = P2V2 P1 = 500mmHg
constant.
= V1 = ?
By variation:
V
V = TPK

V1 = 50cmᶾ
2. The pressure of a car tyre is 1.92x105pa Where V₁ V₂ is the initial and final volumes T₁
when read with a tyre gauge and the T₂ are the initial and final temperatures
corresponding volume is 1.968x10⁻²m3. Absolute Temperature
After driving for some time the pressure V
drops to 1.37x10ᶾ pa. Assuming constant
temperatures evaluate the volume of air that
has escape.
Solution
PV = constant -273 0 T
C C

200 | P a g e
N. B
The temperature at -273⁰c is called the absolute
zero temperature. This is the temperature at
which the molecules of the gas have no volume,
or pressure. V (273 + Ɵ) T this is called the
absolute temperature.
2. A certain mass of a gas occupies a volume of
610cmᶾ at 10⁰c. Calculate the volume of this
Cubic/Volume Expansively of Gas
gas at 30⁰c, if the pressure remains constant.
The volume coefficient at constant pressure is
Solution
defined
V₁ = 610cmᶾ
A T₁ = 10⁰c + 273
This can also be defined as the increase in = 283K
volume per unit volume at 0⁰c per degree rise in V₂ = ?
temperature. T₂ = 30⁰c + 273
= 303K

If V₀ is the volume at temperature Ɵ⁰ c, and V₀

the volume at 0⁰c, the

V2
or V = V₀ (1 + Ɵ)
V₂ =

Pressure Law
Examples on Charles law
Pressure law state that the pressure of a fixed
1. The volume of a given mass of a gas at 30⁰c
mass of gas in an enclosed container is directly
is 600cmᶾ. if the pressure remains constant,
proportional to its thermodynamic temperature
determine the temperature when the volume
provided the volume remains constant.
is 800cmᶾ
P T VK
Solution
V₁ = 600cm² T₁ = 80⁰c + 273 =
303K
V₂ = 800cmᶾ T₂ =?

201 | P a g e
 Pressure law k (k is constant)

This follows that if the pressure of an enclosed Comparing the three laws
energy which is increased, the kinetic energy PV = k (1)
which accounts for the temperature also =k (2)
increases and vice-versa. P₂ and T₂ are final
=k (3)
pressure and temperature.

Example
The pressure of air in a tyre is 24Nm⁻² at 45⁰c, if
The general relationship between pressure,
the air in the tyre heats up to 55⁰c, calculate the
volume and temperature of a given mass of gas is
new pressure of the air, assuming volume of the
called the equation of state or ideal gas law or
air can be neglected.
general gas law:
Solution
P₁ = 24Nm⁻² P₂ =?
T₁ = 45⁰c + 273 = 318K
T₂ = 55⁰c +273 = 328K PV

T General gas law

P₂ = =
Examples on general gas law
P₂ = = 24.75Nm⁻² 1. A vessel contains 50cmᶾ of a gas at
200mmHg, and the temperature of the gas is
The General Gas Equation before State 47⁰c. If the pressure is increased by 70% of
The general gas law is an equation obtained as a the initial pressure, while the final
result of the combination of the pressure, volume temperature is 93⁰c, find the volume of the
and temperature of a given mass of a gas (i.e. gas at this final state.
Charles, Boyle’s) and pressure law
Boyle’s law = pv = k (k is constant). Solution
Charles law = = k (k is constant) P1 = 200mmHg V2 = 50cmᶾ
T₁ = 47⁰c = 47 + 273 = 320k

202 | P a g e
 P₂ = 70% P1 UNITS of R
P₂ =

V₁ =? T₂ = 93⁰c + 273 = 366k If the volume is expressed in litre or dmᶾ pressure

in atmosphere (atom), then R is expressed in litre
(dmᶾ) at Mm-1 mol⁻ˡ i.e. 0.821 litre (dm5) atm k-
1 mol-1
V₂ = No of moles (n) = (1)

V₂ = (2)

Substituting (n) into (3)

Pv = (4)
The Ideal Gas
At the same temperature and pressure, the (5)
volume of two moles of a gas is twice the
volume of one mole. So, for two moles,
Substituting (d) into equation (5) = PV = RT.
.
Hence, pressure (P), volume (V) Temperature
For n moles, the gas equation is (T) and number of moles (n) of a sample of gas.
PV = nRT I.e. PV = nRT
If the mass of a gas is m, and M is the mass of 1 R is the molar gas constant or universal gas
mole of the gas, then the number of moles n = constant.
m/M.
N.B: Ideal gases are those gases which obey Example
Boyle’s and Charles law. The combination of Calculate the temperature at which 2 moles of
Boyles, Charles and Avogadro’s laws gives the gas will occupy a volume of 40dmᶾ at 202650pa
ideal gas equation. Solution
V = 40dmᶾ or 0.04mᶾ
P = 202650pa
R=
T =?
R = 8.314 R = 8.31jk⁻ˡ mol⁻ˡ
2 moles

203 | P a g e
 PV = nRT The velocity U is known as the root mean square
velocity.
Consider one particle with velocity U₁, its
T = 487.7k or 214.7⁰c
velocity can be resolved into three component
velocity Ux, Uy and Uz parallel to the three
Dalton’s Law of Partial Pressure
mutually perpendicular axes, x, y, z.
This law state that the total pressure exerted by a
mixture of gases is the sum of their partial
pressure PT = PA + PB + PC + ------etc.
Where PA, PB and PC are partial pressure of A,
U Ug U
B and C and PT is the total pressure of the
mixture. A
A U A
A
U U U
ˡ z
PA =
PB =
Where and are known as mole fraction of
A and B.

Kinetic Theory of Gas

In the kinetic theory of gases, we explain the
Consider one molecule in the cube, moving in
behaviour of gases by considering the motion of
the x – direction perpendicular to face A with ,
their molecules. We suppose that the pressure of
the momentum of the particle relative to the x –
a gas is due to the molecules bombarding the
axis = m .
walls of its container.
After striking, it rebounds with the same
Kinetic theory leads to a mathematical
velocity, in the backward direction.
relationship between the pressure of a gas and
the average kinetic energy of its molecules. Therefore, the change in momentum per

Consider a cubical vessel of each side ( ) with molecules per single collision in the x – direction
at force A is:
perfectly elastic walls containing ‘n’ molecules
Change in momentum = m
each of mass ‘M’ with velocity U₁, U₂, U₃ -------
---- Un. m

204 | P a g e
The molecules now move to the opposite wall Aˡ
and rebound to face A after covering a distance
21. The time taken for the molecules to rebound
from the opposite wall and hit Aˡ again is Total rate of change of momentum

From Newton’s second law of motion, which

is the time taken for single collision.
state that, the rate of change of momentum is the
Rate of change of momentum relative to the x –
force, and pressure is force per unit area.
asis is:

Since total area of the walls of the cube of six

sides is 6 ²

But V =
V is the volume of the cube
Similarly, the rate of change of momentum
P=
relative to y and z – axis are and
PV =
respectively.
Total rate of change of momentum per molecule
per second for all the three components Deduction of Gas Laws from Kinetic Theory
1. Boyle’s Law

PV = k (k is constant)
Mole

For ‘n’ particles, the total rate of change of Total kinetic energy (K.E) = ½ Mnu²
momentum K. t = ½ Mnu²
½ Mnu² = kT
K is proportionality constant

205 | P a g e
PV = n₁ = n₂

PV =
3. Graham’s Law of Diffusion
PV = The law state that at constant temperature and
pressure gases diffuses at the rate which are
PV = 2/3 (K.T)
inversely proportional to the square root of their
PV = K’T
vapour densities
K’ is constant = 2/3 K
Rate of diffusion, r (1)
PV =
For 1 mole of ideal gas, PV = RT
V= (2)

Density, ρ = m/v (3)

2. Avogadro’s Law
The law state that equal volume of gases under Where m = mass and v is the volume.

the same condition of temperature and pressure Substitute equation (2) into (3)

contains the same number of molecules. I.e. n₁ = ρ= (4)

n₂ (for 2 gases) ρ m (at constant temperature and pressure and

R is the molar gas constant)
Deduction of the Law from Kinetic Theory
Rate of diffusion r
P₁V₁ =
For two gases A and B:
For the second gas
P₂V₂ =

Since the gases are of equal volume at the same

temperature and pressure.
P₁V₁ = P₂ V₂ (from Boyle’s law)
= (1)
Also, the gases are at the same temperature, their
average kinetic (KE) are the same. Then, Density (p) of ‘n’ molecules
P= (2)

206 | P a g e
Molecular Velocities
From the first equation
Hydrogen is the lightest gas, hence has the
PV = lowest density and therefore the highest root
For one mole, PV = 1/3 mu² mean square velocity of any gas at a particle
temperature and pressure
2. Calculate the root mean square velocity of
oxygen at STD. the molecular mass of
oxygen is 32.0gmol⁻ˡ

M = Molecular mass of 0₂ = 32gmol⁻ˡ

= 0.032kgmol⁻ˡ
For one mole of an ideal gas Standard pressure = Latin = 101325Nm⁻²
PV = RT V = volume of the gas at STP = 22.4dmᶾ
= 0.224mᶾmol⁻ˡ

Examples 3. Calculate the root mean square velocity of

1. Calculate the root mean square velocity of Nitrogen at 30⁰c. the molecular mass of
hydrogen given that the density of hydrogen nitrogen is 28.02gmol⁻ˡ
at STP is 0.09kgm⁻ᶾ

R = 8.314jmol⁻ˡ = 8.314kgm²S⁻²k⁻ˡ
T = 30⁰c +273 = 303k

207 | P a g e
M = 28.02gmol⁻ˡ = 0.02802kgmol⁻ˡ (Relative molecular mass of helium and
hydrogen = 4 and 2 respectively, molar gas
constant = 8.3kmol⁻ˡk⁻ˡ)

Solution
Deduction Charles Law from Kinetic Theory From
of Gases
Total K.E
i.e. ½ mnU²
P=2
T = 300K
k is proportionality constant t
(i)
PV =

PV =
Mass of helium = 3.2
PV =
(ii) R. M. S speed pressure (p) = 2
PV =

V= 0.32kgm⁻ᶾ

V=

(iii)Temperature 432k since r. m. s speed

the new value of at 432k
is given by
4. Helium gas occupies a volume of 0.04mᶾ at a
pressure 2 x 105 and temperature 300k.
Calculate: (i) the mass of helium, (ii) the r.
m. s speed of its molecules, (iii) the r. m. s
speed a 432k when the gas is heated at
Phase Change
constant pressure to this temperature (iv) The
It is possible to interconvert the three state of
r. m. s speed of hydrogen molecules at 432k.
matter by change temperature or pressure or

208 | P a g e
 both. The change of state between the kinetic Vaporization
energy of moving particles and intermolecular This is the change of a liquid to the vapour. It is
forces the various phase transitions are as shown also referred to as evaporation.
in figure below
H20(l) H20(g)
Sublimation
Liquid water Heat vapour
Increase in temperature

Sublimation
Sometimes, solids are directly converted into
Melting or fusion Vaporization or evaporation
vapour heating. This process is known as
Solid Gas
Liquid sublimation. E.g.
Freezing or solidification Condensation
H20(s) H20(g)
Deposition Heater vapour
Ice, snow
Decrease in temperature
Sublimation can be used to purify solid that
Boiling readily vaporize.
Conversion of liquid into vapour or gas is known Condensation
as boiling. It is achieved by increasing the It is the reverse of boiling. The gas is converted
temperature of liquid to liquid by lowering the temperature.
Melting H20(L)
H20(g)
This is the change of a solid to the liquid state. Water vapour liquid water

Melting is also refers to as fusion. It is achieved

by increasing the temperature of the solid, e.g. Deposition
This is reverse of sublimation. The vapours are
H20(s) H20(L)
Ice, snow Liquid water directly converted to solid
Freezing
H20(g) H20(L)
The reverse of melting is called freezing. The Ice, snow
Water vapour
liquid is converted to solid in this process be
lowering the temperature. It is also referred to as Practise Question
solidification, e.g.
H 0the freezing of liquid water
H20ice
(s) (1) Derived from the first principle that the
2 (L)
Liquid water Ice, snow
pressure of an ideal gas of ‘n’ of mass
‘m’ and velocities u₁, u₂, u₃---- u₀

209 | P a g e
 inside cube relates to the volume of the
vessel by the formula P = 2/3
(2) Deduce gas law from the kinetic theory of
gases
(3) The density of Helium gas 0⁰c and
760mmHg is 0.14kgm⁻ᶾ. Calculate the
root mean square velocity of the gas
(4) A gas x has a root mean square velocity
at 214.7ms⁻ˡ at a pressure of 2.3
atmospheres and temperature of 34⁰c.
What is the molecular mass of the gas?
(5) 6.4 grams of oxygen gas and 4.8grams of
chlorine gas are mixed with 14.9 grams
krypton at a total pressure of 6.92 x
107Nm⁻². Calculate the partial pressure
of each gas (0=16.0cl=35.5;
kr=83.8gmol⁻ˡ)
(6) If it takes an unknown gas y and sulphur
(iu) oxide 240 and 120 seconds
respectively to diffuse through a small
orifice under identical conditions. What
is the molecular mass of gas y? [s =
32.0; 0= 16.0 gmol⁻ˡ]
(7) A mercury bulb of volume 23.5cmᶾ
containing xenon at a pressure of 1.3 x
10⁴Nm⁻² weeks connected to a mercury
bulb of volume 85.6cmᶾ containing
helium at a pressure of 54 x10⁴Nm⁻²
and the gases were allowed to mix at
75k. calculate
(i) The partial pressure of xenon
(ii) The total pressure of the mixture
assuming a constant
temperature of 75k.
(8) Sulphur (iv) oxide is enclosed in cubical
vessel at a pressure of 1 atmosphere and
the temperature of the container is
increased from 10⁰c to 50⁰c. Calculate.
(i) The mean velocity
(ii) The probable velocity of the gas
(s = 32.0; 0 = 16.ogmol⁻ˡ)
(9) Show that the relation p = 1/3pc² is
dimensionally correct, where p is the
pressure of a gas of density p and c² is
the mean square velocity of all its
molecules write down
a. Two assumption made in denying this
relation from a simple kinetic theory,
b. the meaning of (i) mean velocity and
(ii)mean square velocity
(10) Calculate the root-mean square speed at
0⁰c of (i) hydrogen molecule and (ii)
oxygen molecules, assuming 1 mole of
a gas occupies a volume of 2x10⁻²mᶾ at
0⁰c and 105Nm⁻² pressure (Relative
molecular masses of hydrogen and
oxygen = 2 and 32 respectively)
(11) Assuming helium molecules have a root-
mean-square speed of 900ms⁻ˡat 27⁰c
and 105Nm⁻² pressure. Calculate the
root-mean square speed at (i) 127⁰c and
210 | P a g e
 105Nm⁻² pressure (ii) 27⁰c and bulb is kept in melting ice and other is
2x105Nm⁻² pressure placed in a hot bath, the new pressure
(12) Using the kinetic theory, shown that (i) is 877.5mmHg. Calculate the
the pressure of an ideal gas is double temperature of the bath.
than its volume is halved at constant
temperature (ii) the pressure of an ideal
gas decrease when it expands in a
thermally insulated vessel
(13) (a) Explain briefly what is meant by the
term ideal gas
(b) A volume of 0.23mᶾ contains
nitrogen at a pressure of 0.50x 105pa
and temperature 300k. Assuming that
the gas behave ideally, calculate the
amount in mole of nitrogen present.
(c) Calculate the root-mean-square of
nitrogen molecules at a temperature of
300k (Molar mss of nitrogen =
0.02kgmol⁻ˡ) (o & c).
(15) A 5.0 litre of oxygen has a mass of
15kg when supplied by manufacturer.
An identical empty cylinder has a
mass of 15kg. calculate the pressure
of the oxygen in the full cylinder at
20⁰c (I J M B 2011)
(16) (i) state Boyle’s and Charles law and
show how they may be combined to
give the equation of sate of ideal gas
(ii). Two glass bulbs of equal volume
are joined by a narrow tube and are
filled with a gas at stop. When one

211 | P a g e
 CHAPTER SIXTEEN
ELASTICITY
This is the ability of a material to return to its
F F
original size and shape after the force of
deformation has been removed.
Deformation is defined as the change in shape
and size of a material due to the applied force.
Deformation leads to sagging of ropes, wire etc.
Shear force; it is a force that cause changes of
material
Stress ( )
It is the force acting on a unit area of a material.
W
Mathematically,
This sagging is due to the material’s own weight
(expansibility)
There are three types of force that can cause Its unit is

deformation Stress is classified depending on the type of

• Tensile force force. These are tensile, compression and shear
• Compressive force stress.
• Shear force Strain (
Tensile force; causes expansion i.e. increase the It is defined as the change in length of a material
size e.g. per unit length. It is measure of the amount of the
formation in a material.

F F
Strain, it will be extension all over
original length.

Compressive force; it cause compression i.e. Tensile strain =

decrease in size

212 | P a g e
 Shear strain

Modulus of Elasticity (E)

y It is a measure of the resistance offered by a

material to its deformation.
Recall Mathematically, it is the ratio of stress to strain
ߝ=

1. Young modulus (y)

Example 2. Shear modulus (G)
A mass of 5kg is attached to a spring at its free 3. Bulk modulus (B)
end. If the length of the spring is 2m and the Young Modulus (Y)
extension produced is 3cm. Find the stain in the It is the resistance offered by a material to its
spring expansion or compression due to mechanic force.
Solution Mathematically,

ߪ=

Hooke’s Law
Hooke’s law can be stated in two forms;
First form:
Hooke’s law state that applied stress in a material
is directly proportional to the strain, provided the Difference between Ductile Material and
elastic limit is not exceeded. Brittle Material
Mathematically, Ductile material Brittle materials
‫݊݅ܽݎݐݏ ∝ ݏݏ݁ݎݐݏ‬ They are material that These are material that
does not snap even after snap immediately after
elastic limit. elastic limit

213 | P a g e
They can be drawn into e.g. glass, plastic, and
wire, lead, copper etc. high carbon steel
Compressibity (K)
It is defined as the ease at which a material can
Bulk Modulus (B)
be compressed when place in a fluid. It is the
It is the measure of the resistance offered by a
reciprocal of bulk modulus. In other words, it is
material to its compression when placed in a
the ratio of bulk strain to bulk stress.
fluid.
I.e. Compressibity (K) = Bulk strain
When a material is placed in a fluid, the pressure
of the fluid is exerted on the material from all
direction, causing a change in the volume of the Shear Modulus (G)
material. It is the resistance offered by a material to its
deformation by twisting. It is also known as
modulus of rigidity.
Mathematically,
Shear modulus =

Since the material is under deformation, both

stress and strain exists.
Thermal stress
Hydraulic Stress Deformation of a material can be caused by the
This is the stress that the material in a fluid application of heat. Consider a material that
undergoes. It is also known as the pressure of the expands due to applied heat, the linear
fluid in other words. Hydraulic stress is the expansivity of the material is given as;
pressure of the fluid exerted on a material placed
in it.
Bulk stress = pressure =
From young modulus

Bulk strain is the change in volume per unit

volume of a material.

Equating i and ii

214 | P a g e
 Energy store = Area of triangle

But

From equation (iii)

∝ܻ∆ =

Recall F = ke (Hooke’s law) subtitling in (v)

Where Y = young modulus The energy stored is in the form of potential

Hooke’s Law
It states that provided the elastic limit is not
exceeded, the extension produced in a material is
directly proportional to the applied force.
Mathematically,
Where, k is constant of proportionality called
“spring form” (stiffness). K is the measure of
stiffness of a material.
Energy Stored in a Material
The graph of F against e is a straight line graph.
The area under this graph represents the energy
store in a material.
F
energy called “elastic potential energy”
Work-done in Stretching a Material
Since a material possesses elastic potential
energy, work must be done against the energy in
stretching or compressing the material. Hence we
do work to stretch a material because it possesses
energy.
This work is equal to elastic potential energy
W = elastic potential energy
∴ܹ=ܷ
Strain energy (Y)
It is defined as the energy stored in a material per
unit volume

Energy store The energy stored per unit volume is also known
as “Modulus of Resilience” for a string.
h

e
215 | P a g e
 Graph of force against extension

Force

p E Y B

Alternatively; for strain energy or work-done.

The expression for strain energy or work-done
can be obtained graphically or by calculus
method using work-done.
Work-done =
Extension
Using calculus method
Graph of stress against strain force elastic
material

In differential from

But

Graph of stress against strain for a ductile

material

Stress

L Y
C

A B
D O

Strain

216 | P a g e
Where, p proportionality limits Exercise
E = elastic limits 1. A load of 2 kgf is applied to the ends of a
Y = yield point wire 4 m long, and produces an ex- tension of
OE = elastic region 0.24 mm. If the diameter of the wire is 2 mm,
EB = plastic region calculate the stress on the wire, its strain, and
B = breaking point the value of Young's modulus.
A= proportionality limits 2. What load in kilograms must be applied to a
OA = proportionality region steel wire 6 m long and diameter 1.6 mm to
OL = elastic region produce an extension of 1 mm? (Young's
B = yield point modulus for steel = 20 x 1011 Nm-2.)
BC = plastic region. 3. Find the extension produced in a copper wire
L = elastic limit of length 2 m and diameter 3 mm when a
C = maximum breaking load load of 3 kgf is applied. (Young's modulus
D = breaking point for copper = 11 x 1011 Nm-2.)
Elastic limit; is the limit of force beyond which 4. What is meant by (i) elastic limit, (ii) Hooke's
the stretched material does not return to its law, (iii) yield point, (iv) perfectly elastic?
original length when force of deformation is Draw sketches of stress v. strain to illustrate
removed. your answers.
Proportionality limits; is the limit at which the 5. 'In an experiment to determine Young's
extension is proportional to the applied force. modulus, the strain should not exceed 1 in
Yield point; it is the point beyond the elastic limit 1000.' Explain why this limitation is
when the elastic material has yielded i.e. lost its necessary and describe an experiment to
elasticity permanently and has become plastic. determine Young's modulus for the material
Plastic region; this is the region where the wire of a metal wire.
does not return to its original length on removal In such an experiment, a brass wire of
of the stretching force. diameter 0.0950 cm is used. If Young's
Breaking point; is where the material has finally modulus for brass is 9.86 x 1010 newtons m-
snapped or break entirely. 2, find in kilogram force the greatest
permissible load.

217 | P a g e
6. Define stress and strain, and explain why 8. State Hooke's law, and describe in detail how
these quantities are useful in studying the it may be verified experimentally for copper
elastic behaviour of a material. wire. A copper wire, 200 cm long and 1.22
State one advantage and one disadvantage in mm diameter, is fixed horizontally to two
using a long wire rather than a short stout bar rigid supports 200 cm long. Find the mass in
when measuring Young's modulus by direct grams of the load which, when suspended at
stretching. the mid-point of the wire, produces a sag of 2
Calculate the minimum tension with which cm at that point. Young's modulus for copper
platinum wire of diameter 0.1 mm must be = 12.3 x 1010 N m-2.
mounted between two points in a stout invar
frame if the wire is to remain taut when the
temperature rises 100K. Platinum has
coefficient of linear expansion 9 x 10-6 K-1
and Young's modulus 17 x 1010 Nm-2. The
thermal expansion of invar may be neglected.
7. Explain the terms stress, strain, modulus of
elasticity and elastic limit.
Derive an expression in terms of the tensile
force and extension for the energy stored in a
stretched rubber cord which obeys Hooke's
law.
The rubber cord of a catapult has a cross-
sectional area 1.0 mm 2 and a total un-
stretched length 10.0 cm. It is stretched to
120 cm and then released to project a missile
of mass 50 g. From energy considerations, or
otherwise, calculate the velocity of
projection, taking Young's modulus for the
rubber as 50 x 108 Nm-2.
State the assumptions made in your
calculation.

218 | P a g e
 CHAPTER SEVENTEEN The value of α, β and γ depends upon the nature
THERMAL EXPANSION of material. All have dimension [θ −1 ] and unit
When matter is heated without any change in per °C.
state, it usually expands. According to atomic ∆L 1 ∆A 1
As α = × , β = ×
theory of matter, asymmetry in potential energy L ∆T A ∆T
curve is responsible for thermal expansion. As ∆V 1
and γ = ×
with rise in temperature the amplitude of V ∆T

vibration and hence energy of atoms increases, ∴ ∆L = Lα∆T , ∆A = A β∆T

hence the average distance between the atoms and ∆V = Vγ∆T

increases. So the matter as a whole expands. Final length L ′ = L + ∆L = L(1 + α∆T )

• Thermal expansion is minimum in case of (i)
solids but maximum in case of gases because Final area A ′ = A + ∆A = A(1 + β∆T )
intermolecular force is maximum in solids (ii)
but minimum in gases. Final volume V ′ = V + ∆V = V (1 + γ∆T )
• Solids can expand in one dimension (linear (iii)
expansion), two dimension (superficial If L is the side of square plate and it is heated by
expansion) and three dimension (volume temperature ∆T, then its side becomes L'.
expansion) while liquids and gases usually
The initial surface area A = L2 and final
suffers change in volume only.
surface A ′ = L ′ 2
• The coefficient of linear expansion of the
∴
material of a solid is defined as the increase
2 2
A′  L′   L(1 + α∆T )  2
in its length per unit length per unit rise in its =  =  = (1 + α∆T ) = (1 + 2α∆T )
A L  L 
temperature. [Using Binomial theorem]
∆L 1 or
α= ×
L ∆T
A ′ = A(1 + 2α∆T )
Similarly the coefficient of superficial
Comparing with equation (ii) we get β = 2α
∆A 1
expansion β = × Similarly for volumetric expansion
A ∆T
3 3
and coefficient of volume expansion V ′  L′   L(1 + α ∆T)  3
=  =  = (1 + α ∆T ) = (1 + 3α ∆T)
∆V 1 V L  L 
γ = × [Using Binomial theorem]
V ∆T
or

219 | P a g e
 V ′ = V (1 + γ ∆T )  1
 as ρ ∝  .
 V 
Comparing with equation (iii), we get
γ = 3α m 1
ρ= or ρ∝ ∴
V V
So α : β : γ = 1 : 2 : 3
ρ′ V V V 1
Hence for the same rise in temperature
= = = = (For
ρ V ′ V + ∆V V + γV∆T 1 + γ∆T
Percentage change in area = 2 × percentage a given mass)
change in length. ρ
or ρ ′ = = ρ (1 + γ ∆T )−1 = ρ (1 − γ ∆T )
Percentage change in volume = 3 × 1 + γ∆T

percentage change in length. [As γ is small ∴ using Binomial theorem]

The three coefficients of expansion are not
constant for a given solid. Their values depend
on the temperature range in which they are
measured.
The values of α, β, γ are independent of the units
of length, area and volume respectively.
For anisotropic solids γ = α x + α y + α z where
αx, αy, and αz represents the mean coefficients
of linear expansion along three mutually
perpendicular directions.
Material α[K–1 or (°C)–1] γ[K–1 or (°C)–1]
Steel 1.2 × 10–5 3.6 × 10–5
∴ ρ ' = ρ (1 − γ ∆T )
Examples
(1.) The design of a physical instrument requires
that there be a constant difference in length
of 10 cm between an iron rod and a copper
cylinder laid side by side at all temperatures.
If α Fe = 11 × 10 −6 ° C −1 and αcu = 17 × 10 −6 °C −1 ,
their lengths are
Solution
Since a constant difference in length of 10 cm
between an iron rod and a copper cylinder is
required therefore

Copper 1.7 × 10–5 5.1 × 10–5 L Fe − L Cu = 10 cm

Brass 2.0 × 10–5 6.0 × 10–5 or

∆L Fe − ∆L Cu = O

Variation of Density with Temperature ∴ ∆LFe = ∆LCu

Most substances expand when they are heated, i.e., Linear expansion of iron rod = Linear
i.e., volume of a given mass of a substance expansion of copper cylinder
increases on heating, so the density should
decrease ⇒ L Fe × α Fe × ∆T = L Cu × α Cu × ∆T

220 | P a g e
 L Fe α 17 Equating (i) and (ii) we get
⇒ = Cu =
L Cu α Fe 11 2 2
L  L 
L22 −  1  = [L 2 (1 + α 2 t)] 2 −  1 (1 + α 1 t)
L Fe 17 2
   2 
∴ =
L Cu 11
L12 L2 L2
⇒ L22 − = L22 + L22 × 2α 2 × t − 1 − 1 × 2α 1 × t
From (i) and (ii) L Fe = 28 . 3 cm, L Cu = 18 .3 cm . 4 4 4

[Neglecting higher terms]

(2.) Two rods of length L2 and coefficient of L21

⇒ (2α 1 t) = L22 (2α 2 t)
4
linear expansion α 2 are connected freely to a
L1 α2
third rod of length L1 of coefficient of linear ⇒ =2
L2 α1
expansion α 1 to form an isosceles triangle.
The arrangement is supported on the knife (3.) A iron rod of length 50 cm is joined at an end
edge at the midpoint of L1 which is to an aluminium rod of length 100 cm. All
horizontal. The apex of the isosceles triangle measurements refer to 20°C. The coefficients
is to remain at a constant distance from the of linear expansion of iron and aluminium are
knife edge if 12 × 10 −6 / °C and 24 × 10 −6 / °C respectively.
Solution The average coefficient of composite system
is
A L1/2 D L1/2 B Solution
L2 L2 Initially (at 20oC) length of composite
system L = 50 + 100 = 150 cm
C
Length of iron rod at 100°C

= 50 [1 + 12 × 10 −6 × (100 − 20)] = 50.048 cm

The apex of the isosceles triangle to remain
Length of aluminum rod at 100°C
at a constant distance from the knife edge DC
should remain constant before and after heating. = 100[1 + 24 ×10−6 × (100 − 20)] = 100.192cm
Before expansion: In triangle ADC Finally (at 100oC) length of composite system

L 
2 L' = 50 .048 + 100 . 192 = 150 .24 cm
(DC ) 2 = L22 −  1  (i)
 2  Change in length of the composite system ∆L =
After expansion: L' – L = 150.24 –150 = 0.24 cm
2
L 
(DC ) 2 = [ L 2 (1 + α 2 t)] 2 −  1 (1 + α 1 t) (ii)
 2 

221 | P a g e
∴ Average coefficient of expansion at 100oC Solution
∆L 0 .24 Apparent coefficient of volume expansion for
α = = = 20 × 10 −6 / °C
L × ∆T 150 × (100 − 20 )
liquid γ app = γ L − γ s

∴ γ L = γ app + γ s
(4.) A brass rod and lead rod each 80 cm long at
where γs is coefficient of volume expansion for
0°C are clamped together at one end with their
solid vessel.
free ends coinciding. The separation of free ends
of the rods if the system is placed in a steam bath When liquid is placed in copper vessel then γL =

is C + γcopper

(α brass = 18 × 10 −6 / °C and α lead = 28 × 10 − 6 / ° C ) (i) [As γapp. for liquid in copper vessel = C]

Solution When liquid is placed in silver vessel then γL = S

The Brass rod and the lead rod will suffer + γsilver

expansion when placed in steam bath. (ii) [As γapp. for liquid in silver vessel = S]

∴ Length of brass rod at 100°C From equation (i) and (ii) we get C + γcopper

L'brass = L brass (1 + α brass ∆T ) = S + γsilver

= 80 [1 + 18 × 10 −6 × 100 ] ∴ γ silver = C + γ copper − S

and the length of lead rod at 100°C Coefficient of volume expansion = 3 ×

L'lead = L lead (1 + α lead ∆T )

Coefficient of linear expansion
γ silver C + γ copper − S
−6
= 80 [1 + 28 × 10 × 100 ] ⇒ α silver = =
3 3
Separation of free ends of the rods after heating =

L'lead − L'brass = 80 [28 − 18 ] × 10 −4 (6.) A uniform solid brass sphere is rotating with

= 8 × 10 −2 cm = 0 . 8 mm angular speed ω 0 about a diameter. If its

temperature is now increased by 100°C. What
(5.) The coefficient of apparent expansion of a will be its new angular speed. (Given
liquid in a copper vessel is C and in a silver α B = 2 . 0 × 10 −5 per °C )
vessel S. The coefficient of volume expansion
of copper is γ C . What is the coefficient of
linear expansion of silver

222 | P a g e
 Solution As liquid is always taken in a vessel for
Due to increase in temperature, radius of the heating so if a liquid is heated, the vessel also
sphere changes gets heated and it also expands.
Let R0 and R100 be radius of VS' = V (1 + γ S ∆θ ) [γS =
sphere at 0oC and 100oC coefficient of volume expansion for solid vessel]
R 100 = R 0 [1 + α × 100 ] So the change in volume of liquid relative to
Squaring both the sides and vessel
neglecting higher terms VL' − VS' = V [γ L − γ S ] ∆θ
2
R 100 = R 02 [1 + 2α × 100 ] ∆Vapp = V γ app ∆θ [ γ app = γ L − γ S =
By the law of conservation of Apparent coefficient of volume expansion for
angular momentum I1 ω 1 = I 2 ω 2 liquid]
2 2
⇒ MR 02 ω 1 = MR 100
2
ω2 ⇒
5 5
Level of liquid
∆Vapp =
R 02 ω 1 = R 02 [1 + 2 × 2 × 10 −5
× 100 ]ω 2 γL >γS γ app > 0 in vessel will
positive
rise on heating.
⇒
∆Vapp = Level of liquid
ω1 ω0
ω2 = = = 0 .996 ω 0 γL <γS γ app < 0 negativ in vessel will
[1 + 4 × 10 − 3 ] 1 .004
e fall on heating.
Level of liquid
∆Vapp = 0
Expansion of Liquid γL =γS γ app = 0 in vessel will
Liquids also expand on heating just like solids. remain same.
Since liquids have no shape of their own, they
suffer only volume expansion. If the liquid of Effect of Temperature on Upthrust
volume V is heated and its temperature is raised The thrust on V volume of a body in a liquid of
by ∆θ then density σ is given by
VL' = V (1 + γ L ∆θ ) [γL = coefficient of Th = Vσg

real expansion or coefficient of volume Now with rise in temperature by ∆θ C°, due
expansion of liquid] to expansion, volume of the body will increase
while density of liquid will decrease according to

223 | P a g e
the relations V ′ = V (1 + γ S ∆θ ) and At 4°C, density of water is maximum while its
σ ′ = σ /(1 + γ L ∆θ ) specific volume is minimum.

So the thrust will become T h ′ = V ′σ ′g During winter when the water at the surface of a
lake cools below 4°C by cool air, it expands and
Th ′ V ′σ ′g (1 + γ S ∆θ )
∴ = = becomes lighter than water below. Therefore the
Th Vσg (1 + γ L ∆θ )
water cooled below 4°C stays on the surface and
and apparent weight of the body Wapp =
freezes when the temperature of surroundings
Actual weight – Thrust
falls below 0°C. Thus, the lake freezes first at the
As γ S < γ L ∴ Th′ < Th with rise in temperature
surface and water in contact with ice has
thrust also decreases and apparent weight of
temperature 0°C while at the bottom of the lake
body increases.
4°C [as density of water at 4°C is maximum] and
fish and other aquatic animals remain alive in
Anomalous Expansion of Water
this water.
Generally matter expands on heating and
contracts on cooling. In case of water, it expands
Examples
on heating if its temperature is greater than 4°C.
• A glass flask of volume one litre
In the range 0°C to 4°C, water contracts on
at 0°C is filled, level full of mercury at this
heating and expands on cooling, i.e. γ is negative.
temperature. The flask and mercury are now
This behaviour of water in the range from 0°C to
heated to 100°C. How much mercury will
4°C is called anomalous expansion.
spill out, if coefficient of volume expansion
The anomalous behaviour of water arises due to
of mercury is 1 . 82 × 10 −4 / °C and linear
the fact that water has three types of molecules,
expansion of glass is 0 .1 × 10 −4 / °C
viz., H 2 O , (H 2 O ) 2 and (H 2 O ) 3 having different
respectively
volume per unit mass and at different
Solution
temperatures their properties in water are
Due to volume expansion of both liquid and
different.
vessel, the change in volume of liquid relative
max
to container is given by ∆V = V [γ L − γ S ]∆θ
min
Anomalous

Anomalous
behaviour

behaviour

Given V = 1000 cc, αg = 0.1×10–4/°C ∴

vol/mass

Density

γ g = 3α g = 3 × 0 . 1 × 10 −4 / °C = 0 .3 × 10 −4 / °C
0°C 4°C Temperatu 0°C 4°C Temperatu

224 | P a g e
• The absolute coefficient of expansion of a f1 1 + γt1 f1 − f 2
From (i) and (ii) = ⇒γ =
f2 1 + γt 2 f 2t1 − f1t2
liquid is 7 times that the volume coefficient
of expansion of the vessel. Then the ratio of Expansion of Gases
absolute and apparent expansion of the liquid Gases have no definite shape, therefore gases
is have only volume expansion. Since the
Solution expansion of container is negligible in
Apparent coefficient of Volume expansion comparison to the gases, therefore gases have
γapp. = γL – γs = 7 γs – γs = 6γs only real expansion.

(given γL = 7 γs ) Coefficient of volume expansion: At constant

Ratio of absolute and apparent expansion of pressure, the unit volume of a given mass of a

γL 7γ 7 gas, increases with 1°C rise of temperature, is

liquid = s = .
γ app. 6γ s 6 called coefficient of volume expansion.
∆V 1
α= ×
V ∆T
• A solid whose volume does not change with
∴ Final volume V ′ = V (1 + α∆T )
temperature floats in a liquid. For two
Coefficient of pressure expansion:
different temperatures t1 and t 2 of the liquid,
∆P 1
fractions f1 and f2 of the volume of the solid β = × ∴ Final pressure P ′ = P(1 + β∆T )
P ∆T
remain submerged in the liquid. The For an ideal gas, coefficient of volume
coefficient of volume expansion of the liquid expansion is equal to the coefficient of
is equal to pressure expansion.
Solution 1
i.e. α = β = °C −1
As with the rise in temperature, the liquid 273

undergoes volume expansion therefore the Application of Thermal Expansion

fraction of solid submerged in liquid increases. Bi-metallic strip: Two strips of equal lengths

Fraction of solid submerged at t1 °C = f1 but of different materials (different coefficient of

= Volume of displaced liquid
= V0 (1 + γ t1 ) (i)
and fraction of solid submerged at t 2 °C = f2 =
Volume of displaced liquid = V0 (1 + γ t 2 )
linear expansion) when join together, it is called
“bi-metallic strip”, and can be used in thermostat
to break or make electrical contact. This strip has
the characteristic property of bending on heating
(ii)
due to unequal linear expansion of the two metal.

225 | P a g e
The strip will bend with metal of greater α on • Due to increment in its time period, a
outer side i.e. convex side. pendulum clock becomes slow in summer
and will lose time.
Steel Brass
Loss of time in a time period
1
∆T = α ∆θ T
2

Room temperature Higher temperature ∴ Loss of time in any given time interval t
1
can be given by ∆ t = α ∆θ t .
2
• The clock will lose time i.e. will become
Bimetallic slow if θ ′ > θ (in summer) and will
strip
gain time i.e. will become fast if θ ′ < θ (in
winter).
High temperature Room temperature
• The gain or loss in time is independent of
time period T and depends on the time
Effect of temperature on the time period of a
interval t.
simple pendulum:
• Time lost by the clock in a day (t = 86400
A pendulum clock keeps proper time at
sec)
temperature θ. If temperature is increased to
θ ′(> θ ) then due to linear expansion, length of
1 1
pendulum and hence its time period will ∆t = α ∆θ t = α ∆θ (86400 ) = 43200 α ∆θ sec
2 2
increase.
L • Since coefficient of linear expansion (α) is
Time period T = 2π ⇒
g very small for invar, hence pendulums are
T′ L′ L(1 + α ∆θ ) made of invar to show the correct time in all
= = = (1 + α ∆θ )
T L L seasons.
 1 
T ′ = T  1 + α ∆θ 
 2  Thermal stress in a rigidly fixed rod
1 T′ − T 1 When a rod whose ends are rigidly fixed such as
= T + α ∆θ T or = α ∆θ
2 T 2
to prevent expansion or contraction, undergoes a
∆T 1
∴ = α ∆θ change in temperature, due to thermal expansion
T 2
or contraction, a compressive or tensile stress is

226 | P a g e
 developed in it. Due to this thermal stress the rod However, if θ ′ < θ , due to contractions of scale,
will exert a large force on the supports. If the scale reading will be more than true value, so
change in temperature of a rod of length L is ∆θ true value will be lesser than scale reading and
then will still be given by equation with ∆θ = (θ ′ − θ )
∆L negative.
Thermal strain = = α∆θ
L

 ∆L 1 
As α = L × ∆θ 
Expansion of cavity
 
Thermal expansion of an isotropic object may be
So Thermal stress = Y α∆θ
imagined as a photographic enlargement. So if
 stress  there is a hole A in a plate C (or cavity A inside a
As Y = strain 
 
body C), the area of hole (or volume of cavity)
or Force on the supports F = YA α ∆θ
will increase when body expands on heating, just
as if the hole (or cavity) were solid B of the same
Error in scale reading due to expansion or material.
contraction
If a scale gives correct reading at temperature θ,
a A r r a
B D
at temperature θ ′(> θ ) due to linear expansion of
C
scale, the scale will expand and scale reading b
b
will be lesser than true value so that, Expansion of A = Expansion of B Expansion of C = Expansion of D

True value = Scale reading [1 + α (θ ′ − θ )]

i.e. TV = SR [1 + α ∆θ ] with ∆θ = (θ ′ − θ ) Also the expansion of area (or volume) of the
body C will be independent of shape and size of

0 a 0 SR a 0 a SR hole (or cavity), i.e., will be equal to that of D.

Note: A solid and hollow sphere of same radius

at θ at θ′ > θ at θ′ < θ
and material, heated to the same temperature

TV = SR TV > SR TV < SR
then expansion of both will be equal because
thermal expansion of isotropic solids is similar to
true photographic enlargement. It means the
expansion of cavity is same as if it has been a
solid body of the same material. But if same heat
is given to the two spheres, due to lesser mass,

227 | P a g e
rise in temperature of hollow sphere will be more Solution
  a  On heating, the strip undergoes linear expansion
 As  ∆θ =   . Hence its expansion will be
  mc   So after expansion length of brass strip
more. L B = L 0 (1 + α B ∆T ) and length of copper strip
Practical application L C = L 0 (1 + α C ∆T )
• When rails are laid down on the ground, From the figure L B = (R + d )θ ......(i)
space is left between the ends of two rails.
and L c = Rθ ......(ii) [As angle
• The transmission cable are not tightly fixed
= Arc/Radius]
to the poles.
R+d L 1 + α B ∆T
Dividing (i) by (ii) = B =
• Pendulum of wall clock and balance wheel of R LC 1 + α C ∆T

wrist watch are made of invar (an alloy d

⇒ 1+ = (1 + α B ∆T )(1 + α C ∆T )−1 =
which have very low value of coefficient of R

expansion). (1 + α B ∆T )(1 − α C ∆T ) =

• Test tubes, beakers and crucibles are made of 1 + (α B − α C )∆T

pyrex-glass or silica because they have very ⇒

d
= (α B − α C ) ∆T or R =
d
R (α B − α C )∆T
low value of coefficient of linear expansion.
• The iron rim to be put on a cart wheel is [Using Binomial theorem and neglecting higher

always of slightly smaller diameter than that terms]

1
of wheel. So we can say R ∝ and
(α B − α C )
• A glass stopper jammed in the neck of a glass
1
bottle can be taken out by warming the neck R∝
∆T
of the bottle.

• An iron tyre is to be fitted onto a

Examples
• A bimetallic strip is formed out of two
identical strips, one of copper and other of
brass. The coefficients of linear expansion of
the two metals are α C and α B . On heating,
the temperature of the strip goes up by ∆T
wooden wheel 1.0 m in diameter. The
diameter of the tyre is 6 mm smaller than that
of wheel. The tyre should be heated so that
its temperature increases by a minimum of?
(Coefficient of volume expansion of iron is
3 . 6 × 10 −5 / °C )

and the strip bends to form an arc of radius of

curvature R. Then R is

228 | P a g e
 Solution 1
= × α × (25 − 0)°C × 86400
2
Initial diameter of tyre = (1000 – 6) mm = 994
1
994 ⇒ α= per °C
mm, so initial radius of tyre R = = 497 mm 86400
2

and change in diameter ∆D = 6 mm so

• A wire of length L0 is supplied heat to raise
6
∆R = = 3 mm
2 its temperature by T. If γ is the coefficient of
After increasing temperature by ∆T tyre will fit volume expansion of the wire and Y is the
onto wheel Young’s modulus of the wire then the energy
Increment in the length (circumference) of the density stored in the wire is
iron tyre Solution
γ Due to heating the length of the wire increases.
∆L = L × α × ∆T = L × × ∆T
3
∴ Longitudinal strain is produced ⇒
γ
[As α = ] ∆L
3 = α × ∆T
L
γ 
⇒ 2π ∆R = 2π R   ∆T ⇒ Elastic potential energy per unit volume
3
1 1
3 ∆R 3× 3 E= × Stress × Strain = × Y × (Strain) 2
∆T = = [As ∆R = 3 mm 2 2
γ R 3 . 6 × 10 −5 × 497
2
1  ∆L  1
and R = 497 mm] ⇒ E= ×Y × 2
 = × Y × α × ∆T
2
2  L  2
⇒ ∆T = 500 o C 2
1 γ  1 2 2
or E= × Y ×   × T2 = γ YT
2 3 18
• A clock with a metal pendulum
[As γ = 3α and ∆T = T (given)]
beating seconds keeps correct time at 0°C. If
it loses 12.5 seconds a day at 25°C, the
• Span of a bridge is 2.4 km. At
coefficient of linear expansion of metal of
30°C a cable along the span sags by 0.5 km.
pendulum is
Taking α = 12 × 10 −6 per o C , change in length
Solution
of cable for a change in temperature from
Loss of time due to heating a pendulum is given
10°C to 42°C is
as
1
∆T = α∆θT ⇒ 12.5
2

229 | P a g e
 Solution Water Equivalent: Water equivalent of a body
is defined as the mass of water which would
1200 m O
P Q absorb or evolve the same amount of heat as is
500 m done by the body in rising or falling through the
same range of temperature. It is represented by
R
W.
If m = Mass of the body, c = Specific heat
Span of bridge = 2400 m and Bridge sags by of body, ∆T = Rise in temperature.
500 m at 30° (given) Then heat given to body ∆Q = mc ∆T
From the figure LPRQ = (i)
2 1200 2 + 500 2 = 2600 m If same amount of heat is given to W gm of
But L = L0 (1 + α ∆t) [Due to water and its temperature also rises by ∆T
linear expansion] Then heat given to water ∆Q = W × 1 × ∆T [As

⇒ 2600 = L0 (1 + 12 × 10 −6 × 30 ) ∴ Length of the c water = 1 ] (ii)

cable L0 = 2599 m From equation (i) and (ii)

Now change in length of cable due to change in ∆Q = mc ∆T = W × 1 × ∆T

temperature from 10oC to 42oC ∴ Water equivalent (W) = mc gm

∆L = 2599 × 12 × 10 −6 × (42 − 10 ) = Unit : Kg (S.I.) Dimension : [ML0 T 0 ]
0.99m Note: Unit of thermal capacity is
J/kg while unit of water equivalent is kg.
Thermal Capacity and Water Equivalent Thermal capacity of the body and
Thermal capacity: It is defined as the amount of its water equivalent are numerically equal.
heat required to raise the temperature of the If thermal capacity of a body is expressed in terms
whole body (mass m) through 0°C or 1K. of mass of water it is called water-equivalent of the
Q body.
Thermal capacity = mc = µC =
∆T
The value of thermal capacity of a body depends
upon the nature of the body and its mass.
Dimension: [ML2 T −2θ −1 ] , Unit : cal/°C
(practical) Joule/k (S.I.)

230 | P a g e
 Specific Heat By definition, one mole of any substance is a
When a substance changes temperature, but does quantity of the substance, whose mass M grams
not change its state, its temperature goes up by is numerically equal to the molecular mass M.
an amount proportional to the amount of heat ∴ Molar specific heat
energy absorbed or lost. The specific amount of = M × Gram specific heat
energy that must be lost or gained to change the or
temperature of a standard mass C =Mc
(1 kilogram) of a substance by 1o Celsius is Q 1 Q
C=M =
called the Specific Heat. The exact value of the m ∆T µ ∆T
specific heat varies, depending on the particular  Q m
substance. For water, the Specific  As c = m ∆T and µ = M 
 
Heat is 4.2 kilo-Joules per kilogram per o Q
∴C=
Celsius, or 4.2 joules per gram per o Celsius, also µ∆T

expressed as 1.0 calories per gram per oC.
Gram specific heat: When heat is given to a
body and its temperature increases, the heat
required to raise the temperature of unit mass of
a body through 1°C (or K) is called specific heat
of the material of the body.
If Q heat changes the temperature of mass m
by ∆T
Q
Specific heat c = .
m ∆T
Units: Calorie/gm × °C (practical), J/kg × K
(S.I.) Dimension: [L2 T −2θ −1 ]
Units: calorie/mole × °C (practical); J/mole
× kelvin (S.I.) Dimension: [ML2 T −2θ −1 µ −1 ]
Note:
• Specific heat for hydrogen is maximum
(3.5 cal / gm × C )o
and for water, it is
1cal / gm × °C .
For all other substances, the specific heat is
less than 1cal / gm × °C and it is minimum for
radon and actinium (~− 0 . 022 cal / gm × °C ) .
• Specific heat of a substance also depends on
the state of the substance i.e. solid, liquid or

Molar specific heat: Molar specific heat of a gas.

substance is defined as the amount of heat For example, c ice = 0 . 5 cal / gm × °C (Solid),

required to raise the temperature of one gram c water = 1 cal / gm × °C (Liquid) and
mole of the substance through a unit degree it is c steam = 0 .47 cal / gm × °C (Gas)
represented by (capital) C.

231 | P a g e
• The specific heat of a substance when it With rise in temperature, Cv increases and
melts or boils at constant temperature is becomes constant = 3 R
infinite. = 6 cal/mole × kelvin = 25 J/mole × kelvin
Q Q at some particular temperature (Debye
As C= = =∞
m ∆T m × 0 Temperature)
[As ∆T = 0] For most of the solids, Debye temperature is
• The specific heat of a substance when it close to room temperature.
undergoes adiabatic changes is zero.
Q 0 Specific heat of some solids at room
As C= = =0
m ∆T m ∆T
temperature and atmospheric pressure
[As Q = 0]
Substance Specific Molar specific
• Specific heat of a substance can also be
heat (J- heat (J-g mole–
negative. Negative specific heat means that in
kg–1 K– 1 K–1)
order to raise the temperature, a certain
1)
quantity of heat is to be withdrawn from the
Aluminium 900.0 24.4
body.
Copper 386.4 24.5
Example. Specific heat of saturated vapours.
Silver 236.1 25.5
Lead 127.7 26.5
Specific Heat of Solids
Tungsten 134.4 24.9
When a solid is heated through a small range of
temperature, its volume remains more or less
Dulong and Petit law: Average molar specific
constant.
heat of all metals at room temperature is
Y 3R
constant, being nearly equal to 3R = 6 cal. mole–
Cv
1 K–1 = 25 J mole–1 K–1, where R is gas
constant for one mole of the gas. This statement
T X
Debye temp. is known as Dulong and Petit law.

Therefore specific heat of a solid may be called

its specific heat at constant volume Cv.
From the graph it is clear that at T = 0, Cv tends
to zero

232 | P a g e
 Specific Heat of Water chapter “Kinetic theory of gases” we have
The variation of specific heat with temperature discussed this topic in detail.
for water is shown in the figure. Usually this Examples
temperature dependence of specific heat is • Two spheres made of same substance have
neglected. diameters in the ratio 1 : 2. Their thermal
From the graph: capacities are in the ratio of
Temperature 0 15 35 50 100 Solution
(°C) Thermal capacity = Mass × Specific heat
Specific heat 1.008 1.000 0.997 0.998 1.0Due to same material both spheres will have
(cal/ gm × °C) 06 same specific heat
∴ Ratio of thermal capacity
4 3
πr1 r 
3 3
Sp. heat cal/g C°

1.0089 m1 V1 ρ 1
= = = 3 =  1  =   = 1 : 8
1.004 m 2 V2 ρ 4 3  r2  2
πr2
1.000 3
0.996
20 40 60 80 100
• When 300 J of heat is added to 25 gm of
Temp. in °C
sample of a material its temperature rises

As specific heat of water is very large, by from 25°C to 45°C. the thermal capacity of

absorbing or releasing large amount of heat its the sample and specific heat of the material

temperature changes by small amount. This is are respectively given by

why, it is used in hot water bottles or as coolant Solution

in radiators. Thermal capacity = mc

Note: When specific heats are measured, the Q 300 300

= = = = 15 J / °C
∆T 45 − 25 20
values obtained are also found to depend on the
Thermal capacity
conditions of the experiment. In general Specific heat =
Mass
measurements made at constant pressure are 15
= = 600 J / kg °C
different from those at constant volume. For 25 × 10 − 3

solids and liquids this difference is very small

and usually neglected. The specific heat of gases • The specific heat of a substance varies with
are quite different under constant pressure temperature t(°C) as
condition (cP) and constant volume (cV). In the c = 0 . 20 + 0 . 14 t + 0 . 023 t 2 (cal/gm °C ) . The heat

233 | P a g e
 required to raise the temperature of 2 gm of
substance from 5°C to 15°C will be
Solution
Heat required to raise the temperature of m gm
of substance by dT is given as
dQ = mc dT ⇒ Q = ∫ mc dT
∴ To raise the temperature of 2 gm of
substance from 5°C to 15°C is
15
∫ 2 × (0.2 + 0.14 t + 0.023 t )dT
2
Q=
5
15
 0 . 14 t 2 0 . 023 t 3 
= 2 × 0 . 2 t + +  = 82 calorie
 2 3 
5 such
Heat of Fusion
Changes of state (phase changes) involve the
conversion or transition of matter from one of the
common states (solid, liquid or gas) to another.
Examples include fusion or melting (change
from the solid to the liquid state), freezing
(change from the liquid to the solid state),
evaporation or vaporization (change from the
liquid to the gaseous state), condensation (change
from the gaseous state to the liquid state),
sublimation (change from the solid directly to the
gaseous state), and deposition (change from the
gaseous state directly to the solid state). Heat of
Fusion is the amount of heat released as 1
kilogram of liquid freezes (solidifies
crystallizes), or the amount of heat absorbed as a
solid melts (fuses or liquefies). The exact value
of the Heat of Fusion is different for different
substances. For water, the Heat of Fusion is 335
kilo-Joules per kilogram, or 335 Joules per gram,
also expressed as 80 calories per gram.
Although the Joule is the official SI unit for
measurement of energy, it will be simpler to
calculate in this experiment if we use the calorie
as an energy unit. 1 calorie = 4.184 Joules. The
calorie is simple to use in problems involving
water, because 1 calorie of heat energy will raise
the temperature of 1 gram of water by 1oC.
Typically, changes of state of a pure substance,
as melting, freezing, evaporation,
condensation, etc., occur at a constant
temperature. Temperature change only occurs
when all of the phase changes are completed.
This means that during the phase change, energy
is being absorbed or emitted with no change in
temperature of the material being studied. This
energy can be absorbed or supplied by some
other substance in the environment, and
absorbing or supplying that energy can alter the
temperature of that material.
Latent Heat
When a substance changes from one state to
another state (say from solid to liquid or
liquid to gas or from liquid to solid or gas to
liquid) then energy is either absorbed or
or liberated. This heat energy is called latent
heat.
234 | P a g e
No change in temperature is involved when the boiling point or condensation temperature
substance changes its state. That is, phase (100°C), the latent heat of vaporisation (latent
transformation is an isothermal change. Ice at heat of steam) is
0°C melts into water at 0°C. Water at 100°C
boils to form steam at 100°C. LV = Lsteam ≈ 540 cal / g ≈ 40.8 kJ / mol ≈ 2260 kilo joule / kg
The amount of heat required to change the state
In the process of melting or boiling, heat
of the mass m of the substance is written as: ∆Q
supplied is used to increase the internal potential
= mL, where L is the latent heat. Latent heat is
energy of the substance and also in doing work
also called as Heat of Transformation.
against external pressure while internal kinetic
Unit : cal/gm or J/kg and Dimension :
energy remains constant. This is the reason that
[L2 T −2 ]
internal energy of steam at 100°C is more than
Any material has two types of latent heats
that of water at 100°C.
Latent heat of fusion: The latent heat of fusion is
It is more painful to get burnt by steam rather
the heat energy required to change 1 kg of the
than by boiling water at same temperature. This
material in its solid state at its melting point to 1
is so because when steam at 100°C gets
kg of the material in its liquid state. It is also the
converted to water at 100°C, then it gives out
amount of heat energy released when at melting
536 calories of heat. So, it is clear that steam at
point 1 kg of liquid changes to 1 kg of solid. For
100°C has more heat than water at 100°C (i.e.,
water at its normal freezing temperature or
boiling of water).
melting point (0°C), the latent heat of fusion (or
In case of change of state, if the molecules come
latent heat of ice) is
closer, energy is released and if the molecules
move apart, energy is absorbed.
L F = L ice ≈ 80 cal / g ≈ 60 kJ / mol ≈ 336 kilo joule / kg
. Latent heat of vaporisation is more than the

Latent heat of vaporisation: The latent heat of latent heat of fusion. This is because when a

vaporisation is the heat energy required to substance gets converted from liquid to vapour,

change 1 kg of the material in its liquid state at there is a large increase in volume. Hence more

its boiling point to 1 kg of the material in its amount of heat is required. But when a solid gets

gaseous state. It is also the amount of heat converted to a liquid, then the increase in volume

energy released when 1 kg of vapour changes is negligible. Hence very less amount of heat is

into 1 kg of liquid. For water at its normal

235 | P a g e
required. So, latent heat of vaporisation is more
than the latent heat of fusion.
After snow falls, the temperature of the
atmosphere becomes very low. This is because
the snow absorbs the heat from the atmosphere to
melt down. So, in the mountains, when snow
falls, one does not feel too cold, but when ice
melts, he feels too cold.
There is more shivering effect of ice-cream on
teeth as compared to that of water (obtained from
ice). This is because, when ice-cream melts
down, it absorbs large amount of heat from teeth.
Freezing mixture: If salt is added to ice, then the
temperature of mixture drops down to less than
0°C. This is so because, some ice melts down to
cool the salt to 0°C. As a result, salt gets
dissolved in the water formed and saturated
solution of salt is obtained; but the ice point
(freeing point) of the solution formed is always
less than that of pure water. So, ice cannot be in
the solid state with the salt solution at 0°C. The
ice which is in contact with the solution, starts
melting and it absorbs the required latent heat
from the mixture, so the temperature of mixture
falls down.
Examples
• Work done in converting one gram of ice at –
10°C into steam at 100°C is
Solution
Work done in converting 1gm of ice at – 10°C to
steam at 100°C
= Heat supplied to raise temperature of 1gm of
ice from – 10°C to 0°C [m × cice × ∆T]
+ Heat supplied to convert 1 gm ice into water at
0°C [m × Lice]
+ Heat supplied to raise temperature of 1gm of
water from 0°C to 100°C [m × cwater × ∆T]
+ Heat supplied to convert 1 gm water into steam
at 100°C [m × Lvapour]
= [m × cice × ∆T] + [m × Lice] +
[m × cwater × ∆T] + [m ×
Lvapour]
=
[1 × 0 . 5 × 10 ] + [1 × 80 ] + [1 × 1 × 100 ] + [1 × 540 ]
= 725 calorie = 725 × 4 .2 = 3045 J
• 2 kg of ice at – 20°C is mixed
with 5 kg of water at 20°C in an insulating
vessel having a negligible heat capacity.
Calculate the final mass of water remaining
in the container. It is given that the specific
heats of water and ice are 1 kcal/kg per °C
and 0.5 kcal/kg/°C while the latent heat of
fusion of ice is 80 kcal/kg
Solution
Initially ice will absorb heat to raise it's
temperature to 0oC then it's melting takes place
If m = Initial mass of ice, m' = Mass of ice that
melts and mw = Initial mass of water
By Law of mixture Heat gain by ice = Heat
loss by water
236 | P a g e
⇒ m × c × (20 ) + m ' × L = mw cw [20 ]
⇒ 2 × 0.5(20 ) + m '×80 = 5 × 1 × 20
⇒ m ' = 1kg
So final mass of water = Initial mass of water +
Mass of ice that melts = 5 + 1= 6 kg.
• Latent heat of ice is 80 calorie/gm. A man
melts 60 g of ice by chewing in 1 minute. His
power is
Solution
Work done by man = Heat absorbed by ice = mL
= 60 × 80 = 4800 calorie = 20160 J
W 20160
∴ Power = = = 336W
t 60
Principle of Calorimeter
When two bodies (one being solid and other
liquid or both being liquid) at different
temperatures are mixed, heat will be transferred
from body at higher temperature to a body at
lower temperature till both acquire same
temperature. The body at higher temperature
releases heat while body at lower temperature
absorbs it, so that
Heat lost = Heat gained
i.e. principle of calorimeter represents the
law of conservation of heat energy.
Temperature of mixture (T) is always ≥ lower
temperature (TL) and ≤ higher temperature (TH),
i.e.,
TL ≤ T ≤ TH
i.e., the temperature of mixture can never be
lesser than lower temperatures (as a body cannot
be cooled below the temperature of cooling
body) and greater than higher temperature (as a
body cannot be heated above the temperature of
heating body). Furthermore usually rise in
temperature of one body is not equal to the fall in
temperature of the other body though heat gained
by one body is equal to the heat lost by the other.
When temperature of a body changes, the body
releases heat if its temperature falls and absorbs
heat when its temperature rises. The heat
released or absorbed by a body of mass m is
given by, Q = mc ∆T
where c is specific heat of the body and ∆T
change in its temperature in oC or K.
When state of a body changes, change of state
takes place at constant temperature [m.pt. or
b.pt.] and heat released or absorbed is given by,
Q = mL
where L is latent heat. Heat is absorbed if
solid converts into liquid (at m.pt.) or liquid
converts into vapours (at b.pt.) and is released if
liquid converts into solid or vapours converts
into liquid.
If two bodies A and B of masses m 1 and m 2 , at
temperatures T1 and T 2 (T1 > T2 ) and having
gram specific heat c 1 and c 2 when they are
placed in contact.
Heat lost by A = Heat gained by B
237 | P a g e
 or m 1 c 1 (T1 − T ) = m 2 c 2 (T − T2 ) But as (∆T/∆t) is the slope of temperature-
[where T = Temperature of equilibrium] time curve
m 1 c1 T1 + m 2 c 2 T2 cS ∝ (1/slope of line OA)
∴ T=
m 1 c1 + m 2 c 2 i.e. specific heat (or thermal capacity) is
(i) If bodies are of same material c 1 = c 2 then inversely proportional to the slope of
m 1 T1 + m 2 T2 temperature-time curve.
T=
m1 + m 2 (2) In the region AB temperature is constant, so it
(ii) If bodies are of same mass (m 1 = m 2 ) then represents change of state, i.e., melting of solid
T1 c1 + T2 c 2 with melting point T1. At A melting starts and at
T=
c1 + c 2 B all solid is converted into liquid. So between A
(iii) If bodies are of same material and of equal and B substance is partly solid and partly liquid.
T1 + T2 If LF is the latent heat of fusion.
masses (m 1 = m 2 , c 1 = c 2 ) then T =
2
P(t 2 − t1 )
Q = mL F or L F =
Heating Curve m

E [as Q = P (t 2 − t 1 ) ]
b. pt. C G
T2 Da or
Boiling
Temp.

s
T1 m. pt. B L LF ∝ length of line AB
A Melting i
q i.e. Latent heat of fusion is proportional to the length
O S u
o t1 t2 i t3 t4
l Timed
of line of zero slope. [In this region specific heat ∝
i
1
d
=∞]
tan 0
If to a given mass (m) of a solid, heat is supplied (3) In the region BC temperature of liquid
at constant rate P and a graph is plotted between increases so specific heat (or thermal capacity) of
temperature and time, the graph is as shown in liquid will be inversely proportional to the slope
figure and is called heating curve. From this of line BC
curve it is clear that; i.e., cL ∝ (1/slope of line BC)
(1) In the region OA temperature of solid is (4) In the region CD temperature is constant, so
changing with time so, it represents the change of state, i.e., boiling with
Q = mc S ∆T boiling point T2. At C all substance is in liquid
or state while at D in vapour state and between C
P ∆t = mc S ∆T [as Q = P∆t] and D partly liquid and partly gas. The length of

238 | P a g e
line CD is proportional to latent heat of Solution
vaporisation Heat lost by A = Heat gained by B
i.e. LV ∝ Length of line CD [In this ⇒ m A × c A × (TA − T ) = m B × c B × (T − TB )
1
region specific heat ∝ =∞] Since m A = m B
tan 0
(5) The line DE represents gaseous state of and Temperature of the mixture (T) = 28°C

substance with its temperature increasing linearly ∴ c A × (32 − 28 ) = c B × (28 − 24 ) ⇒

with time. The reciprocal of slope of line will be cA

= 1 :1
proportional to specific heat or thermal capacity cB

of substance in vapour state.

• 22 g of CO 2 at 27°C is mixed with 16g of O 2
Examples at 37°C. The temperature of the mixture is
• 50 g of copper is heated to Solution
increase its temperature by 10°C. If the same Heat lost by CO 2 = Heat gained by O 2
quantity of heat is given to 10 g of water, the
If µ 1 and µ 2 are the number of moles of carbon
rise in its temperature is (Specific heat of
di-oxide and oxygen respectively and
−1 −1
copper = 420 Joule-kg °C )
C v1 and C v 2 are the specific heats at constant
Solution
volume then µ1Cv1 ∆T1 = µ 2 Cv 2 ∆T2
Same amount of heat is supplied to copper and
22 16 5 R
water so m c c c ∆Tc = m ω cω ∆Tω ⇒ × 3 R × (T − 27 ) = × (37 − T ) ⇒ T =
44 32 2
⇒ ∆Tω = 31.5°C ≈ 32°C (where T is temperature of
m c cc ∆Tc 50 × 10 −3 × 420 × 10 mixture)
= = 5 °C
mω cω 10 × 10 − 3 × 4200

• Two liquids A and B are at 32°C • A beaker contains 200 gm of

and 24°C. When mixed in equal masses the
temperature of the mixture is found to be
28°C. Their specific heats are in the ratio of
water. The heat capacity of the beaker is
equal to that of 20 gm of water. The initial
temperature of water in the beaker is 20°C. If
440 gm of hot water at 92°C is poured in it,
the final temperature (neglecting radiation
loss) will be nearest to

239 | P a g e
 Total heat used by three liquids in raising
Solution temperature from 0oC to ToC =
Heat lost by hot water = Heat gained by cold m 1 c1 T + m 2 c 2 T + m 3 c 3 T
water in beaker + Heat absorbed (ii)
by beaker By equating (i) and (ii) we get
⇒ 440 (92 – T) = 200 × (T (m 1 c 1 + m 2 c 2 + m 3 c 3 ) T =
– 20) + 20 × (T – 20) ⇒ T = 68°C
m 1 c 1 T1 + m 2 c 2 T 2 + m 3 c 3 T3
m 1 c 1 T1 + m 2 c 2 T 2 + m 3 c 3 T3
• A liquid of mass m and specific ⇒ T = .
m 1 c1 + m 2 c 2 + m 3 c 3
heat c is heated to a temperature 2T. Another
liquid of mass m/2 and specific heat 2c is
• In an industrial process 10 kg of water per
heated to a temperature T. If these two liquids
hour is to be heated from 20°C to 80°C. To do
are mixed, the resulting temperature of the
this steam at 150°C is passed from a boiler
mixture is
into a copper coil immersed in water. The
Solution
steam condenses in the coil and is returned to
Temperature of mixture is given by T =
the boiler as water at 90°C. how many kg of
m 1 c1 T1 + m 2 c 2 T2
m 1 c1 + m 2 c 2 steam is required per hour.

m .c. 2T +
m
. 2 .c.T (Specific heat of steam = 1 calorie per gm°C,
2 3
= = T Latent heat of vaporisation = 540 cal/gm)
m 2
m .c. + . 2c
2 Solution
• Three liquids with masses Heat required by 10 kg water to change its
m 1 , m 2 , m 3 are thoroughly mixed. If their temperature from 20°C to 80°C in
specific heats are c1 , c 2 , c 3 and their one hour is

temperatures T1 , T 2 , T 3 respectively, then the Q1 = (mc ∆T )water

temperature of the mixture is = (10 × 10 3 ) × 1 × (80 – 20 ) = 600 × 10 3 calorie in

Solution
Let the final temperature be T °C.
Total heat supplied by the three liquids in coming
down to 0°C = m 1 c 1 T1 + m 2 c 2 T 2 + m 3 c 3 T 3
(i)
condensation
(i) Steam release heat when it loses its
temperature from 150oC to 100oC. [mc steam ∆T ]
(ii) At 100oC it converts into water and gives the
latent heat. [mL ]

240 | P a g e
(iii) Water release heat when it loses its CHAPTER EIGHTEEN
temperature from 100oC to 90oC. [ms water ∆T ] SURFACE TENSION
If m gm steam condensed per hour, then heat There are two (forces) acting in the molecules of
released by steam in converting water of 90°C a liquid;

Q2 = (mc ∆T ) steam + mL steam + (ms ∆T )water = Cohesive forces: this acts between molecules
Adhesive forces: this acts between a molecule
m [1 × (150 − 100 ) + 540 + 1 × (100 − 90 )]
and the wall of the container.
= 600 m calorie
According to problem Q1 = Q2 ⇒ 600 × 103
cal = 600 m cal ⇒ m = 103 gm = 1 kg. C

• A calorimeter contains 0.2kg of water at B

30°C. 0.1 kg of water at 60°C is added to it,
A
the mixture is well stirred and the resulting
temperature is found to be 35°C. The thermal
capacity of the calorimeter is
Solution
A: This molecule experiences cohesive force
Let X be the thermal capacity of calorimeter
only and since they act in all directories, the net
and specific heat of water = 4200 J/kg-K
cohesive force is zero.
Heat lost by 0.1 kg of water = Heat gained by
B: This experiences both cohesive & adhesive
water in calorimeter + Heat gained by
forces because it is in contact with other
calorimeter
molecules and the wall of its container.
⇒
C: This experiences cohesive force only.
0 .1 × 4200 × (60 − 35 ) = 0 .2 × 4200 × (35 − 30 ) + X (35 − 30 )
However, the net cohesive force is not zero since
there are no cohesive forces above it. The net
10500
cohesive force on “c” acts downward and this is
= 4200 + 5X ⇒ X = 1260 J/K
similar to all the molecules at the surfaces of
liquids
As a result of this the surface of a liquid behaves
like a skin and it is always under tension called
surface tension.

241 | P a g e
 Definition of Surface Tension Force due to excess pressure
It is defined as the energy required increasing the Recall pressure
surface area of a liquid mathematically; it can be
defined as the force acting on a unit length of a
liquid F = A ∆P (1)

Surface tension
Force due to surface tension
Surface tension
Unit = Nm⁻1
Y
Example
F=YL (2)
If force 2N acts on a liquid of length 50cm,
These two (2) forces are equal at equilibrium
determine the surface tension of this liquid.
i.e. to excess P = F due to surface
Solution
=YL
F = 2N
L = 50cm ≈ 0.5m (3)

Y= Excess Pressure in Liquid Drop

= 4N/m
r ..
.
Excess pressure
There are two (2) pressures acting on a liquid
drop due to forces; From

Internal pressure Where L =

External pressure And A = r²
The difference between them is called pressure
(4)
excess
P = internal pressure – External pressure Excess pressure in drop bubble

∆p = Pint – Pext A soap bubble has two (2) layers

OR
P = Pint - Pext r
At equilibrium, two (2) forces act on this liquid
drop

242 | P a g e
From 2. ∆P = Pint - Pext
Pint = ∆P + Pext
L=2
Pint = 102313 + 13.33
A = r²
= 102326.3314N/m²
3. r = 5mm

∆P2 = (5) = 5 x 10⁻ᶾm

Y = 0.1N/m
Using
Example
1. Consider a stap bubble of radius 15mm, if
it surface tension of 0.05Nm, determine, = 40N/m²
i. excess pressure in the stap bubble Surface Energy
ii. The internal pressure of this/the bubble Since surface tension is defined as the energy
given that its external pressure is 1.01 required to increase a unit surface area i.e.
atm. surface tension then, surface energy
2. Derive an expression for the excess
can be defined as the product of surface tension
pressure in the film
and area.
3. Consider a water drop of radius 5mm, if
Surface energy = surface tension x area
its surface tension is 0.1Nm⁻1. Determine
E = YA (6)
its exess pressure.
Unit = Joules
Solution
i. r = 15mm
Liquid drops coming together
= 15 x 10-3m
Consider two (2) identical liquid drop, each of
Y = 0.05
radius that come together to form a bigger drop
Using
of radius R.

r + r = R
=13.33N m
ii. 1 atm = 1.013 x 105 N/m²
1.01 Atm = x
x = 102,313N/m²

243 | P a g e
By principle of conservation of volume = 8ߨY (2r² - R²)
V1 + V2 = V Since R = 1.26r involving identical drops

=
=
ᶾ+ ᶾ=R (7)
Since r₁ = r₂ = r Example
r3 + r3 = R3 Two identical rain drops each of radius 3mm
2r3 = R3 coalesce to form a bigger drop. If the surface
R= tension of the rain drop is 0.08N/m, determine

R= i. The radius of the bigger drop

ii. The surface energy lost during the
R = 1.26r ⇒ for identical radius
process.
When this drops come together, there is a loss in
Solution
surface energy & this can be obtained as follows;
t= 3mm = 3 x 10⁻3m
Total surface energy before coming together
Using R = 1.26 x 3 x 10⁻3
Eb4 = E₁ + E₂
R = 3.78 x 10⁻3m = 3.78mm
= Y A1 + Y A2
But surface area of a sphere = 4 ²
= 1.64
Eb4 = Y 4 ²+Y4 ²
= 1.64 x ߨ x 0.08 x (3 x 10⁻3)²
=Y4 ²+Y4 ²
= 1.64 x 0.68 x 9 x 10⁻6 x ߨ
= 2 (Y 4 ²)
= 3.71 x 10⁻6 J
= 8Y ² (*) Exercise
Total surface energy after coming together  Two water drops of radius 3mm and
Ea = Y A 4.5mm coalesce. If the surface tension of
= Y (4ߨR²) water is 0.05N/m. determine;
= 4ߨYR² (**) i. Radius of the bigger drop
Energy lost = Elost = ∆E ii. Total energy of the small drops
∆E = Eb – Ea iii. Energy of the bigger drop
=8 ² - 4ߨYR² iv. Energy lost due to the process

244 | P a g e
  Consider three identical oil drops each of - Wets the surface
radius r coming together to form a bigger - It produces capillarity rise in a tube
drop. Derive expressions for the radius of 2. Ѳ 90⁰ (obtuse):
the bigger drops and energy lost during - It does not wet glass
the process. Hence, derive a general - It produces capillarity fall
expression for the radius of bigger drop 3. Ѳ = 90⁰ (right angle)
when nth identical drops each of radius r - It does not produce capillarity
come together.
 Give 5-7 applications of surface tension Capillarity Action
There are two (2) forces acting on a liquid in a
Capillarity capillary tube;
It is defined as the rise or fall in liquid Force due to surface tension
level in a capillary tube. Capillarity is due Since y = F/L
to surface tension of a liquid. F = YL
F = Y (2ߨr)
Ѳ 90 Ѳ 90⁰ Ѳ = 90⁰ (i)
Weight of the liquid
Recall

m = ρv = ρ (ߨr²h) ⇒ volume of cylindrical tube

h = mg
--h--
ߨr²h)g (ii)
----
At equilibrium both forces are equal i.e. F = W
Y (2ߨr) = ߨr²h)g

(iii)

Angle of Contact Ignoring angle of contact

It is defined as the angle made with the surface it
is in contact with. Angle of contact can be
classified into three;
1. Ѳ 90⁰ (acute): A liquid whose angle of
contact is acute has the following features

245 | P a g e
Considering the angle of contact 1.63 x m
The vertical component of the force due to
surface tension is Considered Solution to Exercise
Ѳ ₁ = 3mm = 3 x 10 m
= 4.5mm = 4.5 x 10 m
Y = 0.05N/m
r₁ᶾ + r₂ᶾ = Rᶾ
(3 x + (4.5 x = Rᶾ
Fy = F Cos Ѳ
(27 + 91.125) x 10⁻9 = R3
= Y Cos Ѳ
Rᶾ = 118 x 10⁻9
= Y (2ߨr) Cos Ѳ
R=

At equilibrium, R = 4.9 x 10 m

Fy = W = 4.9mm
Y (2ߨr) Cos Ѳ = ߨr²h)g Eb = Y. 4 ߨr₁² + Y. 4 ߨr₂²
= 4ߨY (r₁² +r₂²)
= 4ߨ x 0.05 [(3 x 10 )² + (4.5 x10 )²
= 0.6283 (0.0000293)
Example
= 1.84 x 10⁻5 J
Calculate the capillarity in a tube of radius 5mm
Ea = Y A
when it is inserted in a liquid whose relative
= Y . 4 ߨr²
density is 0.75 and surface tension 0.04N/m².
= 0.05 (4ߨ x (4.9 x 10⁻ᶾ)²)
Given that the angle of contact of this liquid with
= 0.05 (4ߨ x 2.4 x 10⁻5
the wall is 40⁰.
= 1.5 x 10⁻5J
Solution
E = Eb - Ea
5mm = 5 x 10⁻ᶾm`
= (1.84 x 10⁻5) – (1.5 x 10⁻5)
Y = 0.04N/m²
= (1.84 – 1.5) x 10⁻5
Relative density = 0.75 x 1000
= 3.4 x 106J
= 750kgm⁻ᶾ
v₁ + v₂ + v3 = v
Ѳ = 40⁰

246 | P a g e
 1ᶾ + r₂ᶾ + r₃ᶾ = Rᶾ Application of Surface Tension
& r₁ = r₂ = r₃ = 0 The following are applications of surface

ᶾ + rᶾ + rᶾ = Rᶾ tension;

Water proof materials
3rᶾ = Rᶾ

For cleaning action of soap & detergents
R=

Rising of oil in lamp wicks
R = 1.44r

Absorption of ink with blotting
Eb = Y. A₁ + Y. A₂ + Y. A₃

Movement of melted wax into the neck
= Y .4ߨr₁² + Y. 4ߨr₂² + Y. 4ߨr₃²
of burning candle
= Y.4ߨr² + Y. 4ߨr² + Y. 4ߨr²
= 3 (4ߨYr²)
r
= 12ߨYr²
Ea = Y. A
= Y. 4ߨR²
E = Eb - Ea
= 12ߨYr² - 4ߨYR²
= 4ߨY (3r² - R²)
= 4 ߨ Y (3r² - (1.44r)²)
= 4 ߨ Y (3r² - 2.07r²)
= 4ߨY (0.93r²)
E = 3.68ߨ Yr²
⇒nV=V
=

rᶾ = Rᶾ

R=

i.e.

247 | P a g e
 CHAPTER NINETEEN
FLUID MECHANICS (MOTION)
A fluid as any substances which can flow with
relative ease, tends to assume the shape of its
container and obeys Bernoulli’s principle of
liquids, gas or plasma.
Density and Pressure of a Fluid
Density
This can be defined as the ratio of the mass to the
volume of a substances or body
Density =
Pressure
This is defined as the ratio of the force acting
normally to a unit surface area.
Pressure =
Volume = Area x Height = Ah
Density (ρ) =
Laminar Flow
A fluid is said to be laminar/streamline if every
particles that passes a particular point moves a
long exactly the same smooth path followed by
previous particles passing that point. The
velocity of the moving fluid at any fixed point
does not change with time, either in magnitude or
direction.
Turbulent Flow
A fluid is said to be turbulent, or irregular, if the
fluid particles move in a chaotic manner, which
leads to the exchange of momentum from one
portion of fluid to another.
Many features of fluid motion can be understood
by considering the behaviour of ideal fluid,
which satisfies the following conditions:
i. The fluid is
non-viscous: Which means there is no

But volume = A x h = Ah internal function force between

adjacent layers.
ii. The fluid is
Mass = ρAh
incompressible: Which means its
Weight (w) = mg = ρAhg (1)
density is constant
Recall that force is equal to weight
iii. The fluid
F = ρAhg
motion is steady: Meaning that the
Pressure = velocity, density and pressure at each
P = ρhg (2) point in the fluid don’t change with
time.

248 | P a g e
 which is equally to the weight of the fluid
Pascal Principle displaced.
The principle state that the pressure applied to an When an object is immersed in a fluid, it will
enclosed fluid is equally in all direction and to experience an upward force as a result of its
the walls of the containing vessel. weight acting downward (i.e. action and
Application of Pascal Principle reaction). The upward force experience is known
1. Hydraulic press as up THRUST
2. Motor-car brake Principle of Floatation
3. Hydraulic controls in air plane This principle state that a body will floats when
Hydraulic Press the up thrust exerted upon it by the fluid in which
The pres consist of two cylinders R and S of it floats is equal the weight of the body.
different diameters. The cylinder is filled with This holds when the up thrust on the body is
water or oil is joined by a connecting tube. A equal to its weight
tight piston is fitted in each cylinder. The piston When weight (w) = Up thrust (u)
or plunger of small cross-sectional area A₁ is Fluid Motion/Flow
used to exert a small force (f) directly on a liquid There are three types of fluid flow this include:
such as oil. (i) Laminar flow

The pressure p = is transmitted through the (ii) Turbulent flow

(iii)Translational flow
connecting pipe to the large cylinder equipped
Equation of Continuity
with a larger piston of area A₂. The pressure is
the same in both cylinders, A
 N
P=
K-
Or f= A
K-x
(3)

Archimedes’s Principle
Archimedes’s principle state that when an object
or a body is completely or partially immersed in From the diagram above which represent a fluid
a fluid the body will experience an up thrust through a pipe of non-uniform size, the

249 | P a g e
 particles in the fluid move along the streamline Bernoulli’s Principle
in steady-state flow. Let the areas of the two The principle states that for an incompressible
surfaces be A₁ and A₂. Let the speed or non-viscous fluid, the pressure plus the kinetic
velocity with which the fluid moves at various energy per unit volume plus the potential energy
areas to be v₁ and v₂ respectively. During a per unit volume at given point in the fluid in
small interval of time dt, the fluid at A₁ moves motion is constant
a distance v₁dt while the fluid at A₂ moves a P+
distance v₂dt at the same time interval.
P+
However, because the mass is conserved and
because the flow is steady, the mass that flows Proof of Bernoulli’s Equation
into the bottom of the pipe through A₁ in the A work is done in moving a fluid through a
time dt must equal the mass that flows out distance ‘ ’
through A₂ in the same interval. Work done = Force x distance = F
Recall that
Therefore, A1M1 = A1M₂
Recall that density
Force = Pressure Area = P A
(1)
Work done = =P v (volume)
p₁ = A

= = (pA₂V₂) V
A V
= p₂A₂V₂ (2)
For the case of an incompressible fluid
P₁ = P₂ At A₁ the work done is P₁V₁

= P₂A₂V₂ Work done per unit volume = p₁ while at A₂, the

work done = P₂V₂
= A₂V₂ (3)
Work done per unit volume = P₂
This above equation is known as equation of
Net work done per unit volume = P₁ - P₂
continuity.
Kinetic energy per unit volume

K. E =

Potential energy per unit volume

250 | P a g e
 p₁ +

The gain in kinetic energy of the two areas is Recall that h₁ = h₂

p₁ +

Collect terms
p₁ - p₂ =
The gain in potential energy of the two areas is
( gh₂ - gh₁) p₁ - p₂ =
Pg (h₂ - h₁)
Recall that
The total work done = gain in K.E + gain in P.E
v₁ = (substitute)
p₁ - p₂ =
p₁ - p₂ = ( )² – ( )²]
p₁ +

p₁ - p₂ = ( – )
Recall that p +

Hence, p + 1/2 v² + pgh = constant p= ²(

p₁ - p₂ =
p= ²(
P = K.E + P.E
The pressure difference p is equal to the
Application of Bernoulli’s Equation
pressure drop p = mgh
i. A suction effect experienced by a person
standing close to the platform at a station mgh = ½ Q² (

when a test train passes.

2 mgh = Q² (
ii. Aerofoil lift
iii. Fiter pump
iv. Flow of liquid from wide tanks. Divide both sides
The Venturimeter Q² (
A venturiemeter is an instrument or device used
to measure the flow rate of fluid through pipes. A (

venturiemeter has two areas A₁ and A₂ we can

Q²
obtain the mathematical properties of a
venturiemeter from Bernoulli’s equation. Q²

251 | P a g e
 2 gh = v²
2gh = v²
Q² A₁A₂ Find the square root of both sides

=
m = density of manometer
Q = volume of flow rate V=

= density of fluid to be measured. The above equation is known as Torricelli’s

equation

Torricelli’s Equation Examples

Consider tanks of water in which the water is 1. If the speeds of a fluid in a pipe of cross

exposed to the atmosphere and the tank has a sectional area 100cm² is 30ms⁻ˡ, what will be

hole which is are distance h. we can device the its speed in a pipe connected to the other end

mathematical expression of Torricelli’s from of the pipe if the radius of the second pipe is

Bernoulli’s equation. 10cm?

2. A lawn sprinkler has 20 holes each of cross
p₁ +
sectional area 2.0 x 10⁻² cm² and is connected
p₀ +
to hose pipe of cross sectional area 2.4cm². If
the speed of the water in the hose is 1.5ms⁻ˡ,
estimate the speed of the water as it emerges
(
from the holes.
g (h₁ - h₂) = Solution

The velocity at surface is v₁ = o 1. A₁ (Area) = 100cm² = = 0.01m²

h₁ - h₂ = h the net height
A₂ = ߨr² = m2
g (h) =
A₂ = 0.0314 or 3.14 x 10⁻²
gh = V₁ = 30ms⁻ˡ V₂ =?

Recall that for an incompressible fluid From continuity equation, A₁V₁ = A₂V₂

p₁ = p₂
From the above equation

2. Number of holes = 20 holes

Area of each hole = 2.0 10⁻⁴ cm²

252 | P a g e
 Total area = 20 5m² Q = Area x Velocity = 7.86 x -5m² 6.5ms⁻ˡ
Q = 5.16 x 10⁻⁴ m3s⁻ˡ
Area of pipe =
Discharge rate of the initial mass
Velocity of water in pipe v₂ = 1.5ms⁻ˡ = volume discharge rate x density
From continuity equation = 5.17 x 10⁻⁴ x 1000 = 0.516kgs⁻ˡ
A₁V = A₂V₂

V =
3. A large cubical tank is completely filled with
water. The tank is 3m high and its surface is
open. If a small hole is made on one side of
the tank at a height of 0.8m from the ground.
Calculate the speed with which water comes
out of the hole. If the radius of the hole is
5mm, evaluate the initial volume discharge
rate. That is, volume per second and the
initial mass discharge rate.
Solution
From Torricelli’s equation
V=
Viscosity
Viscosity is defined as the total internal friction
between layers of a liquid or gas in motion.
Liquid which pour slowly are said to be more
viscous than those which pour faster. Hence,
very cold thick palm oil is more viscous than
very cold water.
We can consider viscosity as friction in fluids.
Coefficient of Viscosity
Coefficient of viscosity of a liquid is defined as
the tangential force per unit area per unit velocity
gradient.
Mathematically;
h=

H = 3.0 – 0.8 = 2.2m

V=

V= 6.57ms⁻ˡ Unit: is Nsm⁻²

Given radius (r) = 5mm = 5 10-3 m² Factors Affecting Viscosity of Fluid
Area (A) = ߨr² = (i) Surface area
(ii) Concentration
= -3x2
(iii) Pressure and temperature
-5m² (iv) Velocity
(v) Impurities
Volume of the discharge rate Q =

253 | P a g e
 Poiseuille’s Equation Substitute the value of and Z into equation (5)
Poisceuille’s equation can be derived from the -(-1) +y -2 (1) = 3
knowledge of dimension analysis. 1 + y -2 = 3
The volume per liquid issuing per second from y-1 = 3
the pipe depend on: y = 3+1 = 4
i.The radius (r) of the pipe Hence, = -1, y = 4, z = 1
ii.The pressure gradient
iii. The coefficient of viscosity η
Volume per second ηrG
Volume per second = K ηx ry G2 ------(1.0)
K ηx ry Gz

x y z

L3T⁻ˡ = k ( x y

L3T⁻ˡ = k Mx -x
T- x y -2z

L3T⁻ˡ = k L- x+y-2z M x+z T- x-2z

Factors Affecting Blood Pressure
M x+z = M⁰ ----- (1)
1. Blood viscosity
L- x+y-2z = L3 --------- (2)
2. Total blood volume (TBV)
T- x-2z = T⁻ˡ ------------(3)
3. Blood velocity
4. Blood vessels elasticity
5. Cardiac output
Stroke’s Law
This law state that the viscous force (F) on a
From equation (1) spherical object of radius (r) falling through a
liquid is directly proportional to the coefficient of
From equation (6), substitute into it viscosity the radius r of the sphere and
terminal velocity v.
One can use dimension analysis to derive the
frictional or viscous force.
+z = +1
From dimension analysis
Z = 1, = -1

254 | P a g e
 But k is given as 6ߨ

z Measurement of Viscosity

x ² Strokes law can be used to derive the equation

(formula) of a very viscous liquid.

---------- (2)

The viscous force (f) acting upwards, and the up

thrust U1 on the

Object due to the liquid are together equal to its

weight (w).
Put the value of into equation (6)
F+U=W
U = Mg = vg
M = mass of the liquid
= Density of the liquid
V = volume of the shape of liquid
Since the object is spherical its volume is that of
Put the value of z and into equation (5)
a sphere
V=

U=

Hence, W = mg = ρ v g = pg

ρ is the density of the object.

From stokes equation,

255 | P a g e
 F = 6ߨ CHAPTER TWENTY
FRICTION
Friction is defined as forces that oppose the
3 ߨ motion of two bodies in contact.
9ߨ Solid friction can be classified into:
(i) Static friction
(ii) Dynamic friction
V= Static/Limiting Friction
This is maximum force that must be overcome
Reynolds Number
before a body can just start to move over another.
At sufficiently high velocities, fluid flow changes
Dynamic/Kinetic Friction
from simple streamline flow to turbulent flow,
This is the force that must be overcome so that a
characterized by a highly irregular motion of the
body can move with uniform speed over another
fluid.
body.
Experimentally, the onset of turbulence in a tube
Coefficient of Static Friction (µ)
is determined by a dimensionless factor called
This is defined as the ratio of the static frictional
the REYNOLDS NUMBER, RN, given by
force to the normal reaction.
RN =
µ=
P is the density of the fluid, v is the average
F = µR
speed of the fluid along the direction of flow, d is
Recall that R = mg
the diameter of the tube, and ‘ is the viscosity
F = µmg
of the fluid. If RN is below about 2,000, the flow
Laws of Solid Friction
of the fluid is streamline/laminar. Turbulence
1. Frictional force is independent of the
flow occurs if RN above 3,000.
surface area in contact
In the region between 2,000 and 3,000 the flow is
2. Friction oppose motion between two
unstable, meaning that the fluid can move in
surfaces in contact
streamline flow, but any small distance will
3. Friction depends on the nature of the
cause its motion to change to turbulent flow.
two surfaces in contact
4. Frictional force is directly proportional
to the normal reaction.

256 | P a g e
 Method of Reducing Friction force between the block and the
1. The use of lubricant like oil, grease air, plane.
and graphite (2) Oil flows through a 4.0 cm i.d Pipe at an
2. The use of ball or roller bearings average speed of 2.5m/s. find the flow
3. The streamlining of body shapes of in mᶾ/s and cmᶾ/s
moving object. (3) Compute the average speed of water in a
R pipe having an i.d of 5.0cm and
Fr
delivering 2.5mᶾ of water per hour
(4) The speed of glycerine flowing in a
5.0cm-i.d. pipe is 0.54mls. find the
fluids speed in a 3.6cm-i.d. pipe that
Ɵ
Mg Sin Ɵ connects with both pipes flowing full
Ɵ (5) How long will it take for 500ml of water
Mg Cos Ɵ
to flow through a 15cm long, 3.6 mm-
W = mg
i.d. pipe if the pressure differential
across the pipe is 4.0kpa? the
FA = (Ff + mg sin Ɵ) = ma ------- (1) viscosity of water is 0.80 cp
FA - Ff - mg sin Ɵ = ma (6) A molten plastic flows out of a tube that
Ff = FA - mg sin Ɵ – ma ---------- (2) is 8.0cm long at a rate of 13cm3/min
F = ma when the pressure differential
Ff = FA - mg sin Ɵ - Ff between the two ends of the tube is
Ff = Frictional force 18cm of mercury. Find the viscosity
FA = Applied force of the plastic. The i. d. of the tube is
F = Resultant force 1.30mm. the density of mercury is
Question 13.6g/cm²
(1) A block of mass 5kg slides down from (7) In a horizontal system, a pipe (i. d.
rest on an inclined plane which 4.0mm) that is 20cm long connects in
inclined at angle of 600 to the line to a pipe (i. d. 5.0mm) that is
vertical. If the blocks travel a distance 30cm long, then a viscous fluid is
10m in 500sec. calculate the friction being pushed through the pipe at a
steady rate, what is the ratio of the

257 | P a g e
 pressure difference across the 20-cm
pipe to that across the 30-cm pipe?
(8) A hypodermic needle of length 3.0cm and
i. d 0.45mm is used to draw blood (η
= 4.0mpl). Assuming the pressure
differential across the needle is
80cmHg, how long does it take to
draw 15ml?
(9) In a blood transfusion, blood flows from
a bottle at atmospheric pressure into a
patient’s vein in which the pressure is
20mmHg higher than atmospheric.
The bottle is 95cm higher than the
vein, and the needle into the vein has
a length of 3.6cm and an i.d of
0.45mm. How much blood flows into
vein each cite? For blood, η = 0.0040
pas and ρ = 1005kg/mᶾ
(10) How much work does the piston in a
hydraulic system do during the 2.0cm
stroke, if the end area of the piston is
0.75cm² and the pressure in the
hydraulic fluid is 50kps?
(11) A large
tank of non-viscous fluid, which is
open to the surrounding air, springs a
leak 4.5m below the top of the liquid.
What is the theoretical velocity of
outflow from the hole? If the area of
the hole is 0.25cm², how much liquid
will escape in exactly 1 minute?
(12) Find the flow in litre/s of a non-
viscous liquid through an opening
0.50cm² in area and 2.5m below the
level of the liquid in an open tank
surrounded by air.
(13) Calculate the theoretical velocity of
efflux of water into the surrounding
air from an aperture that is 8.0m
below the surface of water in a large
tank, if an added pressure of 1400kpa
is applied to the surface of the water.
(14) What horsepower is required to force
8.0mᶾ of water per minute into water
at a pressure of 220kpa?
(15) A pump lifts water at the rate of 9.0
litre/s from a lake through a 5.0-
cm.i.d. Pipe and discharge it into the
air at a point 16m above the level of
the water in the lake. What are the
theoretical (a) velocity of the water at
the point of discharge and (b) power
delivered by the pump?
(16) Water flows steadily through a
horizontal pipe of varying cross
section. At one place the pressure is
130kpa and the speed is 0.60m/s.
determine the pressure at another
place in the same pipe where the
speed is 9.0mls at another
(17) An open tank holds water 1.25m
deep. If a small hole of cross-section
258 | P a g e
 area 3cm² is made at the bottom of the
tank, calculate the mass of water per
second initially flowing out of the
hole (g = 10ms⁻², density of water =
1000kgm⁻ᶾ)
(18) A lawn sprinkler has 20 holes of
cross-section area 2.0x10⁻²cm² and is
connected to a hose-pipe of cross-
section area 2.4cm². if the speed of
the water in the hose-pipe is 1.5ms⁻ˡ,
estimate the speed of the water as it
emerges from the holes.
(19) Show that the term ½ pv² which
enters into the Bernoulli equation has
the same dimension as pressure p.
A fluid flows through a horizontal
pipe of varying cross-section
assuming the flow is streamline
and applying the Bernoulli
equation p+ ½ pv² = constant,
show that the pressure in the pipe
is greatest where the cross-
sectional area is greatest.
(20) Water flows along a horizontal pipe
of cross-sectional area 48cm² which
has a constriction of cross-sectional
area. 12cm² at one place. If the speed
of the water at construction is 4ms⁻ˡ
calculate the speed in the wider
section.
The pressure in the wider section
is 1.0x105 pa. Calculate the
pressure at the constriction.
(Density of water = 1000kgm⁻ᶾ)
(21) A pipe of varying inner diameter
carries water. At point 1 the diameter
is 20cm and the pressure is 130kpa.
At point 2, which is 4.0m higher than
point 1, the diameter is 30cm. if the
flow is 0.080m3/s, what is the
pressure at the second point?
(22) Fuel oil of density 820kg/mᶾ flows
through a venturi-meter having a
throat diameter of 4.0cm and an
entrance diameter of 8.0cm. The
pressure drop between entrance and
throat is 16cm of mercury. Find the
flow. The density of mercury is
13600kg/mᶾ
(23) Find the maximum amount of water
that can flow through a 3.0-cm-i.d.
pipe per minute without turbulence.
Take the maximum Reynolds number
for non-turbulent flow to be 2000 for
water at 20⁰C, η= 1.0x10-3pas
(24) How fast can a raindrop (r = 1.5mm)
fall through air if the flow around it is
to be chose to turbulent that is for NR
close to 10? For air, η= 1.8x10-5 pas
and ρ = 1.29kg/mᶾ
259 | P a g e
 CHAPTER TWENTY-ONE
VIBRATION
A vibrational motion is a to-fro motion excitatory
motion. A special case is simple harmonic
motion. Vibrational or exculpatory motion can be
classified into two, namely:
i. Periodic Motion: This is a motion of an
object or particle that repeat itself at
regular interval e.g. SHM.
ii. Non- periodic Motion: This is a type of
escalation in which the motion of short
particles or body does not repeat itself at
regular interval, repetition occurs at
regular interval.
Simple Harmonic Motion
Simple harmonic motion (S.H.M.) occurs
when the force acting on an object or system
is directly proportional to its displacement x
from a fixed point and is always directed
towards this point. If the object executes
S.H.M., then the variation of the
displacement x with time t can be written as
x = a sin wt (1)
Fig. 1. Sine curve
Here a is the greatest displacement from the
mean or equilibrium position; a is the
amplitude, Fig. 1. The constant w is the
'angular frequency', and w = 2 where f is
the frequency of vibration or number of
cycles per second. The period T of the
motion, or time to undergo one complete
cycle is equal to 1/f, so that w = 2 .
The small oscillation of a pendulum bob or
vibrating layer of air is a mechanical
oscillation, so that x is a displacement from a
mean fixed position. Later, electrical
oscillations are considered, x may then
represent the instantaneous charge on the
plates of a capacitor when the charge
alternates about a mean value of zero. In an
electromagnetic wave, x may represent the
component of the electric or magnetic field
vectors at a particular place.
Energy in S.H.M
Earlier, it was shown that the sum of the
potential and kinetic energies of a body moving
with S.H.M. is constant and equal to the total
energy in the vibration. Further, it was shown
that the time averages of the potential energy (P.
E.) and kinetic energy (K.E.) are equal; each is
half the total energy. In any mechanical
oscillation, there is a continuous interchange or
exchange of energy from P.E. to K.E. and back
again.
260 | P a g e
For vibrations to occur, therefore, an agency is
required which can possess and store P.E. and
another which can possess and store K.E. This
was the case for a mass oscillating on the end of
a spring. The mass stores K.E. and the spring
stores P.E; and interchange occurs continuously
from one to the other as the spring is compressed
and released alternately. In the oscillations of a
simple pendulum, the mass stores K.E. as it
swings downwards from the end of an
oscillation, and this is changed to P.E. as the
height of the bob increases above its mean
position.
Note that some agency is needed to accomplish
the transfer of energy. In the case of the mass and
spring, the force in the spring causes the transfer.
In the case of the pendulum, the component of
the weight along the arc of the circle causes the
change from P.E. to K.E.
Classifications of Vibration
There are three classes of vibration:
i. Free vibration: A body is said to undergo
free vibration if it only is being acted
upon by applied and restoring forces.
ii. Damped oscillation or Vibration: In this
type of vibration, an additional force
called sampling force also act on the
body. A body under sampled oscillation
comes to rest after sometime due to
sampling.
iii. Force Vibration/Oscillation: It is the
motion of a body in which an external
force act on it so that it can continuously
oscillate e.g. Swing
Free Oscillation
The equation of a oscillation is
Fa = Fr = D
Where Fa = Applied Force
Fr = Restoring Force
For a mass string system, the applied and
restoring forces act in opposite direction but of
equal value, {Nation third law}.
So that Fa = - Fr
The negative sign implies that both forces act in
opposite direction.
If Fa = Ma
And Fr = K
Ma = -K
Since K and M are constant
Acceleration is directly proportional to the
displacement in the direction toward centre.
Example
Derive an expression for effective spring
constant involving two springs arranged in [i]
series, [ii] parallel. Hence, find the period of
oscillation in each system if the spring constants
are 0.1 N/m and 0.25N/m and the load suspended
free end is 300g.
261 | P a g e
Solution Since total = ₁+ ₂
Series arrangement Fa = K = K₂ = Keff total

n₁ =

total =

K1 n1 Fa/Keff = Fa/K₁ + Fa/K₂

Fa {1/keff} = Fa {1/K₁ + 1/K₂}
1/Keff = 1/K₁ + 1/K₂
K2 n2

Parallel Arrangement
Fa k₁ k₂
due to the force applied, two strings will extend
₁ ₂
(n)
Same as Fa but different extension
F = ma
ntotal = n₁ + n2
Fa
From Fa = Keff . total

Fa = Keff [ Same extension n, but different forces

Also; K1 i.e. Ftotal = F₁ + F₂
Keff = K₁ ₁ + K₂ ₂
Keff = K₁ + K₂
Fa = Keff

= Keff (iii) Series Arrangement

Keff =
K₂ Keff .
Period F =
K₂ = Keff {

K₂ K₁ = Keff [K₂ + K₁] =2

Keff = = 2 x 2.049
F = 12.95

262 | P a g e
 Damped Oscillation Types of Damping
In reality, free oscillation does not exist, as The existence of damping force makes an
damping force usually act on such system. oscillating system to come to rest. There are
Damping force is a functional force that opposes three types of damping which depend on the
the motion of a system in free vibration. coefficient of damping
This frictional force can exist internally in the (i) Under- damping: It is a type of
system; e.g. due to the stiffness of the body. On damping in which the systems
internally the viscous drag off the air. steadily come to rest.
The general equation for a damped oscillation is (ii) Over- damping: It is a type of damping
Fa + Fr + Fd = 0 in which the systems quickly come to
Where Fd is the damping force, the damping rest as much as it can.
force is proportional to the speed of a vibrating (iii) Critical damping: It is a type of
system. damping in which the systems does
Fd v not oscillate before coming to rest.
Fd = b v
Where b = damping coefficient.
Hence, the equation can be obtained as follows:
Fa + Fr + Fd = 0
K +Ma+bv=0

Since

And a

K +M{

M{
Fig. 2. Damped motion
OR M +b

Forced Oscillation
Vibrating system do not come to rest after
sometime due to damping, in other to prevent
this, an external force is applied to the system so

263 | P a g e
that it can oscillate continuously. The equation The phase angle is directly proportional to the
for force oscillation horizontal displacement.
Fa + Fr + Fd = Fent i.e.
(2)
Progressive Wave Therefore, the general form of progressive wave
It is a type of wave whose profile change with is
time. It is represented sinusoidally as
y = [A sin wt
Y = A sin wt (1)
OR
Where, A = amplitude
y = [A sin wt (3)
W = Angular frequency [2 f]
Phase Difference [
It is defined as the angle by which two phases of
Phase Angle
a wave or two waves differ. it is due to the
It is the angle by which the profile of a wave
difference in their horizontal displacement.
differs from a given referen
Since

P y₁ y₂
Q (4)

Wave Number [K]

It can be defined as the number of circle per unit
wave length of a wave
[K = (5)

{ (6)
P and Q are scimitar profile
P is in 00 and Q is in 600
Phase angle at y1 = 00
Phase angle at y2 = 600
y1 = A sin [wt + 00]
y2 = A sin [wt + 600]

264 | P a g e
Different Forms of Progressive Wave
Equation
From eqn (3) From V = f
Y = A sin [wt
=
+ ve: wave travels to the left
-ve: wave travels to the right
Where w = 2

Y = A sin [2

Y = A sin 2 (7) Example

The equation of certain travelling wave on a
Since K
string is given by
Then eqn (3) becomes Y = 4 Cos 2 [0.5 ]
Y = A sin [wt Solution
Y = A sin w [ (8) From Y = A Cos 2 [ ]

OR, Since K = w/v i. Amplitude = 4 cm

w = KV ii. Wavelength; 0.5
Y = A sin [
Y = A sin (9)

iii. Frequency = 100 Hz

Example
iv. Speed; V = f = 100 x 2
The velocity of amplitude 0.2m is 8ms-1 and it
= 200 cm/s
frequency is 4Hz.
Calculate the phase difference between two
Wave Mechanics
points on the wave which are 0.5m apart.
Wave equation From Y = A sin [wt + Kn]
Solution
A = 0.2 m, v = 8 m/s, f = 4 Hz

Diff. with respect to t Diff. with respect to n

265 | P a g e
 Wave Speed
The speed of wave depends on two factors
(i)
(i) Elastic factor
(ii) Inertia factor
From the wave equation
(ii)
V²

V (1)

Wave speed is the square root of elastic to inertia

factor.
Speed of wave in different media
GDS:
(i) Elastic factor is pressure of gas [p]
(ii) Inertia factor is density of gas [ρ]
Divide (i) by (ii)
V= (2)

Example
Obtain the speed of sound in air under standard
Where K = condition

y
A λ

(10)

Where Solution
Standard condition = p Pressure = Latin =
101325 Pa
V = Wave Speed
Temperature = 0⁰ C = 273K
Density ρ = 1Kg/mᶾ

266 | P a g e
 λ = wavelength (m)
V=
ω = 2πf = 2π/T = angular frequency (rad/s)
f = frequency (Hz)
V = 318.32ms⁻ˡ {speed of sound in air} T = period (sec)
Equation [2] above can be used to obtain speed ϕ = phase angle (Depends on choice of t = 0.)
of sound wave in air under constant temperature The wave speed can be written as
i.e. Isothermal changes. ∆x λ
v= = = fλ
For adiabatic change, a correction is made and ∆t T
the modified version of equation (2) is
Example
V= (3)
A wave is described by the equation
Where = y = 0.05m sin( 2 x − 5 ) . What are the

Exercise wavelength, period, and wave speed?

Obtain the speed of sound wave in air at standard k = 2π/λ = 2, λ = π = 3.14 m

condition under adiabatic change, given that = ω = 2π/T = 5, T = 0.4π = 1.26 s

1.40 v = λ/T = 3.14m/1.26s = 2.5 m/s

Solution Factors Affecting Speed of Sound in Air

(i) Pressure pressure change does not
V= =
affect the speed of sound in air because if
pressure changes, there will be
V = 376.64 ms⁻² corresponding change in the density of
gas and their effect will cancel out.
Wave equation (ii) Density ⇒ the change in the density of a
A “sinusoidal” wave traveling to the right can be gas does not affect the speed of the sound
described by the equation in that gas due to the corresponding

y = A sin( kx − ω t + ϕ ) change in the pressure of the gas.

(iii) Temperature ⇒ Since Pv = nRT
where
A = amplitude = maximum vertical Pv =

displacement (m) P=
k = 2π/λ = wave number (m-1)

267 | P a g e
 P=ρ. Example
Obtain the speed of sound in Oxygen gas at 0⁰C.
P=
Hence, what would be the speed at 10⁰C.
Substitute into eqn (2) Solution

V= T = 0⁰C = 273K
M = 32 g/mol = 0.032 Kg/mol
V= (4) R = 8.314 J mol⁻ˡ K⁻ˡ

Since R and M are constant

V

(5) V₁ = 266.32ms⁻ˡ
T₁ = 273K
Hence, speed of sound increases as
T₂ = 10 + 273 = 283K
temperature increases
V₂ =?
For Adiabatic change
=
V= =

V= (6)

V₂ = 1.018 266.32 ⇒ 271.15 ms⁻²

(iv) Relative Humidity ⇒ It deals with the
relative content of water in air. Since
sound requires material medium for it
propagation, the higher the relative
humidity the higher the speed of sound in
air.

268 | P a g e

CHAPTER TWENTY-TWO
PROGRESSIVE WAVES
A wave is a disturbance which propagates energy
and momentum from one place to the other
without the transport of matter.
Necessary properties of the medium for wave
propagation
(i) Elasticity: So that particles can return to their
mean position, after having been disturbed.
(ii) Inertia: So that particles can store energy and
overshoot their mean position.
(iii) Minimum friction amongst the particles of
the medium.
(iv) Uniform density of the medium.
Characteristics of wave motion
1. It is a sort of disturbance which travels
through a medium.
2. Material medium is essential for the
propagation of mechanical waves.
3. When a wave motion passes through a
medium, particles of the medium only vibrate
simple harmonically about their mean
position. They do leave their position and
move with the disturbance.
4. There is a continuous phase difference
amongst successive particles of the medium
i.e., particle 2 starts vibrating slightly later
than particle 1 and so on.
5. The velocity of the particle during their
vibration is different at different position.
6. The velocity of wave motion through a
particular medium is constant. It depends
only on the nature of medium not on the
frequency, wavelength or intensity.
7. Energy is propagated along with the wave
motion without any net transport of the
medium.
Mechanical waves
The waves which require medium for their
propagation are called mechanical waves.
Example
Waves on string and spring, waves on water
surface, sound waves, seismic waves.
Non-mechanical waves
The waves which do not require medium for
their propagation are called non- mechanical or
electromagnetic waves.
Examples
Light, heat (Infrared), radio waves, g- rays, X-
rays etc.
Transverse waves
A wave which is propagated by vibrations
perpendicular to the direction of travel of the
wave is called a transverse wave. Examples of
transverse waves are waves on plucked strings
and on water. Electromagnetic waves, which
include light waves, are transverse waves.
Other examples of transverse wave motion
include; movement of string of a sitar or violin,
269 | P a g e
 movement of the membrane of a Tabla or
Dholak, movement of kink on a rope, waves set-
up on the surface of water.
Particles of the medium execute simple harmonic
motion about their mean position in a direction
perpendicular to the direction of propagation of
wave motion.
The propagation of a transverse wave is
illustrated in Fig. 2. Each particle vibrates
perpendicular to the direction of propagation
with the same amplitude and frequency, and the
wave is shown successively at t = 0, T/4, T/2,
3T/4, in Fig. 3, where T is the period.

A C E C R C R C R

Vibration of
Vibration

particle
C
Pa Norma Tr W
r
rti l D ou av
B

The following is true about transverse wave

motion
Fig. 1. Wave diagram
i. It travels in the form of crests and troughs.
ii. A crest is a portion of the medium which is
raised temporarily above the normal position
of rest of the particles of the medium when a
transverse wave passes through it.
iii. A trough is a portion of the medium which is
depressed temporarily below the normal
position of rest of the particles of the
medium, when transverse wave passes
through it.
iv. Transverse waves can be transmitted through
solids, they can be setup on the surface of
liquids. But they cannot be transmitted into
liquids and gases.
v.

Fig. 2. Progressive transverse wave

270 | P a g e
 Fig. 5 illustrates the propagation of a longitudinal
wave.
Trou
C C C
Cre
T T The row of dots shows the actual positions of the
Transverse- Transverse wave
Transverse wave on particles whereas the graph shows the
Fig. 3. Transverse wave in different medium displacement of the particles from their
Longitudinal Waves equilibrium positions. The positions at time t = 0,
t = T/4, t = T/2 and t = 3T/4 are shown. The
If the particles of a medium vibrate in the diagram for t = T is, of course, the same as t = 0.
direction of wave motion the wave is called
longitudinal. In contrast to a transverse wave, a
longitudinal wave is one in which the vibrations
occur in the same direction as the direction of
travel of the wave.
Fig. 4. Vibration of particles

It travels in the form of compression and

rarefaction.
A compression (C) is a region of the medium in
which particles are compressed.
A rarefaction (R) is a region of the medium in
which particles are rarefied.
Examples sound waves travel through air in the
Fig. 5. Progressive longitudinal wave
form of longitudinal waves, Vibration of air
column in organ pipes are longitudinal, Vibration
With displacements to R (right) and to L (left),
of air column above the surface of water in the
note that:
tube of resonance apparatus are longitudinal.
i. The displacements of the particles cause
These waves can be transmitted through solids,
regions of high density (compressions C) and
liquids and gases because for these waves
of low density (rarefactions R) to be formed.
propagation, volume elasticity is necessary.

271 | P a g e
ii. These regions move along with the speed of iii. Wavelength is the distance between any two
the wave, as shown by the broken diagonal nearest particles of the medium, vibrating in
line. the same phase.
iii. Each particle vibrates about its mean iv. Distance travelled by the wave in one time
position with the same amplitude and period is known as wavelength.
frequency. v. In transverse wave motion:
λ = Distance between the centres of two
λ
consecutive crests.

λ
λ λ = Distance between the centres of two
λ consecutive troughs.
C R R R
C C C λ = Distance in which one trough and one
λ λ crest are contained.
vi. In longitudinal wave motion:
iv. The regions of greatest compression are one- λ = Distance between the centres of two
quarter wavelength ahead of the greatest consecutive compression.
displacement in the direction of the wave.
λ = Distance between the centres of two
This result is important in understanding
consecutive rarefaction.
some processes involving sound waves.
λ = Distance in which one compression and
The most common example of a longitudinal
one rarefaction contained.
wave is a sound wave. This is propagated by
alternate compressions and rarefactions of the
Frequency
air.
i. Frequency of vibration of a particle is
Important Terms Regarding Wave Motion.
defined as the number of vibrations
Wavelength
completed by particle in one second.
i. It is the length of one wave.
ii. It is the number of complete wavelengths
ii. Wavelength is equal to the distance travelled
traversed by the wave in one second.
by the wave during the time in which any one
iii. Units of frequency are hertz (Hz) and per
particle of the medium completes one
second.
vibration about its mean position.

272 | P a g e
 Time period
i. Time period of vibration of particle is defined
as the time taken by the particle to complete
one vibration about its mean position.
ii. It is the time taken by the wave to travel a
distance equal to one wavelength.
Relation between frequency and time period
Time period = 1/Frequency
T = 1/f
Relation between velocity, frequency and
wavelength
v = fλ
Velocity (v) of the wave in a given medium
depends on the elastic and inertial property of the
medium.
Frequency (f) is characterised by the source
which produces disturbance. Different sources
may produce vibration of different frequencies.
Wavelength (λ) will differ to keep f λ = v =
constant.
Progressive Waves
Both the transverse and longitudinal waves
described above are progressive. This means that
the wave profile moves along with the speed of
the wave. If a snapshot is taken of a progressive
wave, it repeats at equal distances. The repeat
distance is the wavelength X. If one point is
taken, and the profile is observed as it passes this
point,
then the profile is seen to repeat at equal intervals
of time. The repeat time is the period, T.
The vibrations of the particles in a progressive
wave are of the same amplitude and frequency.
But the phase of the vibrations changes for
different points along the wave.
Progressive Wave Equation
An equation can be formed to represent generally
the displacement v of a vibrating particle in a
medium which a wave passes. Suppose the wave
moves from left to right and that a particle at the
origin O then vibrates according to the equation y
=a sin wt, where t is the time and w = 2 f.
At a particle P at a distance x from O to the right,
the phase of the vibration will be
Fig. 7. Progressive wave equation
different from that at O, Fig. 7. A distance λ from
O corresponds to a phase difference of 2 . Thus,
the phase difference φ at P is given by (x/λ) x 2
or 2 /λ. Hence the displacement of any particle
at a distance x from the origin is given by
y = a sin (wt – φ)
or y = a sin (1)
273 | P a g e
since w = 2 =2 /λ, where v is the velocity =
of the wave, this equation may be written as;
34 cm
y = a sin v = 1000 = 1000 x 34 = 34000 cm s-1

or y = a sin (vt – x) (2) frequency, f, = 1000 Hz

Also, since w = 2 /T, equation (1) may be period, T,

written
If two layers of the wave are 180 cm apart, they
y = a sin 2 (3) are separated by 180/34 wavelengths, or by
Equations (2) or (3) represent a plane- Their phase difference for a separation is 2 ;
progressive wave. The negative sign in the and hence, for a separation 10 /34, omitting 5
bracket indicates that, since the wave moves
from consideration, we have:
from left to right, the vibrations at points such as
Phase difference = x2 =
P to the right of O will lag on that at O. A wave
travelling in the opposite direction, from right to
left, arrives at P before O. Thus, the vibration at Sound Waves

P leads that at O. Consequently, a wave The energy to which the human ears are sensitive

travelling in the opposite direction is given by
y = a sin 2
that is, the sign in the bracket is now a plus sign.
As an illustration of calculating the constants of a
wave, suppose a wave is represented by
y = a sin
is known as sound. In general, all types of waves
are produced in an elastic material medium,
(4)
irrespective of whether these are heard or not are
known as sound.
According to their frequencies, waves are
divided into three categories:
i. Audible or sound waves: Range 20 Hz to 20

where t is in seconds, y in cm. Then, comparing KHz. These are generated by vibrating bodies

it with equation (2) such as vocal cords, stretched strings or

membrane.
y = a sin (vt – x)
ii. Infrasonic waves: Frequency lie below 20 Hz.
we have
Example: waves produced during earth quake,
ocean waves etc.
and iii. Ultrasonic waves: Frequency greater than 20
KHz. Human ear cannot detect these waves,

274 | P a g e
 certain creatures such as mosquito, dog and Velocity of Sound (Wave motion).
bat show response to these. As velocity of Speed of transverse wave motion
sound in air is 332 m/sec so the wavelength T
(i) On a stretched string: v = T =
of ultrasonics λ < 1.66 cm and for infrasonics m

λ > 16.6 m. Tension in the string; m = Linear density of

string (mass per unit length).
Note η
(ii) In a solid body: v = η = Modulus of
Supersonic speed: An object moving with a ρ

speed greater than the speed of sound is said to rigidity; ρ = Density of the material.
move with a supersonic speed. Speed of longitudinal wave motion
Mach number: It is the ratio of velocity of source 4
k+ η
to the velocity of sound. (i) In a solid medium v = 3 k = Bulk
ρ
Mach Number =
Velocity of source modulus; η = Modulus of rigidity; ρ=
.
Velocity of sound Density
(ii) When the solid is in the form of long bar
Difference between sound and light waves Y
v= Y = Young's modulus of material
a. For propagation of sound wave material ρ

medium is required but no material medium of rod

is required for light waves. k
(iii)In a liquid medium v =
b. Sound waves are longitudinal but light waves ρ
are transverse. k
(iv) In gases v=
c. Wavelength of sound waves ranges from ρ
1.65 cm to 16.5 metre and for light it ranges
from 4000 Å to 2000 Å. Velocity of Sound in Elastic Medium.
When a sound wave travels through a medium
such as air, water or steel, it will set particles of
medium into vibration as it passes through it. For
this to happen the medium must possess both
inertia i.e. mass density (so that kinetic energy
may be stored) and elasticity (so that PE may be

275 | P a g e
stored). These two properties of matter determine However, the experimental value of sound in
the velocity of sound. air is 332 m/sec which is greater than that given
i.e. velocity of sound is the characteristic of by Newton's formula.
the medium in which wave propagate.
E (3) Laplace correction: He modified Newton's
v= (E = Elasticity of the medium;
ρ formula assuming that propagation of sound in
ρ = Density of the medium) air as adiabatic process.
k Eφ
v= = (As
Note ρ ρ

(1) As solids are most elastic while gases least k = E φ = γρ = Adiabatic elasticity)
i.e. E S > E L > E G . So, the velocity of sound is v = 1.41 × 279= 331.3 m/s
maximum in solids and minimum in gases ( γ Air = 1 . 41 )
steel > water > air
γP 1
5000 m/s > 1500 m/s > 330 m/s (4) Effect of density: v = Þv ∝
ρ ρ
As for sound vwater > vAir while for light
vw < vA
γP γ RT
Water is rarer than air for sound and denser for (5) Effect of pressure: v= = .
ρ M
light.
Velocity of sound is independent of the pressure
The concept of rarer and denser media for a wave
of gas provided the temperature remains
is through the velocity of propagation (and not
constant. ( P ∝ ρ when T = constant)
density). Lesser the velocity, denser is said to be
the medium and vice-versa.
γRT
(6) Effect of temperature: v=
M
(2) Newton's formula: He assumed that when
v ∝ T (in K )
sound propagates through air temperature
remains constant. (i.e. the process is isothermal) When the temperature change is small then

K P
vt = v0 (1 + α t)
vair = = As K = Eθ = P ; Eθ =
ρ ρ v0 = velocity of sound at 0°C, vt = velocity of

Isothermal elasticity; P = Pressure. sound at t°C , α = temp-coefficient of velocity

By calculation vair = 279 m/sec. of sound.

276 | P a g e
 m/s loudness pitch, quality etc. have practically no
Value of α = 0.608 o
= 0.61 (Approx.)
C effect on sound velocity.
Temperature coefficient of velocity of sound is
defined as the change in the velocity of sound, (10) Relation between velocity of sound and root
when temperature changes by 1°C. mean square velocity.
γRT 3 RT
vsound = and vrms = so
(7) Effect of humidity: With increase in humidity, M M
density of air decreases. So with rise in humidity v rms 3
= or vsound = [ γ /3]1/2
velocity of sound increases. v sound γ
This is why sound travels faster in humid air vrms.
(rainy season) than in dry air (summer) at the (11) There is no atmosphere on moon,
same temperature. therefore propagation of sound is not possible
there. To do conversation on moon, the
(8) Effect of wind velocity: Because wind drifts astronaut uses an instrument which can
the medium (air) along its direction of motion transmit and detect electromagnetic waves.
therefore the velocity of sound in a particular
direction is the algebraic sum of the velocity of Reflection and Refraction of Waves.
sound and the component of wind velocity in that When sound waves are incident on a
direction. Resultant velocity of sound along SL = boundary between two media, a part of
v + w cosθ. incident waves returns back into the initial
medium (reflection) while the remaining is
A
partly absorbed and partly transmitted into
Wind (w)

θ wcosθ
the second medium (refraction) In case of
S L
Sound (v)
reflection and refraction of sound
The frequency of the wave remains unchanged
that means
(9) Sound of any frequency or wavelength travels ωi = ωr = ωt = ω = constant
through a given medium with the same velocity.
(v = constant) For a given medium velocity
remains constant. All other factors like phase,

277 | P a g e
 Incident wave

i
r t

Reflected wave Transmitted wave

The incident ray, reflected ray, normal and

refracted ray all lie in the same plane.
For reflection angle of incidence (i) = Angle of
reflection (r)
sin i v i
For refraction =
sin t v t

In reflection from a denser medium or rigid

support, phase changes by 180° and direction
reverses if incident wave is y = A1 sin (ω t − kx )
then reflected wave becomes y = Ar sin
( ωt + kx + π ) = – Ar sin (ω t + kx ) .
In reflection from a rarer medium or free end,
phase does not change and direction reverses if
incident wave is y = AI sin ( ω t − kx ) then
reflected wave becomes y = Ar sin ( ωt + kx )
Echo is an example of reflection.
If there is a sound reflector at a distance d from
the source then time interval between original
sound and its echo at the site of source will be
2d
t=
v

278 | P a g e
 Reflection of Mechanical Waves

Medium Longitudinal Transverse Change in Phase Time Path change

wave wave direction change change
Reflection from Compression as Crest as crest Reversed π T λ
2 2
rigid end/denser rarefaction and and Trough as
medium vice-versa trough
Reflection from Compression as Crest as trough No change Zero Zero Zero
free end/rarer compression and and trough as
medium rarefaction as crest
rarefaction
After crossing, the two pulses travel
Principle of Superposition. independently as shown in [fig (C)] as if
The displacement at any time due to any number nothing had happened.
of waves meeting simultaneously at a point in a
medium is the vector sum of the individual
displacements due each one of the waves at that (A)

point at the same time.

r r r (B)
If y 1 , y 2, y 3 ………. are the displacements at a
particular time at a particular position, due to (C)

individual waves, then the resultant

r r r r
displacement. y = y1 + y 2 + y 3 + .......... ...
Important applications of superposition
Examples
principle:
(i) Radio waves from different stations having
(a) Interference of waves (b) Stationary
different frequencies cross the antenna. But
waves (c) Beats
our T.V/Radio set can pick up any desired
frequency.
Interference of Sound Waves.
(ii) When two pulses of equal amplitude on a
When two waves of same frequency, same
string approach each other [fig. (A)], then on
wavelength, same velocity (nearly equal
meeting, they superimpose to produce a
amplitude) moves in the same direction,
resultant pulse of zero amplitude [fig (B)].

279 | P a g e
 Their superimposition results in the It means the intensity will be maximum at those
interference. Due to interference, the points where path difference is an integral
resultant intensity of sound at that point is multiple of wavelength λ. These points are called
different from the sum of intensities due to points of constructive interference or interference
each wave separately. This modification of maxima.
intensity due to superposition of two or more Destructive interference: Intensity will be
waves is called interference. minimum
Let at a given point two waves arrives with phase when φ = π , 3 π ,5 π ...... ( 2 n − 1)π ; where
difference φ and the equation of these waves is n= 1, 2, 3 ……...
given by when x = l/2, 3l/2, ……….. (2n-1)l/2;
y1 = a1 sin ω t , y2 = a2 sin ( ω t + φ ) then where n = 1, 2, 3……..
by the principle of superposition Imin = I1+I2 – 2 I1 I 2 → Imin =
r r r
Þ y = A sin (ω t +θ ) where
y = y1 + y 2
( I1 − I 2 ) 2
∝ ( A1 ~ A 2 )
2

A = a1 2 + a 2 2 + 2 a1 a 2 cos φ and All maxima are equally spaced and equally loud.
a2 sin φ Same is also true for minima. Also, interference
tan θ =
a1 + a 2 cos φ maxima and minima are alternate as for
and since Intensity ∝ A 2 . maximum ∆x = 0, λ,2λ .... etc. and for minimum

So, I = a1 2 + a 2 2 + 2 a1 , a 2 cos φ λ 3λ 5λ
∆x = , , ....... etc .
2 2 2
⇒ I = I1 + I 2 + 2 I1 I 2 cos φ

I Imax = ( I1 + I2 )2
Note 2 I1 I 2
I1 + I 2
Constructive interference: Intensity will be 2 I1 I 2
Imin = ( I1 ~ I 2 )2
maximum
Phase Diff.0 π 2π 3π 4π 5π 6π φ
when φ = 0 , 2 π , 4 π ,...... 2 πn ; where n =
Path Diff. 0 λ/2 λ 3λ/2 2λ 5λ/2 3λ ∧x
0,1,2 ……..
when x = 0, l, 2l, ……….. nl; where n =
0, 1 …….
Imax = I1 + I2 + 2 I1 I 2 =

( I1 + I 2 )
2
∝ ( A1 + A 2 ) 2

280 | P a g e
Imax
=
(I 1 + I2 )
2

=
( A1 + A 2 )2
with
I1 A1 2
=
I min (I
1 ~ I2 )
2
( A1 ~ A 2 )2 I2 A2 2

If I 1 = I 2 = I 0 then Imax = 4 I o and Imin = 0

In interference, the intensity in maximum

( I1 + I 2 ) 2
exceeds the sum of individual

intensities (I1 + I2) by an amount 2 I1 I 2 while

in minima ( I1 ~ I 2 ) lacks (I
2
1 + I 2 ) by the

same amount 2 I1 I2 .
Hence in interference energy is neither created
nor destroyed but is redistributed. Doppler effect

Doppler Effect. The Doppler effect occurs whenever there is a

The whistle of a train or a jet aeroplane appears
to increase in pitch as it approaches a stationary
observer; as the moving object passes the
observer, the pitch changes and becomes
lowered. The apparent alteration in frequency
was first predicted by Doppler in 1845, who
stated that a change of frequency of the wave-
motion should be observed when a source of
sound or light was moving, and it is accordingly
known as the Doppler effect.
relative velocity between the source of sound or
light and an observer. In light, this effect was
observed when measurements were taken of the
wavelength of the colour of a moving star; they
showed a marked variation. In sound, the
Doppler effect can be demonstrated by placing a
whistle in the end of a long piece of rubber
tubing, and whirling the tube in a horizontal
circle above the head while blowing the whistle.
The open end of the tube acts as a moving source
of sound, and an observer hears a rise and fall in
pitch as the end approaches and recedes from
him.
The figure above illustrates how the change of
wavelengths, and hence frequency, occurs when
a source of sound is moving towards a stationary
observer. At a certain instant the position of the

281 | P a g e
moving source is at 4. At four successive seconds more than the actual frequency of sound. The
before this instant the source had been at the reverse is also true.
positions 3, 2, 1, respectively. If V is the velocity
of S L
v
sound, the wave-front from the source when in
vS vL
the position 3 reaches the surface A of a sphere
of radius V and centre 3 when the source is just
at 4. In the same way, the wave-front from the General expression for apparent frequency n'
source when it was in the position 2 reaches the
=
[(v + v m ) − v L ]n
surface B of a sphere of radius 2V and centre 2. [(v + v m ) − v S ]
The wave-front C corresponds to the source Here n = Actual frequency; vL = Velocity of
when it was in the position 1, and the wave-front listener; vS = Velocity of source
D to the source when it was in the position vm = Velocity of medium and v =
O. Thus if the observer is on the right of the Velocity of sound wave
source S, he receives wave- fronts which are Sign convention: All velocities along the
relatively more crowded together than if S were direction S to L are taken as positive and all
stationary; the frequency of S thus appears to velocities along the direction L to S are taken as
increase. When the observer is on the left of S, in negative. If the medium is stationary vm = 0 then
which case the source is moving away from him,  v − vL 
n' =   n
the wave-fronts are farther apart than if S were  v − vS 
stationary, and hence the observer receives Special cases:
correspondingly fewer waves per second. The (1) Source is moving towards the listener, but the
apparent frequency is thus lowered. v
listener at rest n' = .n
v − vS
Whenever there is a relative motion between a
source of sound and the listener, the apparent (2) Source is moving away from the listener but
frequency of sound heard by the listener is v
the listener is at rest n' = .n
v + vS
different from the actual frequency of sound
emitted by the source. (3) Source is at rest and listener is moving away

When the distance between the source and v − vL

from the source n' = n
v
listener is decreasing the apparent frequency
increases. It means the apparent frequency is

282 | P a g e
(4) Source is at rest and listener is moving (iii) Doppler effect in sound is asymmetric but in
v + vL light it is symmetric.
towards the source n' = .n
v
(5) Source and listener are approaching each Some Typical Features of Doppler’s Effect in
v +v  L Sound.
other n' =   n
 v − v S 
When a source is moving in a direction making
(6) Source and listener moving away from each an angle θ w.r.t. the listener: The apparent
v −v  L frequency heard by listener L at rest
other n' =  n
 v + v S 
nv
When source is at point A is n ′ =
(7) Both moves in the same direction with same v − v s cos θ
velocity n' = n, i.e. there will be no Doppler As source moves along AB, value of θ increases,
effect because relative motion between source cosθ decreases, n ′ goes on decreasing.
and listener is zero.
At point C, θ = 90 o , cos θ = cos 90 o = 0 , n ′ = n .
(8) Source and listener moves at right angle to
At point B, the apparent frequency of sound
the direction of wave propagation. n' = n
nv
It means there is no change in frequency of becomes n ′′ =
v + v s cos θ
sound heard if there is a small displacement
of source and listener at right angle to the
L (Listener at rest)
direction of wave propagation but for a large
vs cosθ
displacement the frequency decreases
s θ θ vs
because the distance between source of sound
A vs C B
vs cosθ
and listener increases.

When a source of sound approaches a high wall

Note
or a hill with a constant velocity v s , the reflected
(i) If the velocity of source and listener is equal to
sound propagates in a direction opposite to that
or greater than the sound velocity then Doppler
of direct sound. We can assume that the source
effect is not seen.
and observer are approaching each other with
(ii) Doppler effect gives information regarding the
same velocity i.e. v s = v L
change in frequency only. It does not says about
 v + vL 
intensity of sound. ∴ n ′ =   n
 v − vs 

283 | P a g e
When a listener moves between two distant ω

sound sources: Let v L be the velocity of listener O

r S

away from S 1 and towards S 2 .

ω Conditions for no Doppler effect

O (i) When source (S) and listener (L) both are at
r L
rest.
(ii) When medium alone is moving.

(v − v L )n (iii) When S and L move in such a way that

Apparent frequency from S 1 is n ′ =
v distance between S and L remains constant.
and apparent frequency heard from S L is (iv) When source S and listener L, are moving in
(v + v L )n mutually perpendicular directions.
n ′′ =
v
2nv L Example
∴ Beat frequency = n ′′ − n ′ =
v
A source of sound of frequency 90 vibration/sec
When source is revolving in a circle and listener
is approaching a stationary observer with a speed
L is on one side
equal to 1/10 the speed of sound. What will be
nv nv
v s = rω so n max = and n min = the frequency heard by the observer?
v − vs v + vs
Solution
When listener L is moving in a circle and the
source is on one side
vs(+) vL = 0
(v + v L )n
v L = rω so n max = and S
v L

(v − v L )n
n min =
v v
n' = .n
v − vs
There will be no change in frequency of
sound heard, if the source is situated at the v
⇒ n' = .n
v
v−
centre of the circle along which listener is 10
moving. 10 10 × 90
⇒ n' = n= = 100 vibration/se
9 9

284 | P a g e
Example
The source of sound s is moving with a velocity Solution
50 m/s towards a stationary observer. The  2π x 
y 1 = a1 sin  ω t −  ;
 λ 
observer measures the frequency of the source as
1000 Hz. What will be the apparent frequency of  2πx π
y 2 = a2 sin  ωt − +φ + 
 λ 2
the source when it is moving away from the
Phase difference
observer after crossing him? The velocity of
2πx π  2πx 
sound in the medium is 350 m/s =  ω t − +φ +  − ω t − 
 λ 2  λ 
Solution
 π
= φ + 
 2
vs(+) vL = 0 λ
Path difference = × Phase
S L
2π

λ  π
difference = φ + 
2π  2

When source is moving towards the stationary

listener.
v 350
n' = n ⇒ 1000 = .n ⇒ n = 857 . 14
v − vs 350 − 50

When source is moving away from the stationary

v
observer n' ' =
v + vs

350
= × 857 = 750 Hz
350 + 50

Example
The path difference between the two waves
 2π x 
y1 = a1 sin  ω t −  and
 λ 

 2πx 
y 2 = a 2 cos  ω t − + φ  is
 λ 

285 | P a g e
 v. Points of maximum amplitude is known as
CHAPTER TWENTY-THREE antinodes. The distance between two
STANDING WAVES OR STATIONARY consecutive antiodes is also λ / 2 . The
WAVES distance between a node and adjoining
When two sets of progressive wave trains of antinode is λ / 4 .
same type (both longitudinal or both transverse) vi. The medium splits up into a number of
having the same amplitude and same time segments. Each segment is vibrating up and
period/frequency/wavelength travelling with down as a whole.
same speed along the same straight line in vii. All the particles in one particular segment
opposite directions superimpose, a new set of vibrate in the same phase. Particles in two
waves are formed. These are called stationary consecutive segments differ in phase by 180°.
waves or standing waves. viii. All the particles except those at nodes,
Characteristics of standing waves execute simple harmonic motion about their
i. The disturbance confined to a particular mean position with the same time period.
region between the starting point and ix. The amplitude of vibration of particles varies
reflecting point of the wave. from zero at nodes to maximum at antinodes.
ii. There is no forward motion of the x. Twice during each vibration, all the particles of
disturbance from one particle to the adjoining the medium pass simultaneously through their
particle and so on, beyond this particular mean position.
region. xi. The wavelength and time period of stationary
iii. The total energy associated with a stationary waves are the same as for the component
wave is twice the energy of each of incident waves.
and reflected wave. But there is no flow or xii. Velocity of particles while crossing mean
transference of energy along the stationary position varies from maximum at antinodes
wave. to zero at nodes.
iv. There are certain points in the medium in a xiii. In standing waves, if amplitude of
standing wave, which are permanently at rest. component waves are not equal. Resultant
These are called nodes. The distance between amplitude at nodes will be minimum (but not
λ zero). Therefore, some energy will pass
two consecutive nodes is
2
across nodes and waves will be partially
standing.

286 | P a g e
Fig. 1. shows an apparatus which produces a
different kind of wave. If the weights on the
scale-plan are suitably adjusted, a number of
stationary vibrating loops are

Fig. 1. Demonstration of stationary wave.

seen on the string when one end is set vibrating. Fig, 2. Changes in motion of stationary wave

This time the wave-like profile on the string does The following points should be noted:

not move along the medium, which is the string, 1. There are points such as B where the

and the wave is therefore called a stationary (or displacement is permanently zero. These

standing) wave. points are called nodes of the stationary

The motion of the string when a stationary wave wave.

is produced can be seen by using a Xenon 2. At points between successive nodes the

stroboscope (strobe). This instrument gives a vibrations are in phase. This property of the

flashing light whose frequency can be varied. stationary wave is in sharp contrast to the

The apparatus is set up in a darkened room and progressive wave, where the phase of points

illuminated with the strobe. When the frequency near each other are all different. Thus, when

of the strobe is nearly equal to that of the string, one point of a stationary wave is at its

the string can be seen moving up and down maximum displacement, all points are then at

slowly. Its' observed frequency is equal to the their maximum displacement. When a point

difference between the frequency of the strobe (other than a node) has zero displacement, all

and that of the string. Progressive stages in the points then have zero displacement.

motion of the string can now be seen and studied, 3. Each point along the wave has a different

and these are illustrated in Fig. 2 below. amplitude of vibration from neighbouring
points. Again, this is different from the case
of a progressive wave, where every point
vibrates with the same amplitude. Points, e.g.

287 | P a g e
 C, which have the greatest amplitude are equation representing the changing amplitude yo
called antinodes. along the wave is thus:
4. The wavelength is equal to the distance OP, yo = A cos = A cos kx (2)
Fig. 2. Thus, the wavelength A, is twice the
where k = 2 /λ. When x = 0, Y = A; when x = λ,
distance between successive nodes or
yo = A. When x = λ /2, Y = —A. This equation
successive antinodes. The distance between
hence correctly describes the variation in
successive nodes or antinodes is λ/2; the
amplitude along the wave, Fig. 2. Hence the
distance between a node and a neighbouring
equation of motion of a stationary wave is, with
antinode is λ/4.
(1),
y = A cos kx . sin wt (3)
Stationary Wave Equation
From (3), y = 0 at all times when cos kx = 0.
In deriving the wave equation of a progressive
Thus, kx = , 3 /2, 5 /2, ……, in this case.
wave, we used the fact that the phase changes
This gives values of x corresponding to λ/4, 3
from point to point. In the case of a stationary
λ/4, 5 λ/4, ………. These points are nodes since
wave, we may find the equation of motion by
the displacement at a node is always zero (p.
considering the amplitude of vibration at each
590). Thus equation (10) gives the correct
point because the amplitude varies while the
distance, λ/2, between nodes.
phase remains constant.
A stationary wave can be considered as produced
Let w be the angular frequency of the wave. The
by the superposition of two progressive waves,
vibration of each particle may be represented by
of the same amplitude and frequency, travelling
the equation
in opposite directions.
y = yo sin wt (1)
where yo is the amplitude of the vibration at the
point considered. yo varies along the wave with Standing Waves on a String.
When a string under tension is set into
the distance x from some origin. If we suppose
vibration, transverse harmonic waves
the origin to be at an antinode, then the origin
propagate along its length. When the
will have the greatest amplitude, A, say. Now the
length of string is fixed, reflected waves will
wave repeats at every distance λ, and it can be
also exist. The incident and reflected waves
seen that the amplitudes at different points vary
will superimpose to produce transverse
sinusoidally with their particular distance x. An
stationary waves in a string

288 | P a g e
Incident wave Second normal mode of vibration:
2π v v 2v
y1 = a sin (vt + x) n2 = = = = 2(n1 )
λ λ2 L 2L
Reflected wave
2π 2π N
y 2 = a sin [(vt − x ) + π ] = − a sin (vt − x ) N
A A
N
λ λ
According to superposition principle: y = y1 + L = λ2

2πvt 2πx
y2 = 2 a cos sin This is second harmonic or first over tone.
λ λ
2L
Third normal mode of vibration:
General formula for wavelength λ = where n
n v 3v
n3 = = = 3 n1
= 1,2,3, … correspond to 1st , 2nd, 3rd modes of λ3 2L

vibration of the string.

First normal mode of vibration:
v v
n1 = = N N
λ1 2L N
A A A
N

This is third harmonic or second overtone.

A
N N

L 2L 3L
L=
λ1 Position of nodes: x = 0, , , .......... .. L
2 n n n
For first mode of vibration x=0,x=L
` [Two nodes]
1 T
⇒ n1 = L
2L m For second mode of vibration x = 0, x = ,x = L
2
This mode of vibration is called the fundamental
[Three nodes]
mode and the frequency is called fundamental
For third mode of vibration x = 0, x =
frequency. The sound from the note so produced
L 2L
is called fundamental note or first harmonic. ,x = ,x =L [Four nodes]
3 3
Position of antinodes:
L 3L 5L (2η − 1)L
x= , , .......... .
2 n 2n 2n 2n
For first mode of vibration x = L/2

289 | P a g e
[One antinode] Second normal mode of vibration:
L 3L v 3v
For second mode of vibration x = , n2 = = = 3 n1
4 4 λ2 4L
[Two antinode]
Standing Wave in a Closed Organ Pipe. N A N A

Organ pipes are the musical instrument which

3 λ2
L=
are used for producing musical sound by 4

blowing air into the pipe. Longitudinal

stationary waves are formed on account of This is called third harmonic or first overtone.
superimposition of incident and reflected
longitudinal waves. 5v
Third normal mode of vibration: n 3 = = 5 n1
Equation of standing wave 4L

2πvt 2πx
y = 2a cos sin
λ λ
N N
4L N A A A
General formula for wavelength λ =
(2n − 1)
v
First normal mode of vibration: n1 =
4L
This is called fifth harmonic or second overtone.
This is called fundamental frequency. The note
so produced is called fundamental note or first
Position of nodes: x = 0,
harmonic.
2L 4L 6L 2 nL
, , .........
(2 n − 1) (2 n − 1) (2 n − 1) (2 n − 1)
N A

λ1 For first mode of vibration x=0

L=
2
[One node]
2L
For second mode of vibration x = 0, x =
3
[Two nodes]
2L 4 L
For third mode of vibration x = 0, x = ,
5 5
[Three nodes]

290 | P a g e
Position of antinode: x = Second normal mode of vibration
L 3L 5L
, , ........., L
2n − 1 2n − 1 2n − 1
N N
For first mode of vibration A A A

x=L [One antinode]

L = λ2
For second mode of vibration
L
x= , x = L [Two antinode]
3
v v  v 
For third mode of vibration n2 = = = 2  = 2 n1 ⇒ n 2 = 2 n 1
λ2 L  2L 
L 3L
x = , , L [Three antinode] This is called second harmonic or first overtone.
5 5

v 3v
Standing Waves in Open Organ Pipes Third normal mode of vibration n 3 = = ,
λ3 2L
General formula for wavelength
n 3 = 3n1
2L
λ= where n = 1,2,3 ………
n
N N N
vv A A A A
First normal mode of vibration: n1 = =
λ1 2 L 3λ3
L=
2

N
A A

This is called third harmonic or second overtone.

λ1
L=
2 Note
(i) Comparison of closed and open organ pipes
This is called fundamental frequency and the shows that fundamental note in open organ pipe
note so produced is called fundamental note or  v 
 n1 =  has double the frequency of the
first harmonic.  2L 

fundamental note in closed organ pipe

 v 
 n1 = .
 4L 

Further in an open organ pipe all harmonics are

present whereas in a closed organ pipe, only
alternate harmonics of frequencies

291 | P a g e
n 1 ,3 n 1 , 5 n 1 , ...... etc are present. The harmonics of
frequencies 2n1, 4n1, 6n1 …… are missing.
Hence musical sound produced by an open
organ pipe is sweeter than that produced by a
closed organ pipe.
(ii) Harmonics are the notes/sounds of frequency
equal to or an integral multiple of fundamental
frequency (n). Thus the first, second, third,
harmonics have frequencies n 1 , 2 n 1 , 3 n 1 , ………
T = Tension in the string
m = Mass per unit length (linear density),
p = mode of vibration
n = fundamental frequency
Note
(1) As a string has many natural frequencies, so
when it is excited with a tuning fork, the string
will be in resonance with the given body if any

(iii) Overtones are the notes/sounds of frequency of its natural frequencies concides with the body.

twice/thrice/ four times the fundamental 1

(2) (i) n ∝ if T and m are constant
L
frequency (n) eg. 2 n,3n,4 n ……. and so on.
(ii) n ∝ T if L and m are constant
(iv) In organ pipe an antinode is not formed
1
exactly at the open end rather it is formed a (iii) n ∝ if T and L are constant
m
little distance away from the open end
(3) If M is the mass of the string of length L,
outside it. The distance of antinode from the
M
open end of the pipe is known as end m=
L
correction. So
1 T 1 T 1 T
n= = = =
Vibration of a String 2L m 2L M/L 2 ML
1 T 1 T 1 T
Fundamental frequency n = =
2L m 2
2 L πr ρ 2 Lr πρ

where m = πr2ρ (r = Radius, ρ = Density)

A Fixed
Fixed N N

Plucking

p T
General formula n p =
2L m
L = Length of string,

292 | P a g e
Comparative Study of Stretched Strings, Open Organ Pipe and Closed Organ Pipe

S. No. Parameter Stretched string Open organ pipe Closed organ pipe
(1) Fundamental frequency v
n1 =
v
n1 =
v
n1 =
2l 2l 4l
or 1st harmonic
(2) Frequency of 1st n 2 = 2n1 n 2 = 2n1 Missing
overtone or 2nd
harmonic
(3) Frequency of 2nd n 3 = 3n1 n 3 = 3n1 n 3 = 3n 1

overtone or 3rd
harmonic
(4) Frequency ratio of 2 : 3 : 4… 2 : 3 : 4… 3 : 5 : 7…
overtones
(5) Frequency ratio of 1 : 2 : 3 : 4… 1 : 2 : 3 : 4… 1 : 3 : 5 : 7…
harmonics
(6) Nature of waves Transverse Longitudinal Longitudinal
stationary stationary stationary
intensity becomes maximum again after
Beats becoming minimum once in between.
When two sound waves of slightly different Beat period: The time interval between two
frequencies, travelling in a medium along the successive beats (i.e. two successive maxima of
same direction, superimpose on each other, the sound) is called beat period.
intensity of the resultant sound at a particular Beat frequency: The number of beats produced
position rises and falls regularly with time. This per second is called beat frequency.
phenomenon of regular variation in intensity of Persistence of hearing: The impression of sound
sound with time at a particular position is called heard by our ears persist in our mind for 1/10th
beats. of a second. If another sound is heard before 1/10
One beat: If the intensity of sound is maximum second is over, the impression of the two sound
at time t = 0, one beat is said to be formed when mix up and our mind cannot distinguish between
the two.

293 | P a g e
 So for the formation of distinct beats, By loading By filing
frequencies of two sources of sound should be If B is loaded with wax so If B is filed, its
nearly equal (difference of frequencies less than its frequency decreases frequency increases
10) If number of beats If number of beats
Equation of beats: If two waves of equal decreases n2 = n1 + x decreases n2 = n1
amplitudes 'a' and slightly different frequencies –x
n1 and n2 travelling in a medium in the same If number of beats If number of beats
direction are. Increases n2 = n1 – x Increases n2 = n1 +
y1 = a sin ω 1 t = a sin 2 πn1 t ; x
y 2 = a sin ω 2 t = a sin 2π n 2 t If number of beats If number of beats
r r r
By the principle of superposition: y = y 1 + y 2 remains unchanged n2 = remains unchanged

y = A sin π (n 1 + n 2 ) t n1 + x n2 = n1 – x

where A = 2a cos π (n 1 − n 2 ) t = Amplitude of If number of beats If number of beats

becomes zero n2 = n1 + x becomes zero n2 =
resultant wave.
n1 – x
Beat frequency: n = n1 ~ n2.
If A is loaded with wax its If A is filed, its
1 1
Beat period: T= =
Beat frequency n1 ~ n 2 frequency decreases frequency increases
If number of beats If number of beats

Determination of Unknown Frequency. decreases n2 = n1 – x decreases n2 = n1

Let n2 is the unknown frequency of tuning +x

fork B, and this tuning fork B produce x beats per If number of beats If number of beats

second with another tuning fork of known increases n2 = n1+ x Increases n2 = n1 –

frequency n1. x

As number of beat/sec is equal to the difference If number of beats If number of beats

in frequencies of two sources, therefore n2 = n1 remains unchanged n2 = remains unchanged

±x n1 – x n2 = n1 + x

The positive/negative sign of x can be If number of beats If no of beats

decided in the following two ways: becomes zero n2 = n1 – x becomes zero n2 =

n1 + x

294 | P a g e
Examples Probable frequency of A is 390 Hz and 378 Hz
1. The stationary wave produced on a string is and After loading the beats are decreasing from 6
represented by the equation y = 5 to 4 so the original frequency of A will be n2 = n
πx  1 – x = 378 Hz.
cos   sin (40 π t) where x and y are in cm and t
 3 

is in seconds. The distance between consecutive 3. 41 forks are so arranged that each produces 5
nodes is beat/sec when sounded with its near fork. If the
Solution frequency of last fork is double the frequency of
By comparing with standard equation of first fork, then the frequencies of the first and last
stationary wave fork respectively
y = a cos 2πx sin 2 π vt Solution
λ λ
Let the frequency of first tuning fork = n and that
πx 2πx
We get = ⇒ λ = 6; Distance between two
λ 3 of last = 2n
λ n, n + 5, n + 10, n + 15 …… 2n this forms A.P.
consecutive nodes = = 3 cm
2
Formula of A.P l = a + (N – 1) r where l = Last
term, a = First term, N = Number of term,
2. On sounding tuning fork A with another tuning r = Common difference
fork B of frequency 384 Hz, 6 beats are produced 2n = n + (41 – 1) 5
per second. After loading the prongs of A with 2n = n + 200
wax and then sounding it again with B, 4 Beats n = 200 and 2n = 400
are produced per second. what is the frequency 4. The equation of a stationary wave is y = 0.8
of the tuning fork A. πx 
cos   sin 200 π t where x is in cm. and t is in
Solution  20 

sec. The separation between consecutive nodes

390 390 will be
Solution
256 384
Standard equation y = A cos 2πx sin 2πvt
λ λ

378 378 By comparing this equation with given equation.

YA YB 2πx πx
= ⇒ λ = 40 cm
λ 20

λ
Distance Between two nodes = = 20 cm.
2

295 | P a g e
5. The tuning fork and sonometer wire were CHAPTER TWENTY-FOUR
sounded together and produce 4 beats/second PROPAGATION OF WAVES
when the length of sonometer wire is 95 cm or Interference and diffraction
100 cm. The frequency of tuning fork is When two or more waves of the same frequency
Solution overlap, the phenomenon of interference occurs.
1 1 T Interference is easily demonstrated in a ripple
Frequency n ∝ ∴ As n =
l 2l m
tank. Two sources, A and B, of the same
If n is the frequency of tuning fork. frequency are used. These produce circular
1 1
n+4 ∝ ⇒ n–4 ∝ waves which spread out and overlap, and the
95 100
pattern seen on the water surface is as shown.
⇒ (n + 4 ) 95 = (n – 4) 100
⇒ n = 156 Hz.

Interference of Waves
The interference pattern can be explained from
the Principle of Superposition. If the oscillations
of A and B are in phase, crests from .A will
arrive at the same time as crests from B at any
point on the line RS. Hence by the Principle of
Superposition there will be reinforcement or a
large wave along RS. Along XY, however, crests
from A will arrive before corresponding crests
from B. In fact, every point on XY is half a
wavelength, X, nearer to A than, to B, so that
crests from A arrive at the same time as troughs

296 | P a g e
from B. Thus, by the Principle of Superposition,
the resultant is zero. At every point along PQ
there is a 3A/2 path difference from A compared
to that from B, so that the resultant is also zero
along PQ.
Diffraction on the other hand is the name given
to the spreading of waves when they pass
through apertures or around obstacles. the
general phenomenon of diffraction may be
illustrated by using water waves in a ripple tank,
with which we assume the reader is familiar. Fig.
(i) shows the effect of widening the aperture and
Fig. (ii) the effect of shortening the wavelength
and keeping the same width of opening. In
certain circumstances in diffraction, rein
forcement of the waves, or complete cancellation
occurs in particular directions from the aperture,
as shown in Fig. (i) and (ii). These patterns are
called 'diffraction bands'
Diffraction of Waves
Generally, the smaller the width of the aperture
in relation to the wavelength, the greater is the
spreading or diffraction of the waves. This
explains why we cannot see round corners.
Huygen’s construction
Suppose that the wavefront from a centre of
disturbance S has reached the surface AB in a
medium at some instant. To obtain the position
of the new wavefront after a further time t t
Huygens postulated that every point, A . . . , C, . .
. , E, . . . , B, on AB becomes a new or
"secondary" centre of disturbance.
Huygens' construction.
The wavelet from A then reaches the surface M
of a sphere of radius vt and centre A, where v is
the velocity of light in the medium; the wavelet
from C reaches the surface D of a sphere of
radius vt and centre C; and so on for every point
on AB. According to Huygens, the new
wavefront is the surface MN which touches all
the wavelets from the secondary sources; and in
297 | P a g e
the case considered, it is the surface of a sphere
of centre S.
In this simple example of obtaining the new
wavefront, the light travels in the same medium.
Huygens' construction, however, is especially
valuable for deducing the new wavefront when
the light travels from one medium to another.
Huygen’s eye-piece on another hand is a
telescopic design consisting of consisting of two
plano-convex lenses; one lens, F, had three times
the focal length of the other, E,
Huygen’s eye-piece
The lens F pointing to the telescope objective is
known as the field lens, while the lens E close to
the eye is known as the eye lens, and F and E are
at a distance 2f apart, where f is the focal length
of E. Since 3f is the focal length of F, it follows
from above that the eye-piece eliminates
chromatic aberration and reduces spherical
aberration.
Young’s double slit experiment and equivalent
forms
One of the first demonstrations of the
interference of light waves was given by Young
in 1801. He placed a source, S, of
monochromatic light in front of a narrow slit C,
and arranged two very narrow slits A, B, close to
each other, in front of C. Much to his delight,
Young observed bright and dark bands on either
side of O on a screen T, where O is on the
perpendicular bisector of AB,
Young's experiment.
Young's observations can be explained by
considering the light from S illuminating the two
slits A, B. Since the light diverging from A has
exactly the same frequency as, and is always in
phase with, the light diverging from B, A and B
act as two close coherent sources. Inter- ference
thus takes place in the shaded region, where the
light beams overlap,. As AO = OB, a bright band
is obtained at O. At a point P close to O, such
that BP — AP = A/2, where A is the wavelength
of the light from S, a dark band is obtained. At a
point Q such that BQ — AQ = A, a bright band
is obtained; and so on for either side of O. Young
demonstrated that the bands were due to
298 | P a g e
interference by covering A or B, when the bands
disappeared.
Measurement of wavelength of light
To measure wavelength by Young's inter-
ference bands. Light from a small filament lamp
is focused by a lens on to a narrow slit. Two
narrow slits A, B, about a millimetre apart, are
placed a short distance in front of S, and the light
coming from A, B is viewed in a low-powered
microscope or eyepiece M about two metres
away. Some coloured interference bands are then
observed at M. A red and then a blue filter, F,
placed in front of the slits, produces red and then
blue bands. Observation shows that the
separation of the red bands is more than that of
the blue bands. Now λ = ay /D, from (ii), where v
is the separation of the bands. It follows that the
wavelength of red light is longer than that of blue
light.
Young’s interference bands for
Measuring Wavelength of Light
An approximate value of the wavelength of red
or blue light can be found by placing a Perspex
rule R in front of the eyepiece and moving it
until the graduations are clearly seen. The
average distance, y, between the bands is then
measured on R. The distance a between the slits
can be found by magnifying the distance by a
convex lens, or by using a travelling microscope.
The distance D from the slits to the Perspex rule,
where the bands are formed, is measured with a
metre rule. The wavelength A can then be
calculated from λ = ay/D, and is of the order 6 x
10~ 5 cm.
The wavelengths of the extreme colours of the
visible spectrum vary with the observer. This
may be 4 x 10 -5 cm for violet and 7 x 10 -5 cm
for red; an "average" value for visible light is 5-5
x 10 -5 cm, which is a wavelength in the green.
Interference in thin wedge films
A very thin wedge of an air film can be formed
by placing a thin piece of foil or paper between
two microscope slides at one end Y, with the
slides in contact at the other end X, The wedge
has then a very small angle θ. When the air-film
is illuminated by mono- chromatic light from an
extended source S, straight bright and dark bands
are observed which are parallel to the line of
intersection X of the two slides.
299 | P a g e
 The bands are located at the air-wedge film, and
the eye or microscope must be focused here to
see them. The appearance of a band is the
contour of all points in the air-wedge film where
the optical path difference is the same. If the
wedge surfaces make perfect optical contact at
one edge, the bands are straight lines parallel to

Interference in Thin wedge film the line of intersection of the surfaces. If the

The light reflected down towards the wedge is glass surfaces are uneven, and the contact at one

partially reflected upwards from the lower edge is not regular, the bands are not perfectly

surface O of the top slide. The remainder of the straight. A particular band still shows the locus

light passes through the slide and some is of all points in the air-wedge which have the

reflected upward from the top surface B of the same optical path difference in the air-film.

lower slide. The two trains of waves are Interference in Thin Films

coherent, since both have originated from the The colours observed in a soap-bubble or a thin

same centre of disturbance at O, and they film of oil in the road are due to an interference

produce an interference phenomenon if brought phenomenon; they are also observed in thin

together by the eye or in an eyepiece. Their path transparent films of glass.

difference is 2t, where t is the small thickness of

the air-film at O. At X, where the path difference
is apparently zero, we would expect a bright
band. But a dark band is observed at X. This is
due to a phase change of 180°, equivalent to an
extra path difference of λ /2, which occurs when
a wave is reflected at a denser medium. The
optical path difference between the two coherent
beams is thus actually 2t + λ /2, and hence, if the
beams are brought together to interfere, a bright
band is obtained when 2t + λ /2 = m λ, or 2t = (m
- ) λ. A dark band is obtained at a thickness t
Interference in Thin Films
given by 2t = m λ .

300 | P a g e
Consider a ray AO of monochromatic light having a lower surface of very large radius of
incident on a thin parallel sided film of thickness curvature, By means of a sheet of glass G
t and refractive index n. Some of the light is monochromatic light from a sodium flame, for
reflected at O along ON, while the remainder is example, is reflected downwards towards L; and
refracted into the film, where reflection occurs at when the light reflected upwards is observed
B. The ray BC then emerges into the air along through a microscope M focused on H, a series
CM, which is parallel to ON. The incident ray of bright and dark rings is seen. The circles have
AO thus divides at O into two beams of different increasing radius, and are concentric with the
amplitude which are coherent, and if ON, CM point of contact T of L with
are combined by a lens, or by the eye-lens, a H.
bright or dark band is observed according to the
path difference of the rays. The time taken for
light to travel a distance y in a medium of
refractive index n is y/v, where v is the velocity
of light in the medium. In this time, a distance c
× y/v is travelled in air, where c is the velocity in
air.
The optical path difference = n (EB + BC) = n
(EB + BX) = n. EX. = 2 nt cos r, Experimental Setup to Observe Newton’s rings
where r is the angle of refraction in the film.
With a phase change of 180° by reflection at a
denser medium, a bright band is therefore
obtained when 2 nt cos r + λ /2 = m λ,
or
2 nt Cos r = (m — ) λ

For a dark band, 2nfcosr = m λ

Newton’s ring
Newton discovered an example of interference Newton’s rings formed by interference
which is known as "Newton's rings". In this case
a lens L is placed on a sheet of plane glass, H

301 | P a g e
of yellow light between a convex lens and a flat light, and an average wavelength for A, such as
plate. green-yellow, is chosen. Hence, "Bloomed"
The dark spot means that one of the rays suffers lenses effect a marked improvement in the clarity
a phase change of 1 80°. Taking the phase of the final image in optical instruments.
change into account, it follows that
2t = m λ for a dark ring
2t = (m + ) λ for a bright ring

Where m is an integer.

Blooming of lens surface

Whenever lenses are used, a small percentage of
Blooming of lens
the incident fight is reflected from each surface.
This produces a background of unfocused light,
Conditions for interference
which results in a reduction in the clarity of the
Suppose we are considering two waves. In order
final image. The amount of reflected light can be
to form an interference pattern, the incident
considerably reduced by evaporating a thin
waves must satisfy two conditions:
coating of a fluoride salt such as magnesium
(i) The wave sources must be coherent. This
fluoride on to the surfaces. Some of the light, of
means that the waves from the sources must
average wavelength λ , is then reflected from the
maintain a constant phase relation. For example,
air-fluoride surface and the remainder penetrates
if two waves are phase shifted by this
the coating and is partially reflected from the
phase shift must not change with time.
fluoride-glass surface. Destructive interference
(ii) The wave (e.g light) must be
occurs between the two reflected beams when
monochromatic. This means that the light
there is a phase difference of 180°, or a path
consists of just one wavelength .
difference of λ /2, as the refractive index of the
fluoride is less than that of glass. The intensities Light emitted from an incandescent light bulb is

of the two reflected beams are then equal, and incoherent because the light consists of waves of

hence complete interference occurs between different wavelengths and they do not maintain a

them. So light is reflected back from the lens. In constant phase relationship. Thus, no interference

practice, complete interference is not possible pattern is observed.

simultaneously for every wavelength of white

302 | P a g e
 Diffraction at single slit halves of the wavefront. In particular, CQ and
Suppose parallel light is incident on a narrow BQ differ practically by λ /2, Thus Q
rectangular slit AB, corresponds to the edge or minimum intensity of
the central band round P. As we move farther
away from Q parallel to AB, the intensity rises
again to a much smaller maximum at R, where
AR — BR = 3A/2,
Multiple slits diffraction grating
Previously, we saw that the image of a single
narrow rectangular slit is a bright central or
principal maximum diffraction band, together
with subsidiary maxima diffraction bands which
Each point on the same wavefront between A, B
are much less bright. Since each slit produces a
acts as a secondary centre of disturbance, and
similar diffraction effect in the same direction,
sends out wavelets beyond the slit. All the
This time, however, the pattern is crossed by a
secondary centres are coherent, and their
number of interference bands, which are due to
combined effect at any point such as P or Q can
interference between slits. As more parallel
be found by summing the individual waves there
equidistant slits are introduced, the intensity and
from the principle of superposition. The general
sharpness of the principal maxima increase and
effect, however, can be derived by considering
those of the subsidiary maxima decrease.
the two halves AC, CB of the wavefront AB. At
A diffraction grating is a large number of close
a point P equidistant from A and B, As we move
parallel equidistant slits, ruled on glass or metal;
from P parallel to AB, points are obtained where
it provides a very valuable means of studying
the secondary wavelets from the two halves of
spectra. If the width of a slit or clear space is a
the wavefront become more and more out of
and the thickness of a ruled opaque line is b, the
phase on arrival and the brightness thus
spacing d of the slits is (a + b). Thus with a
diminishes.
grating of 6000 lines per centimetre, the spacing
Now consider a point Q, where AQ is half a
d = 1 /6000 centimetre = 17 × 10 -5 cm, or a few
wavelength longer than CQ. A disturbance from
wavelengths of visible light.
A, and one from C, then arrives at Q 180° out of
phase. This is also practically the case for all
corresponding points such as X, Y on the two

303 | P a g e
 CHAPTER TWENTY-FIVE step 2. Use 2 polaroids: one kept fixed and one
POLARIZATION OF LIGHT rotated slowly.
We have shown that light is a wave-motion of
some kind, i.e., that it is a travelling vibration.
For a long time after the wave-theory was
revived it was thought that the vibrations of light
occurred in the same direction as the light wave
fixed
travelled, analogous to sound waves. Thus, light
waves were thought to be longitudinal waves. Result:
Observations and experiments, however, to be Light is cut off in one position ( ⇒ polaroids are
described shortly, showed that the vibrations of crossed ), then rotate further through 900 ⇒
light occur in planes perpendicular to the max. light transmission
direction along which the light wave travels, and Explanation:
thus light waves are transverse waves.
Wave nature of light:
• Interference
• Diffraction
• Polarization
Particle nature of light:
• Photoelectric Effect
Note:
• Compton effect
A longitudinal wave would emerge from
Experiment:
both slots whatever their relative position.
step 1. Use 1 polaroid: no effect when the
Hence, longitudinal wave cannot be polarized.
polaroid is rotated about an axis ⊥ to itself.

Polarisation of Transverse Waves

Suppose that a rope ABCD passes through two
parallel slits, B, C, and is attached to a fixed
point at D, Fig. 1 (i). Transverse waves can be set
up along AB by holding the end A in the hand

304 | P a g e
and moving it up and down in all directions
perpendicular to AB, as illustrated by the arrows
in the plane X. A wave then emerges along BC,
but unlike
Fig. 1. Formation of plane-polarized waves
the waves along AB, which are due to transverse
vibrations in every plane, it is due only to
transverse vibrations parallel to the slit at B. This
type of wave is called a. plane-polarised wave. It
shows a lack of symmetry about the direction of
propagation, because a slit C allows the wave to
pass through when it is parallel to B, but prevents
it from passing when C is perpendicular to B,
Fig. 1 (i), (ii). If B is turned so that it is
perpendicular to the position shown in Fig. 1 (i),
a polarised wave is again obtained along BC; but
the vibrations which produce it are perpendicular
to those shown between B and C in Fig. 1 (i).
Polarised Light
Years ago, it was discovered accidentally that
certain natural crystals, affect light passing
through them. Tourmaline is an example of such
a crystal, quartz and calcite or Iceland spar are
others. Suppose two tourmaline crystals, P, 0, are
placed with their axes, a, b, parallel, Fig. 1 (i). If
a beam of light is incident on P, the light
emerging from Q appears slightly darker. If Q is
rotated slowly about the line of vision, with its
plane parallel to P, the emergent light becomes
darker and darker, and at one stage it disappears.
In the latter case the axes a, b of the crystals are
perpendicular, Fig. 1 (ii). When Q is rotated
further the light reappears, and becomes brightest
when the axes a, b are again parallel.
This simple experiment leads to the conclusion
that light waves are transverse waves; otherwise
the light emerging from Q could never be
extinguished by simply rotating this crystal. The
experiment, in fact, is analogous to that
illustrated in Fig. 1, where transverse waves were
set up along a rope and plane-polarised waves
were obtained by means of a slit B. Tourmaline
is a crystal which, because of its internal
molecular structure, transmits only those
vibrations of light parallel to its axis.
Consequently, plane-polarised light is obtained
beyond the crystal P, and no light emerges
beyond Q when its axis is perpendicular to P.
Fig. 2 should be compared with Fig. 1.
305 | P a g e

Fig. 2. Formation of plane-polarised light waves
Vibrations in Unpolarised and Polarised Light
Fig. 3 (i) is an attempt to represent
diagrammatically the vibrations of ordinary or
unpolarised light at a point A when a ray travels
in a direction AB. X is a plane perpendicular to
AB, and ordinary (un- polarised) light may be
imagined as due to vibrations which occur in
every one of the millions of planes which pass
through AB and are perpendicular to X. As
represented in Fig. 3 (ii), the amplitudes of the
vibrations are all equal.
Fig. 3. (i) Vibrations occur in every plane
perpendicular to AB (ii) Vibrations in ordinary
light
Polarization of Light
Consider the vibrations in ordinary light when it
is incident on the tourmaline P in Fig. 2 (i). Each
vibration can be resolved into two components,
one in a direction parallel to the axis a of the
tourmaline P and the other in a direction m
perpendicular to a, Fig. 4. Tourmaline absorbs
the light due to the latter vibrations, known as the
ordinary rays, allowing the light due to the
former vibrations, known as the extraordinary
rays, to pass through it. Thus, plane-polarised
light, due to the extraordinary rays, is produced
by the tourmaline. Polaroid is a crystalline
material, used in sun-glasses for example, which
also has selective absorption.
306 | P a g e
 Fig. 5. Electromagnetic wave

Fig. 4. Production of plane-polarised waves by Polarised Light by Reflection

tourmaline. The production of polarised light by tourmaline

is due to selective absorption of the "ordinary"
rays. In 1808 Malus discovered that polarised
Light waves as electromagnetic waves
Theory and experiment show that the vibrations light is obtained when ordinary light is reflected

of light are electromagnetic in origin; a varying by a plane sheet of glass. The most suitable angle

electric vector E is present, with a varying of incidence is about 56°, Fig. 6. If the reflected

magnetic vector B which has the same frequency light is viewed through a tourmaline crystal

and phase. E and B are perpendicular to each which is slowly rotated about the line of vision,

other, and are in a plane at right angles to the ray the light is practically extinguished at one

of light, Fig. 5. Experiments have shown that the position of the crystal. This proves that the light

electric force in a light wave affects a reflected by the glass is plane-polarised. Malus

photographic plate and causes fluorescence, also showed that the light reflected by water is

while the magnetic force, though present, plays plane-polarised.

no part in this effect of a light wave. On this

account the vibrations of the electric force, E, are
now chosen as the "vibrations of light", and the
planes containing the vibrations shown in Fig. 4
(i), (ii) are those in which only the electric forces
are present. Fig. 6. Plane-polarised waves by reflection
The production of the polarised light by the glass
is explained as follows. Each of the vibrations of
the incident (ordinary) light can be resolved into
a component parallel to the glass surface and a

307 | P a g e
component perpendicular to the surface. The
light due to the components parallel to the glass
is reflected, but the remainder of the light, due to
the components perpendicular to the glass, is
refracted into the glass. Thus the light reflected
by the glass is plane-polarised.
Brewster's Law (Polarisation by Pile of Plates)
The particular angle of incidence i on a
transparent medium when the reflected light is
almost completely plane-polarized is called the
polarising angle. Brewster found that, in this
case, tan i = n, where n is the refractive index of
the medium (Brewster's law). Since sin i / sin r,
where r is the angle of refraction, it then follows
that cos i = sin r, or i + r = 90°. Thus, the
reflected and refracted beams are at 90° to each
other.
The refracted beam contains light mainly due to
vibrations perpendicular to that reflected and is
therefore partially plane-polarised. Since
refraction and reflection occur at both sides of a
glass plate, the transmitted beam contains a fair
percentage of plane-polarised light. A pile of
plates increases the percentage, and thus provides
a simple method of producing plane-polarised
light. They are mounted inclined in a tube so that
the ordinary (unpolarised) light is incident at the
polarising angle, and the transmitted light it then
fairly plane-polarised.
Polarisation by Doable Refraction
We have already considered two methods of
producing polarised light. The first observation
of polarised light, however, was made by
Bartholinus in 1669, who placed a crystal of
iceland spar on some words on a sheet of paper.
To his surprise, two images were seen through
the crystal. Bartholinus therefore gave the name
of double refraction to the phenomenon, and
experiments more than a century later showed
that the crystal produced plane-polarised light
when ordinary light was incident on it. See Fig.
7.
Iceland spar is a crystalline form of calcite
(calcium carbonate) which cleaves in the form of
a "rhomboid" when it is lightly tapped; this is a
solid whose opposite faces are parallelograms.
When a beam of unpolarised light is incident on
one face of the crystal, its internal molecular
structure produces two beams of polarised light,
E, O, whose vibrations are perpendicular to each
other, Fig. 8. If the incident direction AB is
parallel to a plane known as the "principal
section" of the crystal, one beam O emerges
308 | P a g e
Fig. 7. DOUBLE REFRACTION. A ring with a
spot in the centre, photographed through a crystal
of Iceland spar. The light forms two rings and
two spots.
parallel to AB, while the other beam E emerges
displaced in a different direction. As the crystal
is rotated about the line of vision the beam E
revolves round O. On account of this abnormal
behaviour the rays in E are called "extraordinary"
rays; the rays in O are known as "ordinary" rays.
Thus, two images of a word on a paper, for
example, are seen when an Iceland spar crystal is
placed on top of it; one image is due to the
ordinary rays, while the other is due to the
extraordinary rays.
With the aid of an Iceland spar crystal Malus
discovered the polarisation of light by reflection.
While on a visit to Paris he gazed through the
crystal at light on the sun
Fig. 8. Action of Iceland spar
reflected from the windows of the Palace of
Luxemburg, and observed that only one image
was obtained for a particular position of the
crystal when it was rotated slowly. The light
reflected from the windows could not therefore
be ordinary (un-polarised) light, and Malus found
it was plane-polarised.
Differences Between Light and Sound Waves
We are now in a position to distinguish fully
between light and sound waves. The physical
difference, of course, is that light waves are due
to varying electric and magnetic forces, while
sound waves are due to vibrating layers or
particles of the medium concerned. Light can
travel through a vacuum, but sound cannot travel
through a vacuum. Another very important
difference is that the vibrations of the particles in
sound waves are in the same direction as that
along which the sound travels, whereas the
vibrations in light waves are perpendicular to the
direction along which the light travels. Sound
waves are therefore longitudinal waves, whereas
light waves are transverse waves. As we have
seen, sound waves can be reflected and refracted,
and can give rise to interference phenomena; but
no polarisation phenomena can be obtained with
sound waves since they are longitudinal waves,
unlike the case of light waves.
Common questions and their suggested solution
Q State the meaning of wavelength and
frequency as applied to wave motion
A The wavelength of a wave is the distance
between 2 consecutive points in the wave
309 | P a g e
 that are at the same stage of oscillation
(or in phase).
The frequency of a wave refers to the
number of complete oscillations per unit
time ade by a point in the wave.
Quest. State an example of a longitudinal wave.
A Sound wave
Quest. State an example of a transverse wave.
A Electromagnetic wave (EM waves)
[Note that EM waves include Radio
waves, Microwaves, Infrared, Visible light,
Ultraviolet, X rays and Gamma rays.]
Quest. Distinguish between longitudinal and
transverse waves.
A Longitudinal wave: one where
direction of vibration is parallel to
direction of wave propagation
Transverse wave: one where
direction of vibration is perpendicular to
direction of wave propagation
Quest. What phenomenon is associated with
transverse waves but not longitudinal
waves?
A Polarisation
Quest. Explain what is meant by a plane-
polarised wave.
A It is a wave whereby the wave’s
oscillations occur in one plane only.
Quest. Explain briefly whether it is possible to
polarise a sound wave.
A It is not possible to polarise a sound
wave. This is because the wave’s
oscillations are along the direction of
wave propagation, i.e. parallel and not
perpendicular to the direction of wave
travel.
Quest. State what is transferred by a progressive
wave.
A Energy and momentum
Quest. State what is meant by a progressive
wave.
A A progressive wave is one where the
energy is transmitted from the source of
disturbance to the surrounding regions.
This is normally manifested in the form
of movement of wave fronts away from
the source.
Quest. Explain what is meant by the term
stationary wave.
A A stationary wave is one where the wave
fronts of the wave do not advance or are
stationary. Energy is considered to be
trapped within the waves.
Quest. Distinguish between a progressive wave
and stationary wave by making reference
to energy transfer.
A Progressive wave: energy is
transported in the direction of wave travel
Stationary wave: no net energy
transfer
310 | P a g e
Quest. Distinguish between a progressive wave for stationary waves
and stationary wave by making reference amplitude of particles varies from zero at the
to amplitude of vibration of neighboring nodes to maximum
particles. at the antinodes.
A Progressive wave: amplitude is same Difference 2: for progressive wave
for all particles particles within a wavelength has a
Stationary wave: amplitude varies different phase angle, but
with position, for stationary wave
with zero particles are in phase with
amplitude at nodes and maximum at antinodes. one another in the same
Quest. Distinguish between a progressive wave segment, and in anti-phase
and stationary wave by making reference with the particles in the
to phase angle between particles. adjacent segments.
A Progressive wave: within a Quest. Suggest how stationary electromagnetic
wavelength, every particle has a different waves might be set up.
phase angle A A microwave transmitter is placed a
Stationary wave: all particles are in distance from a metal plate that reflects
phase with one another in the same the emitted waves. When the position
segment, and in anti-phase with the of the transmitter is adjusted to achieve a
particles in the adjacent segments. suitable resonant length between
Quest. In terms of the motion of particles of a transmitter and reflector, stationary waves
medium in which there are sound waves would be formed by the
(longitudinal), describe one similarity and superposition of the emitted and reflected
two differences between a progressive waves.
sound wave and a stationary Quest. State the conditions necessary for the
(standing) sound wave. formation of a stationary wave.
A Similarity: air particles vibrate A Two waves of the same type travelling
parallel to the direction of wave travel. along the same line in opposite direction,
Difference 1: for progressive wave with same amplitude, same speed, and
amplitude of particles are same, but same frequency/ wavelength.

311 | P a g e
Quest. State the conditions necessary for
observable interference.
A Waves must be coherent,
have similar amplitudes,
and for transverse waves either un-
polarised or polarised in the same plane.
Quest. Explain the term interference.
A The superposition of two or more waves
meeting at a point in space to give a resultant
wave, amplitude given by the principle of
superposition.
Quest. Explain what is meant by coherent
sources.
A Sources of the same type that have
constant phase difference.
Quest. Explain the principle of superposition
A When two of more waves of the same
type meet at a point, the resultant
displacement is equal to the vector sum of
the individual displacements.
Quest. Explain what is meant by diffraction of a
wave.
A Diffraction is the bending of waves at the
edge of an obstacle or when waves pass
through an aperture.
Quest. What is meant by a monochromatic light
source.
A Visible light of a single wavelength.
Quest. Show how the principle of superposition
of light waves can be used to explain the
formation of interference fringes when
Young’s double-slit is used.
A The bright lines on the screen are regions
of maxima where the difference in path
lengths from the double-slit are equal to
an integer number of wavelengths, (e.g.
0λ, 1λ, 2λ, 3λ). The waves arrive in
phase and superposition of the two wave
results in constructive interference.
The dark lines on the screen are regions
of minima where the difference in path
lengths from the double-slit are equal to
an odd integer number of half
wavelengths, (e.g. 0.5λ, 1.5λ, 2.5λ, 3.5λ).
The waves arrive in anti-phase and
superposition of the two waves results in
destructive interference.
Quest. Explain why interference fringes can be
seen only if light from a single source is
split into two.
A Because a single source cannot produce
interference, and light from two separate
sources are usually not coherent.
312 | P a g e
 CHAPTER TWENTY-SIX • Parallel beam e.g. search light
GEOMETRIC OPTICS
Geometric optics is the study of light and its
Parallel
properties in terms of rays of light.
Light
Light is a seen form of energy which is radiated
outwards through our eyes and brain from a
source and a sensation is produced.
Convergent
Light as Form of Energy
Vegetation experience growth as they absorb
energy from the sunlight. Also when light is
incident on metals, there is an ejection of
electron as an indication of the energy in light.
This phenomenon is the process of photoelectric
Divergent
cell.
Translucent Substances; these are substances that Principles of Reversibility of Light
partially allow the passage of light through them It states that the path taken by a ray of light is
e.g. tissue paper. reversible. This principle can be illustrated using
Opaque Substance; these are substance that do the diagrams below.
not allow the passage of light through them e.g. B B
humans, wall etc.
Ray: A ray of light is the path along which light
energy or waves travel.
Beam: A collection of light ray is called beam. A
ray of light is represented by a straight line with
C C
A A
an arrow head. The head of the arrow shows the
direction of ray. With the illustration above, the path of the light
Types of Beam rays is the same hence the incident and reflected
• Convergent beam e.g. projector rays can be the interchanged
• Divergent beam e.g. lamp

313 | P a g e
 A
Reflection of Light at Plane Surface
N
c A
A
i r
B
The angle between the incident ray AB and the
normal is the Angle of Incident while the angle
between the reflected ray BC and the normal is
known as the Angle of Reflection.
From the illustration above, when a ray of light
strikes a smooth surface such as plane mirror, its
direction changes, i.e. reflected in a way that the
angle which the incident ray makes with the
normal is equal to the angle which the reflected
ray makes with the normal.
Laws of Reflection
The first law states that the incident ray, the
reflected ray and the normal, all lies on the same
plane at the point of incidence.
The second law states that the incident angle is
equal to the reflected angle.
From the illustration above, when a ray of light
strikes a smooth surface, it’s reflected in a
definite direction. Hence a parallel beam of light
that strikes a plane mirror in the direction AB is
reflected in the direction BC and this is known as
regular reflection. However if the beam strikes a
C
B
C
Smooth
Rough
rough surface, the light is reflection in all
directions and this is known as diffuse reflection.
Virtual and Real Images in Plane Mirrors
Following the illustrations given below, an object
O in front of a mirror has an image I behind the
mirror. The rays reflected from the mirror do not
actually pass through I, but only appear to do so.
The image cannot be received on a screen
because the image is behind the mirror. In mirror
(i) this type of image is therefore called a virtual
image.
You can see that the light beam from O is a
diverging beam. After reflection from the mirror,
it is still a diverging beam which appears to come
from I.
In mirror (ii), if the incident beam converges to
point O. Then O is called a virtual object. I is
called a real image because it can be receive on a
screen.
Mirror (i) and (ii) should now be compared. In
the former, a real object (divergent beam) gives
314 | P a g e
 rise to a virtual image, and in the later, a virtual
object (converging beam) gives rise to a real
image. In each case the image and object are at
equal distance from the mirror. A plane mirror
produces an image which is the same size as the
object.
O
Real
image
Formation of Images by Inclined Mirror
Several images are usually observed when two
mirrors are inclined. This is because each mirror
forms the image of the object and also the object
of the image in the second mirror.
The number of this images can be determined by
the given formula.

Virtual

Where
N = Number of images formed

( Note:
M
Equation (i) is used if the value of

I given an odd number

Real Equation (ii) is used when the value of
image
gives an even number
Virtual

Example1
An object is placed between two planes mirrors
which is inclined at an angle of 40o to each
M
other. Calculate the number of images formed by
Virtual and Real Image in Plane Mirror
the mirror.
Virtual image
Solution
1. Erect image
2. The same size and at the same distance
with the object in front of the mirror
3. Laterally inverted

315 | P a g e
Example 2
An object is placed between two plane mirrors Example3
inclined at an angle to each other. Determine A ray of light is incident on a mirror m1.
the angle of inclination if the image formed is 3? Calculate the angle of reflection of the ray at
Solution mirror m2

Solution
30o + i= 90o
i =90-30o
i = 60o
Reflection from Two Mirrors Inclined at i + x = 90o
Right Angle to Each Other X = 30o
When two plane mirrors are inclined at 90o to X + 90 + i1=180o
each other and a ray strikes the first mirror i2 = 180o - 120 = 60o
surface, while the reflected ray strikes the second i2 + r2 = 90
surface, it is observed that the reflected ray from r2 = 90 - i2
the second mirror will be parallel to the original = 90 – 60
incident ray on the first mirror. =30o

316 | P a g e
 Deviation of Light at Plane Mirror Surface
The deviation of light ray at plane mirror surface Example 5
can be explained by the diagram below. A light of ray strikes the surface of a plane
mirror at an angle of incident of 500. Determine
N B
A the angle of deviation of the ray after deflection?

i r
50o
d 50o
g g g
g
x Y
O g

The angle between the incident ray or reflected Rotating Mirror

ray and the plane mirror is called the glancing
angle g. Incident
ray
From the law of reflection i = r
2st position
Also 2

1st position

Example 4
A ray of light strikes the surface of a plane
Suppose the angle of rotation of the plane mirror
mirror at an angle between the reflected ray and
is , therefore the angle of rotation of the
incident ray after reflection by the mirror?
Solution reflection ray is provided the incident ray

Since remains constant.

Example 6
A light ray is directed at a plane mirror so that
The angle between AO and OB =
the angle of incident is 35o. If the mirror is then
turned through an angle of 15o about an axis at

317 | P a g e
 right angle to the plane of the mirror; find the
angle between the incident ray and the reflected
ray.
Solution
Angle of rotation of reflected ray
Radius of curvature (r): This is the distance
between the pole and the centre of curvature.
The principal focus (F): This is the point on the
principal axis where light ray close to and
parallel to the principal axis converge (for
concave mirror) or diverge (convex mirror)

But The focal length (f): This is the distance from the
pole of the mirror to its principal focus. The focal
length f is equal to half of the radius of
The angle between the incident and the reflected
curvature .
ray is 100o
Secondary axis (s): This is a line drawn through
the centre of curvature to the mirror.
Reflection at a Curved Mirror
Normal: The normal is perpendicular to the
M
S mirror surface at the incident point.
Focal point (or plane): This is the point at which
the incident parallel rays converge.
f P
P The aperture: This is the distance between the
1
c F
s opposite points on the edge of the mirror. The
r aperture determines the amount of light
intercepted by the mirror. The length MN is

N called the linear aperture of the mirror and the

angle MCN is called the angular aperture. For a
A plane diagram for defining terms used
spherical mirror to be capable of forming shape
with curved mirror.
images, its aperture must be small compared with
The pole (or vertex): The pole is the centre (mid-
its focal length.
point) of the mirror.
The principal axis (P): This is the straight line
drawn through the centre of curvature and the Concave and Convex Mirror
They can basically be classified in to two ways
pole.
1. Concave or converging mirror
The centre of curvature (C): This is the centre of
2. Convex or diverging mirror
the sphere.

318 | P a g e
Concave or converging mirror: This is a kind of Image Formation by Concave Mirror
spherical mirror in which the reflecting surface (1) Object between principal focus F and
bends inward. It converge incident rays that are pole P of the mirror.
close to and parallel to the principal axis after
reflection.
M
A D
P
Nor
C F
f P
c
F
Nor
r

E The image formed is;

B
N
a. Behind the mirror
Convex or diverging mirror: This is a kind of b. Virtual
spherical mirror in which the reflecting surface c. Erect
bends outwards. It diverge incident rays that are d. Magnified
close to and parallel to the principal axis after
reflection.
(2) Object at principal focus F

Nor P
C F
P
C
F

Nor

319 | P a g e
 The image formed is b. At centre of curvature
a. At infinity c. Inverted
b. Magnified image d. The same size as object
(3) Object between the centre of curvature C (5) Object at a finite distance beyond the
and principal focus F. centre of curvature C

P
I C F

I
P
C F

Image formed is
a. Real The image formed is
b. Beyond c a. Real
c. Magnified b. Between principal focus F and centre of
d. Inverted curvature C
(4) Object at the centre of curvature C c. Inverted
d. Diminished
(6) Object at an infinite distance

O I P
P
F
C F
C

Image formed is;

a. Real

320 | P a g e
 The image formed is ii. Can also be used in focusing stars for
a) Real astronomical studies when used in
b) At principal focus F astronomical telescopes.
c) Inverted iii. Also used for focusing radiant heat
d) Diminished energy like the case in solar cooker.
Image Formation by Convex Mirror Experiment: Determination of the Focal
Length of Curve Mirror
The focal length of curved mirror can be
obtained by the use of search pin and the method
of non-parallax
. An object pin is stuck into a cork and attached
C F O
to a stand. The concave mirror and the optical
pin are arranged as shown below.

Imag
The image formed is
e Search
a. Virtual
r
b. Behind the mirror
c. Erect
d. Diminished

Uses of Curved Mirrors

Concave Mirror
Concave mirror are used as driving mirror
because they form upright images and also give
wider field of view than plane mirror of the same
aperture.
Convex Mirror
i. Can be used as dentist and shaving
mirror because of its magnification
The pin is moved up and down until it coincides
with its image P when viewed from above. At
this position there is no parallax between the pin
and its inverted image as seen in the mirror. The
distance between the pin and the mirror gives the
value of radius of curvature r. The focal length f
is obtained from the relationship . Other
method is by the use of mirror equation.

321 | P a g e
 Sign convention
The two commonly used sign convention are
given below.
Real positive
Real objects and real
images are considered
to be at a positive
distance from the
mirror.
Virtual image are at a
negative distance from
the mirror
Focal length of a
concave mirror is
positive
Focal length of a
convex mirror is
negative
Therefore (sum of
two interior angles is equal to the exterior angle)
New Cartesian
Distance measured to
the right of the mirror
This implies that,
are positive
Distance measured to
the left of the mirror
are negative
Focal length of a
concave mirror is If the angle are very small and measured in
negative radian,
Focal length of a
Hence
convex mirror is
positive

Mirror Formula (Concave)

A

h
p
B
O C I
v
r
u But

Hence
Suppose are the angle made by OA, CA,
IA respectively with the axis.

322 | P a g e
 Note: Since this is concave mirror distance OB
and CB are positive.
Convex Mirror
Substituting for
A

P Dividing both side by –h

O B I C
u v

Since
r
Then we have

Considering the triangles involved

Magnification
The lateral magnification m produced by a mirror
Since is the exterior angle of triangle CAO, is defined by
from equation iv and vi

Considering the triangles

From the formula

Suppose the angles are very small and measured Multiplying by v

in radian

Hence

323 | P a g e
 Graphs Associated with Mirror Formula
The equation of straight line graph is represented
3. Graph of uv against u+v
by

Where

1. Graph of

From Example 7
A concave mirror is to form 0.30m long image of
a 5mm lamp filament on a screen 6.0m away
from the mirror. What is the distance at which
the filament is to be place in front of the mirror?
Solution
Image height H = 0.3m

Example 8
2. Graph of (u + v) against (u ,v)
A convex mirror of radius of curvature 40cm
i.e. from
produces an image 10cm from the mirror.
Calculate the object position and the
magnification?
Solution

324 | P a g e
Recall that the image of convex mirror is always
virtual,
Hence,
For convex mirror f is negative, so that
Substituting into
Example 9
Determine by calculating the distance of the
image formed and the focal length of a concave
mirror if the height of the real image formed by a
6cm object placed 15cm from the mirror is 36cm.
Solution
A
CHAPTER TWENTY-SEVEN
REFRACTION OF LIGHT
This is the bending of light ray as they pass
obliquely from one medium into another of
different optical density. This bending of light
ray is called optical refraction.
Optical density is a property of a transparent
material that is an inverse measure of the speed
of light through the material.
Refraction at plane surfaces
When a ray of light AO is incident at O on the
plane surface of a glass medium, some of the
light is reflected from the surface along OC in
accordance with the laws of reflection. The rest
of the light travel along a new direction OB in
the glass.
According to the illustration shown below, the
light is said to be refracted on entering the glass.
The angle of refraction, r, is the angle made by
the refracted ray OB with the normal at O.
Refraction at Plane Surface
Laws of Refraction
1. The incident and refracted rays and the
normal at the point of incidence, all lie in the
same plane.
2. The ratio of the sine of the angle of incidence
to the sin of refraction is always a constant
for two given media i.e.
This was stated by Willebrord snell’s, an Outch
mathematician and astronomer.
325 | P a g e
 Refraction Index
The constant ratio is known as the refractive
index denoted by ‘n’ for the two given media.
The refractive index 1n2 for two given media 1
and 2 is given by
Absolute Refractive Index (n)
This is defined as the ratio of the velocity of light
in vacuum to the velocity of light in the medium.
Relationship between Refractive Indices
Consider a ray of light, AO refracted from glass
to air along the direction OB. The refracted ray
OB is bent away from the normal. From the
illustration below, the refractive index from glass
to air, gna is given by
Where x is the angle of incidence in the glass
and y is the angle of refraction in air.
A
Air O
Glass
x
Reflection from Glass to Air
From the principle of reversibility of light, it
follows that a ray travelling along BO in air is
refracted along OA in the glass. The refractive
index from air to glass ang, is given by
But gna =
Consider a ray AO incident in air on a plane
glass boundary, then refracted from the glass into
a water medium and finally emerging along a
direction CD into air. If the boundaries of the
media are parallel, the emergent ray CD is
parallel to the incident ray AO, although there is
a relative displacement, so the angle made with
the normal by AO, CD are equal and we shall
denote them by ia.
We can find the refractive index gnw from glass
to water from the ratio of the light speed in glass,
cg, to that in water, cw. assuming the speed of
326 | P a g e
light in air c is practically the same as in a Since na = 1, this relation shows that when a ray
vacuum. is refracted from one medium to another, the
boundaries being parallel .
A
Example 9
i A ray of light travels from air into water at an
A O
angle of 70o with the surface, the index of
Gla i
r refraction of the water is 1.33. Calculate

Wat i a) The angle of refraction

r b) The speed of light in the water.
Air C (speed of light in air = 3x108ms-1)
i
Solution
D
a) From Snell’s law
Refraction at Parallel Plane Surface

b)

From (i) and (ii)

If the equations are re-written in terms of the

absolute refractive indices of air (na), glass (ng)
and water (nw), then we have;
.

327 | P a g e
 Real and Apparent Depth
Consider an object O at a distance below the
surface of a medium such a glass or water has a
refractive index n

D
Since we are dealing with the case of an observer
directly above O, the rays OC, IC are very close
r
C to the normal OB.
B
Hence to a very good approximation,
r
i OC = OB and IC = IB
Substituting into equation (ii), we have
t

i Since the real depth of the object O = OB and its

apparent depth =IB
O

A ray OB from O perpendicular to the surface

passes through into the air along BA. A ray OC
Lateral Displacement
very close to ON is refracted at C into the air
The lateral displacement is the difference
away from the normal, in a direction CD and an
between the real depth and the apparent depth.
observer viewing O directly overhead sees it in
From the illustration above,, the distance OI is
the position l, which is the point of intersection
the lateral displacement. The relation between
of AB and DC produced.
the real depth, apparent depth, lateral
Suppose the angle of incidence in the glass is I
displacement and refractive index is given by;
and the angle of refraction in the air is r. Then
since; n = sin i = constant

Where refractive index of air

But i =BOC, r =BIC Substituting equation (ii) into (i)

328 | P a g e
 Example
i A speck of dirt embedded 2cm below the surface
O
of ice, what is the apparent depth when viewed at
i normal incidence
r
C Solution
w
d

B
1.33

Total Internal Reflection

Lateral displacement can also be obtained in
terms of sini as follows;
Considering the diagram above
Lateral displacement
Where w = width of the block
d = lateral displacement
If a ray AO in glass is incident at a small angle
plane boundary, part of the
incident light is reflected along OE in the glass,
while the rest of the light is refracted away from
the normal at an angle . The
reflected ray OE is weak, but the refracted ray
OL is bright.
Figure (i): This means that most of the incident
light energy is transmitted and only a little is
reflected. When the angle of incidence, the
glass is increased, the angle of emergence is
increased at same time. At some angle of
incidence C in the glass, the refracted ray OL
travels along the glass-air boundary, making the
angle of refraction .
Figure (ii): The reflected ray OE is still weak in
intensity, but as the angle of incidence in the
glass is increased slightly, the reflected ray

329 | P a g e
suddenly becomes bright, and no refracted ray is
A E
seen.
Figure (iii): Shows what happens since all
i i
(Bright) reflected ray
incident light energy is now reflected. Total Glass
internal reflection is said to take place in the O
Air
glass at O.

A E
(iii) Total reflection

Weak reflected ray

Glass Total internal reflection at a perfectly smooth
glass surface
Air O
Critical Angle Values
When the angle of refraction in air is 90o, a
(i critical stage is reached at the point of incidence
L
Bright refracted ray O. The angle of incidence in the glass is known
as the critical angle for glass and air.

A E We have n sin c (glass) = 1 x sin90o (air)

Weak reflected ray Where n is the refractive index of the glass.

Glass C As sin90o =1 then
L
Air O (Bright) refracted
90o
Where is the refractive index of a ray that

travel from air to glass (i.e. refractive index of

glass by definition) and is the refractive
(ii) Critical angle = C
index of a ray that travels from glass to air.

Example
What is the critical angle for light ray that travels
from glass to air (refractive index of glass = 1.5)

330 | P a g e
Solution
A S
Application of Total Internal Reflection
1. Mirages; it is a natural effect due to total
internal reflection occurring at the boundary
of a hot and cooler air.
Dispersion of light
White light has a band of wavelengths of
different colour, this is called spectrum of white
light. The longest wavelength is red light, which
has a wavelength in air of about 700nm (700x10-
9m or 0.7µm). The shortest wavelength is violet,
which has a wavelength in air of about 450nm
(450x10-9m).
In a vacuum (and practically in air), all the
colours travel at the same speed. In a medium
such as glass, however, the colours travel at
different speeds, red has the fastest speed and
violet has the slowest. According to wave theory,
refraction is due to the change in speed of light
when it enters a different medium. So when a ray
AO of white light is incident at O on a glass
prism, the colours are refracted in different
directions such as OBR and OCS.
B
Re
O R
Whi Y
Pris
Viol V
Dispersion in a glass prism
The glass prism has therefore separated or
dispersed the white light into its various colours
or wavelength, as Newton first discovered in
1666. After leaving the glass, a band or spread of
impure colours is formed on a white screen S.
The spectrum of white light consists of (bands
of) red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo and
violet. The separation of the colours by the prism
is known as dispersion. As we see shortly, the
wavelength in a light signal produced in
telecommunications are dispersed when they
travel along a glass optical fibre.
The sun and the hot tungsten filament of a lamp
have a continuous spectrum of visible
wavelengths. Hot gases such as hydrogen and
krypton have visible wavelengths which form a
line spectrum. The light from a laser has
practically one wavelength, so it can be a
monochromatic light source.
Optical Fibres in Communication
Light signals can travel along very fine long
glass fibres roughly the same diameter as a
human hair. Optical fibres as they are called,
331 | P a g e
 have replaced the copper cables previously used Where n1 is the core refractive index and n2 the
in telecommunications. The fibre is a very fine slightly smaller cladding refractive index.
glass rod of diameter about 125µm (125 x10- If n1 = 1.52 and n2 = 1.48
6m). After manufacture, it has a central glass Then sinC =
core surrounded by a glass coating or cladding of
The ray OD is now totally reflected at D along
small refractive index than the core.
DE, where it again meets the core- cladding
boundary at the critical angle. At E, therefore, it
Optical Paths in Fibres
is totally reflected alone EF.
The diagram below shows a step index fibre.
In this way, by total reflection a ray of light
With a large angle of incidence, a ray OA
entering one end of a fibre can travel along the
entering one end at O is refracted into the core
fibre by multiple reflections with fairly high light
along OP and then refracted along PR in the
intensity.
cladding. At Q, the fibre surface, the ray passes
At the other end of the fibre, the ray emerges in a
into the air. In this case, only a very small
direction X (odd number of multiple reflections)
amount of light due to reflection pass along the
or a direction (even number of multiple
fibre.
reflections).
Q
F Y Maximum Angle of Incidence
p D N2(clad
ding) The maximum angle of incidence in air for
O c N1(c
r which all the light is totally reflected at the core-
ore)
i cladding fiber is the angle i in the diagram above.
X
B
E To calculate i we have
A

Light path by total internal reflection-multiple

reflection
With a smaller angle of incidence, however, a
ray such as BO is refracted in the core along OD
and meets the boundary between the core and
From
cladding at their critical angle C.
From
Since n sin i is constant,
n1sinC = n2sin90o = n2 Using the trigonometrically relation

332 | P a g e
 CHAPTER TWENTY-EIGHT
REFRACTION THROUGH PRISMS
Considering a ray of light passing through a
prism ABC of apex or refracting angle A, placed
in air.

The refractive index of the core and cladding of

an optical fibre are 1.5 and 1.4 respectively.
Calculate (a) the critical angle of the interface.
(b) the (maximum) angle of incidence in the air
of a ray which enters the fibre and is then
incident at the critical angle on the interface. From the triangle above EFG = angle MFN
Solution
(a) At interface, we have

equal sum of the

(b) To obtain the maximum angle of incidence opposite interior angle. From equation (i) and (ii)

At the minimum deviation, Dmin, experiment

and theory show that the light ray will pass
symmetrically through the prism. The incidence
angle i1 is equal to the angle of emergence, at the
other face. Also the refraction angle r1 at f axis is
equal to the refraction angle r2 at J

333 | P a g e
 Minimum Deviation

Maximum
D deviation

Dmin

i
0
90

The variation of angle of deviation D with

incidence i can be obtained experimentally.
Experiment shows that as the angle of incidence i
is increased from zero, the deviation D begins to
decrease continuously to some minimum value
A = refractive angle
Dmin, and then increases to a maximum as i
I1= angle of incidence at F
increased further to 90o.
I2 = angle of emergency incidence at J
Example
D1 = angle of deviation at F
A prism having a refracting angle of and a
D2 = angle of deviation at J
refractive index 1.60 is immersed in a liquid
Dmin = angle of minimum deviation
having a refractive index of 1.30. Determine the
D = total deviation
angle of minimum deviation for parallel ray of
R1 = angle of refraction at F
light that is passing through the prism.
R2 = angle of refraction at J.
A Solution

P
I
G
F

F J

K
E

B C
334 | P a g e
 Small Angle Prism
Consider a small angle prism as shown below.

Example
Deviation by small angle prism; If a
The angle of incidence of ray of light striking an
monochromatic light incident almost normally on
equilateral triangles prism of refracting angle
the face MN of a prism of small angle A, so that
calculate the angle of refraction at the
the angle of incidence, is small, then of the
first face and the angle of emergence (take n =
angle are measured in radian,
1.5)
Solution
(a) Using snell’s law both angle of incidence and angle of
refraction at the other face will be small

We have )

335 | P a g e
Also CHAPTER TWENTY-NINE
REFRACTION THROUGH LENSES
A lens is an object usually made of glass,
bounded by one or two spherical surface.
Figure (i) below illustrates three types of
converging lenses which are thicker in the

The deviation D produced is given by middle than at the edges.

Figure (ii) below shows three types of diverging
lenses, which are thinner in the middle than at
the edges.
Substituting the value of into
Converging lenses
equation (5), We have

Biconvex Plano convex Converging meniscus

Diverging lenses

Biconcave Plano-concave Diverging meniscus

336 | P a g e
 Definition of Terms
1. The principal axis; this is the line joining
the centres of curvature of the two
surfaces, and passes through the middle
of the lens.
2. Principal focus (F); of a diverging lens is
the point on the principal axis where rays
that are close and parallel to the principal
axis appear to diverge after refraction
through the lens.
3. Optical centre; this is the point at the
centre of a lens and on the principal axis
where ray pass un-deviated or un-
refracted.
4. Focal length f; the focal length f of a lens
is the distance between the optical centre
and the principal focus of the lens.
5. Power of lens p; the power of a lens is
equal to the reciprocal of the focal length
and is measured in dioptersz when f is in
metres. i.e.
Location of Image by Lenses
Three classes of rays are used to obtain the
position and nature of the image.
1. A ray from the object, parallel to the
principal axis which refracts through the
lens and passes through the passes
through the principal focus.
2. A ray from the object passing through the
optical centre of the lens which passes
through un-deviated.
3. A ray from the object through the
principal focus which emerges parallel to
the principal axis after refraction.
The three emergent rays intersect a point the
image position.
Images Formed by Converging Lenses
1. Object at a distance less than one focal
length away
2F F O F 2
Characteristics
a) The image is virtual image
b) The image is erect
c) The image is magnified
d) The image is located on the same side
of the lens as the object.
2. Object at the principal focus.
O
2 F F 2
337 | P a g e
 Characteristic d) The image is located at 2F on the
Image formed at infinity opposite side of the lens
3. Object at a distance between one and two
focal lengths 5. Object at a finite distance beyond twice
the focal length.

2 O F F 2 2F 2F
F F
I

Characteristics Characteristics
a) The image is real a) The image is real
b) The image is inverted b) The image is inverted
c) The image is magnified c) The image is diminished
d) The image is located beyond 2F d) The image is located between F and
on the opposite side of the lenses. 2F on the opposite side of the lens.

4. Object at a distance equal twice the focal 6. Object at an infinite distance.

length.

O F
2 F 2
2f
F F 2

Characteristics
The image is formed at the real focus
Characteristics
a) The image is real
b) The image is inverted
c) The image is the same as the object

338 | P a g e
 Images is Formed by Diverging Lenses The exterior angle of a triangle is equal to the
The only type of a real object that can be formed sum of the opposite interior angle.
by a diverging lens is one that is virtual, erect, Consider triangle OPI
and reduced in size.

O If the angle are small and measured in

F radian, we have

a) The image is virtual
b) The image is erect
c) The image is diminished
d) The image is located at the same side
of lens as the object
Lens Equation
The relationship between object and image
distance for thin lens is given by
Also consider a ray parallel to the principal axis
and incident at point P on the lens at small height
h, which refracted and passes through the
principal focus.
h
F

f
Proof of Lens Equation
Let consider a point object O placed at a distance
U greater than the focal length f of the lens.
For small angle measured in radian, we have
P

u v Divide both sides by h

From the diagram above, we have

The above equation is called lens equation. It is
I
applicable to both converging and diverging lens.

339 | P a g e
Sign convection From the diagram above
The sign rule states
• Virtual object and image distance are
For small angle measured in radian
given negative
• Real object and image distance are
Therefore
positive.
• A converging lens has a real focus
(+ve) while diverging lens has a Hence, the radius of curvature
virtual focus (i.e. f = -ve).
Example Using snell’s law
A converging thin lens of focal length 20cm is
placed 30cm in front of a screen. Where the
object must be placed, if its image is to appear on Therefore
the screen?
Solution For small

Also

Substitute equation (i) into (ii)

We have

The object should be placed 60cm from

the lens.
Divide both sides by h
Lens Maker Equation

Recall,

F
For a lens, we have
R f

340 | P a g e
 Since is situated in the medium of refractive
index , we have
Where are the radii of curvature of
the two faces of the lens. The equation is known
as the lens maker’s formula. Where is the radius of the spherical surface
XP1 similarly the refraction at the second surface
Optical Proof of the Lens Formula (YP2) since XY and P1P2 are the incident rays
on the second surface YP2, it follows that I1 is a
virtual object for refraction at the second surface.
Therefore, the object distance I1P2 is negative,
O i that is I1P2 = -V1 the corresponding image
Virtual distance since I is real image.
u v
object
Substituting in the formula for refraction at a
single spherical surface, then we have;
Considering a lens of refraction index
immersed in a medium of refractive index
Where is the radius of curvature of the surface
where a point object O is situated on the
YP2 of lens
principal focus, According to the diagram above.
Adding equation (1) and (2)
A light ray from O through the middle of the lens
passes straight through as it normal to both lens
surface.
A ray OX from O making small angle with the
principal axis, is refracted at the first surface in
the direction XYI, and then refract again at Y at
the second surface so that it emerges along YI.
Dividing both sides by
Consider the refraction at the first surface
Suppose
Now parallel rays incident on the lens are
brought to a focus. In substituting into equation 3

341 | P a g e
Substituting for the right hand side of equation

3, we obtain

From equation

It follow that the focal length of a lens depends Example

on A double convex thin lens has radii of 200cm.

1. The refractive index, of it material The index of refraction of the glass is 1.50.
Compute the focal length of this lens (a) in air
2. The refractive index, of the medium in
and (b) when it is immersed in carbon disulfide
which it is placed and the radii of
(n = 1.63)
curvature of the lens surface.
Solution
Example
For a thin lens with an index of n₁, immersed in a
A concave lens has an index of refraction n=
surrounding medium of index n₂
1.50 and radii of its surface are 5cm and 10cm.
the concave surface is placed facing upward and
filled with water. What is the focal length of the
water-glass combination?
(a)
Solution
For the water

(b)

342 | P a g e
 Eye Defect and Correction Similarities between the Eye and the Camera
Eye defect is a disease of the eye which occurs Camera Human eye
when light refraction coming from the object 1. The diaphragm The eye iris performs
through lens is not properly focused on the controls the amount this function too
retina. of light entering the
Some of the eye defects are camera It work also on the
(1.) Myopia (short sightedness): it is an eye 2. It work on the process of reflection
defect in which one can only see short process of The pupil serves as
distance object very clearly but cannot refraction the passage for light
see long distance object. It arises when 3. The aperture into the eye
the eye ball is too long. serves as the The yellow spot in
To correct short sight, a suitable passage for light the eye is the most
diverging (concave) lens is needed. unto camera sensitive part
(2.) Hypermetropia (long sightedness): This 4. The The interior is also
is a situation where one can only see long photographic film is black and light proof
distance object very clearly and not short the most sensitive to prevent reflection
distance object. part of stray ray of light
To correct long sight, a suitable 5. The interior is
converging (convex) lens is needed. black and light
(3.) Astigmation: it is usually caused by the proof to prevent
cornea. It is the inability to see things reflection of stray
more clearly in one direction than in other rays of light
direction
To correct this defect, cylindrical lenses
are used.
(4.) Presbyopia: this is an eye defect in which
the eye is unable to accommodate,
usually caused by old age.
To correct presbyopia, bifocal lens is
used.

343 | P a g e
 Difference between the Eye and the Camera Optical Instrument
Camera Human eye They are instrument designed to increase the
1. It is It is natural visual angle, so that the object viewed can be
mechanically and The eye lids remain made to appear much larger with their aid.
electrically open continuously as Visual angle: It is the angle subtended at the eye
operated the retina forms series when viewed an object
2. The shutter of constant changing Angular Magnification: This is the ratio of the
works on the pictures with angle subtended at the eye by its image when
stimulation of light continuous motion aided to the angle subtended at the unaided eye
before photograph Changing pictures with by a distance object.
can be taken continuous motion The angular magnification,
The focal length of the m
3. The lens is lens can be vanes with
made of fixed the help of the ciliary
4. It is non-living muscle A list of a few optical instruments are given
because of The It is living because of below
absence of cells the presence of cells. (a) Simple microscope (or magnifying glass)
5. It has fixed (b) Compound microscope
focal length (c) Telescope
(d) Astronomical telescope
Dispersion Power (e) Terrestrial telescope
The dispersion power (w) of the material of a (f) Reflection telescope
small angle prism for blue and red rays is defined (g) Prism binoculars
as the angular dispersive difference between blue (h) Projection lantern
and red to its minimum deviation

Microscope
A microscope is an instrument used for viewing
near objects when it is in normal use, therefore,
the image formed by the microscope is usually at
the least distance of distinct vision, D₁ from the

344 | P a g e
eye i.e. at the near point of the eye. With the
unaided eye, the object is seen most clearly when
it is placed at the near point. So the angular
magnification of a microscope in normal use is
given by:
Angular Magnification
The angular magnification of this simple
microscope can be found in terms of G and the
focal length of the lens. From definition,

Where β is the angle subtended at the eye by the But

image at the near point, and is the angle
:
subtended at the unaided eye by the object at the
near point. New is the liner magnification produced by

the lens, and given by = where v is the

image distance C l and u is the object distance C

A
D O
Visual angle with unaided eye Since with the usual notation,

Simple Microscope
This is an optical instrument used n magnifying
the size of a microscope element. It consists of a
conveying lens.
This microscope is also known as magnifying
glass. The image produced by this instrument is
virtual, magnified and erect.
we have
1+
By multiplying throughout by v
Since the image is virtual,
V = C L = -D, where (i) is the numerical value of
the least distance of district vision.

L
h

h B
T F
D
Simple

345 | P a g e
 Microscope with image at Infinity
Suppose instead of placing the object between
the principal focus and the optical centre, it was
placed of the principal focus, the image will be
h B
O
F F
formed at infinity. In this case, the objects
distance OC with equal to the focal length f, of
the lens.
From definition
Compound microscope
This is a modification of a simple microscope. It
consist two separation of conveying lenses used
to obtain a high angular magnification. The lens
closer to the object is called the object lens while
the lens through which the final image is viewed
is called the eyepiece.
The objects and the eyepiece lenses have small
focal lengths. When the microscope is used, the
object O is placed at a slight greater distance
from the objective than its focal length. The
objective lens produces a magnified, virtual and
inverted image. The eyepiece is adjusted so that
the magnified image produce falls at a closer
distance than the principal focus of the eyepiece
lens.
The image produced by the objective lenses
serve as object to the eyepiece in turn produce a
more magnified, virtual and inverted image.
Angular Magnification with Microscope in
Normal Use
When the microscope is in normal use, the image
is at the least distance of distinct vision, D, from
the eye. Suppose that the eye is close to the
eyepiece, as shown in the diagram above,
The visual angle β subtended by the image at I2
is then given by , where h2 is the
height of the image. With the unaided eye, the
object subtends a visual angle given by
Where h is the height of the object
Now can be written as
where h₁ is the length of the intermediate
image formed at I₁
M=
346 | P a g e
The ratio is the linear magnification of
the ‘object’ at I₁ produced by the eyepiece. As
said before, the linear magnification is also given
by where V is the image distance from
the lens and f₂ is the focal length.
Since v = -D is the numerical value of the least
distance of distinct vision, it follows that
i. The distance between the lenses when the
microscope is in normal use
ii. Angular magnification in this adjustment.
iii. Height of the final image
iv. Angular magnification if the microscope
is not in normal adjustment. (The least
distance of distinct vision, D is 25cm
Solution

Final image is virtual

Also, the ratio is the linear magnification of
The distance between the lenses =
the object at O produced by the objective lens.
Using lens equation
So if the distance of the image I from this lens is
denoted by V, we have
This implies that for objective lens

Now it can be seen that if f1 and f2 are small, m

is large. So, the angler magnification is high if
the focal length of the objective and eye piece
lens are both small. Also for the eyepiece lens

Example
An object of 0.2m height is placed 33cm from
the objective lens of a compound microscope
having focal length 2cm and 5cm for the
objective and eyepiece lenses respectively.
Calculate The distance between the lenses when in normal
use =

347 | P a g e

ii. Angular magnification in normal use
iii. The height of the image
iv. Angular magnification when microscope
is not in normal adjustment (I.e when
the image is at infinity
Telescope
This is an instrument used for looking at a
distance object, they can be classified into;
• Astronomical telescope
• Reflecting astronomical telescope
• Reflecting telescope
• Fall lean telescope
Angular Magnification of Telescope
Telescopes and microscopes are instruments
designed to increase the visual angle, so that the
object viewed can be made to appear much larger
with their help. Before they are used, the object
may subtend a small angle at the eye, when
they are used the final image should subtend an
increased angle at the eye. The angular
magnification m of the instrument is given as
This is also popularly known as the magnifying
power of the instrument. It should be carefully
noted that we are concerned with visual angles in
the theory of optical instruments, and not with
the physical size of the object and image
obtained.
Astronomical Telescope in Normal
Adjustment
An astronomical telescope made from lenses
consists of an objective of long focal length and
an eyepiece of short focal length, both lens are
converging. The telescope is in normal
adjustment when the final image is formed at
infinity. The eye is then relaxed or un-
accommodated when viewing the image. The
unaided eye is also relaxed when a distant object
viewed can be considered to be at infinity.
Diagram of telescope in normal adjustment
The objective lens O collects parallel rays from
the distant object. So it forms an image I at its
348 | P a g e
focus . The diagram above shows three of the
many non-axial rays, from the top point of the
object, which pass through the top point T of the
image. The three rays b from the foot of the
object would pass through the foot of I (not
shown). As the final image is at infinity, I must
be at the focus fe of the eyepiece. So fe and fo of
the eye piece so fe and fo are at the same place.
To find the angular magnification, M, of the
telescope, assume that the eye is close to the
eyepiece. Since the telescope length is very small
compared with the distance of the object from
either lens, we can take the angle subtended at
the unaided eye by the object as that subtended at
the objective lens as shown. Since I is distance
, we
and separation of (distance between lenses)
=
Example
An astronomical telescope in normal use has an
angular magnification of 3 and the lenses are at
distance of 24cm apart. Calculate the focal
lengths of the lenses.
Solution
Separation of distance between lenses
Substituting equation (ii) into (i)

see that

Also the angle subtended at the eye when the

telescope is used is given by But
=3 6 = 18cm
Therefore, the objective focal length is 18cm
So,
while eyepiece is 6cm.

Angular magnification

M= ----------------------------- (1)
Telescope in normal adjustment = final image at
infinity
Substituting, we have

349 | P a g e
 rays are again refracted at the boundary of the
M= = ---------- (2)
eye piece ‘E’ to form a small image ‘ab’. From

But V = - D, since the final image is virtual and the ray diagram, we see that ‘a’ is the image of

formed at near point D, from eyepiece. ‘A’ on the objective and ‘b’ is an image of ‘B’ on
the objective. So ‘ab’ is the image of the
Thus =
objective ‘AB’ in the eyepiece.
= The small circular image ‘ab’ is called the eye-
ring. It is the best position for the eye. Here the
eye can collect the maximum amount of light
Therefore, entering the objective from outside so that it has
a wide field of view. If the eye were placed
Substituting for u in equation (2) we have
closer to the eye piece than the eye – ring, the
M= = observer would have a smaller field of view
M=
A Eye-Ring Position

b
E
O

Eye – Ring of Telescope

When an object is viewed by an optical
a
instrument only those rays from the object which Eye – ring ab = image of AB in E

are bounded by the perimeter or edge of the B

objective lens enter the instrument. The lens thus
If the telescope is in normal adjustment, the
acts as a stop to the height from the object. With
distance U of the objective from the eyepiece E,
a given objective, the best position of the eye is
focal length is ( . From the lens
one where it collects as much height as possible
from that passing through the objective. equation, the eye – ring distance V from E is

The illustration below shows that rays from the given by;

field of view which are refracted at the boundary

of the objective O to form an image at Fo or Fe
with the telescope in normal adjustment. These Which V =

350 | P a g e
OW the objective diameter eye – ring diameter =
AB: ab = u:v = ): ( ) Therefore, diameter of objective
b) Position of the eye – ring.
=

But the angular magnification of the telescope =

So the angular magnification, M, is also given by

Example
As astronomical telescope has an objective of fo
= 100cm and simple eyepiece lens of fe = 5cm Difference between Astronomical Telescope

and is used in normal adjustment. If the diameter and Compound Microscope

of the eye – ring is to be 8mm. Calculate the Astronomical Compound microscope

diameter of the objective. Evaluate the position telescope
of the eye – ring 1. It is used to 1. it is used to view near
view object

Solution distant(far) 2 the final image is

a) the diameter of the objective object formed at near point

2. The final 3 the angular
image is magnification
formed at M=
infinity
3. The angular
4 The distance between
magnificati
the lenses is greater than
Diameter of eye – ring = 8mm = 0.8cm on M =
the sum of their focal
length i.e d
Fo+ Fe
4. The

351 | P a g e
 distance
between Photographic Camera
lenses is The camera is an optical instrument used in taken
equal to the photography. The working principle of the
sun their camera is similar to that of the biological eye.
5. focal length The camera consists of the following
i.e Fo+ Fe i. Light proof box
Power of lens: -this is defined as the reciprocal ii. System of converging lenses

of the focal length of the lens. i.e p = iii. Light sensitive film
iv. Shutter of variable speed.
Resolving power: -the resolving power of
The photograph is taken by directing the lens at
telescope is the smallest angle subtended at a
the object, the aperture sizes is adjusted and the
telescope by two distant objects which can just
focusing ring adjust the distance of the lens from
be seen separated, and is given by the film. Once a sharp image is formed, the
Where, D = diameter of the objective lens bottom that control the shutter is pressed and its
= wavelength of light open and closed quickly exposing the film to
light for a short time.
Film
Projector soot
This is an instrument used for showing slides on
shutte
a screen. The focal length of the lens is short and r
diaphra
an object lens behind the slide project the image L
gm
onto a screen.
The image produce is inverted, real and
magnified. fil
Object m
Condens

Apert
Night Photographical cameraure

u
v
Sc

352 | P a g e
 Human Eye
The human eye is a biological organ used for
viewing. The major parts of the eye are
 Cornea: - this is a transparent front part
of the eye that follows light to be focus.
 Iris: - this is a sensitive diaphragm that
controls the aperture.
 Retina: - this is a light sensitive surface
where the image is formed.
 Ciliary muscle: - this controls the
thickness of the lens so as to vary the
focal length during accommodation.
 Aqueous humor: - it is a transparent liquid
between the cornea and the lens.
 Vitreous humor: - it is a jelly like fluid
between the lens and the rest part of the
eyes ball.
 Optical nerve: - this transmits messages
to the brain for interpretation.
possible when the field of view of the two
eyes overlaps.
 Persistence of vision: - this is the
phenomenon whereby the light impress
on the retina continue for a short period
after the light is removed.
Example
The image formed by a microscope objective of
focal length 4mm is 180mm from its second
focal point. The eyepiece has a focal length of
31.25mm. What is the magnification of the
microscope?
Solution
M = 308

 Yellow spot: - this is the most sensitive

sport on the retina.
 Blind spot: - it is the least sensitive
portion of the retina.
 Accommodation: - it is phenomenon
whereby the eyes alter its own focal
length with the help of the ciliary muscle
so as to be able to focus both far and near
object.
 Binocular vision: - the combination of the
perspective of the image form differently
by the right eye and left eye. This is

353 | P a g e
 CHAPTER THIRTY
WAVE OPTICS
This is a branch of optic that studies other wave’s
properties of light apart from reflection and
refraction, such as diffraction, interference, rare
fraction, polarization.
Interference of Light Waves
Suppose two source of light, A, B, have exactly
same wavelength and amplitude of vibration, and
that their vibration are always in phase with each
other. The two sources A and B are therefore
coherent sources.
A at Q due to A is in phase with the vibration there
B
Interference of waves
Their combined effect at a point is obtained
algebraically the displacement at the point due to
the sources individually. This is known as the
principle of superposition.
Constructive Interference
Vibration at X – Constructive Interference
From the diagram above, (i), (ii), and (iii)
illustrated the vibration at X due to A and B,
which have the same amplitude. The resultant
vibration X is obtained by adding the two curve
and has amplitude double that of either curve.
Figure (iii), now the energy of a vibrating source
is proportional to the square amplitude.
Consequently, the light energy at X is four times
that due to A or B alone, A bright band of light
of light is thus obtained at X. as A and B are
coherent sources, the bright band is permanent.
With wave crest and troughs arriving at X at the
same time, we say that the bright band is due to
the constructive interference of the light waves
from A and B at X.
If Q is a point such that BQ is greater than AQ
by a whole number of wavelength, the vibration
Q
due to B. A permanent bright band is then
obtained at O.n BY – AY =
X T
(i).
i
P
(ii). T
Due i
(iii). T
Resul i
Where ࣅ is the wavelength of the sources A, B,
and n = 0,1,2,3, and so on.
Destructive Interference
Generally, a permanent bright band is obtained at
any point Y if the path difference, BY – AY, is
given by Consider now a point P in the diagram
above, where distance from B is half a
wavelength longer than its distance from A, AP –
354 | P a g e
BP = . The vibration at P due to B will then much to his delight, young observed bright and
dark and on either side of O on a screen T.
be 1.8 out of phase with the vibration there due
p
to A.
According to the diagram below (i) and (ii), the A

resultant effect at P is thus zero, as the

displacement at any instant are equal and
opposite to each other, figure (iii). No light is y

therefore seen at P. with a wave crest from A

arriving at P at the same time as a wave though
from B, the permanent dark band here is said to M
N o
be destructive interference of the waves from A
D
and B B

Vibration at p – destructive interference

Young’s experiment photographed fringes shown
If the path difference, AP – BP, where or
below in (b)
instead of , a permanent dark band

would again be seen at P as the vibrations there

due to A and B would be 18 out of phase.
Note; If the path difference is zero or a whole
number of wavelength, a bright band is obtained,
if it is an odd number of half – wavelengths a
Separation of Fringes
dark band is obtained.
From the diagram of young slit experiment,
suppose point p is the position of the bright
Interference from Two Slits
fringe, so that
One of the earliest quantitative experiments to
BN = BP – AP = m
reveal the interference of light from two sources
was performed by Thomas young. He placed a i.e.

source S, of monochromatic light in front of a Elt OP = = distance from P to O, the centre of

narrow slit C, and arranged two very narrow the fringe system, where is perpendicular
spilt, A, B, close to each other, in front of C. bisector of AB.
From triangle BAN,

355 | P a g e
 from the slits to the screen is 0.6m. Find the
separation of the two slits.
Solution
Since

m
If Q is the neighbouring of (m - 1)th bright
fringes, it follows that
Fringe Width
OQ =
This is the difference between the distances of
∴ separation of y between successive fingers is Mth bright and dark fringes.
given by i.e.
Y=

Where
d = distance between the two slit
D = distance between the slit and the screen.
y = distance between the fringe and centre. Where w = width of the fringe
Note: the equation
if for constructive Phase Difference and Path Difference
To find the phase difference between the two
interference in young’s experiment.
fields at point p is related to the geometry of the
is for destructive
situation. It’s also known that is proportional
interference. to the difference in path length from the two
Example sources to point p.
In a young’s slit experiment, the separation of When the path difference is one wavelength, the
three bright fringes is 2.0mm when the phase difference is one cycle and =
wavelength used is 6.4 The distance 2

356 | P a g e
 N

When the path difference is , = rad = 1800,

and so on.
D
i.e., the ratio of the phase difference to 2 is i M

equal to the ratio of the path difference to O

C
r
E t

Thus a path difference causes a phase B

t
difference given by r

Where k = is the wave number.
The above equation shows the relation between
the phase difference and path difference.
Also
Combining this equation 6.7 then we have,
Interference in Thin Films
Consider a ray AO of monochromatic light
incident on a thin parallel – sided film of
thickness t and refractive index n.
Some of the light is reflected at O along ON,
while the remainder is refracted into the film,
where reflection occur at B. the ray BC then
emerges into the air along CM, which is parallel
to ON. Incident ray AO thus divides at O into
two beams of different amplitude which are
coherent and if ON, CM are combined by a lens,
or by the eye – lens, a bright or dark fringes is
observed according to the path difference of the
rays.
The optical path of a length y in a medium of
refractive index n is ny. The optical difference
between the two ray ON and OBCM is thus
n(OB + BC) – OD, where CD is perpendicular to
ON. From the above diagram, if CE is the
perpendicular from C to OB,
then So that

Therefore, optical path difference = n(EB + BC)

= n(EB + BX) =

357 | P a g e
Where r is the angle of refraction in the film.
With a phase change of 1800 by refraction at a
denser medium, a reflection at a denser medium,
a bright fringe is therefore obtained when
or
Example
What is the angular deviation of the 4th order
visible spectrum of wavelength 400nm it

-----------------------------(i) produced by a plane grating having 6000 lines

per cm?
For a dark fringe, --------------(ii)
Solution
These are the relations for bright and dark fringes
for light refracted by the film.
Example
With two slits spaced 0.2mm apart and a screen
at a distance of 1, the third bright fringe is found
to be displaced 7.5mm from the control fringe.
Find the wavelength of the light used.
Solution
Let ࣅ be the unknown wavelength in centimetres.
Then

Example
What is the longest wavelength that can be
observed in the 3rd order for a transmission
grating having 400 lines per centimetre? Assume
30o incidence
Solution

358 | P a g e
 CHAPTER THIRTY-ONE
ELECTROSTATICS
The study of electric charges at rest is termed
electrostatics.
When such stationary charges are close, they
exert electrostatic forces on one another. These
forces are of tremendous importance in the field
of applied Sciences and Engineering and have
many technological applications. Electrostatic
forces are governed by a simple relationship
known as Coulomb’s inverse square law and are
most conveniently described by using the
concept of electric field.
Type of Charges
Charges are particles which exert electrostatic
forces on any object placed in their fields.
Fundamentally, there are two types of charges:
(i) Positive Charge (proton)
(ii) Negative Charge (electron)
Electrostatic Effects
Electrostatic interaction due to stationary charged
particles can be explained in two ways:
(i) Attraction and
(ii) Repulsion.
These interactions are described by the Universal
Law which states that
“like (similar) charges repel, while unlike
(opposite) charges attract”.
Principle of Conservation of Electric Charge
It states that the algebraic sum of electric
charges in any close system is constant.
If we rub together a plastic rod and a piece of fur,
both initially uncharged, the rod acquires a net
negative charge (since it takes electrons from the
fur) and the fur acquires a net positive charge of
the same magnitude (since it has lost as many
electrons as the rod has gained). Hence the total
electric charge on the two bodies together does
not change. In any charging process, charge is
not created or destroyed; it is merely transferred
from one body to another.
Conservation of charge is thought to be a
universal conservation law. No experimental
evidence for any violation of this principle has
ever been observed. Even in high-energy
interactions in which particles are created and
destroyed, such as the creation of electron–
positron pairs, the total charge of any closed
system is exactly constant.
Electron Transfer
Electron is one of the components of an atom. It
is a negatively charged particle that is known to
orbit the nucleus in a quantized manner. It is the
only component of atoms of solids that is free to
move when sufficient energy is supplied to
overcome the energy that binds it to the nucleus.
When electrons break away from a material, they
are accepted by another material. The material
359 | P a g e
that loses the electrons becomes electron
deficient and has overall positive charge while
the one that gains the electrons becomes
negatively charged.
Electrification
This is the process through which a neutral or
uncharged body acquires charges.
The process may involve transferring of charges,
usually electrons, from one body to another when
they are in contact with each other or building up
of charges when one body is brought near the
other without necessarily touching.
Charge carriers, particularly electrons, can build
up, or become deficient, on things without
flowing anywhere. You’ve probably experienced
this when walking on a carpeted floor during the
winter, or in a place where the humidity was very
low. An excess or shortage of electrons is created
on and in your body. You acquire a charge of
static electricity. It’s called “static” because it
doesn’t go anywhere. You don’t feel this until
you touch some metallic object that is connected
to earth ground or to some large fixture; but then
there is a discharge, accompanied by a spark that
might well startle you. It is the current, during
this discharge that causes the sensation that
might make you jump.
We now discuss two methods of charging a
neutral body, these are
(i) Charging by Contact
(ii) Charging by Induction
Charging by Contact
A neutral or uncharged material can be made to
acquire either positive or negative charge by
bringing it directly in contact with another body.
Such method involves using a charged rod to
touch an uncharged material (Conduction
method) or rubbing two uncharged materials
together (Friction method)
(I) Conduction Method
Consider a negatively charged rubber rod
brought into contact with an insulated neutral
conducting sphere. The excess electrons on the
rod repel electrons on the sphere, creating local
positive charges on the neutral sphere. On
contact, some electrons on the rod are now able
to move onto the sphere, neutralizing the positive
charges. When the rod is removed, the sphere is
left with a net negative charge. This process is
referred to as charging by conduction. The
object being charged in such a process (the
sphere) is always left with a charge having the
same charge as the object doing the charging (the
rubber rod).
360 | P a g e
 Material Material Charge
Used for acquired by
Rubbing Material
Ebonite rod Fur Negative
Glass rod Silk Positive
Cellulose Duster Positive
acetate rod
Polyethylene Duster negative
rod

Charging by Induction
Note that the charges on both materials reside on
In this method, a neutral material is charged by
their surfaces.
simply bringing a charged material close to it
(II) Friction Method
without actually touching it. This process is
This method involves rubbing two uncharged
described as follows.
materials together so that one material gives up
1. The material to be charged (uncharged
electrons and the other material takes them up.
conducting sphere) is place on an
The following are examples of charges acquired
insulating stand.
by some common materials when rubbed with
2. A negatively charged material or rod such
fur, silk and duster respectively.
as ebonite rod is then brought near the
sphere.
3. The sphere is then earthed by connecting
it momentarily to the ground by means of
a wire.
4. The wire is removed, followed by the rod.
On testing the sphere, it will be discovered it has
charges opposite to that of the rod.

361 | P a g e
362 | P a g e
  Positively: charging of electroscope
The Electroscope positively is done by induction. A
Electroscope performs two functions; negatively charge ebonite rod is
• Its detects electrostatic charges brought near the cap without actually
• It determines the nature of charges touching it. The positive charges on
(testing of charges) the cap are repelled to the leaves. By
The instrument consists of a metal rod A, to touching the cap momentarily, the
which gold leaves, L were attached. The rod has electrons are conducted to the earth
a circular cap B and was insulated with a plug P and the leaves are left with net
from the metal case C, which screen the leaves positive charges.
from outside influence. Testing of Charges with Electroscope
For a negatively charged electroscope, the leaves
diverged further if a negatively charged material
is brought near the cap. Bringing a positively
charge material near the cap will result in the
collapse of the leaves.
In like manner, if a positively charge material is
brought near a positively charged electroscope,
the leaves diverge, but collapse if a negatively
charged material is brought near it.
The Gold-leaf Electroscope
However, if a neutral material brought near the
Charging the Electroscope
cap of electroscope in both cases, the leaves
 Negatively: this is done by direct
collapse the same way. This is the reason why
contact. A negatively charged ebonite
divergence is the only sure test for charges.
rod is use to touch the cap of the
device. The negative charges on the
Force Between Charged Particles
rod neutralized the positive charges
We have already stated that stationary charges
on the cap leaving behind excess
exert electrostatic forces on each other; these
negative charges. The negative
forces are governed by Coulomb’s inverse square
charges then herd down to the leaves
law
giving it a resultant negative charge.

363 | P a g e
 COULOMB’S INVERSE SQUARE LAW
 It states that the force between charged
particles (attraction or repulsion) is Examples
directly proportional to the product of the (1) Two points charged,
charges and inversely proportional to the are
square of the separation between them. separated by a distance (a)
Find the magnitude of the forces that each
+
- charge exerted on each other. (b)
q r
Determine the direction of the forces.
q1 q2 Solution
This can be represented mathematically as ﴾a﴿
F

Force of
Where F = Force (magnitude of force)

K = constant.

(b) Charge q1 attracts charge q2 because they

So that are opposite. The direction of the force,

therefore, is opposite.

(2) Two points charged +2.0µC and +1.0µC

The expression, therefore, becomes.
are 10cm apart. At what point between

364 | P a g e
 the two charges is the electric field zero?
(IJMB 2002)
Solution

Let us put a test charge p between the

Comment:
where the force field become zero. Let the
At a distance 5.86cm from 2.0µc or at a distance
distance between q1 and p be x cm, so that the
4.14cm measured from 1.0µc charge, the total
distance between q2 and p becomes (10 ‒ x) cm.
electric field due to the two charges becomes
At this point the force due to becomes
zero.
equal to the force of ;

(3) Particles of energy 7.7Mev are fired

at heavy nuclei whose charge is 100 times
the charge of the electron. Calculated the

Since closest possible approach of the alpha

particles to the nuclei. The charge of an
alpha particle is positive and twice that on
the electron. (IJMB 2004)
Solution
Energy of

365 | P a g e
 the net force on will be the sum of the force
exerted by individual charge on qo

Q = charge of heavy nuclei,

q = charge of ,
r = separation of the nuclei and particle

Example
(1) Three charges +10c, -20c and -16c are
distributed as shown below. Find the
resultant force acting on the 10c charge
and in what direction?

-20c
+10c 3m
Principle of Superposition of Forces
It states that the net force acting on a charge due
to other charges in a system is a vector, sum of
all individual force acting on the charge 2m

-16c
For example, if a test charge is acted upon by
an infinite number of charges as illustrated in the
diagram below,

366 | P a g e
Solution
-20c
+10c 3m

2m

Vector diagram;
-16c

Where

Forces distribution:
Direction:

I.e. both charge

so
that the net force is the solution obtains from
Pythagoras theorem.
to the horizontal.

367 | P a g e
(2) Calculate the net force on charge in the
system of charges belo.
So that the vector distribution of the forces on
in space looks like

Solution

Where

The resultant of this system of forces can

therefore be obtained using vector resolution and
modulus approach.

Distance of each charge from

?

Force distribution

368 | P a g e
 Magnitude or modulus of

Direction

0.4703

Resolve the vectors into horizontal and vertical

components respectively.
 Horizontal component

SI Units of Permittivity
From coulomb’s inverse square law

 Vertical component If F is in Newton (N)

From equation (i), make the subject

So that

369 | P a g e
Where

The unit of

• If we express Newton
(N)

• If we express Newton (N)

Relative Permittivity
This is the ratio of the permittivity of a given
medium to that of vacuum. It is also known as
dielectric constant.

It has no unit; it is only express as magnitude. It

is measure of the degree of permissiveness of a
material relative to that of free space.

370 | P a g e
 Gravitational Force and Electric Force
Gravitational force defers in many ways from
electric force. Below are some common
differences between the two:
s/n GRAVITATIONAL FORCE ELECTRIC FORCE
1 It is the force between masses It is the force between charge particles
2 It is only limited to attraction It can be an attraction or a repulsion
3 It is dependent on the gravitational pull It is independent of gravitational influence of
of the earth the earth
4 The field interaction is very small, and The interaction between charged particles is
is negligible compare to electrostatic extremely high.
interaction.
Equate (i) and (ii)
Centripetal Force on Orbiting Electron about
a Central Proton
If the force between proton in the nucleus and the
orbiting electron is

The centripetal force on the electron is

371 | P a g e
 Ratio of Electric Force to the Gravitational Electrostatic force,
Force (
=
According to Newton’s law of gravitational
attraction between two masses
Gravitational force,
/r2

While coulomb inverse square law for two

masses, provided they are charged is given as

Where

Example
1. Compare the electric and gravitational forces
Mass of proton, m
between a proton of charge +e and mass M at
a distance r from an electron of charge –e and
mass ‘m’. Take proton to be 1840 times
heavier than the electron. Evaluate their
relative magnitude, that is the ratio of the
electrical attraction to the gravitational
attraction (IJMB 2004)
Solution
Proton = +e 2. In the Bohr model of hydrogen atom, an
Mass of electron = M electron revolves round a proton in an orbit
Distance = r of radius the attraction of the
Electron =-e proton on the electron creates the centripetal
Mass of proton, m = 1840M force required to hold the electron in the
orbit. Find (a) the electrostatic force of

372 | P a g e
 attraction between the particles. ﴾b﴿ the speed magnitude but opposite in sign, find the quantity
of the electron of charge that would have to be placed on each to
Solution produce the required force.
3. An alpha particle (charge = + 2.0e) is sent at
Proton high speed toward a gold nucleus (charge =

Electron +79e). What is the electrical force acting on the

alpha particle when it is
(a) Electrostatic attraction
2.0 x 10-10 m from the gold nucleus?
4. Four point charges are situated at the corners
of a square with sides of length a, as in Figure
below, Find the expression for the resultant force
on the positive charge q.

(b)

5. The nucleus of 8Be, which consists of 4

protons and 4 neutrons, is very unstable and
Exercise
spontaneously breaks into two alpha particles
1. A charge of 4.5 x 10-9 C is located 3.2 m from
(helium nuclei, each consisting of 2 protons and
a charge of 2.8 x 10-9 C. Find the electrostatic
2 neutrons). (a) What is the force between the
force exerted by one charge on the other.
two alpha particles when they are 5.00 x 10-15 m
2. The Moon and Earth are bound together by
apart, and (b) what will be the magnitude of the
gravity. If, instead, the force of attraction were
acceleration of the alpha particles due to this
the result of each having a charge of the same

373 | P a g e
force? Note that the mass of an alpha particle is
4.0026 u.
6. An electron is released a short distance above
the surface of the Earth. A second electron
directly below it exerts an electrostatic force on
the first electron just great enough to cancel the
gravitational force on it. How far below the first
electron is the second?
7. Three point charges are located at the corners
of an equilateral triangle as in Figure P15.13.
Calculate the net electric force on the 7.00 µC
charge.
8. Two charges +3µc and -5µc are 2m apart.
Find a point between them at which a
small point charge will experience no
force (IJMB 1997)
CHAPTER THIRTY-TWO
ELECTRIC FIELD
Electric field is defined as a region around a
charged particle or object where electric force is
experienced.
Usually, a point charge is an assumed singly
charged particle for an experimental purpose. For
example;
is an assumed positively charged
single particle
is also an assumed negatively
charged single particle.
We shall regard each of them as positive and
negative point charge respectively.
Note that: Charges are particles which exert
electrostatic force on any other particle placed in
their field.
Behaviours of Point Charges
1. Field lines (flux) originate from positive
point charge and terminate with negative
point charge.
2. The field lines around a point charge are
radial in nature and uniform.
3. The location of a point charge is regarded as
source point while a point away from the
point charge where its electric field is
determined is known by field point.
374 | P a g e

Electric Field Lines Or Flux
An electric field line is an imaginary line or
curve drawn through a region of space so that its
tangent at any point is in the direction of the
electric field vector at that point. It can also be
defined as a path which an isolated small positive
charge would follow if place in the field.
It is formally called electric line of force but an
electric field line is preferred.
Properties of Field Lines
The following properties are common to all
fields
1. They do not intersect or cross one another
2. They originate from positive charge/pole
and terminate at negative charge/pole.
3. The direction of a field line is the
direction of a positive charge (test
charge) placed in the field.
4. Field lines are continuous.
5. The number of field lines per unit area
increases in area where the field effect is
stronger and vice versa.
6. Fields of an isolated charges originate or
terminate at infinite
Electric Field Intensity, E, or Strength
Electric field intensity at any point is defined as
force per coulomb on a small charge place at
that point which does not disturb the field.
Where E = field strength in N/C
F= field force in N
Q = charge in C
Electric field intensity is a vector quantity.
Consider a small positive charge q place in the
field of Q as shown below
+ +
r
E
Q q
The force on q is given by
E
Example
(1) Two charges +5 and -10 units are place 10cm
apart. Evaluate the electric field at the
middle point of the straight line joining them
(IJMB 2004)
375 | P a g e
Solution

(2) A small positive charge

distance

p
15cm from a small negative charge
x (10-

+ -
. Calculate the field
0.1 strength or intensity, E at (i) a point x
+5u -
between A and B where Ax = 10cm, Bx =
If we assume a point p between where 5cm. (ii) a point y distance 5cm from B

the electric field E is expected to be zero, so that on the opposite side of A ( K =

the distance between .

Solution
(i)
So that

376 | P a g e
 Electric Field Strength Due to System of
Charges (Superposition Principle)
Consider the diagram below

(ii)

15c 5c Where
A B

It is known that the total electric field at p

is the vector sum of the fields at p due to
each point charge in the charge
distribution.
Example
1. Point charges
apart as shown in
the figure below (i.e. electric dipoles).
Compute separately the electric field caused
by
at
(a) Point a,
(b) Point b

377 | P a g e
 (c) Point c

(ii) At point b

Solution

(i) At point a

Eb =
61,989.8 N/C in the negative x-axis
(iii) At point c

378 | P a g e
 Given then the balls are identical and
carrying the same charge, the result
expected for either mass would be the
same.
If we consider one of the mass, it is in
equilibrium under the action of three
forces Vis
• Upward tension force, T produced
by the thread
• Horizontal electrostatic repulsive
force
• Downward gravitational attraction
of the earth
2. Two identical spherical balls, each of mass
The conditions for equilibrium of
0.3g carry identical charges are suspended by
forces is that
two inextensible threads of equal length. At
 The algebraic sum of the horizontal
equilibrium they positioned themselves as
component of the forces must be equal to
show in the diagram below, calculate the
zero
charge on either ball (g =10m/ )
 The algebraic sum of vertical component
of the forces must be equal to zero.
For vertical resolution of tension,
T of one of the ball

Where

379 | P a g e
 Where

Electric Potential, V
Electric potential, ‘V’ at a point in an electric
field is the work-done in taking a unit positive
If point a is at distance r from the source point
charge from one point to another against electric
and b is at infinite i.e. a = r and
force of the field.
For instance, the work-done to bring a unit
positive charge from point ‘a’ to point ‘b’ against
the electric field, f is given by

380 | P a g e
 Example
(1) The figure below shows a small positive
charge, q of find the
potential
i.At A distance 10cm from 0
ii.At B distance 20cm from 0
iii.What is the potential difference between A
and B

q
A B

+
10c
20cm

Electric potential is a scalar quantity and has a

unit of work per unit charge i.e. J/C or C/m or
Volt
Note that potential difference is the value of
potential obtained when the potential at a point is i.
subtracted from the potential at another point.
E.g. if the electric potential at point “a” is and
at point “b” is then the potential difference is
given by ii.

Where

iii.
is the value of electric charge at “a”, , the
value of electric charge at “b” and r is separation
between “a” and “b”.

381 | P a g e
(2) From the figure below, calculate (3) (a) Define the term Coulomb. Evaluate the
the resultant potential at p due to positive amount of charges flowing through a
charge of filament of a 220V, 60W electric bulb in one
minute.
i. Define the term electric potential and
electric field strength at a point in an
electrostatic field and state their units.
ii. A conducting sphere of radius 2mm has a
charge Q when a unit charge is brought
to the surface of the sphere from
infinite, a work of 15J is done. What is
the value of the charge Q of the
conductor (IJMB 1999).

Solution
(a) Coulomb is defined as the
quantity of charge which traverses a
section of a conductor in one second
when a current of one ampere flow
through it.

Make Q the subject of the equation

382 | P a g e
 (b) (i) Electric potential, V at a point in an
electric field is the work-done in taking a
unit positive charge from one point to
another against the electric force of the
field.

(4) (i) Give and define the S.I unit of

electric charge. Evaluate the amount of
charge flowing in a filament of 20v,

Electric field strength E, at a point is the force 400w bulb for 30secs.

per coulomb on a small charge placed at that (ii) Draw sketches showing the potential,

point which does not disturb the field. V and electric field strength, E due to an
isolated charged metal sphere vary with a
distance from the centre of the sphere.
What is the relationship between V and E
at any point?
(iii) An isolated metal sphere X is given a
potential of 600V. If the potential is 240V at a
point 200m from its centre. Calculate the radius
(b) (ii) of the sphere, its charge and its energy (IJMB
2000)
Solution
SI unit of electric charge is coulomb and is
defined as the quantity of charge which traverses
a section of a conductor in one second when a

383 | P a g e
current of one ampere flow through the
conductor.

Figure 2.0
Figure1.0
Inside the Sphere
Inside the Sphere
The electric field everywhere inside a uniformly
The potential everywhere inside a uniformly
charged metal sphere which enclosed no charge
charged metal sphere is the same and maximum
is zero as shown in figure 2.0.
as shown in figure 1.0. AB is the value of
On the Surface of the Sphere (Outside)
potential from the centre 0 to the surface of the
The field, E is maximum on the surface of the
sphere, distance
sphere as illustrated in figure 2.0
Outside the Sphere
Some Distances from the Surface of the Sphere
The potential outside a uniformly charged metal
The electric field E decreases as the square of the
sphere decreases as distance r from the surface of
distance from the surface of the sphere.
the sphere increases. BC in figure 1.0 illustrates
The relationship between V and E is given by the
how the potential varies with distance from the
equation
surface of the sphere.
Note that is the radius of the sphere.
Where r is the separation between two charged
parallel plates or radius of charge sphere

384 | P a g e
 ELECTRIC FLUX OR ELECTRIC FIELD Where so = permittivity of vacuum or free space
LINE (GAUSS’S THEORM) and is the charge enclosed by the sphere
 Electric flux is an imagery line or curve
drawn through a region of space so that
If Q = is the total charge enclosed, then
the tangent at any point is in the direction
of the electric field vector at that point. -------------- Gauss’s law

Note; that only depend on Q and not on r of

ELECTRIC FLUX OF A SPHERE
the sphere. If the sphere enclosed no charge i.e Q
ENCLOSING A CHARGE, q
= 0, then i.e flux became zero, and so
Consider a sphere enclosing a charge q, if we
E since E depends on .
devised the electric field strength as E, the cross-
section area of the sphere as A, then electric flux,
ELECTRIC FLUX OF A CHARGED
is given as
EMPTY SPHERE
We have said that if a metal sphere enclosed no
charge, the electric flux is zero. But let consider a
metal sphere which is by itself positively
charged. We are going to consider the following
cases
1. Inside the sphere On the surface
2. Outside the sphere
EA ------------------------------- (i)
Some distance
Where A = 4πr2 ------------------------ (a)
from the sphere
and -------------------------- (b)
surface
Replace (a) and (b) in equation (i)
CASE I: Flux inside a Charged Empty
Sphere
Since the sphere enclosed no charge, it follows
that the flux also will be equal to zero. Therefore,
from the centre of the sphere to the

385 | P a g e
circumference of the sphere, this is zero and zero
and hence the electric field strength, E Some Distances from the Surfaces of the
Sphere
Electric flux radiates outward or inward
(depending on the nature of the charge enclosed
by the sphere) as if the charges were
concentrated at the centre of the sphere. The
strength of which decreases as the distance from
the surface of the sphere increases as shown in
figure 4.0

Figure 4.0
Since E = where =0
The sphere then behaves like a point charge.
and E are related thus

+ +
+ +
is the electric flux + +
+ +

CASE II: Flux outside a Charged Empty

Sphere Electric Flux of a Charged Plane Conductor
As illustrated in figure 4.0, we can describe the The electric flux outside a charged plane
flux outside the sphere under two conditions conductor is given by
On the Surface of the Sphere (Outside)
On the surface of the sphere, the electric field is
Where = charge on the plane conductor
at its maximum value since electric flux and
A = area of the conductor
intensity are related by = EA. it follows that
So that A=
the electric flux on the surface will be maximum.
If E A =

Replace (ii) in (iii)

386 | P a g e
 E. So that

E= or

Where Qnet is the total charge entered by the

If the surface charge density is define as surface.

NB: Gaussian surfaces are imagery
ߪ=
The expressive above is the general statement of
If follows that
Gauss for all surface (uniform and non-uniform
E= or
surfaces.)
ߪ= Application of Gauss’s Law
a) Field of a charged conducting sphere:
Electric Flux of an Isolated Point Charge The general statement of Gauss’ law is given
The electric flux of an isolated point charge is by
defined by the equation

Where and =
Where is the charge of the object.
for a uniform sphere
The diagrams below illustrate the distribution of
electric field

GAUSS’S LAW OF ELECTROSTATIC

 It states that the total electric flux, -

through a closed surface is equal to the

Figure 5.0
total electric charge inside the surface
divided by the permittivity.

387 | P a g e
b) Field of an infinite cylinder: c) Field between oppositely charged parallel
conducting plates:
For a conducting plate, the electric field
flux and the surface charge density are
the same.

-
+ + -
+ -
-
+
-
Figure 5.0 + -
Figure 5.0 show a coaxial cylindrical Gaussian + -
-
surface for finding the electric field outside an + -
infinitely long charged the wire. If the area of the + -

conductor is
A=2 then
Gaussian expression is Where A =

So that

Where E = field of an infinite line of

charge
Where

So that
E=

Replace in equation (i)

388 | P a g e
 Electron in a Uniform Field, E

- - - - 3. Kinetic energy of the electron

V K=
E
h Where
+ + + +
K=

Where V =Eh K=

1. Acceleration of the electron

The electric field E is given by 4. Time taken
E=

F= E
Example
Where F = (1) An electron is liberated from the lower end
E of two large parallel metal plates separated
by 20mm. The upper plate has a potential of
2400V. Calculate the
Where for an electron and has a I. acceleration of the electron
value 1.6 10-19 C II. speed of the electron

9.11 10-31 kg III. kinetic energy of the electron

IV. time for the electron to reach the upper
plate (IJMB 2007)
Solution
2. Speed of the electric

- - - -
h
V2 = U2 + 2a (hf - hi)
V
E

Where V = final speed + + + +

U = initial speed = 0
= 20mm = 20 10-3m
hf = final distance covered
hi = initial distance = 0 and = 9.11 10-31kg

V=

389 | P a g e
 = 1.38 sec.
1. Acceleration (2) An electron of charge e is situated in a
uniform electric field strength 120,000 V/m.
E= Calculate
I. The force on it
=
II. Its acceleration
E = 1.20 105 N/C III. Time it takes to travel 20mm from
rest
Solution
E = 120,000 V/m
e = 1.6 C

1075 m/s2
2. Speed I. E=

V= F = Ee
F =120,000 1.6
V=
= 1.92 N
V = 2.9034 m/s

3. Kinetic energy II. a=

K=

K =

11 m/

K = 3.8399 J
4. Time III.

Where V =

V=
= 29051678.09

390 | P a g e
 Sec

3. (i) State Gauss’s theorem in an

electrostatic field. Hence write a
mathematical relation of the theorem.
(ii) Prove that the electric field outside a
charged spherical conductor is the
same as if all the charges were
concentrated at the centre of the sphere (a) Inside the Sphere

(IJMB 1997). E= =0
Solution
(b) On the Surface of the Sphere, r = R
i. Gauss’s theorem The electric flux radiates outward so that
It stated that the total electric flux,
through a closed surface is equal to the
total electric field of a charge inside the Where
surface divided by the permittivity,

E=

E= where r = R

(c) Outside the sphere, r >R i.e. (2R and

ii. The figure below shows the distribution
3R)
of electric field in a charged spherical
conductor
i. At r = 2R,

ii. At r = 3R

391 | P a g e
 = = 1.2015 J

The electric field decreases as the square of the

distance from the surface of the sphere, which c. VA - VB =

makes the sphere behave as if all the charges are

concentrated at its centre.
5

4. A proton of charge +1.602 C

moves in a straight line from a point A to 5.A positive electric charge Q is distributed

point B inside a linear accelerator a total uniformly throughout the volume of an

distance of 0.5m, the electric field is insulating sphere with radius R. find the

uniform along this line with magnitude E magnitude of the electric field at a point

= 1.5 in the direction from A p, a distance r from the centre of the

sphere.
to B. Determine the
Solution
a. Force on the proton
From symmetry, the direction of is radial at
b. Work done on it by the electric field
c. The potential difference VA - VB every point on the Gaussian surface, so

Solution magnitude E is the same

e = +1.602 C at every point on the surface. Hence the total

r = 0.50m electric flux through the Gaussian surface of

E = 1.5 radius, r enclosed inside a spherical insulator of

radius R is the product of E and the total area, A
of the surface
a. Force
F= eE
= +1.602
= 2.403 To find E INSIDE the sphere, we choose r < R,
the volume charge density ρ is the charge Q
divided by the volume v the entire charged
b. Work done
sphere of radius R.
W=F
= 2.403 0.50

392 | P a g e
 Where
To find E OUTSIDE the sphere, we take r > R,
this surface enclosed the entire charged sphere so
that

Potential Difference and Energy Gain

Given that an electron, e accelerated in an
electric field whose potential difference is V, the
work done by the field, = eV
FIGURE 6.0
The volume enclosed by the Gaussian
Where K = and U = velocity/speed of
surface is , so that the total charge enclosed
electron
by that surface is

Example
1) Electrons emitted with negligible speed from
a cathode C in an electron tube are
Applying Gauss’ law
accelerated to a metal anode A which has a
potential V of +500V relative to C . calculate
a. the energy gained by an electron reaching
A
b. its speed at A
So that
(Take e =1.6

393 | P a g e
Solution safest place to be during lightning storm is inside
V = +500V, e = 1.6 an automobile.

a. Energy gained = eV
= 1.6 500
= 8.0

b.

Electric Breakdown
Certain insulating materials such as those used as
= 1.325 m/s
dielectric material in capacitors become
conductive when subjected to sufficiently strong
Electric Shielding or Electrostatic Shielding electric field.
Suppose we want to protect very sensitive This condition is often referring to as electric
electric equipment from stray electric fields that breakdown or dielectric breakdown by capacitor
might result in erroneous measurement. We designers. The maximum electric field that a
surround the instrument with a conducting box or dielectric material can withstand without the
we line the walls, floor and ceiling of the room occurrence of breakdown is called its dielectric
with a conducting material such as sheet of strength
Copper. The external electric fields redistribute Electron – Volt
the free electron in the conductor, leaving a net One electron - volt is the energy gained by an
positive charge on the outer surface in some electron which has been accelerated through a
regions and a net negative charge in other. This potential difference of one volt. This energy is
charge distribution causes on additional electric equivalent to:
field such that the total field at every point inside
the box is zero as stated by Gauss law. The J
charge distribution on the box also alters the So that every 1 eV = J of energy
shapes of the field lines near the box as shown in Others are;
the figure below. Such setup is often called
faraday cage. This same physics tells us that the

394 | P a g e
 CHAPTER THIRTY-THREE

Note that electron – volt is the unit of energy and CAPACITANCE OF A CAPACITOR

not potential or potential difference.
The capacitance of a capacitor is the ratio of the
charge, Q on the capacitor to the potential
difference across its terminals. It is a measure of
the ability of a capacitor to store energy.
It is defined mathematically as:

The unit is Farad (F). Other smaller units are

Capacitor
A capacitor is a device used for storing charges
and electric potential energy.
Most capacitors consist of two oppositely charge
metallic conductors separated by an insulating
material called dielectric as illustration in the
diagram below. Capacitors sometimes may not
have dielectric in between parallel plates, so that
the space is occupied by vacuum.
Parallel Plate Capacitor

Positive plate + -Q Negative plate

Q
+ -
+ -
-
+
-
d Dielectric

+ -
V

395 | P a g e
 Where K = dielectric constant
The circuit symbol for a capacitor is or The capacitance then becomes
depending on the type of capacitor. The
dielectric material can be oil, paper soaked in
electrolyte etc.
If Q = charge on either plate Factor Which Affect Capacitance of a

d = separation of the two plates Capacitor

= permittivity of vacuum) (i) Area of the Plate

The capacitance of a capacitor increases
V = potential difference between the
as the area of the plates increases.
plates
(ii) Separation of the Plates
Then
The capacitance of a capacitor increases
V = Ed (ii)
as the separation of the plates decreases
Where E = electric field between the
(iii) Dielectric
plates.
The capacitance of a capacitor increases
Replace in equation (i)
if a dielectric material of large dielectric
constant, K is used.

Where Gauss’s law is Dielectrics

A dielectric is a non-conductive material
between the parallel plates capacitor.
So that Q = Functions of Dielectrics

Replace (iv) and (iii) 1 It enables the plates of a capacitor to be

maintained at a very small separation without
touching
So that
2 It increases the maximum possible value of
potential difference between the capacitor
plates (measured with electrometer)
If a material of dielectric ɛ is used in
3 It increases the capacitance of a capacitor
place of vacuum, so that
than when vacuum is used.

396 | P a g e
 Dielectric Breakdown Material K
This condition occurred when a dielectric (N )
material which is a non-conductor becomes Vacuum 1 8.85
conductive because of partial ionisation after it
Air(1 Atm) 1.00059 8.855
was subjected to large electric field.
Air (100Atm) 1.0548 9.33
Dielectric Constant, K
Polyethylene 2.25 19.9125
It is the value of dielectric obtain by dividing the
dielectric of a giving material by that of vacuum Mica 3–6
Polyvinyl 3. 18 28.143
chloride
Where dielectric of vacuum Glass 5 – 10
Dielectric of the material Neoprene 6 .70 59.295

Other ways of defining dielectric Constant are Germanium 16 141.6

Glycerm 42.5 376.125
Water 80.4 711.54

Dielectric of Thickness, t less than D

Consider a parallel plate capacitor in which a
Where C = capacitance with dielectric dielectric material is inserted between its two
Co = capacitance with vacuum plates
= P. d with vacuum
V = P. d with dielectric
Eo= electric field with vacuum
E = electric field with dielectric

Some material with their dielectric constant, K at

2 C are giving below

397 | P a g e
The potential without the slab
d ------------------------------- (i)

The potential with the slab

------------------ (ii)

Where K =
Where K dielectric of the material
Where E = electric field with the slab
Eo = electric field without the slab
K= dielectric constant = r = relative Where K = r = dielectric constant
dielectric If the dielectric thickness, t, equal the plate
E= ----------------------------- (iii) separation i.e. t = d

Replace (iii) in (ii)

V=

V=
Example
V= ----------------- (iv)
1 A parallel plate capacitor has an area of
Divide equation (i) by equation (iv)
100cm2, a plate separation of 100cm and
= ----------------------(v) is charged mutually to a potential of 100
V. The supply was disconnected and a
Where
slab of dielectric 0.5cm thick and relative
permittivity of 7 was then introduced
between the plates. Calculate
a) The capacitance before the slab
was introduced
b) The charge on the plate Q

398 | P a g e
 c) The electric field in the gap e. V =
between the plate and the
dielectric
d) The electric field within the
dielectric
e) The potential difference between f. C =

each plate after the dielectric was

inserted
f) The capacitance with the
dielectric.
Solution
A = 100cm = 100 , d = 1.0cm =
1.0 m , V = 100V, K = =7 Energy Stored in a Charged Capacitor
When a potential difference V, is connected
a.
across the plates of a capacitor, a charge dQ is
transferred to the plates. The work done in doing
this is equal to

b. Q =
So that

c. =

d. K =

399 | P a g e
 Replace C=
Example
Three capacitors , 4 F, 6 are connected in
OR series.
a. What is their equivalent capacitance?
b. Calculate the charge on each capacitor if
a potential differences of 300V is applied
Arrangement of Capacitor to the combination
The two arrangement of capacitor are
1. Series arrangement 4 F 6

2. Parallel arrangement
Sometimes, a combination of both arrangements
is feasible
Series Arrangement

Q Q Q 300V
+ - + - + -

a.
V1
I0

The three capacitors stored the same charges

since the same current passes though the three.
b.
The voltage of the battery is the sum of the
potential across each capacitor

400 | P a g e
Parallel Arrangement

Since the current that passes through each

capacitor is different, the three capacitor stored
different charges, but with the same potential
connected across the them

Exercise
1. A proton moves 2.00 cm parallel to a
uniform electric field of E = 200 N/C.
Example (a) How much work is done by the field
Three capacitors , 3 F, 4 are connected in on the proton? (b) What change occurs
parallel. What is their equivalent capacitance? in the potential energy of the proton? (c)
What is the charge on each capacitor? What potential difference did the proton
3 F move through?

4
2. An ion accelerated through a potential
difference of 60.0 V has its potential
energy decreased by 1.92 x 10-17 J.
Calculate the charge on the ion.

3. The potential difference between the

, 3 F, 4 accelerating plates of a TV set is about
25 kV. If the distance between the plates
is 1.5 cm, find the magnitude of the

401 | P a g e
 uniform electric field in the region
between the plates.
4. Two point charges Q1 = + 5.00 nC and
Q2 = ‒ 3.00 nC are separated by 35.0
cm. (a) What is the electric potential at a
point midway between the charges? (b)
What is the potential energy of the pair
of charges? What is the significance of
the algebraic sign of your answer?
106 N/C causes the air to break down
and conduct charge (lightning), what is
the maximum charge the cloud can hold?
7. (a) Find the equivalent capacitance of the
capacitors in Figure P16.31. (b) Find the
charge on each capacitor and the
potential difference across it.

5. The three charges in Figure P16.17 are at

the vertices of an isosceles triangle. Let
q = 7.00 nC, and calculate then electric
potential at the midpoint of the base

8. Consider the combination of capacitors in

Figure P16.34. (a) What is the equivalent
capacitance of the group? (b) Determine
the charge on each capacitor

6. Consider the Earth and a cloud layer 800

m above the planet to be the plates of a
parallel-plate capacitor. (a) If the cloud
layer has an area of 1.0 km2 = 1.0 x 106
m2, what is the capacitance? (b) If an
electric field strength greater than 3.0 x

402 | P a g e
 9. Find the charge on each of the capacitors
in Figure P16.35.
10. Find the equivalent capacitance between
points a and b for the group of capacitors
connected as shown in Figure P16.40 if
C1 = 5.00 µF, C2 = 10.0 µF, and C3 =
2.00 µF. If the potential between points
a and b is 60.0 V, what charge is stored
on C3?
Charging of a Capacitor
When a capacitor is initial uncharged, the P.d.
VbC across it is zero at t = 0. At this time, from
Kirchhoff’s loop rule, the voltage Vab across the
resistor R is equal to the battery Emf, E.
At t = 0, the initial current through the
resistor, which we will denote as Io is given by
Ohm’s law
at t = 0
Kirchhoff’s loop rule gives
iR +
As the capacitor charges, the voltage
increases while, across the resistor decreases
corresponding to a decrease in current. The sum
of these two voltages is constant and equal to E,
so that on applying Kirchhoff’s rule
403 | P a g e
As the charge increases, the becomes

larger and reaches a final value with current

decreasing to zero i.e.

Where CE =
So that the charge reaches it maximum
Q0 = CE-------------------------------------- (iii)
But let us assume that the capacitor is still
charging
Current Flowing Through a Charging
From equation (ii)
Capacitor after Time, t
From equation (ii)

Applying an integrating factor Where Q = CE

Replace equation (viii) in (vii)

‒CE )

Multiplying equation (iv) by I.F

We discover form here that both the charge and

current are exponential functions

404 | P a g e
Graph of Charge and Current versus Time flow and the capacitor charges more quickly. If R
is larger, it charges more slowly. The unit of T is
Second.
Energy Stored in a Capacitor
We have shown that the energy stored in a
capacitor is

Where

Q = CE

= 2
As the charge increases exponentially with time So that
to reach maximum value the current
W= 2 is the energy stored
decreases exponential from its maximum value
after time t
to zero at .

Discharging a Capacitor
Time Constant Now supposed after the capacitor has acquired a
After a time t = RC, the current in the R–C
charge , we remove the battery from our R-C
circuit has decreased to or of its initial
circuit and connect point a and c to an open
value i.e. or 0.368 . At this time, t = RC, switch
the charge has reached of its final
value i.e. or 0.632 . The product
RC is, therefore, a measure of how quickly the
capacitor charge. We call RC the time constant
or relaxation time of the current denoted by T =
RC
When T is small, the capacitor charges faster,
when it is larger, the charging takes more time. If
the resistance is small, it is easier for current to

405 | P a g e
After we close the switch and set our stopwatch
to
At this time, the charge is maximum, The
capacitor then discharges through the resistor and
its charge eventually decreases as well as the
current over time
Let i and Q represent the time –varying current
and charge at some instant after the connection is
made. We make the same choice of positive
direction for current, so that Kirchhoff’s loop
rule becomes
Instantaneous Current
The current flowing though the R-C circuit is
now negative, this is because positive charges Q
are leaving the left hand capacitor plate, and so
that current is in the direction opposite to that
show in the figure above. At t = 0, where Q = ,
The initial current is since E = 0 I.e.

source as been removed.

At the time E = 0, so that Instantaneous current i = i.e the derivative of

the charge.

Example
1. An electronic unit consist of 50KΩ resistor
in series with 140 F capacitor and a 9 Volt
battery. If at t = 0 the switch was closed.

Take exponential of both sides

406 | P a g e
 a) How much time elapsed before the Before the switch was closed at t = 0,
current through the resistor draw to the capacitor was uncharged.
of its initial value a) What is the time constant

b) What charge is on the capacitor at t = b) What fraction of the final charge is

on the plate at t = 46 Secs
Solution
c) What fraction of the initial current
R = 50K , C = 140 F, E = 9v
remains at t = 46 Secs
Solution
R = 10MΩ, C= 1.0 F, E = 12.0V

a) T = RC
= 10
= 10 Secs

b) Q =
= 7Secs

Q=

(This means that the capacitor is

Q=
99% charged after a time equal to 4.6 RC or 4.6
Where
time constant)

c)
Q = 140 10-6 9[1 ‒ e-1/2]
Q = 4.96×10-4 C

= 0.0101 (it means that after 4.6 time

2. A resistor with a resistance 10MΩ is constant, the current has decrease to 1.0% of its
connected in series with a capacitor initial value.
1.0 F and a battery with E.M.F 12.0v.

407 | P a g e
 CHAPTER THIRTY-FOUR between successful collision between the
CURRENT ELECTRICITY electrons and copper ions is called mean free
Electric current I can be defined as the ratio of path.
flow of charges along a conductor. The unit is
ampere (A). Electron Drift Velocity
The flow of electrons actually constitutes current. If we consider a wire of cross-sectional area A
When battery is connected to the two ends of carrying a current I, let the velocity of the
metallic conductor, such as wire, with one end to electrons be V and there be n electrons per cubic
the positive terminal and the other end to the metre on the wire.
negative terminal. The potential difference D A
created causes free mobile electrons to drift
along the mortal. The mobile electrons that
constitute the current actually move in opposite
direction to the conventional current as shown
C B
below m
e

I If each of the electrons carries a charge as there

will be flow of electrons plane CD to plane AB
as shown above. The rate of flow of the electron
P.d is given as
R = volume per second =
Mechanism of Metallic Conduction
In metals, there are free mobile electrons which
Volume per second = Area velocity = AV
move throughout the atomic network. Each
There are n-electrons per unit volume then we
copper atom contributes one free electron and
have nAV electrons flowing per seconds.
there are 1029 free electrons in each cubic metre
The charge of electron that passes through AB
of copper. These electrons are moving rapidly
per second is given as
and randomly in the metal, they collide with one
another and also the copper ions due to the
thermal agitation in the metal. The mean distance Recall that current is change per unit time i.e.

408 | P a g e

Comparing equation (1) and (2) we have
I = nAVe
Where V is drift velocity
Exercise
Calculate the magnitude of drift velocity of a
metallic wire of an area 1mm² which a current of
(3)
10A passes through and the number of electrons
per unit volume is 1012 electrons.

Current Density
Ohm's Law
It is defined as current per unit area. It has a unit
Ohm's law state that at constant temperature, the
of ampere perr square metre (Am-2). It is
current flowing through a metallic conductor or
demoted by J
wire is directly proportional to the potential
Current density (J) = difference between its ends.

J= i.e V I
V=kI
From equation (3) above
Where k is the constant of proportionality, given
J=
as resistance of the wire
J = nVe (5) V = IR (1)
Where n is the number of electron Where R is the resistance of the wire
e is charge of an electron V is the voltage
v is drift velocity I is the current
J is current density Resistance do not just depend on the voltage and
Example current in the current. In some materials,
Find the drift velocity of electrons flowing on resistance depends on the temperature of the
copper wire of cross sectional area of 2 10- material and not on the potential difference.
7m2 containing 1029 free electrons per unit The resistance of any conductor thus depends on
volume, carrying a current of 1A. the following factors
[Take e = 1.6 10-19 c] a)
Solution he material itself (i.e. how may free
Recall that I = nAVe electrons are there per cubic metre)

V= b)
length
V=

409 | P a g e
 c) I
Where E is the electric field strength and is
cross-sectional area conductivity.
d) I
Equation (4) shows a relationship that exists
temperature between the current density, conductivity and
Resistivity electric field strength when an electron flows
This is the property of the material that affects its through a metallic conductor.
resistance.
Resistivity of a material is define as the Resistance of Cylindrical Conductor
resistance between two opposite forces of a 1m3 The resistance of a cylindrical conductor of
specimen of the material length L and area A as shown below can be
Resistivity (P) = obtain by considering the potential difference V
between its ends.

Where R is resistance Ω
A is area in m²
L is length in m
Thus, unit of resistivity is Ωm
Recall that

V=
But from equation (1)
Where E is the electric field strength or intensity
A= Recall that
Substitute for A in (3) J= E

Substitute for E in (1) we have

V=

From electric potential But J=

Therefore, J = V=

Conductivity is inverse of resistivity P. Area A =

Thus, J = E (4) Thus, V=

410 | P a g e
 V=

From ohm's law, Therefore,

R= or C = (6)
Therefore; R=
The time factor t can also be obtained using
Which implies that the resistance of a uniform
equation (5)
cross-section conductor is directly proportional
Recall that q = It, substitute for this in equation
to length and inversely proportional to the area
(5)
and conductivity of the conductor.

Relationship between Resistance and Therefore t = (7)

Capacitance Equation 6 shows relationship between
From ohm's law capacitance and resistance if the permittivity
R= between the conductors is known and the
Also, the quantity of change in capacitor plate is conductivity of the medium as well.
given as Examples
q=cv (2) 1) A metal has a resistivity ࣪ and

From Gauss' law density d. A mass m of this metal is to be

made into a wire of resistance R. Show that
EA =
the length L of the wire is given by L =
E=

Substitute for E in equation (3) we have Solution

Recall, Density d = i.e

d=
From current density J =

Equation (4) becomes Also Resistance R

i.e R=

Substitute for q in equation (5) we have But V = AL

Therefore, equation (1) becomes

411 | P a g e
d= R=

Replacing A in equation (2), we have

Making other factors constant
R= L d²

Therefore Therefore

R=

L² = Thus,

L=

2) A heating coil of power rating 10W is L2 =

required when the p.d across it is 20V. The length of the second wire should be 1m
Calculate the length of nicrome wire needed
to make the coil if the cross sectional area of Exercise
the wire is 1 10-7m² and resistivity of (1) Calculate the resistance R between two
nicrome is 1 10-6 Ω m. parallel plates of area A and separated by

If the diameter of a second wire, half of the distance d, if the capacitances is C. [Hint

diameter of the first, is to be used, what ]

length of the second wire is needed for the (2) A wire of 1mm diameter carries a current of
same work? 0.7A. Find
Solution (i) The magnitude of the electric field
Recall that p = (ii) The p.d between two points in the
wire 50cm apart
R=
(iii) The resistance of a 50cm length of
R= the wire
(Take the resistivity of the wire, ࣪ =
L=
1.72 10-8Rm)
L = 4m
(3) A pair of parallel plates of area 16cm² are
Since
separated by a piece of 0.1mm thick
R= Perspex of relative permittivity 3.5.
Evaluate the capacitances of the capacitor.

412 | P a g e
 What will be the capacitance if air is the
medium instead of Perspex? Series Arrangement
[Hint for this Perspex,
E E E E
for the air]

r r r r
Electromotive Force (E.M.F) and Potential
Difference The total E.M.F is the sum of the individual e.m.f
Electron usually flows from region of higher of each cell. i.e
potential to the region of lower potential. The
electrical force per area produced by the cell is E = E1 + E₂ + E3 +………… +
called electromotive force. En
Electromotive force (e.m.f) of a cell is the Also the internal resistance r = r1 + r₂ + r3
potential difference of the cell when it is not +…….. + rn
supplying current to the external current or load. If the cells have the same e.m.f, the equivalent
The unit is in volt. e.m.f E, is the product of the number of cells
Potential difference (P.d): This is the work done with value of a single cell e.m.f i.e. E = nE1 and
in taking a unit quantity of charge from one point r = nr1.
to another in a circuit. This unit is volt (v) or JC-
1. Parallel Arrangement

E1 r1
Mathematically
V=
E2 r2
Volt is the potential difference when one joule of
energy is dissipated between two points that
allow one coulomb charge to flow. r3

E3
Arrangement of Cells
Since the cells are in parallel, the total E.M.F is
Any cell in a circuit has e.m.f and internal
that of a single cell. And if the cells have the
resistance (opposition offer to the flow of current
same e.m.f and internal resistance, the total
by the electrolyte of the cell).

413 | P a g e
internal resistance is Where n is the number straight-line graph with the slope corresponding
to inverse to the resistance of the material.
of cells.
Examples of ohmic materials are copper sulphate
Example
solution with copper electrodes, all pure metals.
Three cells each of e.m.f 5v and internal
+
resistance of 2 were given to a student for a Cuso4 -
Pure I
practical purpose. If the student firstly arrange solutio I
metals
n
the cells in series and later in parallel, find the
equivalent e.m.f and internal resistance obtain in - +
- +
v v
each case. v v
- b
- a )
Solution ) I
I
In series the e.m.f is nE = 3 5 = 15V
While internal resistance is nr = 3 2 = 6 Non-ohmic conductors: These materials do not
In parallel, the e.m.f is just that of a single cell obey ohm's law. Their I-V characteristic gives a
i.e. 5V curve instead of a straight-line graph.
The internal resistance is given as Examples are junction diode, diode valve, neon
gas, and semi-conductors.

Junction diode
Ohm's Law
This states that at constant temperature the
current passing through a metallic conductor or
wire is directly proportional to the potential
differences between its ends.
i.e. V I
V = RI or V = IR Resistance
Where R is the constant of proportionality known Opposition to the flow of current offer by resistor
as resistance of the metallic conductor is known as resistance.
Ohmic and Non-Ohmic Conductors
Ohmic conductors: These are the materials that
obey ohm's law. There I-V characteristic is a

414 | P a g e
 Arrangement of Resistors From the figure above, the total current is given
Resistors can be arranged in series and also in as:
parallel depending on the electrical circuit I = I1 + I₂ + I3 (1)
arranged for effective performance. From ohm's law I=
Resistors in Series
When resistors are arranged in series, the same
current passes through them and different
potential drops across each of the resistors.
The total potential difference is given as:
Substitutes equation (2) and (3) in (1)

From ohm’s law V = I R

Therefore

Therefore Where R is the equivalent resistance

Or For two resistors in parallel we have

(For n number of resistors)

Resistors in Parallel
When resistors are arranged in parallel, the same Therefore,

potential is across them but different current pass

through them. Effect of Temperature on Substances
R1
Metallic conductor: The resistance of all metals
I1 increase with increase in temperature. i.e metals
R
have positive coefficient of resistance.
I
I3 Semi-conductor: The resistance of semi-
I R
conductor decreases with an increase in

V temperature. i.e semiconductors have negative

coefficient of resistance to temperature.

415 | P a g e
Insulator: The resistance of insulator decreases
as the temperature increases (2)
Electrolytes: The resistance of electrolyte If R₀ is the temperature at Ooc, then equation (2)
decreases as the temperature increases can give the temperature at θ as
Gases: At low pressure and high temperature, the R = R₀ (1 + ∆θ)
resistance of gases matters decreases.
∆θ = θ – 0 = θ
Therefore, R = R₀ (1 + θ)
Effect of Temperature on Metallic Conductor
(3)
As discussed above, the resistance of a metallic
OR
conductor increase with an increase in
R = R₀ θ + R₀ (4)
temperature.
The above equation can be interpreted using the
Let the initial resistance of a metallic conductor
graph below:
be R1 at temperature θ1, and the resistance be R₂
at higher temperature θ₂. The temperature
R
coefficient of the resistance can be obtained as
follows
Slope =
R
OR

Equation (1) can simply be defined as increase in θ

resistance per unit resistance per degree rise in
temperature. This is known as temperature
coefficient of the resistance.
From equation of a straight line
The intercept is R₀, and the slope is R₀ as
shown in the figure above.

The unit is per Kelvin (k-1).

The final temperature R₂ can be obtain as Change of Resistivity with Temperature

follows If the area and the length of a material remain the

same as the temperature increases, the resistivity
can be compare with the temperature as follows;
From equation (2)
R₂ = R1 (1 + ∆θ)

416 | P a g e
 (3) A metallic conductor of area 1.2
and length 10m, have 12v p.d across it with
Thus,
power of 6w at 20⁰c.
Find the resistance of the conductor at 50⁰c
But with the same area and length. [Take
Therefore, = 0.00235/⁰c]
Solution
(5) The resistance of the wire can be obtain as
follows
Examples P=
(1) A metallic conductor have a temperature of
40⁰c when the resistance is 5 . What will
be it resistance when the temperature is Resistivity is given s
60⁰c. ࣪=
[Take = 0.0025/⁰c]
Recall that
Solution
R₂ = R1 (1 + ∆θ)
R₂ = 5 [1 + 0.0025 (60 -40)]
R₂ = 5 [1+ 0.05]
R₂ = 5 (1.05)
= 5.25
(2) A copper have a resistance of 20 at 0oc
Exercise
and 28 at 50⁰c. Evaluate the (1) A certain length of aluminium wire has a
temperature coefficient of resistance of resistance of 28.3Ω at 20⁰c. What is it
copper. resistance at 60⁰c? The temperature
Solution coefficient of resistance of aluminium is
0.00403/⁰c at 20⁰c.
(2) Derive an expression that relate resistivity
with change in temperature?

417 | P a g e
 Example on ohm's law I₆ =
(i) From the current below, calculate:
a) Total resistance
I₃ =
b) Total current
c) Current flowing through each
resistor Voltage Drop along a Circuit
There is always a change in potential as current
flows through a resistor in a circuit. Current
6R
usually flows from higher potential to lower
5R
potential. There is always voltage drop when
3R
current flow from higher potential to the lower
potential. The positive terminal of the battery is
100v at higher potential and the negative terminal
Solution lower potential.
(a) The total resistance in the circuit can be
obtained as Examples
RT = R5 + R6//R3 1. Calculate the voltage drop at (a) A to B (b)

RT = 5 + B to C, from the figure below;

(b) Total current I,

+ _ + _ +
(c) Current flowing through 5Ω resistor is _

14.29A.
3A A 2Ω 4Ω B 5V
3Ω 4 V C
To calculate current through 6Ω and 3Ω, we
have to calculate voltage across the parallel Solution
resistors. a. Between A and B, it is noted that there
R6,3 are two resistors 2Ω and 4Ω, and the
voltage across them can be calculated
using ohms’ law (V=IR).

418 | P a g e
 Thus, V = I (R2 + R4) = 3 (2+4) = 3
x 6 = 18V
Since the voltage drop along the resistors,
the voltmeters will read -18V.
b. There is a potential drop of as 5V
equivalent to -5V, a drop in potential
across 3Ω equivalent to (3 x 3 = -9V)
and potential drop at 4V equivalent to (-
4V).
Thus, the voltage drop BC is – 5 – 9 – 4
= – 18V
(b) Voltage drop between BC is simply;
VBC = -(2X2) = -4V
(c) Voltage drop between BD is also calculated
as
VBD = [- (2 x 2)] + [- (2 x 4)] = ̶ 4 ̶ 8 = ̶
12V
(d) Voltage drop between CA is obtain as
VCA= ̶ (2x4) + 10 ̶ (2 x 3) = ̶ 8 + 10 ̶ 6
= ̶ 4V

A + 2Ω _ B
Exercise
_ 5V + From the circuit below obtain the voltage drop or
3Ω rise at the following points. (a) AB (b) BC (c)
2Ω CA
+ -
A R1
10V B
_ +

D I = 2A 4Ω C

R4
R2

From the figure above, obtain the potential

difference between the following points. (a) AB
(b) BC (c) BD (d) CA Voltage Divider Theorem
Solution When resistors are arranged in series, the same
(a) The potential difference between AB can current pass through the resistors, but the fraction
simply be obtained by remembering our of the voltage on each resistor can be obtained.
rules. Given resistors R1 and R2 in series and supplied

419 | P a g e
 voltage V, current I flow through the circuit as a. V6 =
R1 R2
shown below.
V3 =

I V1 V2 b. To obtain the error in the potential difference

of the voltmeter
R31 = R3 // R12 =

V31 =
The total resistance is (R1 + R2)
The circuit flowing is; I =
(1)
The error is V3 - V31 = 8 - 6.86 = 1.14V.
V1 = IR1 = = Also the percentage error can be obtained as

V1 = (2)

Likewise, the voltage drop on R2 is

V2 = (3) Current Divider Theorem

Example
A circuit has a combination of 6Ω and 3Ω
resistors in series when a supply of 24V is across
them. Find
(a) Voltage across each resistor
(b) The error of the potential when a voltmeter
of 12Ω is across 3Ω resistor.
Solution
I
The circuit can be represented as:
When resistors are connected in parallel in a
circuit that have a supply of voltage, the same
potential difference is upon them and
different currents flow through them.
I1
I2

6 3
Ω Ω V
I
Total resistance in the circuit is given as
12Ω Volt
RT (1)
2
420 | P a g e
 V = IRT = I (2)
From the figure above, calculate the current I1,
I1 = = I2 and I3.

I1 = (3)
Solution
The total resistance in the circuit can be
calculated as
I₂ = (4)
RT = R2 + R4//R3
Examples
=2+
1. From the figure below, calculate the current
at each branch of the circuit.
I1 =

I2 =

50V 5Ω
I3 =
10Ω
OR I3 = I1 ̶ I2 = 2.693 ̶ 1.54 =
1.153A
Electromotive Force, Terminal P.D and Lost
Solution
Volt
The total current can be calculated as follows
The definitions of above terms have already been
given. From the circuit below, the E.M.F,
terminal P.d and lost volt in the circuit can be
15 = 10A
obtained.
15 = 5A VL

2. I R
I1 I3
r
2Ω I2 4Ω
E
10V 3Ω

421 | P a g e
 a. The external resistance
From the circuit, R is the external resistance b. The internal resistance
E is the e.m.f c. Terminal P.d when the current is
r is the internal resistance now 50A.
From the circuit, the total current I flowing in the Solution
circuit is given as:- a. Recall that; E = IR + Ir
I= (1) But terminal P.d V = IR
Therefore, 150 = 40R
E = I (R + r) (2)
R=
E = IR + Ir
E = VR + Vr (3) b. Again, E = IR + Ir

From equation (3), the terminal P.d VR is IR and 200 = 150 + 40r

lost volt is Ir. i.e 200 - 150 = 40r

50 = 40r
VR =IR (4)
r=
Vr =Ir (5)
Example c. Since the value of the external and internal
1. A dry cell has an e.m.f of 12v. Its terminal resistance remain the same
potential drops to zero when a current of 6A E= IR + Ir
passes through it. What is it internal Terminal P.d = E –Ir
resistance? = 200 – 50 x 1.25
Solution = 200 – 62.5
Recall that; E = IR + Ir = 137.5V
But terminal P.d IR = 0 Exercise
Therefore, E = Ir 1. Five cells with the same E.M.F and internal

Thus; resistance are arranged in series, and the

r=
2. A direct current generator has an e.m.f of
200v; an output current of 40A gives
terminal P.d of 150V. Find
combination connected to parallel
combination of equal value two external
resistors. Show that the current flowing in
the circuit is given by 10E/(R+10r).
2. A dry cell delivering 2A has a terminal
voltage of 1.41V. What is the internal

422 | P a g e
 resistance of the cell if its open-circuit As the generator or battery produce power,
voltage is 1.59V? power will be delivered to external resistor as
3. A cell has an e.m.f of 1.54V. When it is in power output and power will be lost through
series with a 1.0 resistance, the reading of internal resistor.
a voltmeter connected across the cell Thus;
terminal is 1.40V. Determine the cell’s Pgen = Poutput + Plost
internal resistance. IE = IVR + IVr
But VR = IR and Vr = Ir
Electromotive Force and Energy Thus; IE = I2R + I2r
Recall the definition of potential difference, as E = I (R + r) ------------------------- (5)
the work some in taking a unit charge from one Equation (5) gives the same formula for e.m.f of
point to another in an electrical circuit. The same a cell.
way battery or generator will do a work or
produce energy that is sufficient for quantity of Efficiency of the Circuit
charge to travel through the circuit. E.M.F can be The efficiency of the circuit can be calculated as
defined as the energy produce by the battery to Eff =
make a unit quantity of charge to move through
Power input is the same as power generated in
the circuit.
the circuit.
Thus; E = Thus;
W = QE ------------------ (1) EFF = --------------
From the circuit above, having external resistor
----- (6)
R and internal resistance r. The battery produce
=
steady current I which travel in time t. Quantity
of charge is given as; =
Q = It ----------------------- (2)
Eff = ------------------------- (7)
Equation becomes
w = IEt ---------------------- (3) When external resistance R tends to infinity,

Electrical power generated is the rate at which internal resistance r tends to zero. The efficiency

the generator is doing the work. therefore becomes 100%. It external resistance
and internal resistance are external, the equal is
P= ----------------------- (4)
50%.

423 | P a g e
 Maximum Power Transfer Theorem
It is always desirable in an electrical circuit for a
maximum power to be transfered. Example is the
case of amplifier and the speaker. It is always
desirable that the amplifier match with the load
(speaker).
Recall that the power output is given as; Pout =
IVR = I2R ------------------------- (1)
But I = -------------------- (2)
R=r
Thus for maximum power to be transfered, the
load or external resistance must be equal to the
internal resistance of the generator.
The theorem states that power consumed in the
internal circuit is maximum if the external
resistance or load is equal to the resistance of the
generator.

Replace I in equation (1) The efficiency of the circuit is 50% when a

maximum power is transfer. The internal
Pout = ------------------------ (3)
resistance consumed half of the power generated.
Since Pout varies with R, to obtain maximum So to have maximum power transfer, efficiency
power, we differentiate Pout with respect to R. has to be sacrificed.
i.e.

Pout = , using quadrant rule Power (P)

Maximum
= Power

-------------------- (4)
R=r Load
But we know that at maximum point must resistance (R)
Example
be zero. Therefore:
A generator develops 200V and has an internal
resistance of 100 . Find the power delivered to a
load of (1) 50 (2) 100 (3) 200 . Find the
efficiency in (2) and (3)

424 | P a g e
Solution Circuit Analysis

1. Recall that Pout = IV = I²R = Kirchhoff announced two basic laws that can be
used to solve circuit more comprehensively than
Pout
ohm’s law. These laws can solve more complex
= circuit in which ohm’s law may be inappropriate.
2. Pout First Law: This first law is known as Kirchhoff’s
first law or Kirchhoff’s current law (KCL). It
=
states that in an electrical network, the algebraic
Eff = sum of currents meeting at a point is zero or the

Pgen = I²R + I²r sum of currents entering a point (junction or

Plost = I²r node) is equal to the sum of currents leaving the

point.
=
From the network below, the sum of the current
Pgen= I²R + I²r can be obtained
=

Thus Eff =

3. When R=200

Pout

Pgen = Pout+ Plost = Incoming currents are i1 and i4

Eff = Outgoing currents are i2, i3 and i5
Sum of incoming currents = sum of outgoing
From above, it can be noted in (2) that the power
currents
output is high but low efficiency while in (3), the
power output is low but efficiency is high.
OR
Simply put

425 | P a g e
 Second Law: The second law is known as 5 + Va = 0
Kirchhoff’s Mesh Law or Kirchhoff’s voltage Va = -5V.
law (KVL). It states that the algebraic sum of the 2. Two batteries P and Q having e.m.f of 8V
product of current and resistance in each of the and 3V respectively and internal resistance
conductors in a close path (mesh) plus the 2R and 4R respectively,
algebraic sum of the e.m.fs in that path is zero. a. The current through pach battery
From the network below, the sum of the voltage b. The terminal voltage
in the mesh can be obtained. Solution
a)

8V
3V
A
B

4 4

It is always important to assume a particular

direction of current. One can assume a clockwise 2
or anticlockwise direction for current.
From the circuit we have

From KCL
Example + = or = + --------------- (1)
1. What is the value of voltage Va in the current Using KVL on mesh 1
below? 2
30
2 ----------------------------------- (2)

10 Using KVL on mesh 2

+
I ------------------------------------ (3)
Combining equation (2) and (3)

Solution 2

5 – 10 – 20 + 30 + Va = 0

426 | P a g e
Using Cramer’s rule
From equation (1), = and equation (3),
=
Replacing this in the equation (2) we have
2
2
8

=
=

b) Calculate the current , in the

Mesh Analysis
circuit below
One can as well use mesh analysis to analyse the
8
A circuit. The direction of the current is taking as
before. Using the circuit below, the current
flowing in the circuit can be obtained using mesh
2 3
+ analysis.
- I
1. 1 2
B
+ C
4 3 +
-
Solution - 2
Taking the direction of the current as 5
shown above
Using KCL

4 3
Using KVL
Using mesh analysis
2
Mesh 1

Using KCL again

427 | P a g e
 Mesh 2

Mesh 2

Mesh 3
Using Cramer’s rule
3
Rewriting all the equations
11

0
Using Cramer’s rule

Using mesh analysis

Mesh 1

428 | P a g e
 Mesh 3: Taking the whole loop from the outside.

Rewriting the equation

- Using Cramer's rule

(3) 1 z
2Ω
4Ω

y y+z
2Ω 3Ω

2Ω
2v

In the circuit above, find the currents flowing in

each of the branch of the circuit.

Solution
Assume an appropriate direction for the current
flowing in the circuit
Using KVL, mesh 1 will give

Mesh 2 Thus

And

429 | P a g e
Exercise resistor and centre zero galvanometer as shown
Using mesh analysis, obtain the current in the below
circuit below
1 2Ω
1Ω
I1 I

2Ω 4Ω

2v 1Ω The rheostat is used so that a steady current will

flow through the circuit
Electrical Devices
In this chapter, we are going to be discussing Recall from ohm's law that

various measuring instrument in an electrical V = IR

circuit. Such instrument can be used to measure When a steady current flows then

e.m.f of a cell and the resistance of a component. V R

The instrument to be consider are
(1) Potentiometer
(2) Wheatstone bridge
(3) Thermocouple
Potentiometer
Potentiometer is a device that accurately
measures the potential difference between two
points in an electrical circuit. It is an instrument
used to compare the e.m.fs of two or more cells.
Potentiometer consists of an accumulator, a
metallic wire AB that is placed on a 100cm long
ruler (metre-rule). The end of the wire connected
to the cell, which the e.m.f is to be measured and
the other end to the jockey through a protective
But the resistance of a metallic conductor or wire
is directly proportional to the length of the wire
So, R L
Since R is proportional to length, we conclude
that potential difference V is also proportional to
the length.
V L
From the above relation, we derive an expression
to compare the emfs of two cells using
potentiometer

430 | P a g e
 Application of Potentiometer
1. To compare e.m.fs of cells
L
2. To determine internal resistance of cell
L1 P Q
A 3. To measure current
B
4. For comparism of resistances
E1
G 5. Measurement of thermoelectric e.m.f
G
E
Using Potentiometer to Determine Internal
When the circuit is set-up as shown above, Resistance
Jockey connected to E1 is used to touch AB at P, From the circuit below the internal resistance of
by which no deflection is indicated on the cell can be obtain using potentiometer
galvanometer G. P.d VAP is recorded which principle
corresponds to the e.m.f of the cell.
I
i.e VAP = E1
The experiment is repeated now using E₂ as the
cell, balance point of the galvanometer is noted L
A
at Q and VAQ is record which corresponds to the B

e.m.f of E₂. E
r
G
i.e VAQ = E₂
Since VAP E1
and VAQ E₂ R

Therefore E1 = k v
and E₂ = k
At first the external resistance R, was not
Where k is constant of proportionality
connected and the galvanometer balance at point
Dividing equation (1) by (2)
L. When the external resistance was connected
the galvanometer balance at point L1. Thus

But

Therefore

431 | P a g e
Equating equation (1) and (2) Solution
Recall that

The Wheatstone Bridge

(3) This consists of four resistance arranged as
shown below. A sensitive galvanometer
Equation (3) shows how internal resistance of a
connected across B and D and two keys k1 and
cell can be obtained.
B
k₂
I
Advantage of Potentiometer over Voltmeter R1 R2
k
1. Potentiometer measure e.m.f when the I
A I C
cell is not supplying current to the circuit G I
i.e. in open circuit form, therefore give
R R4
more accurate value of e.m.f of the cell. I
D
2. Potentiometer is more precise when used
to measure the e.m.f of a cell unlike the K1
E
voltmeter that has zero error.
When the keys are connected, current will flow
Example
through the circuit. Assume the resistance R1, R2
From the circuit below, find the e.m.f of cell A.
and R4 are known and R3 is unknown in the
E
above circuit. By varying the resistance value, a
point is reached at which galvanometer shows no
60cm
40cm deflection. At this point, it is said that B and D
A
are at the same potential.
A When B and D are at the same potential
G
G VAB = VAD and VCB = VCD
B Thus I1R1 = I2R3 --------------- (1)

20v And I1R2 = I2R4 --------------- (2)

432 | P a g e
 Dividing equation (1) by (2) we have
Thus
Therefore, the unknown resistor R₃ can simply
be determined.
Note: three out of the resistance will be given
resistance R is proportional to length L and the
resistance x to length (100 - L).
Thus
R = kL ------------------------ (1)
And X = k (100 - L) --------------- (2)
Dividing equation (1) by (2)
Therefore

and the last one will be unknown, in which you

can easily find the value using equation (3)
Example
above.
1. An unknown resistor x balance at 45cm on
The Metre Bridge
the rule, while a known resistor of 30Ω is
The practical construction of Wheatstone bridge
connected along the bridge. What is the value
is the metre bridge. The arrangement is as shown
of the resistor x
in the figure below.

R x
Solution

PG
A B
L 100 -

2. A metre bridge is balance with a piece of

V
k aluminium wire of resistance 20Ω in the left
hand gap, the slide contact being 55.5cm
It consists of known resistor R and unknown from the left hand end of the bridge wire at
resistor x, the combination of the two forms a the temperature of 30⁰c. If the temperature of
bridge. The balance point of galvanometer is
the aluminium wire is raised to 60⁰c and the
obtained by using jockey on AB, and at point P
contact being 55.5cm,
the balance is obtained. At this point the
Calculate:

433 | P a g e
 a) The resistance of the wire that may be 20 (Rp + 22.04) = 22.04Rp
connected in parallel with the aluminium 20Rp + 440.8 = 22.04Rp
wire to restore balance. Assume the 440.8 = 22.04Rp - 20Rp
temperature coefficient of resistance for 440.8 = 2.04Rp
aluminium is 3.8 10¯³k¯1.
b) The new position of the slide contact that
would restore balance if no additional
b. the actual resistance of the slide can
resistance is connected in parallel.
be obtain as
Solution
a. The actual resistance of the aluminium at 0⁰c
can firstly be calculated as
= R₀ (1 + ∆θ)
R₃₀ = R₀ [1 + ( - θ₀)]
20 = R₀ [1 + 3.8 x 10¯³ (30 - 0)]
20 = R₀ [1 + 0.114]
R₀ =
Now the new position of the slide when the
resistance is now 22.04Ω at 60⁰c with no parallel
At temperature 60⁰c, the resistance of the wire
resistance in combination
can thus be obtain as
Again
R₆₀ = R₀ [1 + (θ₆₀ - θ₀)]
17.95 [1 + 3.8 x 10¯³ (60 - 0)]
R₆₀ = 17.95 (1 + 0.228)
R₆₀ = 17.95 (1.228)
R₆₀ = 22.04Ω
The resistance that will be connected to the the
wire to make the actual resistance be 20Ω again
can be represented as Rp.
Thus R₃₀

20

434 | P a g e
 Measurement of E.M.F of Thermocouple
When heat energy is use to generate electric
current such as two metals with different
conductivity joined together, this is known as
thermoelectric effect.
One end of the two metals inserted in hot water
and the other end connected to a very sensitive
galvanometer, so as to measure small current
produced.
The potentiometer AB is connected to high
resistance R, so as to reduce the potential
difference of potentiometer to milli-volt. At the
balance point, the p.d VR is proportional to R
and p.d VAB is proportional to potentiometer
resistance RAB.
That is

Dividing equation (2) by (1)

Cold Galvanometer
G

Iron
Copper

Note that the resistance is proportional to length;

therefore, equation (3) can be written more
Hot junction
Hot water appropriately as

Thermometric effect

But potentiometer can be used to measure the Or

e.m.f of the thermocouple as shown below

E
Using the proportional difference or e.m.f of the
thermocouple, equation (4) can be written as
R P
L
A B
G
V

435 | P a g e
Example E1 Rheostat

R 60cm
A C
B
E
G
Also
2v
Where is the e.m.f of the thermocouple?
The figure above shows a potentiometer in
connection with the resistance R and
thermocouple.
a) What is the purpose of the resistance
600Ω in series with the potentiometer
Exercise
wire AB of 4Ω resistance?
1. State two advantages of potentiometer over
b) What is the purpose of the rheostat if the
voltmeter
balance is across the 600Ω by a standard
2. Explain how potentiometer can be used to
cell of e.m.f E₂ = 2V? Calculate the e.m.f
measure the e.m.f of a thermocouple
of the thermocouple if the balance length
3. A potentiometer has a potential difference of
AC on the wire id 60cm and AB is 100cm
6mV across it. If a thermocouple of e.m.f
long.
2.5mV is, attach to it, what is the balance
Solution
point of the thermocouple on the
a) The purpose of the 600Ω resistor in series
potentiometer?
with potentiometer is to reduce the potential
4. (a) Discuss type of cells
difference of the potentiometer as much as
(b) What is the difference between primary
possible
cell and secondary cells?
b) The rheostat is used to vary the value of
(c) Explain polarization and local action
supply current, so as to obtain a balance
point.
Recall that

436 | P a g e
 CHAPTER THIRTY-FIVE
MAGNETISM
Magnetism refers to physical phenomena arising
from the force caused by magnets, objects that
produce fields that attract or repel other objects.
The motions of electrically charged particles give
rise to magnetism.
Magnetic Field
Magnetic field can be defined as a region around
a magnet where magnetic force can be defined.
Magnetic Line Of Force
A line of force in a magnetic field can be define
as a line such that the tangent to it at any point
will give the same direction a force on a small
positive change placed at that point. The
compass noodle always gives the direction of the
magnetic field.
Magnetic line of force
Compass noodle
N the lines of force.
Characteristics of Lines of Force
1. They are imaginary lines running from
north to south
2. They repel each other sideways
3. They do not intercept
4. They begin from the positive pole and
end on equal number of the negative
poles
5. Lines of force representing non uniform
field are curved
6. Lines of force representing a uniform
field are spaced
Direction of a Current and Field
The relationship between the direction of the
current and lines of force can be determining by
a) Clenched fist rule or right hand grip
rule: if a straight wire is grasped with
the right hand, the thumb will point in
the direction of the current and the
fingers point or curled in the direction
of magnetic field.
b) Maxwell’s corkscrew rule: if we
imagine ourselves driving a
corkscrew in the direction of the
current, then the direction of rotation
of the corkscrew is the direction of
437 | P a g e
 Magnetic Force on a Moving Charge
If we consider a conductor of length L, which
make angle to the magnetic flux of the field

When a charge move in magnetic hold, it

experience a force which is giving as
L
F = BIL
L
If the conductor is at right angle to the field we
have n electrons
F = BIL ---------------------------------------- (iv)
V
F Thus substituting for I in (iv), we have

Fig. 2 Therefore F = B V ----------------------- (V)

Using flaming left hand rule we can have the Where amount of change in coulomb (C)

diagram as shown above. B = magnetic field (flux) in tesla (T)

Electron can move from one end of the V = velocity of an electron in (m/s)
conductor (metal rod) to the other. Other units of ‘B ‘ magnetic field are webor per
The drift velocity of the electron is square meter and the gauss (G).
1 T = 1 wb/m2
1 G = 10-4 T
If “n” number of electrons flows along the Also consider a conductor of length L, carrying
conductor, then total charge is giving as current I, placed in a magnetic field as shown
in fig above.
Current, which is the rate of flow of charge From Lorentz law
therefore is

If is the velocity of the charge, then

But from eqn (i)

438 | P a g e
 Solution
Given a three-dimensional space

From vector product = (dL) B

Integrating through

F=
This now gives

From right hand rule the force

For will move in negative (ƻ) direction.

2. A proton of charge, ‫ = ݍ‬e and mass

The force is the maximum when the metal rod is
mp kg have a speed of of
perpendicular to the field and minimum when
. It is allowed to pass through
rod is parallel to the field
a uniform magnetic field, B = 30G. Find the

Examples radius of the circular orbit.

1. A uniform magnetic Solution

field, exists in the +x

direction. A proton ( ) shoots through
the field in the +y direction with a speed of
find the magnitude and
direction of the force on the proton. (e
=

439 | P a g e
Therefore
3. Calculate the magnetic force experienced by
an electron moving with speed of
TORQUE OR COUPLE ON
RECTANGULAR COIL IN UNIFORM
FIELD
If a rectangular coil is placed in a uniform field
with its plane parallel to the uniform magnetic
field of flux density B, If a current I is passed
into the coil with the side NN of length L
perpendicular to the magnetic flux density B

when it enters into a magnetic field of show below

strength 0.2T at angle to the field lines The coil will experience a force given by

and the dimension of magnetic field

The force experienced alongside MN and not
MP. Force MN and PO are equal and opposite.
Solution
The two forces produce a tuning effect per the
From
coil. This is a system of couple or torque.
F

Dimension of B can be obtain as follows

B
but dimension of F, q and V are
F

Thus torque
Recall that

Exercise
With the coil having N-turns the torque becomes
A wire carrying a current of 5A and 2m in length
is placed in a field of flux density 0.3T, what is
the force on the wire if is placed at to the
field?

440 | P a g e
 Torque on coil at angle to uniform field Recall that torque is given as
If the rectangular coil is now at angle to the
field B and also carries a current I as shown
below

M N For N-turns coil

B
Maximum torque is obtain at and
B a
minimum at
B
I If we have to be the angle between the
I magnetic field B and normal to the plane, then
P by substituting into equation (5)
O
B

Example
From the diagram above a system of equal but A 40 loop rectangular coil of area 12cmx10cm,
opposite forces can be draw carries a current of 2.0A in a magnetic field of
N
0.25T, finds the torque on it?
B
Solution
x

M Exercise
r
1. A rectangle coil of sides 7cm by 4cm has
20turns a carries a current of 5A, calculate
the torque on the coil when it is placed in a
uniform horizontal magnetic field of 0.27T
Produce the turning-effect, with its plane
are equal but opposite a) Parallel to the field
b) Perpendicular to the field
c)

441 | P a g e
 2. 20-turns circular loop of radius 5.0cm But
carries a current of 14A, a uniform
magnetic field is directed along x-
direction, if the field makes to the
Substituting for F in equation (2) we have
normal to the plane, find the torque on the
loop?
( use Where

Magnetic Moment on a Magnet

Magnetic moment of a magnet is a quantity that
determines the torque it will experience in an
Period of Oscillation of a Magnet about a
external magnetic field.
Small Angle
Basically, magnetic moment is given as
The period of oscillation of a magnetic can be
where
obtained as follows. If a magnet is suspended as
shown below at a small angle

o
Recall that

h
Where

The angle is very small, therefore mg

The moment of the weight about O is given as

The compel is proportional to the angular
displacement if the magnet make simple Form small angle
harmonic motion, we have Thus from equation 2 above

Thus

442 | P a g e
Recall that Moving Coil Galvanometer
A moving coil galvanometer is specifically used
in measuring small amount of current

Period of oscillation is given as

Also from equation (1) and (4),

Moving coil galvanometric

Thus, our period of oscillation takes new Structure of moving coil galvanometric
The essential parts of moving coil galvanometric
dimension
are
Where I is amount of inertia 1. A light rectangular vertical coil ABCD
pivoted in jeweled bearing p and such
B is magnetic field that it moves in a vertical plane. The coil
is made of several times of insulated wire
Exercise wound upon a rectangular aluminum
From the period of oscillation above, obtain the front
frequency of oscillation? 2. Two curvers pole power, N and S, of a
magnetic and a soft iron core cylinder,
inserted between the poles. This
arrangement produces a radial or uniform
field
3. Two spiral non- magnetic control springs
of phosphor bronze, each of which is
attached to the jewlled bearing of spindle
current enter or leaves the rectangular

443 | P a g e
 coil through the spiral spring. The spring
provided the control complex. Sensitivity of the current mater
The current sensitivity of a galvanometer is
The working principle of moving coil defined as the deflection in galvanometer per unit
galvanometric current
Current to be measured is passed into the
From our motion
galvanometric from a terminal through one
spring and leaves through the other. When
current flows in the coil, forces act on arms AB
and CD as shown above. The two forces
constitute couple where torque finds to rotate the Sensitivity of voltmeter
coil in a clockwise direction across the radial The sensitivity of a voltmeter is the deflection
field. The movement of the coil is opposed by
per unit where is the deflection
the spiral springs, and the coil will come to rest
produced by a potential difference V,
in a position where the couple due to the current
From ohm’s law, v = IR
is exactly balanced by the control couple due to
the springs. The angle of rotation of the coil is Thus

controlled by the springs. The angle through From our relation again
which the coil rotates is recorded by a pointer
attached to the coil. This angle is proportional to
the force and the current. Thus the scalar reading Therefore
of the pointer gives a measure of current. Equal Factors affecting sensitivity of a galvanometer
division on the scale denotes equal steps of 1. Magnetic field strength
current. The uniform scale is as a result of radial 2. Length of the pointer
magnetic field; the opposing torque from the 3. Number of turns in the rectangular coil
spring is where K is the constant of the 4. Resistance of metallic coil
spring and is the angle of rotation. 5. Area of the coil
Thus we can have 6. Nature of the iron cylinder
7. Air gap

444 | P a g e
 Example Most of the current pass through Rs, because of
Calculate the deflection when current of 3A its low resistance.
flows into a magnetic field, whereas current of By KCL
5A deflects the pointer by And the galvanometer and shunt resistor have the
Solution same voltage, therefore,
Recall

From equation (1)

Then equation (2) become,

Therefore

Example
Exercise
A moving coil galvanometer has a resistance of
Calculate the fissional constant of a pointer when
and givens a full scale deflection when the
it is deflected due to the current 3A flowing
p.d across is 10mV. If the galvanometer is to be
into the galvanometer having a rectangular coil
converted to an ammeter reading up to 5A. What
of area and of 30 turns placed in a field
is the shunt required? What is the current in the
0.5T
galvanometer coil when it reads 3.3A?
Converting a Millimeter to an Ammeter
Solution
Moving coil millimeter can be used as an
,
ammeter when a coil resistance Rs, called shunt
is connected in parallel to it. Qq
,

From our relation

I Ig Rg

Is

Rs

V
445 | P a g e
 Example
Again to obtain
A moving coil galvanometer with resistance of
20Ω and a full scale defection of 5mA, how will
you convert it to be used as a voltmeter to
measure up to 10V?
Solution

Since

Converting a Milli-Ammeter to a Voltmeter

Moving coil milli-ammeter can be used as a
voltmeter when a resistor of high resistance R
called multiplier is connected in series to it.

1980Ω should be connected in series

I
Example
Calculate the magnitude of the resistance
required with an instrument of sensitivity of 10
divisions per milli-ampere, a voltage sensitivity
of 2 divisions per milli-volt and a full scale
V
deflection of 100 divisions to convert it to read
Since the same current pass through them, the (i) 0-1.50A and (ii) 0 -10V
equivalent resistance R is, Solution
The sensitivity of the instrument are;
10 divisions per 1mA
2 divisions per 1mA
For 100 divisions we have

446 | P a g e
Resistance of galvanometer Path Travelled by a Charged Particle in
Magnetic Field
Suppose a charge of moving with velocity V,
(i) For
enters a uniform field of strength B. As the
charge enters the field, a force F will deflects its
direction upward from circular motion, there will
be a constant force that will keep the particle in
circular motion, and thus the motion of the

(ii) charge particles is in circular path, with constant

velocity and kinetic energy.

q
V

Exercise From S.H.M

1. Briefly discuss using labeled diagrams,
the salient features of the working
principle of a moving coil mater
2. A moving coil galvanometer with Combining equation (1) and (2) we have
resistance of 1000Ω and a full scale
deflection of how will you
convert it to use as (a) An ammeter
measuring 5A (b) A voltmeter reading
5V.

447 | P a g e
Example magnetic field and accelerated by a rapidly
An electron beam, moving with velocity varying (radio frequency) electric field.
enters a perpendicular magnetic Cyclotrons are used to produce particle beams in
field B of 0.005T. Calculate the radius of the physics and nuclear medicine.
deflected path of the beam

Solution

= 0.059m

Exercise
1. In Bohr’s theory of hydrogen atom,
electron moves round the protein in a
circle of radius 0.53A with a velocity of
2.2 6 m/s. Evaluate the magnetic
field it produces at the proton.
[e = 1.6 10-19C, Me = High frequency alternating voltage is applied
between the two hollow D- shape metal sheet
9.1 10-31kg]
electrodes, and the charge particle is being
2. Alpha particles of charges of (q = +2e)
ejected through a beam line.
are accelerated from rest through a p.d of
To obtain the resonance frequency of the
2kv. They then enter a magnetic field B
particle we have our torque
of 0.31 perpendicular to their direction of
= force perpendicular distance
motion. Calculate the radius of their path
= BqVsin r
[M = 6.68 10-27kg, e = 1.6 10-
For small angle
19C]
= BqVr ---------------------- (1 )
[Hint: K. E = qV, where v is the p.d].
Also, =F.r

Cyclotron = ma. r
A cyclotron is a type of particle accelerator = mr2
device, in which charged particles accelerate ( )
outwards from the centre along a spiral path. The
= mr2
particles are held to a spiral trajectory by a static

448 | P a g e

Equating (1) and (2) we have
From circular motion, there must be a centripetal
force, thus
Substitute for in equation (3)
The period of oscillation
The resonance frequency is then given as
Where B is the magnetic field
q is the electric charge
m is the relativistic mass of the charged
particle
Example
A cyclotron is use to lunch a charge particle
of mass
magnetic field of 0.3T. Find the frequency.
Solution
=
Magnetic Field Due to Current – Carrying
Conductor
The magnetic field in this can be obtain using
Biot – savart and Ampere’s theorem
Biot and Savart Law
Mathematical expression for magnetic flux
density was derived by Jean Biot and Felix
Savart. If the compass needle point in the
direction of current element project into space,
the magnetic flux density dB is directly
proportional to the length of the conductor,
the current I, the sine of angle between
direction of the current and the vector joining the
point P of the field to the current, and is inversely
proportional to this square of the distance of
point p to the current I. This is statement of Biot
savart law.
dB
dl
in a
Fig 1.
449 | P a g e
From the statement Then,

Where K constant of proportionality, given as

Magnetic Flux along Axis of a Narrow

Circular Coil
Therefore
The magnetic field B at a point anywhere on the
axis of a narrow circular coil can be obtained by
considering an element of the coil, which is at

Magnetic Flux B for Narrow Coil right angle to the plane.

The magnetic flux B can be obtain from equation

(1) in this case the radius is constant for all the
element dl and the angle is constant with value
of as shown below

Fig.3

A field is set up at P, at right angle to radius

vector r, if is angle between r and the axis of
Fig. 2
If there is N turns in the coil, the length of the the coil, the field has as its

wire becomes 2 rN. Considering the component along the axis. There is a minor

circumference of each turn of the coil. element of i.e which corresponds to field

450 | P a g e
 as shown above. The value of the field
along the axis, given as the circumference of Example

the coil is A circle coil of 20 turns and radius 10cm carries

a current of 1A. What is magnetic field at a point
20cm away from the centre, on the axis of the
coil?
Solution
Since is constant and equal to

If the coil has a radius of a, then

Exercise
(1) Determine the flux density at a point
10cm along an axis of a circular coil of radius
5cm, carrying current of 3A if the coil has
For number of turns for the coil, B becomes
200turns
(2) State Biot – savart law

Rewriting the equation from the above fig 3

451 | P a g e
 Magnetic Flux Density on Axis of a Long
Solenoid

Fig 4. Magnetic field of a a

A solenoid is composed of a number of circular
current loops with the same axis, and the same
current passing through. The magnetic field is
obtained by summing the fields of separate
current loops. From the figure above, the
The total magnetic field is obtained by
solenoid has length L and loops N. The density
integrating from one end of the solenoid to the
of current loops per unit length is . For
other
part of solenoid with length dx we have dx

current loops
From equation 2 above we have

For a very long solenoid

For dx, current loop per unit length, we have

From the figure, we can extract

B R If point p, is consider inside a very long solenoid,

x we may regard it as infinite

452 | P a g e
 Then by equation From the diagram
(ii) we have

If XP is draw to be perpendicular to PY as shown

below rd p
X

The quantity can be called ampere – turns per

metre.
Magnetic Flux Density Due to Long Straight
Wire
I a
N p

r
X From equation (i) we have that
dl rd
y
From equation (ii)
Fig. 4 Field of a long straight wire

If we consider the magnetic field B at a point P, Integrating through the space of ( we have
so near the wire, looking at the wire from point
P, it appears infinitely long. The wire subtends
an angle nearly 1800 if there is element of xy
of the length, which make angle with the radius
r, from p.
There will be a magnetic field according to Biot
For N = 1 , since is a long wire without turns
– savart law such as

453 | P a g e
 Ampere’s Theorem
Another law that can be used to obtain the
magnitude of magnetic field B is ampere’s law.
Ampere’s theorem states that if a continuous loop
or line is drawn around a current carrying Magnetic Flux along Straight Wire (Infinitely
conductors and the flux density B is in the Long Wire)
direction of length element of the loop, then
for free space, L B

r
B
Where the integral taken over the close loop
B
and I is the total current enclosed by the loop.

Magnetic Flux Density at the Centre of a The length of the circular loop is still the

Circular Coil circumference of the circle giving as 2 B is

always along the tangent, thus the field is given
as

By Ampere’s law

The length of the circular coil is the

circumference of the circle, giving as 2
the field is giving as
thus
Example
A long straight wire 2mm in diameter is carrying
a current of 5A; calculate the magnetic induction,
magnetic intensity at a distance of 0.1m.

454 | P a g e
Solution As shown above, the toroid has a length L
From Ampere’s law From Ampere’s law,

Exercise
Calculate the magnetic flux density at point
10cm away from an infinite long wire carrying
current 6A. What will be the magnetic flux
density if the wire is placed in a medium of For N – turns toroid we have
relative permeability 2.5.
HINT: where is permeability of
free space and is relative permeability

The magnetic flux density at the end of a

Magnetic Flux at the Centre of Solenoid solenoid is half that at the centre. Thus
(Toroid)
A toroid is a coil of insulated wire wound on a
donut- shaped form, made of powered iron. A
toroid is as an inductor in electronic circuits,
especially at low frequencies where
Example
comparatively large inductances are necessary.
1) A toroid of radius 6cm has 22 turns. If a
current of 4A is passed through it, calculate
the magnetic field across it.
Total length
Solution

4 M

Fig. 5: Magnetic field due to toroid or solenoid

455 | P a g e
 Magnetic Force between Two Parallel
2) Calculate the magnetic flux density B at the
Metallic Wires
centre of a solenoid 200 turns and 50cm long,
If we consider two metallic wires
if a current of 0.5A flows in the solenoid.
carrying current
What current must flow in an infinitely long
respectively as shown below. Each of the wire
straight wire to give a flux density the same
will experience a magnetic force due to the
as above at 0.3 from the wire?
magnetic field of the other.

Solution

For infinitely long wire

Since the same field B, we have

a b

The force can either be attractive or repulsive

depending on the direction of current. If the two
Exercise
currents flow in the same direction, the force
1. From Ampere’s law, obtain the expression
between them will be attraction and if the current
for a magnetic flux density, B of a toroid.
flows in opposite direction, the force will be
2. A current of 3A flows in a solenoid of 500
repulsive.
turns and length 20cm. Find the flux density
Due to Newton’s third law are equal.
B in the middle ( )
Force experienced by conductor in magnetic
3. Calculate the magnetic flux density in a
field is giving by
solenoid with 50 turns/cm and carrying a
current of 6.2A.

456 | P a g e
But magnetic field for an infinitely straight wire
is

Exercise
1. Two long parallel wires of length 50cm each
are 0.5m apart and carry current 4A and 6A
respectively. What is the force between the
conductors?
2. Show that the force of attraction between
two metallic conductor-carrying currents is
the same.

It can be shown from equation (iv) that the force
experience by wire due to magnetic field of
wire is the same as the force experience by
wire due to magnetic field of wire
Thus force between two conductors carrying a
current respectively can be obtained as
Helmholtz Coil
This is made up of a pair of conducting circular
coils each having N – turns, each carrying a
current I, separated by a distance equivalent to
the radius of the circular loops. This produce a
homogeneous magnetic field B in the mid – plant
between the two circular coils

Example
Calculate the force per metre between two
parallel straight conductors 0.1m apart in air and
each caring a current of 8A.
( )
Solution

457 | P a g e
Using Biot – Savart law
Replacing equation (ii) in (i) we have
Integrating over the space of L, we have
The second coil produces the same magnetic
field, so the total field is the summation of the
two magnetic fields.
Thus
Example
Two conducting wires are separated by 10cm
from the centre. If each carries a current of 5A;
calculate the magnetic field produce by the
wires.
Solution
This Helmholtz device can be used to produce a
region with a uniform magnetic field.
Definition of Ampere
An ampere (A) is the value of the steady current
when flowing in two long parallel ways
separated by a distance 1m in a vascular, a force
of 2x10⁻⁷ Nm⁻¹ acts between the wires.
Relationship between Magnetic Flux Density
B, and Magnetic Field Strength H
The magnetic field B, generated by current can
be obtain using Biost - Saveart and empire’s law.
This kind of magnetic field due to the current can
easily be measure in Tesla. But when the
generated fields pass through magnetic materials
which themselves contribute internal magnetic
fields, ambiguities can arise from the fact that,
what part of the field comes from the external
458 | P a g e
currents and what comes from the material itself. CHAPTER THIRTY-SEVEN
It is then important to define another magnetic MAGNETIC MATERIALS
field, usually-called magnetic field strong H. Diamagnetic Materials
These are the materials that do not possess
Mathematically permanent magnetic dipole moments. The orbital
motion of the electrons and their spin is such that
H=B/ their total magnetic dipole moment is zero.
Examples of such materials are gold, silicon,
H=
copper, water, bismuth etc.
When = Km In keeping those materials in a magnetic field,
is permeability of the material the electron orbital motion changes in such a way

Km is relative permeability of the material. that magnetic dipole moments are induced on the

The unit is Am⁻¹ atoms in the direction opposite to the external

magnetic field as shown below:-
Example
A long straight wire 2mm in diameter is carrying
a current of 5A; calculate the magnetic induction,
magnetic intensity at a distance of 0.1m.
Solution N S
S

Fig. 6: A diamagnetic material in external field

The external magnetic field and the magnetic

field generated inside the national oppose one
another. This was to reduction in the density of
field line inside the material.

459 | P a g e
Paramagnetic Materials
A material is called paramagnetic, if its atoms
possess permanent magnetic dipole moment.
When this material is kept in uniform magnetic
field, the tiny dipoles align themselves in the
dissection of the magnetic field as shown in the
following figure below:-
S S N
N
The micro magnets arrange themselves parallel
to the external magnetic field. Examples of such
materials are aluminium, magnesium, platinum,
titanium, sodium etc.
The magnetic field lines produce inside the
material are in the same direction as that of the
external magnetic field, this lead to increase in
density of the magnetic field.
Ferromagnetic Materials
These are materials that possess permanent
magnetic dipole moments due to the spin of the
electrons in the outermost orbits but they do not
behave as paramagnetic materials. Examples are
atoms of iron, cobalt, nickel etc. this is because
the atoms of those elements have a strong
bonding with neighbouring atoms. The atoms are
arranged in such a way that the magnetic dipole
moment (due to spin) of one atom and that of its
neighbouring atoms are in the same direction.
With all this, they do not behave as permanent
magnets. This is because the strong bonding
between the atoms is restricted by a limited
region called domains as show below.
Fig. 7: Random arrangement of domains
Ferromagnetism will tend to stay magnetized to
some extent after being subjected to an external
magnetic field. This ability to remember their
magnetic history is called “hysteresis”. The
fraction of the saturation magnetization which is
retained when the driving field is removed is
called “the remanence of the material.” This is
the basis of data storage on audio and video tapes
and computer hard drives. The recording head of
a tape recorder or the write head of a disk drive
applies a hold that magnetizes a small portion of
the tape (or disk). The magnetism in each portion
remains until another magnetic fold changes it.
460 | P a g e
When each magnetized section is moved under zero i.e. F=mB-mB=0. If the separation between
the playback load or mad head, the moving the pole is 2L, the force being equal and opposite
magnetic field induces small currents which are and having separation between their lines of
amplified and turned into either music or data action form a couple. The moment of the force or
bits. torque or couple is given by:-
NB = Force X perpendicular distance
Diamagnetism: - refers to materials that are not = ------------------------- (1)
affected by a magnetic field
is the magnetic moment of the magnet.
Paramagnetic: - refers to materials that can be
Thus = MB Sin or
magnetized in a magnetic field but their
= M X B ---------- (2)
magnetism disappears when the field is removed
Ferromagnetism: - refers to materials that can Magnetic Field of the Earth
A bar magnet when suspended freely about its
retain their magnetic properties even when the
centre and away from other magnet always
magnetic field is removed.
comes to rest with its axis pointing roughly in a
north-south direction. This is due to the presence
Magnetic Susceptibility
of magnetic field of the earth. The magnetic field
This is a commonly used magnetic quantity, it is
of the earth is due to the presence of an
the quantity that specify how relative
imaginary bar magnet positioned at the centre of
permeability differs from one
the earth, it is inclined at a small angle to the axis
of rotation of the earth. The imaginary bar
Where is the negative susceptibility
magnet has its south pole near the north
and is the relative permeability.
geographic pole and its north pole near the south
For paramagnetic and diamagnetic materials the geographic pole.
relative permeability is very close to 1 and the
magnetic susceptibility very close to zero.
Ferromagnetism materials have these quantities
to be higher.
Couple on a Bar Magnetic in a Magnetic Field
If a bar magnet is placed in a uniform magnetic
field B, its poles being +m and –m experience
equal both opposite force mB, so that net force is

461 | P a g e
Magnetic North Geographic north
Magnetic north
S
Imaginary bar magnet
Geographic Magnetic south
south
Fig. 9: Magnetic field of the earth.
Magnetic Elements of a Place
These are the components that determine the
magnetic field of the earth at a particular place.
These elements are
1. Angle of declination
2. Angle of inclination or dip
3. Horizontal and vertical components
1. Angle of Declination:- This is the angle
between geographic and magnetic meridians
of a particular place
2. Geographic Meridian:- Is the vertical plane
containing geographical north and south
poles of the earth.
3. Magnetic Meridian:- Is a vertical plane
passing through the magnetic axis of a freely
suspended magnet at rest under the influence
of earth’s magnetic field.
Geographic north
Ɵ
Angle of declination
angle of declination
Since angle of declination can be angle between
the magnetic north and geographic north, the
compass needle always point in direction of
magnetic north. Thus mariners called angle of
declination, variation of the compass. The
declination is said to be east or west depending
upon, whether the north pole of the needle is past
or west of the geographic meridian or geographic
north. It is important for mariners to know the
bearing at which they are moving. With the
knowledge of declination at a place, they can
calculate their true bearing with their compass
reading. The combination of mariner compass
reading and the angle of declination give the true
bearing of a place. For example, if mariner
compass gives a bearing of N250W or 250 west
of north at a place where the declination is
N150W, then the true declination is (250 +
150=400) west of north as shown below.
462 | P a g e
 Magnetic north Geographic north The Horizontal and Vertical Components of
the Magnetic Field of the Earth
Horizontal Component (H) of the earth’s field at
250 150
a point is the magnetic force acting in a
horizontal direction
Vertical Component (V) of the earth’s field at a
point is the magnetic force acting in a vertical
direction.

True bearing = 250 + 150=400

4. Angle of Inclination or Dip: - This is the
angle between of the earth’s resultant
magnetic field and the horizontal. This is
because a suspended magnet in earth field
also tilts at an angle to the horizontal.
The angle of dip of a place can be measure using
dip circle.
From the above, tan =

tan =

Where is the angle of dip

NB
The earth magnetic field consists of parallel lines
pointing northwards as shown below. The
magnetic field of the earth is a uniform field.

The earth’s field

463 | P a g e
 CHAPTER THIRTY-EIGHT
ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION
Electromagnetic induction is the production of
current or e.m.f in a conductor whenever a
relative motion exist between the conductor and
magnetic field of a magnet. The current produced
is called induced current and the voltage
produced is called induced e.m.f.
When the north pole of a bar magnet is pushed
into a coil of wire connected to centre zero
galvanometer, the galvanometer is deflected
accordingly as shown below;
Q P
N
(a)
The end P acquires N polarity to oppose the
motion of the magnet. The figure above shows
the induced current.
When the magnet is move into the coil, the
galvanometer direction shows the direction of
currents that oppose the motion of magnetic field
producing it, whether the magnet is pushed
inside the coil or removed out of the coil as
shown in figure (a) and (b) respectively.
Laws of Electromagnetic Induction
Two basis laws of electromagnetic induction are
1. Faraday’s law or Neumann’s law
2. Lenz’s law
1. Faraday’s law of electromagnetic state that
the induced emf is directly proportional to the
rate of change of magnetic flux passing
through the coil. If ф is the magnetic flux, we
have
The minus sign implies Lenz’s law i.e. the
induced e.m.f is in direction that opposes the
motion or charge that produced it.
2. Lenz’s law states that the direction of the
induced current or e.m.f. is the way to oppose
the motion or charge that produces it.
464 | P a g e
 Magnetic Flux Linkages Solution
Magnetic flux ф is the product of the area and a.
magnetic field strength acting normally to the
surface of the plane.

b. Average e.m.f

Flux change = BAN - BAN Cos 60

= BAN (1-Cos 60)
= 4.8 X 10⁻² (1-Cos 660)
= 4.8 X 10⁻² (1-0.5)
Thus ф = AB Cos --------------------------- (1)
= 4.8 X 10⁻² X 0.5
If there are N-number of turns, then
=2.4 X 10⁻² Wb
ф=NAB Cos or ф=BAN
Thus
Cos ------------------ (2)
Average e.m.f =
The unit of magnetic flux is Weber or (Wb)
Example
A narrow coil of 30 turns and area 40cm2 is
placed in a uniform magnetic field of flux
density B, of 0.2T, so that the flux links the turns
EMF Induced in a Straight Conductor
normally. Calculate;
When a straight conductor is moved with
a. The average induces e.m.f in the coil, if it
velocity V in a magnetic field of field strength B,
is removed completely from the field in
the free electron moving on the conductor are
0.5 sec at 900
forced to move to the end of the conductor. Thus
b. If the same coil is rotated about an axis
there is an induced e.m.f and current on the
through its middle so that it turns 600 in
conductor.
0.2 sec in the field B. Calculate the
Recall magnetic force as
average induced e.m.f.
F = BIL ---------------- (1)

465 | P a g e
The mechanical power applied to help the Relationship between Flux Linkage and
conductor moving is E.M.F
P = FV = BILV ------------------ (2) The relation can be obtained as follows;
The mechanical power turns to electrical power Recall that, flux ф = B.A
when induced e.m.f. causes an induced current to For a conductor of area A =L L =L²
flow along the conductor.
Given electrical power as P = IE
IE = BILV

E = BLV ------------------------ (3)

Taking derivation of both sides we have:

Where L is the length of the conductor

V is the velocity Recall that E = BLV
B is the flux density
E is induced e.m.f Thus
Example
E.M.F Induced in a Rotating Disc
Calculate the induced e.m.f and current in a
This consist of a copper disc rotating between the
metallic coil of length 30 cm and resistance 10
poles of a magnet. This construction can be used
when charges flow with a speed of 3X103ms⁻¹ as
to describe induced e.m.f in a rotating disc.
it is placed in a magnetic field of density 0.4T.
Solution
E= BLV
= 0.4 X 30 X 10⁻² X 3 X 10³
= 360V
I=

There is a connection between A and B and an

average velocity between them.
If the velocity of the conductor at point A is zero
and at end, B is wr, the average velocity is given
as;

466 | P a g e
 E.M.F in a Rotation Coil Generator
We can obtain the e.m.f of a rotating coil of N-
----------------- (1) turns and area A with field B.

Where w is the angular velocity and r is the Recall that the flux linking the coil is given as;

radius AB. --------------------------- (1)

The induced E.M.F In straight conductor with If angular velocity is
length L is E = BLV
In this case L = r and
Therefore;

-------------------------- (2)

But w=2 f,
For w = 2 f
Where f is the frequency of rotation with
E =2 f BAN Sin2 ft ---------------------- (2)
unit revolutions per seconds (r.p.s)
Therefore The e.m.f varies sinusoidally and at the peak or
amplitude, the value sin2 becomes 1.
E = B fr² -------------------------- (3)
Thus E0 = ---------------------------- (3)
Example
(where E0 is the peak value)
Calculate the flux density of a circular metal disc
E = E0 Sin 2 ft (By replacing equation (3)
of radius 0.4m, rotating at 8revs⁻¹ about its axis,
in (2))
if the induced e.m.f is 0.5v.
Solution
Example
E=B
A rectangular coil of wire having 50 turns with
0.5 =
an area of 60mm2 rotates with a constant speed
of 240rpm in a magnetic field of 0.5T. The axis
of rotation is perpendicular to the field. Find the
maximum e.m.f produced.

467 | P a g e
Solution -------------------------- (1)
E=
Where Q is the charge

Substitute for I in equation 1 we have,

dA
Exercise
1. A vertical metal disc of radius 8x10⁻²m is Integrating both sides, we have
rotating about its centre at 50revs⁻¹ with its =
plane perpendicular to a horizontal
[Q]QO = AO
magnetic field of 0.10T. Find the e.m.f
between two points on the rims at opposite
ends of a diameter.
The negative sign implies that the induced charge
[Hint E = B ]
is caused by changing magnetic flux.
2. A rectangular coil of wire having 20 turns
Thus, Q= ------------------------- (2)
with dimension of 20cm x 30cm rotates
with a constant speed of 600rpm, an in a Where R is the resistance
magnetic field of 0.10T. The axis of N is the number of turns
rotation is perpendicular to the field. Find B is flux density
the maximum e.m.f produced. A is the area
Example
Induced Charges Find the flux density of a search coil which has
When there is momentary change in magnetic 200 turns and an area of 60cm2 if connected to a
flux linkage, a charge will be induced instead of galvanometer. The total resistance is 200 and
e.m.f. The charge induced can be obtained from the charge resulting from the combination is
faraday’s law as follows; 1.2x10⁻³C.
Faraday’s says: Solution

468 | P a g e

A.C and D.C Generator
There are two classes of generator; the
alternating current A.C and direct current D.C
generator.
A generator is a machine that converts
mechanical energy when the armature ABCD is
rotated at a steady speed about a fixed point in
the magnetic field. It will cut through the
magnetic lines of force and this result generates
e.m.f due to electro-magnetic induction.
Looking at the figure above when the armature is
not rotated at an angle where AB and DC are
parallel to each other and along the line of force,
no e.m.f will be generated but when the armature
is rotated at a certain angle, there is a change in
the flux and AB and DC are now moving at right
angle to the field, thus e.m.f is produced.
Whenever the coil is vertically rotated, e.m.f is
zero and when rotated at an angle 900, e.m.f is
maximum. The alternating e.m.f produced by
rotating armature is allowed to pass to external
resistance through two carbon brush that press
lightly on a slip ring. This action generates
alternative current (A.C).
D.C Generator: The a.c generator can be used to
produce d.c by replacing the two slip - ring with
a single slip - ring or commentator. The
commentator has been splinted into two split
rings, which are insulated from each other.
As proved earlier the e.m.f produced by the a.c
generator can be represented as
D.C. Motors
D.C. motor converts electrical energy to
mechanical energy. The current through the
armature interact with the magnetic field to cause
a torque.
469 | P a g e
 Mechanical power developed within the armature
is given as
P = armature current back e.m.f
Example
1. An a.c generator produces an output voltage
of E = 170Sin377t where t is in seconds.
What is the frequency of the a.c voltage?

Current is allowed to pass through the coil in

clockwise direction from a battery as shown Solution
above. With this, an upward force act on side AB Recall that E = 2
and a downward force on CD, this action By comparing the above equation to the given
constitute a couple. With the rotation of the coil, equation we have
the slit-ring also rotate along-side with the coil.
As the coil rotating passes the vertical position,
2. The resistance of the armature in a motor is
the two splint-ring commentator swap contact.
2.3 . It draws a current of 1.6A when
H1 now in contact with carbon brush B₂ and H₂
now with carbon brush B1. This action reverse operating on 120v. What is its back e.m.f

the direction of current and an upward force now under these circumstances?

act on CD and a downward force on AB. Solution

Continuous reversal of this half-turn of split-ring From above we have that:-

give rise to rotation of the coil as long as current P.D = line voltage-back e.m.f

flow. When the armature coil is rotating, a back Back e.m.f = line voltage - P.D

e.m.f is induced in the coil. The back e.m.f = line voltage-IR

opposes the voltage source that drives the motor. = 120 -1.6 2.3

Thus we have not potential difference that = 120 - 3.68 = 116.32V.

constitute current in the armature.
Not P.D = Line voltage - back e.m.f Mutual and Self-Inductance

Armature current =

470 | P a g e
The charging magnetic field created by one
circuit (primary) can induce a charging voltage Self-Inductance: when induction does occur in a
and current in a second circuit (secondary). single device, charging current through the
device can create a magnetic field and that
B
charging field can induce an opposing e.m.f in
the same circuit.
The opposing e.m.f acts like a second voltage
source to oppose the main one. This means the
primary voltage source must do more work to
perform same task.
A charging current in primary coil A generated ----------------------- (3)
by adjusting the rheostat can produce a charging
Where L is the self-inductance
magnetic field, and the field in response produce
The unit of mutual inductance and self-induce
or induced an e.m.f in B.
are both Henry (H)
Mutual induction: describe the e.m.f in
From equation (3),
secondary coil produced by charging current in
E=L
the primary coil from faradays and lenz's law, the
-------------------------- (4)
e.m.f produce is given as where is
-------------------------------- (5)
the flux linking the coil

----------------- (1) ( )
Replace equation (5 in (4), we have
Where M is a constant, known as mutual
Inductance
It can be noted that, the flux linking the coil is
proportional to the charges in current. Therefore Integrating through, we have

We can now rewrite equation (1) as Thus

------------------------------- (2) ------------------------------- (6)
E can be e.m.f in secondary circuit produce by
charging current in primary circuit. Examples

471 | P a g e
1) Find the self-inductance for a solenoid of Inductor: This is an electronic device that store
2m long and 100 turns, with radius 0.1m, mechanical energy. An inductor is a coil of
if a current of 1A pass through. wire wound round like a solenoid. It is
Solution represented symbolically inform of a single

Self-inductance solenoid

circuit representation of an inductor

Energy Store in an Inductor
The energy stored in an inductor is given as;

= 3.142
Where L is the inductance
I is the current
Thus, Example
Find the energy store by an inductor of
inductance 4H, when a current of 2A passes
= 1.97 H
through it.
2) The tare of charging of current per second
Solution
in a coil is 40 when an e.m.f of 120V
is induced in a nearby coil. Calculate the
mutual inductance between the two coils.
Solution
Transformer
This is a device use for stepping up or down an
alternating voltage. It uses the principle of
mutual inductance to do this. It has two coils,
primary and secondary coil wound on a soft iron
Exercise
core.
A changing current of 30A at 4s induce an
e.m.f of 80V in a nearby coil. Find the mutual
Primar Secondar
inductance of the two coils.
Soft

472 | P a g e

A transformer
The alternating current is connected to the
primary coil and it is being step up or down in
the secondary coil as the case may be.
The flux linking the primary and secondary can
be represented as
Which correspond to e.m.f as
Dividing equation (ii) by (i), we have
Therefore ------------------------- (3)
If the resistance is constant, power in the primary
coil equal power in the secondary coil. Therefore
--------------------------- (4)
Comparing equation (3) we have
The e.m.f is proportional to the number of turns
while the current is inversely proportional to the
number of turns as shown in above equations.
Types of Transformer
a) Stop-up transformer: it can be noted that to
have high e.m.f at the secondary coil, the
number of turns in the secondary coil have to
be more than the primary coil. Thus for stop-
up transformer, number of turns in secondary
is more than that in primary, hence increase
e.m.f as secondary.
Primary Secondary
(a) stop-up
b) Stop-down transformer: In this case, the
number of turns in primary is more than that
in the secondary. Hence the e.m.f reduces at
the secondary terminal.
Example
A transformer has 500turns in the primary coil
and 300turns in the secondary coil. If the primary
coil is connected to a 220V mains, What voltage
will be obtained from the secondary coil? What
type of transformer is this?
Solution
473 | P a g e

It is a stop-down transformer, because secondary
voltage is less than primary.
Efficiency in a Transformer
Exercise
1. A step-up transformer with 100turns of
wire in its primary coil is operated in a
440V a.c circuit. The secondary of the
transformer is connected to five 100w
bulbs operated at 230v. Evaluate the
number of turns of wire in the secondary
coil, assuming idea conditions and what is
the current in the secondary when lamp is
connected.
2. Explain how energy loss in a transformer
through
a. Eddy currents
b. Heat loss
c. Leakage of magnetic flux
d. Hysteresis
Application of Transformer
1) It can be used to decrease or increase the
level of voltage or current in an AC circuit
2) It can be used to decrease or increase the
value of capacitor, inductor or resistance in
an AC circuit
3) It can be used to prevent DC from passing
from one circuit to another
4) It can be used to isolate two circuit
electrically
5) It is used in power transmission.
Induction Coil
This is an electrical device that uses the principle
of mutual inductance to generate very high e.m.f
from a low voltage d.c source i.e. battery.
Induction coil
The device is made up of primary coil wound on
a soft-iron core. A secondary coil that contains a
large number of turns of wires wound over the
primary coil. The end of the secondary coil is
connected to adjustable spark gap created by
adjustable brass rod. The soft iron coils of
474 | P a g e
primary have in front a iron armature carried by CHAPTER THIRTY-NINE
brass spring, connected to platinum contact with ALTERNATING-CURRENT CIRCUIT
adjustable screw and a capacitor. A.C circuit are circuit through which an
The circuit of primary coil is completed by alternating current flow. It is use in power
closing the key, the soft iron core becomes transmission such as radio and television signal,
magnetize and the iron armature is attracted to telecommunication, computer technology and
the iron core. As a result of magnetic field medicine.
through the iron core, the primary coil collapse Alternating currents are generated by alternating
rapidly and the iron armature make contact with voltage . This is alternating with
the screw again. Once the circuit is completed respect to time. Alternating current varies
and the process repents itself again. sinusoid ally as shown below
The action of make-and-break device causes
I or v
rapid changes in magnetic flux through the
primary coil and by mutual inductance induced
an e.m.f in the second coil. Due to large numbers ᶿ

of turns in secondary coil, the e.m.f produced is

high.
Application variation of alternating current or voltage with
1) It is used in many ignition systems such as time
cars If from the figure we have
2) In operation of x-ray tubes.

Therefore = sinwt and likewise V = sinwt

Thus, sin

475 | P a g e
where or V are instantaneous current or voltage
respectively. And are peak or maximum Comparing equation (1) and (2)
current or voltage respectively. V₀ =

Thus, R = (3)
Root-mean Square (r.m.s) and Peak Value of
Also,
A.C
Root-mean square current is that steady current
which will give the same quantity of heat in the
Replacing the two peaks values in equation (3)
same time in the same resistance as the current in
we have
a direct current (DC) circuit due to its resistance.
RMS value is always the effective value of the
current and can be obtain as follows
If θ = 45⁰, then
In purely resistive circuit, the voltage and current
r.m.s =
are in phase. This means voltage and current
reach the same maximum, minimum and zero at
the same time interval.

Pure Resistive Circuit

This is the situation when an A.C circuit is made-
up of purely resistance as shown below

Vector diagram for resistive circuit

A
Power absorb by resistance is given by

Recall that
From ohm’s law,

But

476 | P a g e
 Pure Capacitive Circuit Capacitive Reactance Xc
This is a simple A.C circuit comprising of only This is the opposition to the flow of current by
capacitor as shown below the capacitor in an AC circuit.
V From equation (3) we have

But is define as
A

The alternating current has cosine curve Therefore

characteristic while voltage has a sine curve
i.e.
characteristics
(unit is in ohm’s)

Example
But A 10 F capacitor is connected directly across a
200 , 60 a.c source. Find (a) the r.m.s
value of the current, (b) the peak value of the
current.
Solution
Comparing this with a)

In the capacitive circuit current lead the voltage

b)
by

V Power absorbed by capacitor of a capacitance C

can be obtain by;
P = IV
Where I = I0 cos wt
t
and V = V0 sin wt

(a) (b)
477 | P a g e
Replacing I and V in P we have The alternating voltage in this case have
P = I0 V0 sin wt cos wt characteristic cosine curve while the alternating
But from multiple angle current have characteristic sine curve.
Sin2Ɵ = 2 sinƟcosƟ
Sin 2 wt = 2 sinwt coswt
Sin wt coswt = ½ sin 2 wt (1)

But

------------------------------- (2)

(faraday’s 2nd law)

Substitute for I in equation (2) we have

------------------ (3)
Compare equation (3) to (1) we have:

From the above, power is absorbed in the

(4)
capacitor during first half cycle and release in the
other half circle, thus the net power absorbed in a
capacitor is zero. Any electrical component that In this case voltage leads the current by or 90°
does not absorb power is known as wattless
component, examples are inductor and capacitor. I
Pure Inductive Circuit
This is a simple A.C circuit comprising of only
t
inductor as shown below
V

Fig. (a)
L

478 | P a g e
 Solution
Ω

Inductive Reactance Thus

The opposition to the flow of current by an Power absorbed by inductor can be given as
inductor in an A.C circuit is called inductive
reactance. It is given by

--------------------------- (5)

Substitute for in equation (5) we have:

Thus,

Therefore
Series Circuits
But
These are circuit that have combinations of the
Then components. It can either combine R with C or L,
or the three components in series together.
Also, 1. R C Circuit
If we consider a capacitor C in series with
Example
resistor R in an A.C circuit as shown below:
Find the inductive reactance across an inductor
of 0.4H inductance when an a.c voltage of 60Hz
is applied across it. If the voltage is given as V =
200 sin 120 t, calculate the power and r.m.s.
values of the current.

479 | P a g e
To obtain the overall opposition to the flow of Example
current i.e. impedance (Z) by the capacitor and A circuit consist of a capacitance of 3µF and a
resistor, we recall that in a capacitive circuit, resistor of 2000Ω. An alternating e.m.f of 12V
voltage lag the current by 90° or Therefore, (r.m.s.) and frequency 50Hz is applied. Calculate
a. The current flowing
we have
b. Voltage across the capacitor
c. The phase angle between the applied e.m.f
and current
d. The average power supplied.
Solution
a.

Therefore

----------------------- (1)

b.

From the diagram the phase angle Ɵ can be c.

obtained as

d.

480 | P a g e
2. R L Circuit
If we now consider a circuit that have, both
inductor and resistor combine in series as
Example
shown below:
An iron coil of 4H and 50Ω resistor are
connected across an a.c supply of 100V, 50Hz in
series. Calculate
i. Current flowing in the coil
ii. Phase angle
iii. The voltage across the coil
Solution
i. L = 4H, R = 500Ω, V = 100V, f = 50Hz

Since voltage leads the current, we have that

The vector sum is given by Pythagoras theorem Thus,

ii.

where iii.
Phase angle is given by;
Exercise
1) An inductor made of iron – core coil of 4H
and 60Ω is connected in series with a 500Ω

481 | P a g e
 resistor in an a.c circuit of 200V, 100Hz.
Calculate
a. The current flowing in the circuit
b. The phase angle
c. The voltage across the coil
2) A 2µF capacitor is connected directly across
a 200Vr.m.s, 50Hz a.c source. Find
(a) The r.m.s value of the current
(b) The peak value of the current
(c) If the capacitor is now connected to VL is leading VR by 90° and VC is lagging by
1000Ω resistor in series find (a) and (b) 90° and current I is in phase with VR. Thus from
the diagram, we have our vectorial sum as:
3. R L C Circuit
In this case, the circuit has three components
in series as shown below

Therefore
The phase angle can be obtained as

If we combine the phase diagram of an inductive

circuit and capacitive circuit, we have

Example
A series circuit consists of a resistance 600Ω,
capacitance 5µF and an inductance of 5H. An a.c
voltage of 220Vr.m.s and frequency 50Hz is
applied across the series circuit. Calculate
i. The current flowing through the circuit

482 | P a g e
 ii. The phase angle Resonances in the RLC Series Circuit
iii. Average power supplied Resonance occurs in an A. C circuit when the
Solution alternating current is maximum. This can only
i. R = 600Ω, C = 5µF, L = 5H occur when the value of impedance Z is
minimize, since

Minimum value of Z can only be attained when

Thus at resonance
ii.

iii.
----------- (1)

fo is known as resonance, which is the frequency

Exercise
at which resonance occur
Consider an RLC series circuit with R = 200Ω, L
Recall
= 0.6H, C = 4µF and the supply has r.m.s voltage
------------------ (2)
of 240V at 50Hz. Evaluate:
(a) Reactance XC and XL of capacitor and Comparing equation (1) to (2)

inductor respectively --------------------------- (3)

(b) Impedance Z of the circuit
(c) Current in the circuit
(d) Phase angle

483 | P a g e
 Characteristics of Resonance 4. At resonance net opposition counts from R
1. At resonance the current is maximum i.e. Z = R
5. The variation of two opposition to the
frequency can be represented in the diagram
I
below
Z
XL

R
f0 f

XC

2. At resonance the impedance is minimum f0 f

Z
At resonance Z = R, XL = XC and

Example
An AC voltage source of 12V is connected to an
RLC circuit. If the resistance, capacitance and
f0
inductance in the circuit are 6Ω, 40µF, 4mH
respectively, Calculate
3. At resonance the value of the frequency is f
(a) The resonance frequency
the same for capacitor and inductor
(b) Maximum A. C current at resonance
Solution
(a)
XL

z
(b) At resonance
XC

f0 f

484 | P a g e
Resonance is widely used to tune radio and
television

Parallel Circuits
Just like in the evaluation of resultant voltage, we The phase angle can be obtained as
can obtain resultant current by taking the
vectorial sum of the parallel arrangement of the
components.
1. R L Parallel Circuit

IL L

2. R C Parallel Circuit
R
IR Similarly, for an RC parallel a.c circuit,
the current lead the voltage and the impedance
Z is given by

Since current lag the voltage in an inductive

circuit, we have that
and phase angle given as
V IR
Ɵ
3. L C Parallel Circuit
I A tank circuit, which is widely use in transistor
V oscillator and radio frequently amplifier circuit is
the combination of capacitor and inductor in
From the diagram parallel.
In this case, we consider the resistance of the
components to be negligible compare to the
reactance. The resultant circuit is capacitive,
since current lead the voltage by or 90° in a

capacitive circuit.

485 | P a g e
 IL Power Factor
This is the ratio of power absorbed by the circuit
IC to the power release from the source. In an a.c
circuit, only resistor absorbed power. Thus

(a)
IC
------------------------------------------ (1)
90°
V Also from RLC vector diagram, we have
90°

IL VL –VC
(b)

From the diagram above, the resultant current is: Ɵ

VR

-------------------------------- (2)

By comparing equation (1) and (2)

The impedance is given as:

Example
If the angle between the current and the voltage
in an A. C circuit is 60°, find the power factor?
Solution

486 | P a g e
 CHAPTER FOURTY
ELECTRONS (MOTION IN FIELDS)
Electrolysis
An electric current is a flow of electrons. For a
substance to conduct electricity it must have
mobile charged particles i.e. electrons or ions.
For instance, metals can conduct electricity (a
current pass through them) because metals have
delocalized electrons.
Covalent compounds do not have any charged
particles. They consist of atoms or molecules
which are electrically neutral. They cannot
conduct electricity even if we melt or dissolve
them in water (if they are soluble that is).
On the other hand, ionic compounds have
charged particles (metal positive ions and
negative non-metal ions). However, ionic
compounds can only conduct when the ionic
compound is molten or dissolved in water. Only
in the liquid or aqueous state can the ions
(charged particles) move to the oppositely
charged electrode.
A liquid (molten or solution) that conducts
electricity is called an electrolyte.
We can test substances if they are electrolytes or
non-electrolytes (liquids which do not conduct
electricity) by doing simple tests.
A circuit is set up as shown below. It consists of
a battery or power supply, wires, carbon
electrodes and an indicator of a current i.e. a bulb
or an ammeter. Carbon is picked as a material for
the electrodes because it is inert i.e. it does not
react and does therefore not interfere in the
electrolysis reaction. The electrode which is
connected to the positive terminal of the battery
is named the anode; the electrode connected to
the negative one is the cathode.
The substance to be tested is either molten or
dissolved in water. If the bulb lights or a current
is measured by an ammeter, the substance tested
is an electrolyte. In the diagram below the
compound on the left is ionic – the bulb is on -
whilst the one on the right is covalent as the bulb
does not light.
Passing an electric current through a liquid is
called ELECTROLYSIS. We are going to look
carefully at what happens with two liquids, water
and copper sulphate, but first the general ideas.
The electric current enters the liquid at the
positive plate (called the anode) and leaves it at
the negative plate (called the cathode).
In liquids, the current is carried by ions. Ions are
charged particles (atoms or groups of atoms).
Ions can either be positive or negative, the
487 | P a g e
positive ions being attracted to the negative plate
and the negative ions to the positive plate. A
positive ion is a particle with some negative
charge taken away and a negative ion is a particle
with some extra negative charge added.
Some liquids conduct electricity – these contain
ions and some do not – these do not contain ions.
Some conduct well, they have many ions per
cubic metre, others do not – they have fewer ions
per cubic metre. The following list separates
some common liquids into conductors and non-
conductors.
Conducting liquids
Dilute sulphuric acid, lemon juice, vinegar,
copper sulphate solution, tap water
Non-conducting liquids
Paraffin, cooking oil, meths, distilled water (de-
ionised),
Electrolysis of Copper sulphate solution
If an electric current is passed through pure
copper sulphate solution the following things can
be seen:
(a) The cathode (negative electrode) has
copper
ano
cathod
deposited on it;
(b) The anode (positive electrode) slowly
dissolves away;
(c) The bigger the current the more copper is
deposited;
(d) The longer the experiment goes on the
more copper is deposited.
You can easily explain these effects: copper is
dissolving from the anode and positive copper
ions are being carried through the liquid (called
the electrolyte) to the cathode.

Copper

anod Sulphate cath

e
488 | P a g e

Since the amount of copper deposited depends on
the current and the time, it is likely that it is the
CHARGE that is important and this is actually
the fact. The more charge that moves through the
liquid the more copper you will get.
If you did an experiment passing a current of 0.5
A after 1200 s (20 minutes) you are likely to get
about 0.25 g of copper deposited. In fact, to get 1
kg of copper you would need a current of about 5
A flowing for nearly nine months
If you got in 0.25 gm in 20 minutes you would
get 0.5 gm in 40 minutes and so on. Also, if you
double the current you will double the amount of
copper in a certain time. So, to get a lot of copper
you need a large current flowing for a long time.
Electrolysis of water
If an electric current is passed through water to
which a few drops of concentrated acid have
been added, bubbles of gas are given off at both
electrodes. If the gases are collected and tested it
is found that:
This shows you the polarity of the ions of
hydrogen and oxygen in solution. Twice as much
hydrogen is given off as there is oxygen, this
agrees with the chemical formula for water H2O.
Oxygen is given off at the anode and hydrogen at the cathode
burett
oxygen
hydrogen
Platinum
water + a few
drops of
Uses of electrolysis
Electrolysis has many uses in industry and we
can only look at a few here rather briefly.
1. Electroplating - this means coating one metal
with another by electrolysis, e.g. silver plating of
cutlery, jewelry and sports cups; chromium
plating of car bumpers, kettles and taps; musical
instruments such as flutes are silver plated to
prevent rusting by saliva; iron is zinc plated
(galvanized) for use as corrugated sheeting or
nails; the stamper used in making CDs is made of
nickel, plated on an aluminum former; sweet
wrappers and bottle tops are plated for
appearance and hygiene.
2. Extraction and purification of some metals:
Copper is refined by electrolysis and aluminum
is extracted from its ore by this method.
489 | P a g e
 Changing the conductivity of a liquid
The conductivity of a liquid can be changed by
adding some ions. This is usually done by adding
an impurity to the liquid. Distilled water contains
no ions and so will not conduct electricity but if
you slowly add salt to it the salt dissolves and the
charged sodium and chloride ions in the salt will
move through the water so conducting electricity.
The size of the current can be used to measure
the concentration of the salt solution.
Even rubbing your hands together in deionized
water is sufficient to produce a small amount of
impurity and so allowing the water to conduct
electricity.
Electric Discharge
The passage of an electric current through a gas
is called electric discharge.
Light is often produced when an electric current
pass through a gas. We see a burst of this light in
the sparks of static electricity or lightning.
Several types of lamps produce light by
establishing a permanent electric arc in a gas.
This process is known as electric discharge, or
gaseous discharge. It is the process used to
produce light in fluorescent and high intensity
discharge lamps.
In many of these lamps a second process is used
to change the colour of the light produced. The
process is called fluorescence. This colour
change is necessary if the light produced by the
arc is not visible to human eyes or if the light
makes objects appear to be the wrong colour.
This adjustment may be done to move the light
from ultraviolet into the visible range or to give
the lamp a different colour distribution to
improve the appearance of objects seen under its
light.
The colour adjustment is done by a powder
called a phosphor which has the property of
giving off a different colour of light than it is
exposed to. This powder coats the inside of
electric-discharge lamps. It receives light from
the arc inside the lamp and changes the light to
the desired colour as it glows through the glass.
Electric discharge lamps cannot establish or
maintain the arc. That is the job of another
device called a ballast. All electric discharge
lamps require a ballast. Usually the ballast is
installed as a separate device but in a few cases
the lamp and ballast are made as one unit
A hard glass tube along with the necessary
arrangement, which is used to study the passage
of electric discharge through gases at low
pressure, is called a discharge tube.
At normal atmospheric pressure, the gases are
poor conductor of electricity. If we establish a
potential difference (of the order of 30 kV)
between two electrodes placed in air at a distance
of few cm from each other, electric conduction
starts in the form of sparks.
490 | P a g e
 The passage of electric current through air is
called electric discharge through the air.
The discharge of electricity through gases can be
systematically studied with the help of discharge
tube shown below
The discharge tube is filled with the gas through
which discharge is to be studied. The pressure of
the enclosed gas can be reduced with the help of
a vacuum pump and its value is read by
manometer.
At normal pressure, no discharge takes place.
At the pressure 10 mm of Hg, a zig-zag thin red
spark runs from one electrode to other and
cracking sound is heard.
At the pressure 4 mm. of Hg, an illumination is
observed at the electrodes and the rest of the tube
appears dark. This type of discharge is called
dark discharge.
When the pressure falls below 4 mm of Hg then
the whole tube is filled with bright light called
positive column and colour of light depends upon
the nature of gas in the tube as shown in the
following table.

Sequence of phenomenon
As the pressure inside the discharge tube is
gradually reduced, the following is the sequence
of phenomenon that are observed. At a pressure of 1.65 mm of Hg:
(i) Sky colour light is produced at the cathode it
Negative Positive is called as negative glow.
Positive glow column
–Streame + – + – +
(ii) Positive column shrinks towards the anode
column

10 mm of Below 4 F.D. 1.65 mm of

and the dark space between positive column and
Hg mm of Hg Hg
Positive Cathode Negative negative glow is called Faradays dark space
Negative
column glow glow
glow
– + – + (FDS)
At a pressure of 0.8 mm Hg: At this pressure,
Cathode C.D. F.D. C.D. F.D.Striation Greenish
glow negative glow is detached from the cathode and
0.8 mm of 0.05 mm of 0.01 mm light
of
Hg Hg Hg moves towards the anode. The dark space created
between cathode and negative glow is called as

491 | P a g e
Crook's dark space length of positive column
further reduced. A glow appears at cathode
called cathode glow.
At a pressure of 0.05 mm of Hg: The positive
column splits into dark and bright disc of light
called striations.
At the pressure of 0.01 or 10–2 mm of Hg some
invisible particle move from cathode which on
striking with the glass tube of the opposite side
of cathode cause the tube to glow. These
invisible rays emerging from cathode are called
cathode rays.
Finally, when pressure drops to nearly 10–4 mm
of Hg, there is no discharge in tube.
Particle Nature of Electricity
In electrolysis, we assume that the carriers of
current through an acid or salt solution are ions,
which may be positively and negatively charged.
From Faraday's laws of electrolysis, the charge
carried by each ion is proportional to its valency.
We can find the charge on a monovalent ion
using the following argument.
Avogadro's constant, about 6.02 x 1023, is the
number of molecules in one mole. In electrolysis,
96500 coulombs (one faraday) is the quantity of
electricity required to deposit one mole of a
monovalent element. When the element is
monatomic, the number of ions of one kind
which carry this charge is equal to the number of
molecules. Thus, the charge on each ion is given
by 96500/602 x 1023 or 1.6 x 10-19 C. If 1.6 x
10-19 C is denoted by the symbol e, the charge
on any ion is then e, 2e, or 3e, etc., depending on
its valency. Thus, e is a basic unit of charge.
All charges, whether produced in electrostatics,
current electricity or any other method, are
multiples of the basic unit e. Evidence that this is
the case was obtained by Millikan, who, in 1909,
designed an experiment to measure the unit e.
Theory of Millikan's experiment
Millikan first measured the terminal velocity of
an oil-drop falling through air. He then charged
the oil-drop and applied an electric field to
oppose gravity. The drop now moved with a
different terminal velocity, which was again
measured.
Suppose the radius of the oil-drop is a, the
densities of oil and air are and respectively, and
the viscosity of air is ɳ. When the drop, without a
charge, falls steadily under gravity with a
terminal velocity .
Upthrust + viscous force = weight of drop
(i)
(ii)
Suppose the drop now acquires a negative charge
e’ and an electric field of intensity E is applied to
oppose gravity, so that the new drop now has a
492 | P a g e
terminal velocity v2. Then, since the force due to fall through a known distance by means of a
E on the drop is Ee’, we have scale in the eyepiece. The field was applied by
connecting a battery of several thousand volts
across the plates A, B, and its intensity E was
Ee’
known, since E = V/d, where V is the p.d
Hence, from (i), between the plates and d is their distance apart.
Ee’ Millikan found that the friction between the
Thus, with (ii) drops when they were formed by the spray
created electric charge, but to give a drop an
e’= (iii)
increased charge an X-ray tube was operated
near the chamber to ionize the air.
From equation (iii), it follows that when v1, v2,
E, are all known, the charge e' on the drop can be
calculated. Millikan found, working with
hundreds of drops, that the charge e' was always
a simple multiple of a basic unit, 16 x 1019
coulomb. He thus concluded that the charge e

Principle of Millikan’s experiment was numerically 1-6 x 10-19 coulomb.

Significance of Millikan’s Oil-Drop

Experiment Experiment

In his experiments Millikan used two horizontal At the time of Millikan’s experiments, there was

plates A, B about 20 cm in diameter and 1.5 cm still widespread disagreement about the existence

apart, with a small hole H in the centre of the of subatomic particles and many scientists also

upper plate as shown in the figure above. He thought that electric charge was a continuous

used a fine spray to 'atomize' the oil and create variable. Millikan’s oil-drop experiment,

tiny drops above H, and occasionally one would together with Thomson’s e/m results, helped

find its way through H, and would be observed in considerably to establish the electron as a

a low-power microscope by reflected light when subatomic particle with a definite electrical

the chamber was brightly illuminated. The drop charge. Millikan’s experiment was the first

was seen as a pin-point of light, and its reliable and unambiguous determination of the

downward velocity was measured by timing its charge on an electron, now known as the

493 | P a g e
elementary charge. The elementary charge is
now recognized as one of the fundamental
physical constants.

Example
= 1600 V.
Calculate the radius of a drop of oil, density 900
Cathode Rays (Electrons) and Properties
kg m-3, which falls with a terminal velocity of
Atomic physics can be said to have begun with
2.9 x 10-2 cm s-1 through air of viscosity 1.8 x
the study of the conduction of electricity through
10-5 N s m-2. Ignore the density of the air.
gases. The passage of electricity through a gas,
If the charge on the drop is -3e, what p.d must be
called a 'discharge', was familiar to Faraday, but
applied between two plates 5 cm apart for the
the steady conduction — as distinct from sparks
drop to be held stationary between them? (e =
— takes place when the pressure of the gas is
1.6x10-19C.)
less than about 50 mm Hg; in a neon lamp, it is
When the drop falls with a terminal velocity,
about 10 mm Hg.
force due to viscous drag = weight of sphere.
With the usual notation, if is the oil density, we
The Gaseous Discharge at Various Pressures
have
Figure (i) below represents a glass tube, about
0.5-metre-long, connected to a vacuum pump P
and a pressure gauge G. It contains an anode A
and a cathode K, connected respectively to the
positive and negative terminals of the secondary
= 1.6 x 10-6 m = 1.6 x 10-4 cm, of an induction coil. As the air is pumped out,
Since v = 2.9 x 10-2 cm s-1 = 2.9 x 10-4 m s-1 nothing happens until the pressure has fallen to
and g = 9.8 m s-2 about 100 mm Hg (mercury). Then thin
Suppose the upper plate is V volts higher than streamers of luminous gas appear between the
the lower plate when the drop is stationary, so electrodes (Figure (ii)).
that the electric field intensity E between the
plates is V/d. Then upward force on drop = E x
3e = weight of drop.

494 | P a g e
 The discharge tube method is not a convenient
one for producing and studying cathode rays or
electrons. Firstly, a gas is needed at the
appropriate low pressure; secondly, a very high
p.d is needed across the tube; thirdly, X-rays are
produced which may be dangerous.
Nowadays a hot cathode is used to produce a
supply of electrons. This may consist of a fine
tungsten wire, which is heated to a high

Stages in development of gaseous discharge temperature when a low voltage source of 4-6 V

At about 10 mm Hg the discharge becomes a is connected to it. Metals contain free electrons,

steady glow, spread throughout the tube (figure moving about rather like the molecules in a gas.

(iii)). It is broken up by two darker regions, of If the temperature of the metal is raised, the

which the one nearest the cathode, K in the thermal velocities of the electrons will be

figure, is narrow and hard to see. The dark region increased. The chance of electrons escaping from

C is called the cathode dark space, or sometimes, the attraction of the positive ions, fixed in the

after its discoverer, the Crookes' dark space. lattice, will then also be raised. Thus, by heating

Beyond the cathode dark space is a bright region a metal such as tungsten to a high temperature,

N called the negative glow, and beyond that the electrons can be 'boiled off'. This is called

Faraday dark space F — also called after its thermionic emission.

discoverer. Beyond the Faraday dark space

stretches a luminous column P, called the
positive column, which fills the rest of the
discharge tube. Sometimes the positive column
breaks up into alternating bright and dark
segments, called striations.
Cathode Rays
Cathode rays are the stream of negatively
Electron travel in straight lines
charged particles, electrons which are shot out at
The figure above shows a tungsten filament C
a high speed from the cathode of a discharge tube
inside an evacuated tube. When heated by a low
at pressure below 0.01 mm of Hg.

495 | P a g e
voltage supply, electrons are produced, and they
are accelerated by a positive voltage of several
thousand volts applied between C and a metal
cylinder A. The electrons travel un- impeded
across the tube past A, and produce a glow when
they collide with a fluorescent screen and give up
their energy.
Properties of Cathode Rays
Fast-moving electrons emitted from C produce a
sharp shadow of a Maltese cross on the
fluorescent screen, as shown in the figure above.
Thus, the cathode rays travel in straight lines.
They also produce heat when incident on a
metal— a fine piece of platinum glows, for
example.
When a magnet is brought near to the electron
beam, the glow on the fluorescent screen moves
as shown in the figure below. If Fleming's left
hand rule is applied to the motion,
Deflection shows electrons are negatively
charged
the middle finger points in the direction opposite
to the electron flow. Thus, electrons appear to be
particles which carry a negative charge.
This is confirmed by collecting electrons inside a
perrin tube, shown below.
Perri Direct method for testing electron charge
The electrons are deflected by the magnet S until
they pass into a metal cylinder called a 'Faraday
cage'. The cylinder is connected to the plate of an
electroscope, which has been negatively charged
using an ebonite rod and fur. As soon as the
electrons are deflected into the cage the leaf rises
further, showing that an extra negative charge
has been collected by the cage. This supports the
idea that cathode rays are fast moving electrons.
496 | P a g e
 Electron Motion in Electric and Magnetic
Fields
Electric field: The force FE experienced by an
electron e in an electric field of strength
(intensity) E is given by,
FE = eE
Magnetic field: The force FB experienced by an
electron e in a magnetic field of strength B
weber/m2 is given by
FB=Bev
where v is the velocity with which the electron
moves in the electric field and the magnetic field,
perpendicular to the direction of motion.
If the magnetic field is parallel to the direction
of motion of electron, then, FB = 0.
Deflection in an Electric Field
Suppose a horizontal beam of electrons, moving
with velocity v, passes between two parallel
plates as shown below. If the p.d between the
plates is V and their distance apart is d, the field
intensity E = V/d. Hence the force on an electron
of charge e moving between the plates = Ee =
eV/d and is directed towards the positive plate.
Deflection in electric field
Since the electric intensity E is vertical, no
horizontal force acts on the electron entering the
plates. Thus, the horizontal velocity, v, of the
beam is unaffected. This is similar to the motion
of a projectile projected horizontally under
gravity. The vertical acceleration due to gravity
does not affect the horizontal motion.
In a vertical direction, the displacement,
y, = , where a = acceleration = force/mass =
Ee/me and t is the time.
(i)
In the horizontal direction, the displacement,
(ii)
Eliminating t between (i) and (ii), we obtain
The path is therefore a parabola.
When the electron just passes the plates, .
The value of is then . The
beam then moves in a straight line, as shown in
the figure above. The time for which the electron
is between the plates is D/v. Thus, the
component of the velocity v1, gained in the
direction of the field during this time, is given by
Hence, the angle at which the beam emerges
from the field is given by:
497 | P a g e
Tan θ
The energy of the electron is increased by an
amount of as it passes through the plates,
since the energy due to the horizontal motion is
unaltered.
Deflection in a Magnetic Field
Consider an electron beam, moving with a speed
v, which enters a uniform magnetic field of
induction B acting perpendicular to the direction
of motion as shown below. The force F on an
electron is then . The direction of the force is
perpendicular to both B and
Circular motion in uniform magnetic field
Consequently, unlike the electric force, the
magnetic force cannot change the energy of the
electron.
The force is always normal to the path of the
beam. If the field is uniform, the force is constant
in magnitude and the beam then travels in a
circle of radius r. Since is the centripetal
force towards the centre,
Thomson's Experiment for e/m
In 1897, Sir J. J. Thomson devised an experiment
for measuring the ratio or
for an electron, sometimes called its specific
charge.
Thomson's apparatus is shown simplified in the
figure below. C and A are the cathode and anode
respectively, and narrow slits are cut in opposite
plates at A so that the cathode rays passing
through are limited to a narrow beam. The rays
then strike the glass at O, producing a glow there.
The rays can be deflected electrostatically by
means of connecting a large battery to the
horizontal plates P, Q, or magnetically by means
of a current passing through Helmholtz coils R,
S, on either side of the tube near P and Q, as
shown by the small circles.
Thomson's determination of e/m for electron (not
to scale)
The magnetic field is perpendicular to the paper,
and if it is uniform a constant force acts on the
498 | P a g e
cathode rays (electrons) normal to its motion.
The particles thus begin to move along the arc
HK of a circle of radius r. When they leave the
field, the particles move in a straight line and
strike the glass at G.
where e is the charge on an electron and m is its
mass.
(i)
To find the radius r, we note from the diagram
that, tan = OG/OL = HK/r.
L is about the middle of the solenoid surrounding
the plates.
The velocity v was found by applying an electric
field between P, Q of such an intensity E as to
bring the beam back to O. Then
Thomson found that v was considerably less than
the velocity of light, 3 x 108 m s-1, so that
cathode rays were certainly not electromagnetic
waves.
On substituting for v and r in (i), the ratio
charge/mass (e/me) for an electron was obtained.
Modern determinations show that
Coulomb per kg (C kg-1)
or
kg per Coulomb (kg C-1)
(ii)
Now from electrolysis, the electrochemical
equivalent of hydrogen is 0.0000104 g per
coulomb, or 1.04 x 10-5 g C-1.
1.04 x 10-8 kg C-1
Assuming the hydrogen ion carries a charge e
numerically equal to that on an electron, mH
being the mass of the hydrogen ion. Hence, with
(ii),
Thus, the electron is nearly two thousand times
as light as the hydrogen atom.
Until Sir J. J. Thomson's experiment, it was
believed that the hydrogen atom was the lightest
particle in existence. Note also that in Thomson's
experiment, the speed v of the electron beam is
measured by means of perpendicular ('crossed')
magnetic and electric fields.
Fine Beam Tube
The fine beam tube also enables the ratio e/m to
be determined. One form of apparatus is shown
in figure (i) below. It consists of an electron gun
which produces an electron beam from a heated
cathode. This is accelerated by a voltage V
applied to the anode A.
499 | P a g e

(i) Fine beam tube method for e/me
The heater and other voltage supplies are shown
below. The beam is made visible by having a
small quantity of hydrogen gas inside the tube.
Collisions of the electrons with the gas molecules
cause the latter to emit light, and a straight beam
of light is seen, thus showing the electron path.
(ii) Fine beam tube voltage supplies
The two large Helmholtz coils P and Q are
placed a distance apart equal to their radius to
provide a uniform magnetic field over the path of
the electrons. The value of B can be varied by
changing the current I in the coils. When the
magnetic field is switched on, the electrons are
deflected into a circle of radius r as shown in
figure (ii) above. r may be measured with the aid
of a travelling microscope, or by using markers
and a mirror. The anode voltage, V, should be
measured using a voltmeter. To calculate B, the
current J in the Helmholtz coils and their mean
radius R are measured. If N is the number of
turns in each coil, then B is given by
Theory
If we assume that the initial velocity of the
electrons is zero, the kinetic energy of the
electrons in moving through a p.d V is given by
Where is the mass and v the velocity of each
electrom.
(i)
Since
(ii)
From (i) and (ii)
From which e/ may be evaluated if V, r and B
are known.
500 | P a g e
Example Photoelectric Effect
An electron having 450 electron-volts of energy As early as 1873, it was known that if certain
moves at right angles to a uniform magnetic field metals were heated, electrons would be ejected
of magnetic induction (flux density) 1.50 x 10-3 off the metals once the metals achieved a specific
weber metre-2. Show that the path of the electron temperature. This was called thermionic
is a circle and find its radius. Assume that the emission.
specific charge of the electron is 1.76 x 1011
Heating the metal raised the kinetic
coulomb kilogramme-1. (L.) energy of the electrons. There’s a
With the usual notation, the velocity v of the minimum amount of energy E0, the work
electron is given by function, needed for an electron to
eV, where V is 450 V. escape.

Different metals had different work
(i) functions.

The path of the electron is a circle because the
The amount of energy imparted to the

force Bev is constant and always normal to the electrons above the work function

electron path. Its radius r is given by resulted in the kinetic energy of the
electron: KE = ET – E0
As early as 1887, it was observed that shining
light onto metal also caused the ejection of
from (i)
electrons. This phenomenon was coined the
photoelectric effect (photo for light and electric
for the electron). The phenomenon of emission
Now e/ = 1.76 x 1011 C kg-1, V = 450 V, B = of electrons from the surface of substances
=1.5 x 10-3 T (Wb m-2) (mainly metals), when exposed to
electromagnetic radiations of suitable frequency,
metre
is called photoelectric effect and the emitted
electrons are called photoelectrons.

At that time, scientists felt very comfortable with

the notion that light was a wave. Light reflected,
refracted, diffracted and interfered. It behaved as

501 | P a g e
a wave, thus it must be a wave. Given that
preconceived notion, scientists anticipated
specific outcomes regarding their experiments
with the photoelectric effect.

Light as a wave anticipated outcome 1: if
you shine any light on a metal surface for
a long enough period of time the
electrons are gradually heated, the
minimum energy (work function) is
eventually achieved and electrons would
be ejected. Think about how water waves
given enough time can shape the
coastlines of the world.

Light as a wave anticipated outcome 2:
the intensity (amplitude) of a wave is
proportional to the energy of a wave. So,
if you increase the intensity of a light
wave, the kinetic energy of the ejected
electrons would also increase. Back to the
water wave example, the greater the
amplitude, the greater the amount of
energy transferred to you if you get in its
way.
Experiments done with the photoelectric effect
completely violated these anticipated outcomes
causing great concern for scientists who were
forced to rethink their notion of light and
electromagnetic radiation.
The results of experiments done with the
photoelectric effect were the following:
I. Increasing the light intensity increased
the number of electrons ejected, but had
no effect on the kinetic energy of the
electrons.
a. If light was behaving like a wave,
increasing the intensity of the
light (the energy) should have
increased the kinetic energy of the
ejected electrons.
II. Increasing the frequency of the light
increased the kinetic energy of the ejected
electrons.
III. Each metal had some specific threshold
frequency, below which no electrons
would be ejected. As long as the light
shining upon the metal was below the
threshold frequency, no electrons would
be ejected, regardless of the intensity of
the light or the duration of the metal’s
exposure to the light.
a. If light was behaving like a wave,
red light, orange light or green
light would be able to cause the
ejection of electrons given enough
time.
IV. As long as the frequency of the light was
above the threshold frequency of the
metal, no time lag existed between
shining the light and ejection of the
electrons.
502 | P a g e
Examples
1. What are the uses of discharge tube
phenomenon?
The discharge tube phenomenon is used in
making fluorescent tubes, neon signs, mercury
vapour lamps etc.
2. What do you mean by field emission?
It is the phenomenon of emission of electrons
from the surface of a metal under the application
of a strong electric field. When a very strong
electric field (~108 Vm-1) is applied to metal, it
emits electrons.
3. An alpha particle is moving with 6
electron volts of energy. How much
potential difference is required to bring it
to rest?
Kinetic energy of alpha particle = 6eV
If a charged particle, 'q' is accelerated through a
potential difference of 'V' volts then it acquires
kinetic energy 'qV'.
So, to stop alpha particle a negative potential of
3V is required (because the alpha particle is a
positively charged particle having a charge of
2e).
4. Is it possible that cathode rays pass un-
deflected through a region containing
both electric field and magnetic field?
Yes, when net Lorentz force acting on cathode
rays is zero, the beam of cathode rays will pass
un-deflected.
qE + qvB = 0
i.e., electric force and magnetic force on the
cathode rays are equal in magnitude but opposite
in direction.
5. What is the ratio of specific charge of
deutron and an alpha particle?
Ratio of specific charges = (charge on
deutron/mass of deutron)/(charge on alpha
particle/mass of alpha particle)
= (e/m)/(2e/2m) = 1:1 (deutron contains 1
electronic charge and 1 proton + 1 neutron while
alpha contains 2 protons + 2 neutrons and 2
electronic charges)
6. What do you mean by positive column in
discharge tube? On what factors, does it
depend?
At a pressure of about 5mm of mercury in the
discharge tube the luminous streaks spread into a
luminous column filling the entire space in the
tube between the electrodes. This column is
called positive column. The colour of positive
column depends upon the nature of the gas filled
in the discharge tube.
7. If in J.J. Thomson's experiment the
magnitude of magnetic field is doubled
then by what factor the electric field be
changed so that the beam of electrons
goes un-deflected?
In J.J. Thomson's experiment for determining the
specific charge of cathode rays the electron beam
goes un-deflected because
qvB = qE or v = E/B
503 | P a g e
So, if magnetic field 'B' is doubled then electric
field 'E' will have to be made double.
8. An oil drop of radius 2 x 10-6 m carries a
charge of 6 times that on the electron. If
density of the oil is 2 x 103 kg m-3, find
the electric field required to keep it
stationary. Given, e = 1.6 x 10-19 C and g
= 9.8 m s-2.
Charge on the oil drop, q = 6e = 6 x 1.6 x 10-19
-19
C = 9.6 x 10 C drop experiment the charge on cathode rays is
Radius of the drop, r = 2 x 10-6 m
Density of the oil,  = 2 x 103 kg m-3
g = 9.8 ms-2
When the drop is stationary in the electric field
E, then force due to electric field = weight of the
drop.
i.e., qE = mg = (4/3) r3g
E = (4r3g)/3q
or, E = {4 x 3.14 x (2 x 10-6)3 x 2 x
103 x 9.8}/(3 x 9.6 x 10-19)
= 3.35 x 105 Vm-1.
9. Calculate the magnitude of electric field
which is just sufficient to hold an alpha
particle in balance in air.
Given mass of alpha particle, m = 6.4 x
10-27 kg, g = 10 m/s2.
Let electric field, E hold the alpha particle
stationary. For this the force on the alpha particle
by the electric field must be equal to the weight
of the alpha particle.
i.e., qE = mg
2eE = mg
E = mg/2e = (6.4 x 10-27 x 10)/(2 x 1.6 x 10-19)
E = 2.0 x 10-7 V/m.
10. What is the nature of cathode rays?
(a) From the behaviour of cathode rays both in
electric and magnetic fields it is concluded that
they consist of moving negatively charged
particles.
(b) According to J. J. Thomson and Millikan's oil
found to be 1.6 x 10-19 C and a finite mass of
9.1 x 10-31 kg. These values confirm that
cathode rays are fast moving electrons.
(c) The speed of cathode rays varies from 1/30th
to 1/10th of the speed of light.
Hence, cathode rays are stream of fast moving
electrons.
Cathode rays are not electromagnetic waves
because they are deflected by electric and
magnetic fields and their speed is not equal to
that of light.
11. Explain the production of cathode rays.
Cosmic rays are present in the tube which are
constantly reaching the earth from the outer
space. These rays are highly energetic. So, their
penetrating power is also very high. When these
rays collide with the atoms of the gas in the
discharge tube, the gas is ionized. Now, there are
positive ions and free electrons in the tube.
When a potential difference is applied between
the electrodes, the electrons are accelerated
504 | P a g e
towards the anode and positive ions towards the
cathode. When these highly accelerated positive
ions strike the cathode, they eject electrons from
the atoms of the cathode. These electrons are
highly accelerated by the electric field. When
they reach the anode with high velocity,
fluorescence is produced. These fast-moving
electrons are called cathode rays.
12. What is the importance of Millikan's oil
drop experiment?
1. Quantum nature of charge: Millikan found
that charge on any drop was equal to the integral
multiple of 1.6 x 10-19 C. As the number of
electrons on any drop could not be in fractions so
the charge on any drop was an integral multiple
of 1.6 x 10-19 C. Also, the minimum charge on
any drop was not less than the charge on an
electron. Hence, the quantum nature of charge
was proved by Millikan's experiment.
2. Mass of electrons: From Thomson method
e/m = 1.7598 x 1011 C/kg
From Millikan's method
e = 1.6 x 10-19 C
Therefore, mass of an electron, m = e/(e/m) = 9.1
x 10-31 kg.
3. Radius of electron was also determined and it
was found to be 1.87 x 10-15 m.
13. A beam of electrons, each of mass 'm',
charge 'e' and velocity 2 x 107 ms-1 is
deflected by 16 mm in traversing a
distance of 0.2 m through an electric field
of strength 2000 Vm-1 perpendicular to
its path. Find the specific charge of an
electron.
Given that E = 2000 Vm-1
Force on the electron due to electric field = eE
Acceleration produced in electron, a = eE/m
Deviation suffered by the electron, y = (1/2) at2.
where 't' is the time taken by the electron in
traversing a distance of x (= 0.2m) perpendicular
to electric field.
Now, t = distance x/speed along x-direction or
perpendicular to electric field.
= 0.2/(2 x 107) = 1/(1 x 108) second
As, y = 16mm = 1.6 x 10-2 m
Hence, 1.6 x 10-2 = (1/2) (e x 2000/m) {1/(1 x
108)}2
or e/m = 1.6 x 1011 C/kg.
14. What do you mean by de-Broglie concept
of matter waves? Give an experiment to
prove dual nature of matter by giving
proper diagram.
According to de-Broglie a moving
material particle behaves like wave and particle
both. It also means that all moving material
particles are associated with waves which are
called matter waves or de-Broglie waves.
These waves cannot be electromagnetic because
electromagnetic waves are produced by charged
particles in motion.
505 | P a g e
Experimental proof to wave nature of
particles:
Wave nature of moving electrons has been
shown by Davisson and Germer in 1927. The
apparatus is shown below:
F- Filament, B-Battery, C-Cathode, N- Nickel
crystal, D - Detector, A- Anode in cylindrical
shape, L.T - Low tension battery.
When electrons are accelerated between cathode
and anode they come out from the anode in the
form a narrow beam. Different accelerating
potentials can be given to the electron beam.
When this beam moves towards Nickel crystal, it
is scattered in different directions by the atoms of
crystal. Intensity of the electron beam in different
directions is measured by detector 'D'. Detector
can be rotated in different directions and so the
intensity of the scattered electrons is measured in
different directions.
Polar graphs are plotted between the intensity of
the scattered electrons and angle of scattering .
These graphs are shown for various accelerating
potentials. A sharp bump is obtained at 54 V of
the potential and 50-degree angle of scattering.
This bump is due to the constructive interference
between electrons scattered from different
interatomic layers of the crystal. Since
interference is a wave phenomenon so it shows
that electrons behave like waves.

506 | P a g e
 Calculate the value of Planck's constant
and work function of the metal.
(b) Write a brief note on free electrons in
metals.

15. (a) Give a brief account of Einstein's

explanation for photoelectric effect.
(b) Explain photo emissive cell with a
suitable diagram.
16. Define photon. Differentiate between its
rest mass and dynamic mass. Give its
important characteristics. Does the mass
of photon depend upon its wavelength
and its speed?
17. (a) Ultraviolet radiations of wavelength
400Å and 600Å are allowed to fall on a
photosensitive surface. The maximum
kinetic energy of photoelectrons liberated
is 1.3 eV and 0.8 eV respectively.

507 | P a g e
 CHAPTER FOURTY-ONE
QUANTUM MECHANICS
In the previous chapters, we have learned
fundamental laws of mechanics, fluid dynamics,
vibrations and waves, special relativity, surface
phenomena of liquid and Optics that are parts of
classical physics theories. In the above courses,
the physical quantities used are continuous, such
as momentum, angular momentum and energies.
These theories are valid in large scales, but not
proper if they are employed in small scale like
within atoms. In this chapter, we will discuss a
new and important theory, called Quantum
Mechanics, which is valid in a very small region
but its large-scale derivation could also give
classical results.
It is known that quantum theory is a very
important theory not only in physics, but also in
many branches of science, such as life science
and medical science.
The concept of quantum theory has great
difference with classical physics. Even we can
say, some concepts are opposite and contradicted
(continuous and discrete for example). As a
starting point to quantum theory, the particle’s
nature of light is usually explained in detail. This
is because the quantum theory stemmed
(originated) from the study of this part.
Blackbody radiation and Planck hypothesis
Historical recall: studies on light
• Without question, geometric optics is the
earliest theory to describe the phenomenon of
light and it is still used today. As you know,
there are several basic laws and equations in
geometric optics and they are still useful
today in explaining the optical instrument.
You might notice that light paths are all
straight lines in geometric optics.
• In the early of 18th century, based on the
existing knowledge of light at that time,
Newton proposed his corpuscular theory of
light to explain the light travels along a
straight line in the space or uniform medium.
In such a theory, light is regarded as a stream
of particles that set up disturbances in the
‘aether’ (which is recognized as the medium
of light propagation）of space. Newton’s
corpuscular theory is the first one to try to
explain the nature of light but there exist
many other interesting and beautiful effects
that cannot be explained by Newton’s
corpuscular theory such as light bending
around corners. Therefore, it is not a correct
theory.
• It is known that the Geometric optics is just a
phenomenon, macroscopic and application
study on light. That tight travels in a straight
line in space or medium is just a physical
model used to study light in geometric optics
508 | P a g e
 and it is the superficial phenomenon of light
and it has nothing to do with the property of
light.
• The wave nature of light is based on the
experiments of interference and diffraction of
light. Such a phenomenon can be explained
by Huygen’s principle and these phenomena
put Newton’s corpuscular theory of light into
history.
• The complete wave theory of light was
finally given by Maxwell who showed that
light formed the part of electromagnetic
waves. The famous experiments to show light
has wave property are Thomas Yang’s
double-slit interference experiment and
Fraunhofer Single slit diffraction experiment.
In 1801, Thomas Young did a double-slit
interference experiment of light and showed
that a wave theory was essential to interpret
this type of phenomenon. And from then,
Newton’s corpuscular theory of light has
been considered as a wrong theory for the
explanation of the nature of light. Another
famous experiment was done by Fraunhofer
Single-slit diffraction. It should be also
explained by wave theory of light.
• In the middle of 19th century, lights are
recognized as part of electromagnetic
spectrum and its space and time dependence
follows the laws given in Maxwell equations
which were considered as a complete theory
for electromagnetic waves. Therefore, light
belongs to electromagnetic waves and it does
have the wave properties.
• Most physicists thought Physics skyscraper
had been completely built and some minor
problems like blackbody radiation and light
speed would be soon found out using existing
physics theory. However, Genius physicists
thought that the blackbody radiation and light
speed were the two patches of clouds in
physics sky. In fact, the “minor” problems
had shaken the “skyscraper” of classical
physics.
• In order to explain the quantum nature of
light, we have to understand how the
following three problems to be solved:
blackbody radiation, photoelectric effect and
Compton Effect. Among the three problems,
blackbody radiation is the most important
one.
Basic concepts of blackbody radiation
Types of energy transmission are conduction,
convection and radiation.
Conduction is transfer of heat energy by
molecular vibrations not by actual motion of
material. For example, if you hold one end of an
iron rod and the other end of the rod is put on a
flame, you will feel hot sometime later. We can
say that the heat energy reaches your hand by
heat conduction.
509 | P a g e
Convection is transfer of heat by actual motion of Stefan’s constant determined by experiment
material. The hot-air furnace, the hot-water and T is absolute temperature.
heating system, and the flow of blood in the body 2. Wien’s displacement law: the peak of the
are examples. curve shifts towards longer wavelength as
Radiation The heat reaching the earth from the the temperature falls.
sun cannot be transferred either by conduction or λ peak T = b (2)
convection since the space between the earth and λ is the peak value of the curve Mλ(T) and b is
the sun has no material medium. The energy is
called Wein’s constant. This law is quite useful
carried by electromagnetic waves that do not
while measuring the temperature of a blackbody
require a material medium for propagation. The
with a very high temperature. You can see the
kind of heat transfer is called thermal radiation.
example for how to measure the temperature on
Blackbody radiation problem was found in the
the surface of the sun.
research of thermal radiation.
The above laws describe the blackbody radiation
Blackbody is defined as the body that can absorb
very well.
all energies that fall on it. This is like a black
hole. No lights or material can get away from it
Problems exist in blackbody radiation and three
as long as it is trapped. A large cavity with a
formulas
small hole on its wall can be taken as a
• The problem existing in the relation is between
blackbody.
the radiation power Mλ(T) and the wavelength λ.
Blackbody radiation: Any radiation that enters
• Blackbody radiation has nothing to do with
the hole is absorbed in the interior of the cavity,
both the material used in the blackbody concave
and the radiation emitted from the hole is called
wall and the shape of the concave wall.
blackbody radiation.
• Two typical blackbody radiation formulas: one
Two successful laws
is given by Rayleigh and Jeans and the other is
1. Stefan and Boltzmann’s law: it is found that
given by Wein.
the radiation energy is proportional to the
1. Rayleigh and Jeans’ formula: In 1890,
fourth power of the associated temperature.
Rayleigh and Jeans obtained a formula using
M (T ) = σT 4 (1)
the classical electromagnetic (Maxwell)
where M(T) is radiation energy and actually theory and the classical equipartition
it is the area under each curve, σ is called theorem of energy in thermotics. The
formula is given by

510 | P a g e
M λ (T ) = C1λ −4T (3) where c is light velocity, k is Boltzmen’s

where M λ (T ) is radiation power, C1 is a constant, e is the base of natural logarithms.

It is surprising that the experience
constant number to be determined, λ is the
formula can describe the curve of blackbody
wavelength of blackbody radiation, T is the
radiation exactly for all wavelengths.
absolute temperature. Rayleigh-Jeans formula
was correct for very long wavelength in the far
Derivations from Planck’s formula
infrared but hopelessly wrong in the visible light
1. Rayleigh and Jeans’ formula;
and ultraviolet region. Maxwell’s
For very large wavelength, the Rayleigh-
electromagnetic theory and thermodynamics are
Jeans’ formula can be obtained from
known as correct theory. The failure in
Planck’s formula;
explaining blackbody radiation puzzled
2. Wein’s formula;
physicists! It was regarded as ultraviolet
For smaller wavelength of blackbody
Catastrophe (disaster).
radiation, the Wein’s formula can be
achieved also from Planck’s experience
2. Wein’s formula: Later on in 1896, Wein
formula;
derive another important formula using
3. Stefan and Boltzmann’s law;
thermodynamics.
Integrating Planck’s formula with respect to
C3
−
M λ (T ) = C 2 λ−5 e λT
(4) wavelength, the Stefan and Boltzmann’s law

where C2 and C3 are constants to be can be obtained as well.

determined. Unfortunately, this formula is 4. Wien’s displacement law.

only valid in the region of short Finally, according to the basic mathematical

wavelengths. theory and differentiating the Planck’s

formula with respect to wavelength, Wien’s

3. Plank’s empirical formula: In 1900, after displacement law can also be derived.

studying the above two formulas carefully,

Planck proposed an empirical formula Planck’s Hypotheses
1. The molecules and atoms composing the

1 blackbody concave can be regarded as the

M λ (T ) = 2πhc 2 λ−5 hc
(5)
linear harmonic oscillator with electrical
e λkT
−1
charge;

511 | P a g e
2. The oscillators can only be in a special (a) for the radio wave, we can use the Planck-
energy state. All these energies must be the Einstein law directly
integer multiples of a smallest energy (ε0 =
hν). Therefore, the energies of the oscillators E = hν = 4.136 × 10 −15 eV ⋅ s × 600 × 10 3 Hz
are E = n hν with n = 1, 2, 3, … = 2.48 × 10 −9 eV
3. derivation of Planck’s formula (omitted)
When you work out (b) and (c) using Planck-
4. hν was named photon by Einstein and Einstein equation. After working out the
hc problems, you will find that the higher frequency
E = hν = (6)
λ
corresponds to the higher energy and the same
is called Planck-Einstein quantization law. h is
for the shorter wavelength. The X-rays have
called Planck constant.
quite high energy, so they have high power of
−34
h = 6.626 × 10 J ⋅s
(7) penetration.
−15
= 4.136 × 10 eV ⋅ s
Planck associated the energy quanta only with
The relation between joule (J) and
the resonators in the cavity walls and Einstein
Electron Volt (eV) is given by
extended them to the absorption of radiation in
−19
1eV = 1.602 × 10 J his explanation of the photoelectric effect.
(8)
18
1J = 6.242 × 10 eV
Now we know that the electromagnetic waves
The photoelectric effect
are emitted in a quantum form, or wave package. Basic investigation on photoelectric effect
But we still do not know whether they are The quantum nature of light had its origin in the
absorbed in quantum form or move in space in a theory of thermal radiation and was strongly
quantum form. reinforced by the discovery of the photoelectric
effect. In figure 1 a
Example glass tube contains two electrodes of the same
Calculate the photon energies for the following material, one of which is irradiated by light. The
types of electromagnetic radiation: (a) a 600kHz electrodes
radio wave; (b) the 500nm green light; (c) a 0.1
nm X-rays.
Solution

512 | P a g e
 existence of e.m.f. (electromotive force) as at
such a case the photoelectrons have no
kinetic energy to move from the cathode to
anode. Different electrode material has
different threshold frequency.
(2) The rate of electron emission is directly
proportional to the intensity of the incident
light.
Fig.1 Apparatus to investigate the
That is: Photoelectric current ∝ (is
photoelectric effect
proportional to) the intensity of light
are connected to a battery and a sensitive current (3) Increasing the intensity of the incident light
detector measures the current flow between does not increase the kinetic energy of the
them. photoelectrons.
The electrons in the electrodes can be ejected by That is: Intensity of light is not
the light and have a certain amount of kinetic proportional to the kinetic energy of
energy. photoelectron
Now we make some changes in the investigations However, increasing the frequency of light
i. the frequency and intensity of the light; does increase the kinetic energy of
ii. the electromotive force (e.m.f. or voltage); photoelectrons even for very low intensity
iii. the nature of electrode surface; levels.
The current flow is a direct measure of the rate That is: Frequency of light ∝ kinetic
of emission of electrons from the irradiated energy of photoelectron
electrode (4) There is no measurable time delay between
It is found that: irradiating the electrode and the emission of
(1) For a given electrode material, no photoelectrons, even when the light is of very
photoemission exists at all below a certain low intensity. As soon as the electrode is
frequency of the incident light. When the irradiated, photoelectrons are ejected.
frequency increases, the emission begins at a (5) The photoelectric current is deeply affected
certain frequency. The frequency is called by the nature of the electrodes and chemical
threshold frequency of the material. The contamination of their surface.
threshold frequency has to be measured in the

513 | P a g e
It is found that the second and the fifth
conclusions can be explained easily by classical
theory of physics — Maxwell’s electromagnetic
theory of light, but the other three cases conflict
with any reasonable interpretation of the classical
theory of physics.
Problem investigation and Einstein’s solution
1. Three trouble cases in the photoelectric
effect
(a) The existence of a threshold frequency:
Classical theory cannot explain the
phenomenon as the light energy does not
depend on the frequency of light. Light
energies should depend on its intensity and
the irradiating time.
(b) In third case, it is unbelievable that the
kinetic energy of photoelectron does not
depend on the intensity of incident light as
the intensity indicates the light energy!
(c) No time delay in the photoelectric effect
Since the rate of energy supply to the electrode
surface is proportional to the intensity of the
light, we would expect to find a time delay in
photoelectron emission for a very low intensity
light beam. The delay would allow the light to
deliver adequate energy to the electrode surface
to cause the emission.
2. Einstein’s solution
In 1905, Einstein solved the photoelectric effect
problem by applying the Planck’s hypothesis. He
pointed out that Planck’s quantization hypothesis
applied not only to the emission of radiation by a
material object but also to its transmission and its
absorption by another material object. The light
is not only electromagnetic waves but also a
quantum. All the effects of photoelectric
emission can be readily explained from the
following assumptions:
(a) The photoemission of an electron from a
cathode occurs when an electron absorbs a
photon of the incident light;
(b) The photon energy is calculated by the
Planck’s quantum relationship: E = hν.
(c) The minimum energy is required to release
an electron from the surface of the cathode.
The minimum energy is the characteristic of
the cathode material and the nature of its
surface. It is called work function.
The equation for the photoelectric emission can
be written out by supposing the photon energy is
completely absorbed by the electron. After this
absorption, the kinetic energy of the electron
should have the energy of the photon. If this
energy is greater than the work function of the
material, the electron should become a
photoelectron and jumps out of the material and
probably have some kinetic energy.
Therefore, we have the equation of
photoelectric effect:
1
hν = A + mv 2 (9)
2
514 | P a g e
where hν is photon energy, A is work function The mass and momentum of photon
and is the photoelectron’s kinetic energy. According to relativity, the particles with zero
Using this equation and Einstein’s assumption, static mass are possibly existent. From the
you should be able to explain all the results in the relativistic equation of energy-momentum,
photoelectric effect: why does threshold E 2 = p 2 c 2 + m02 c 4
frequency exist? why is the number of
when m 0 = 0 , then E = pc = mc2 = hν. So, the
photoelectrons proportional to the light intensity?
mass of photon is
why does high intensity not mean high
E hν
photoelectron energy (problem)? why is there no mp = = 2 (10)
c2 c
time delay (problem)? And also, you should be the momentum of photon could also be found as
able to solve the following problem.
E hν h
p= = = (11)
Photon Energy (The Einstein relation) c c λ
Einstein assumed that each packet of light had a these formulas are valid for all possible particles
certain amount of energy. This energy must be with zero rest mass.
proportional to its frequency. Compton Effect
Energy of a photon, E = hf A phenomenon called Compton scattering, first
Where h is Planck’s constant = 6.63x10-34 J s observed in 1924 by Compton, provides
(Or Joule per Hertz) additional direct confirmation of the quantum
And f is the frequency of the light. nature of electromagnetic radiation. When X-
Using c=fλ we get: rays impinges on matter, some of the radiation is
E = hc/λ scattered, just as the visible light falling on a
Where c is the speed of the electromagnetic rough surface undergoes diffuse reflection.
waves. Observation shows that some of the scattered
radiation has smaller frequency and longer
Exercise wavelength than the incident radiation, and that
Ultraviolet light of wavelength 150nm falls on a the change in wavelength depends on the angle
chromium electrode. Calculate the maximum through which the radiation is scattered.
kinetic energy and the corresponding velocity of Specifically, if the scattered radiation emerges at
the photoelectrons (the work function of an angle φ with the respect to the incident
chromium is 4.37eV). direction, and if λ and λ′ are the wavelength of

515 | P a g e
the incident and scattered radiation, respectively, 261 in equation (4), the last factor
it is found that ϕ
(1 − cos ϕ ) should be written as sin 2 .
2
λ′ − λ =
h
(1 − cosϕ ) = 2 h sin 2  ϕ  (12)
m0 c m0 c 2
where m0 is the electron’s rest mass. Wave Nature of Matter

In figure 2, the electron is initially at rest with Electrons are not the only particles which behave

incident photon of wavelength λ and momentum as waves. The effect are less noticeable with
more massive particles because their moment are
p; scattered photon with longer wavelength λ′
generally much higher, and so, the wavelength is
and momentum p′ and recoiling electron with
correspondingly shorter. Since appreciable
momentum P.
diffraction is observed only when the wavelength
is of the same order as the grating space, the
λ′, p′ heavier particles, such as protons, are diffracted
λ, p much less.
ϕ
Wave Particle Duality
· Some experiment e.g. electron diffraction
indicate that matter behaves like a wave, but

P
other phenomena such as photoelectric effect and
Compton effect experiment indicate that matter
Fig.2: Explanation of Compton effect
model behaves like a stream of particles or photons.
As in matter, so is it with light, some observable
The direction of the scattered photon makes an
phenomenon in the nature of light, such as
angle φ with that of the incident photon, and the
reflection, refraction, diffraction, interference
angle between p and p′ is also φ.
and polarization can be interpreted or explained
h
λc = = 0.00243nm (13) by assuming that light or matter behaves like
m0 c
waves. But other observable phenomena such as
is called Compton wavelength. Therefore, we
emission and absorption of light,
ϕ 
2
have ∆λ = λ ′ − λ = 2λc sin   (14) photoelectricity, radiation of energy from heated
2
bodies, thermionic emission can only be
The detailed derivation of this formula is given
understood by assuming the particle nature of
in your textbook on pages 260 and 261. On page
matter.

516 | P a g e
This dual nature of matter is known as the wave-
particle duality or the wave-particle paradox.
This wave-particle duality refers to the idea that
light and matter (such as electrons) have both
wave and particle properties, that is, light
behaves either as a wave or as a particle but not
as both simultaneously.
The duality of light
The concept that waves carrying energy may
have a corpuscular (particle) aspect and that
particles may have a wave aspect; which of the
two models is more appropriate will depend on
the properties the model is seeking to explain.
For example, waves of electromagnetic radiation
need to be visualized as particles, called photons
to explain the photoelectric effect, for example.
The fact is that the light shows the property of
waves in its interference and diffraction and
performances the particle property in blackbody
radiation, photoelectric effect and Compton
effect. Till now we say that light has duality
property.
We can say that light is wave when it is involved
in its propagation only like interference and
diffraction. This means that light interacts with
itself. The light shows photon property when it
interacts with other materials.
Line spectra and Energy quantization in
atoms
The quantum hypothesis, used in the preceding
section for the analysis of the photoelectric
effect, also plays an important role in the
understanding of atomic spectra.
Line spectra of Hydrogen atoms
• Hydrogen always gives a set of line spectra in
the same position.
364.6
434.1
656.3 486. 410.2 λ(nm
1
Hα Hβ Hγ Hδ H∞
Fig. 2 the Balmer series of atomic
hydrogen
It is impossible to explain such a line spectrum
phenomenon without using quantum theory. For
many years, unsuccessful attempts were made to
correlate the observed frequencies with those of a
fundamental and its overtones (denoting other
lines here). Finally, in 1885, Balmer found a
simple formula that gave the frequencies of a
group lines emitted by atomic hydrogen. Since
the spectrum of this element is relatively simple,
and fairly typical of a number of others, we shall
consider it in more detail.
Under the proper conditions of excitation, atomic
hydrogen may be made to emit the sequence of
517 | P a g e
lines illustrated in Fig. 2. This sequence is called Lymann series:
series. There is evidently a certain order in this 1 1 1 
= R 2 − 2 ,
spectrum and the lines become crowded more λ 1 n 
and more closely together as the limit of the n = 2,3,4, L (15a)
series is approached. The line of longest Paschen series:
wavelength or lowest frequency, in the red, is 1  1 1 
= R 2 − 2 ,
known as Hα, the next, in the blue-green, as Hβ, λ 3 n 

the third as Hγ, and so on. n = 4,5,6, L (15b)

Balmer found that the wavelength of these lines Brackett series:

were given accurately by the simple formula 1  1 1 
= R 2 − 2 ,
1
λ 4 n 
 1 1 
= R 2 − 2 ,
λ 2 n  n = 5,6,7 , L (15c)
(15) Pfund series:
where λ is the wavelength, R is a constant called 1  1 1 
= R 2 − 2 ,
the Rydberg constant, and n may have the λ 5 n 

integral values 3, 4, 5, etc. If λ is in meters, n = 6,7,8, L (15d)

R = 1.097 × 10 7 m −1 The Lymann series is in the ultraviolet, and the

(16) Paschen, Brackett, and Pfund series are in the
Substituting R and n = 3 into the above formula, infrared. All these formulas can be generalized
one obtains the wavelength of the H-line: into one formula which is called the general

λ = 656.3nm Balmer series.

For n = 4, one obtains the wavelength of the Hβ-

1 1 1
line, etc. for n = ∞, one obtains the limit of the = R 2 − 2 , n = k +1, k + 2, k + 3,L; k = 1,2,3,4,5
λ k n 
series, at λ= 364.6nm –shortest wavelength in the (17)
series. All the spectra of atomic hydrogen can be
Other series spectra for hydrogen have since described by this simple formula. As no one can
been discovered. These are known, after their explain this formula, it was ever called Balmer
discoveries, as Lymann, Paschen, Brackett and formula puzzle.
Pfund series. The formulas for these are

518 | P a g e
 Spectra of Light
Spectrum, in optics, the arrangement according
to wavelength of visible, ultraviolet, and infrared
light. An instrument designed for visual
observation of spectra is called a spectroscope;
an instrument that a photographs or maps
spectrum is a spectrograph. The typical
spectroscope is a combination of a microscope
and a prism. The prism breaks the light into its
spectra components (by differential refraction)
which is then magnified with a microscope.
Spectra may be classified according to the nature
of their origin, i.e., emission or absorption. An
emission spectrum consists of all the radiations
emitted by atoms or molecules, whereas in an
absorption spectrum, portions of a continuous
spectrum (light containing all wavelengths) are
missing because they have been absorbed by the
medium through which the light has passed; the
missing wavelengths appear as dark lines or
gaps.
The spectrum of incandescent solids is said to be
continuous because all wavelengths are present.
The spectrum of incandescent gases, on the other
hand, is called a line or emission spectrum
because only a few wavelengths are emitted.
These wavelengths appear to be a series of
parallel lines because a slit is used as the light-
imaging device. Line spectra are characteristic of
the elements that emit the radiation. Line spectra
are also called atomic spectra because the lines
represent wavelengths radiated from atoms when
electrons change from one energy level to
another. Band spectra is the name given to
groups of lines so closely spaced that each group
appears to be a band, e.g., nitrogen spectrum.
Band spectra, or molecular spectra, are produced
by molecules radiating their rotational or
vibrational energies, or both simultaneously.
What is Spectroscopy?
Spectroscopy is a very important tool in
astronomy. It is detailed study of the light from
an object. Light is energy that moves through
space and can be thought of as either waves or
particles. The distances between the peaks of the
waves of light are called the light's wavelength.
Light is made up of many different wavelengths.
For example, visible light has wavelengths of
about 1/10th of a micrometre - ten thousand
wavelengths would be the width of a penny.
Spectrometers are instruments that spread light
out into its wavelengths creating a spectrum.
519 | P a g e
Within these spectra, astronomers can study
emission and absorption lines that are the
fingerprints of atoms and molecules. An emission
line occurs when an electron drops down to a
lower orbit around the nucleus of an atom and
loses energy. An absorption line occurs when
electrons move to a higher orbit by absorbing
energy. Each atom has a unique spacing of orbits
and can emit or absorb only certain energies or
wavelengths. This is why the location and
spacing of spectral lines is unique for each atom.
Astronomers can learn a great deal about an
object in space by studying its spectrum, such as
its composition (what its made of), temperature,
density, and its motion (both its rotation as well
as how fast it is moving towards or away from
us).
There are three types of spectra that an object can
emit: continuous, emission and absorption
spectra. The examples of these types of spectra
shown below are for visible light as it is spread
out from purple to red, but the concept is the
same for any region of the electromagnetic
spectrum.
Continuous Spectra
Continuous spectra (also called a thermal or
blackbody spectra) are emitted by any object that
radiates heat (has a temperature). The light is
spread out into a continuous band with every
wavelength having some amount of radiation.
For example, when sunlight is passed through a
prism, it's light is spread out into its colours.
A continuous visible light spectrum
Absorption spectra
If you look more closely at the Sun's spectrum,
you will notice the presence of dark lines. These
lines are caused by the Sun's atmosphere
absorbing light at certain wavelengths, causing
the intensity of the light at this wavelength to
drop and appear dark. The atoms and molecules
in a gas will absorb only certain wavelengths of
light. The pattern of these lines is unique to each
element and tells us what elements make up the
atmosphere of the Sun. We usually see
absorption spectra from regions in space where a
cooler gas lies between us and a hotter source.
We usually see absorption spectra from stars,
planets with atmospheres, and galaxies.
Detailed image of our Sun's visible light spectra
(Hint: hydrogen is the most abundant element in
the sun - look at the darkest lines).
Emission spectra
520 | P a g e
An emission spectra occurs when the atoms and
molecules in a hot gas emit extra light at certain
wavelengths, causing bright lines to appear in a
spectra. As with absorption spectra, the pattern of
these lines are unique for each element. We can
see emission spectra from comets, nebula and
certain types of stars.
The emission spectra of hydrogen
In practice, astronomers rarely look at spectra the
way they are displayed in the above images.
Instead they study plots of intensity or signal
versus wavelength. These plots show how much
light is present or absent at each wavelength. A
peak in the plot shows the position of an
emission line and dip shows where an absorption
line is. The spacing and location of these lines
are unique to each atom and molecule.
The shape of the continuous spectra (often
referred to as the continuum) on a plot is
dependent on temperature and motion of the
emitting gas. In this simple plot it is shown as a
flat line - in reality it is usually a curved line.
Also, many of the real data plots you will see
have the wavelength or frequency on a
logarithmic scale.
Thus, emission spectra are produced by thin
gases in which the atoms do not experience many
collisions (because of the low density). The
emission lines correspond to photons of discrete
energies that are emitted when excited atomic
states in the gas make transitions back to lower-
lying levels.
A continuous spectrum results when the gas
pressures are higher. Generally, solids, liquids, or
dense gases emit light at all wavelengths when
heated.
An absorption spectrum occurs when light
passes through a cold, dilute gas and atoms in the
gas absorb at characteristic frequencies; since the
re-emitted light is unlikely to be emitted in the
same direction as the absorbed photon, this gives
rise to dark lines (absence of light) in the
spectrum.
521 | P a g e
 Hydrogen Emission and Absorption Series
The spectrum of hydrogen is particularly
important in astronomy because most of the
Universe is made of hydrogen. Emission or
absorption processes in hydrogen give rise to
series, which are sequences of lines
corresponding to atomic transitions, each ending
or beginning with the same atomic state in
hydrogen. Thus, for example, the Balmer Series
involves transitions starting (for absorption) or
ending (for emission) with the first excited state
of hydrogen, while the Lyman Series involves
transitions that start or end with the ground state
of hydrogen; the adjacent image illustrates the
atomic transitions that produce these two series
in emission.
Because of the details of hydrogen's atomic
structure, the Balmer Series is in the visible
spectrum and the Lyman Series is in the UV.
Atoms and Sub-Atomic Particles
One of the oldest ideas in science is that matter
can be divided and further divided until the
smallest possible particles of matter are obtained.
This idea was put forward by the Greek
philosopher, Dermocritus, in 400 B.C. He called
the particles atoms (Greek: atomos, indivisible).
In 1808, the British chemist John Dalton,
formulated his Atomic Theory. He postulated that
all matter consists of atoms, minute particles
which cannot be created, destroyed or split. He
theorized that all the atoms of an element are
identical in every aspect, for example, their size
and mass. These particles were indivisible and
remained unchanged during a chemical reaction.
The idea of indivisible atom was shown to be
wrong by the works of a number of scientists in
the late nineteenth century.
The electron was the first sub-atomic particle to
be identified. In 1897, Sir Joseph John Thomson
discovered the electron through his work on
cathode rays. He also determined the charge-to-
mass (e/m) ratio of electron.
In 1909, Millikan, through his famous oil-drop
experiment, determined the charge e on an
electron. Combined with Thomson's value for
e/m ratio, it was then possible to calculate the
mass m of an electron. Nowadays, the accepted
values for these are
e = 1.602 x 10 -19 C
me= 9.110 x 10 -28 g
522 | P a g e
 The Nucleus - Rutherford's Scattering alpha particles

Experiment
In 1909, Lord Rutherford and his colleagues,
Geiger and Marsden, performed the gold-foil
scattering experiment.
The Scattering Experiment gold atoms

Fast-moving alpha particles were directed to hit a

Summary of Rutherford's hypothesis:
piece of gold foil which was only a few hundred
1. In the centre of the atom is a very small
atoms thick.
dense region called the nucleus.
Result:
2. The electrons move around the nucleus at
1. Most of the alpha particles passed
great speed. The number of electrons
through without changing direction.
equals the number of protons.
2. A few were deflected through large
3. Most of the atom is empty space.
angles.
The neutron was predicted by Rutherford in 1920
3. Some even rebounded back.
to account for the difference between atomic
mass and atomic number. It was finally detected
to vacuum pump thin gold foil

movable fluorescent screen

experimentally in 1932 by Sir James Chadwick.
lead shield
moveable microscope
Therefore, an atom was found to consist of three
alpha
particle
fundamental sub-atomic particles, these are
source
deflected beam of
alpha particles electrons which are negatively charged, protons
which are positively charged and neutrons which
rebounded beam of alpha particles
are uncharged.
Explanation: Particle Relative mass Charge
Rutherford proposed that an atom consisted of a Proton 1 +1
central, minute nucleus where the mass and Neutron 1 0
positive charges of the whole atom were Electron 1
1836 -1
concentrated; the electrons occupied the
remaining space in the atom, revolving around
the nucleus.

523 | P a g e
 Bohr’s atomic theory
Bohr’s theory was not by any means the first
attempt to understand the internal structure of
atoms. Starting in 1906, Rutherford and his co-
workers had performed experiments on the
scattering of alpha Particles by thin metallic.
These experiments showed that each atom
contains a massive nucleus whose size is much
smaller than overall size of the atom.
The atomic model of Rutherford
The nucleus is surrounded by a swarm of
electrons. To account for the fact, Rutherford
postulated that the electrons revolve about the
nucleus in orbits, more or less as the planets in
the solar system revolve around the sun, but with
electrical attraction providing the necessary
centripetal force. This assumption, however, has
two unfortunate consequences.
(1) Accelerated electron will emit
electromagnetic waves; Its energy will be
used up sometimes later and it would become
dead atoms. (A body moving in a circle is
continuously accelerated toward the centre of
the circle and, according to classical
electromagnetic theory, an accelerated
electron radiates energy. The total energy of
the electrons would therefore gradually
decrease, their orbits would become smaller
and smaller, and eventually they would spiral
into the nucleus and come to rest.)
(2) The emitted frequency should be that of
revolution and they should emit continuous
frequency. (Furthermore, according to classical
theory, the frequency of the electromagnetic
waves emitted by a revolving electron is equal to
the frequency of revolution. Their angular
velocities would change continuously and they
would emit a continuous spectrum (a mixture of
frequencies), in contradiction to the line
spectrum actually observed.)
In order to solve the above contradictions, Bohr
made his hypotheses:
(1) Static (or stable-orbit) postulate:
Faced with the dilemma, Bohr concluded that, in
spite of the success of electromagnetic theory in
explaining large scale phenomenon, it could not
be applied to the processes on an atomic scale.
He therefore postulated that an electron in an
atom can revolve in certain stable orbits, each
having a definite associated energy, without
emitting radiation. The momentum mvr of the
electron on the stable orbits is supposed to be
equal to the integer multiple of h/2π. This
condition may be stated as
h
mvr = n n = 1,2,3, L (18)
2π
where n is quantum number, this is the
hypothesis of stable state and it is called the
quantization condition of orbital angular
momentum.
524 | P a g e
(2) Transition hypothesis It is easy to see that all the energy in atoms
Bohr postulated that the radiation happens only should be discrete. When the electron transits
at the transition of electron from one stable state from nth orbit to kth orbit, the frequency and
to another stable state. The radiation frequency wavelength can be calculated as
or the energy of the photon is equal to the
difference of the energies corresponding to the En − Ek me 4  1 1 
ν= = 2 3 2 − 2 n>k
two stable states. h 8ε 0 h  k n 
E − Ek 1 me 4  1
ν 1   1 1 
hν = E n − E k ν= n (19) = = 2 3  2 − 2  = R 2 − 2 
h λ c 8ε 0 h c  k n  k n 

(3) Corresponding principle me 4

where R = is called Rydberg constant.
The new theory should come to the old theory 8ε 02 h 3 c
under the limited conditions. It is found that the value of R is matched with
experimental data very well. Till then, the
(4) Important conclusions puzzle of line spectra of atoms had been solved
Another equation can be obtained by the by Bohr since equation (10) is exactly the
electrostatic force of attraction between two general Balmer formula.
charges and Newton’s law: When Bohr’s theory met problems in explaining
1 e2 v2 a little bit more complex atoms (He) or
= m
4πε 0 r 2 r molecules (H2), Bohr realized that his theory is
(20) full of contradictions as he used both quantum
Solving the simultaneous equation of (5) and (7), and classical theories. The problem was solved
we have completely after De Broglie proposed that
electron also should have the wave-particle
ε 0h2 2 e2 duality. Since then, the proper theory describing
rn = n , vn = (n = 1,2,3,L)
πme 2 2ε 0 hn the motion of the micro-particles, quantum
mechanics, has been gradually established by
So, the total energy of the electron on the nth many scientists.
orbit is
1 2 − e2 me 4
En = Ek + E p = mvn + =−
2 4πε 0 rn 8ε 0 h 2 n 2

525 | P a g e
 De Broglie Wave that it had not been previously noticed. If we
In the previous sections, we traced the wish to prove that an electron has a wave nature,
development of the quantum character of we must perform an experiment in which
electromagnetic waves. Now we will turn to the electrons behave as waves.
consequences of the discovery that particles of De Broglie’s wave speed is
classical physics also possess a wave nature. The h E mc 2 c 2
Vd = λν = ⋅ = = >c (24b)
first person to propose this idea was the French mv h mv v
scientist Louis De Broglie. Vd is phase speed that is hard to understand. The
De Broglie’s result came from the study of speed of mechanical waves is the same as their
relativity. He noted that the formula for the phase speed, but De Broglie’s wave is not
photon momentum can also be written in terms mechanical wave. The explanation of its physical
of wavelength properties will be given later. Leave it.
hν hν h
p = mpc = c= =
c 2
c λ Electron diffraction
If the relationship is true for massive particles as In order to show the wave nature of electrons, we
well as for photons, the view of matter and light must demonstrate interference and diffraction for
would be much more unified. beams of electrons. At this point, recall that
De Broglie’s point was the assumption that interference and diffraction of light become
momentum-wavelength relation is true for both noticeable when light travels through slits whose
photons and massive particles. width and separation are comparable with the
So, De Broglie wave equations are wavelength of the light. So, let us first look at an
h h example to determine the magnitude of the
λ= = E = hν (24a)
p mv expected wavelength for some representative
Where p is the momentum of particles, λ is the objects.
wavelength of particles. At first sight, to claim For example, de Broglie wavelength for an
that a particle such as an electron has a electron whose kinetic energy is 600 eV is
wavelength seems somewhat absurd. The 0.0501nm. The de Broglie wavelength for a golf
classical concept of an electron is a point particle
ball of mass 45g traveling at 40m/s is: 3.68 ×10-
of definite mass and charge, but De Broglie
34 m. Such a short wave is hardly observed.
argued that the wavelength of the wave
We must now consider whether we could
associated with an electron might be so small
observe diffraction of electrons whose

526 | P a g e
wavelength is a small fraction of a nanometre. for the first dark position, m = 1, the width of slit
For a grating to show observable diffraction, the should be ∆x. From Fig.3, we have
slit separation should be comparable to the h λ h
∆p x = p ⋅ sin θ ≈ ⋅ ≈
wavelength, but we cannot rule a series of lines λ ∆x ∆x
that are only a small fraction of a nanometre
apart, as such a length is less than the separation Consider other order diffractions, we have:
of the atoms in solid materials. ∆x ⋅ ∆p x ≥ h (25a)
When electrons pass through a thin gold or other But precise derivation gives
metal foils, we can get diffraction patterns. So, it h
∆x ⋅ ∆p x ≥ . (25b)
indicates the wave nature of electrons. 4π

The Heisenberg Uncertainty principle p

• In classical physics, there is no limitation for
measuring physical quantities.
• Heisenberg (1927) proposed a principle that has
come to be regarded as a basic postulate to the
theory of quantum mechanics. It is called
"uncertainty principle", and it limits the extent to
which we can possess accurate knowledge about
certain pairs of dynamical variables.
• Both momentum and position are vectors.
When dealing with a real three-dimensional
situation, we take the uncertainties of the
components of each vector in the same direction.
• Our sample calculation is restricted to the
simplest interpretation of what we mean by
θ
Δ ∆p
x x
Fig. 3 The electron single-slit diffraction
Another pair of important uncertainty is between
time and energy, which can be derived by
differentiating E with respective to p,
p x2
E = Ek + E p = + E p ( x)
2m

uncertainty. A more elaborate statistical dE p

= x + 0 = v x ⇒ ∆E = v x ⋅ ∆p x
interpretation gives the lower limit of the dp x m

uncertainty product as ∆E ⋅ ∆t = ( ∆t ⋅ v ) ⋅ ∆p = ∆x ⋅ ∆p ≥ h (25c)

(single-slit diffraction, cf figure below)
a sinθ = mλ

527 | P a g e
Example In order to understand the uncertainty principle,
Suppose the velocities of an electron and of a consider the following thought experiment.
rifle bullet of mass 0.03 kg are each measured Suppose you wish to measure the position and
with an uncertainty of ∆v = 10-3 ms-1. What are momentum of an electron with a powerful

the minimum uncertainties in their positions microscope. In order for you to see the electron

according to the uncertainty principle? and thus determine its location, at least one

Solution photon must bounce off the electron and pass

using ∆px = m ∆v, for each, the minimum through the microscope to your eye.
When the photon strikes the electron, it transfers
position uncertainty satisfies ∆x m ∆v = h. For
some of its energy and momentum to the
the electron, m = 9.11 x 10-31kg. So
electron. Thus, in the process of attempting to
−34
h 6.626 × 10
∆x = = = 0.727m locate the electron very accurately, we have
m∆v 9.11 × 10 −31 × 10 −3
caused a rather large uncertainty in its
and for bullet,
momentum.
−34
h 6.626 × 10
∆x = = −3
= 3.5 × 10 −30 m In other words, the measurement procedure of
m∆v 0.03 × 10
itself limits the accuracy to which we can
We can see from the proceeding example that
determine position and momentum
classical theory is still useful and accuracy in the
simultaneously.
macro-cases, such as bullet. However, you have
Let us analyze the collision between the photon
to use quantum theory in the micro-world as
and the electron by first noting that the incoming
uncertainty principle has to be used, such as
photon has a momentum of h/l. As a result of this
electrons in atoms.
collision, the photon transfers part or all of its
We can briefly review how quantum dynamics
momentum to the electron. Thus, the uncertainty
differs from classical dynamics. Classically, both
in the electron’s momentum after the collision is
the momentum and position of a point particle
at least as great as the momentum of the
can be determined to whatever degree of
incoming photon.
accuracy that the measuring apparatus permits.
That is, ∆p = h/λ, or λ ∆p = h. Since the light
However, from the viewpoint of quantum
has wave properties, we would expect the
mechanics, the product of the momentum and
uncertainty in the position of the electron to be
position uncertainties must be at least as large as
on the order of one wavelength of the light being
h. Therefore, they could not be measured
used to view it, because the diffraction effects.
simultaneously. Why?

528 | P a g e
So ∆x = λand we also have the uncertainty
relation. On the other hand, according to the
diffraction theory, the width of slit cannot be
smaller as the wavelength we used in order to
observe the first order dark fringe i.e. ∆x≥λ . So,
we also have ∆x ∆p ≥ h.
Schrödinger Equation
Schrödinger equation in Quantum mechanics is
as important as the Newton equations in
Classical physics. The difference is that in
Newton’s mechanics, the physical quantities, like
coordinates and velocities, but in quantum
mechanics, the particles are described by a
function of coordinates and time. The function
has to be a solution of a Schrödinger equation.
The interpretation of wave function
It is known that the functions have been used to
describe the mechanic waves. The magnitude of
the value of a wave function means the energy
and the position of a particle in a particular
moment. We also use a function to describe the
motion of particles in quantum mechanics but it
has different meanings. The function is called
wave function.
The symbol usually used for this wave function
is Ψ, and it is, in general, a function of all space
coordinates and time. Just as the wave function
for mechanical waves on a string provides a
complete description of the motion, the wave
function Ψ(x,y,z,t) for a particle contains all the
information that can be known about the particle.
Two questions immediately arise. First, what is
the meaning of the wave function Y for a
particle? Second, how is Y determined for any
given physical situation? Our answers to both
these questions must be qualitative and
incomplete.
Answer to question 1: The wave function
describes the distribution of the particle in space.
It is related to the probability of finding the
particle in each of various regions; the particle is
most likely to be found in regions where Y is
large, and so on. If the particle has a charge, the
wave function can be used to find the charge
density at any point in space. In addition, from Y
one can calculate the average position of the
particle, its average velocity, and dynamic
quantities such as momentum, energy, and
angular momentum. The required techniques are
far beyond the scope of this discussion, but they
are well established and no longer subject to any
reasonable doubt.
The answer to the second question is that the
wave function must be one of a set of solutions
of a certain differential equation called
Schrödinger equation, developed by Schrödinger
in 1925. One can set up a Schrödinger equation
for any given physical situation, such as electron
in hydrogen atom; the functions that are solutions
of this equation represent the various possible
529 | P a g e
physical states of the system. These solutions are
usually a series of functions corresponding to
specific energy levels.
The precise interpretation of the wave function
was given by M Born in 1926. He pointed out a
statistical explanation for the wave functions
which are given below:
(1) the wave function Ψ which is the solution of
Schrödinger equation, is a probability wave
function.| Ψ |2 = Ψ·Ψ* is the density of
probability, | Ψ(x) |2 dx denotes the probability
of the particle in question which can be found
near the point x, at the interval of dx;
(2) the wave functions have to be satisfied with
the standard conditions of single value,
continuity and finite. The physical meaning
of the conditions is that at a particular
moment, the probabilities of finding the
particle in a particular point in space should
be unique, finite (less than 1) and that the
distribution of the probabilities of the
appearance of the particle in space should be
continuous.
(3) the wave functions should be normalized,
r 2 3
∫ Ψ (r , t ) d r = 1
This is called normalizing condition. It means
that at a particular time, the probability of
finding the particle in the whole space is
equal to 1.
(4) The wave function is satisfied with the
superposition theorem. This means that if y1
and y2 are the possible states of the particle,
and their combination state, c1ψ1 + c2ψ2 , is
also a possible state of the particle.
Schrödinger Equation
As stated before, Schrödinger equation in
quantum mechanics is as important as Newton’s
laws in classical mechanics. He shared the Nobel
price in 1933 with Dirac who established the
relativistic quantum mechanics while
Schrödinger built up the non-relativistic quantum
mechanics.
Schrödinger equation cannot be derived from
classical theory, so it is regarded as one of
several fundamental hypotheses in quantum
mechanics.
The five fundamental postulates in quantum
mechanics are given below:
• A state of micro-system can be completely
described by a wave function;
• Physical quantities can be represented by the
linear and Hermitian operators that have
complete set of eigen-functions.
• Fundamental quantization condition, the
commutator relation between coordinate and
momentum.
• The variation of wave function with time
satisfies Schrodinger equation.
530 | P a g e
• Identical principle: the systematic state is The potential energy in quantum mechanics does
unchanged if two identical particles are swapped not change with time in most cases. Therefore, it
in the system. is just a function of coordinates x, y, and z. The
The general form of Schrödinger equation is Hamiltonian H in quantum theory is an operator
widely used in quantum mechanics is which could be easily obtained by the following
r
∂Ψ ( r , t ) ˆ r substitutions:
ih = HΨ ( r , t ) (26)
∂t ∂
E → ih P → −ih∇ (30)
Where i is the imaginary unit, h is called ∂t
universal constant which is equal to the Planck’s Where ∇ is Laplace operator which is expressed
constant h divided by 2π; H is the Hamiltonian of as
the system and Ψ is the wave function for the r ∂ r ∂ r ∂
∇=i + j +k (31)
particle concerned. ∂x ∂y ∂z

In most cases, the wave function Ψ can be therefore

separated into the product of two functions which

are those of coordinates and time respectively, ∂ ∂ ∂
Px → −ih , Py → −ih , Pz → −ih
∂x ∂y ∂z
that is
r r − i Et When the Hamiltonian does not contain time
Ψ ( r , t ) = ψ ( r )e h (27)
variable, it gives
Substituting (9.8.3) into (9.8.2), the Schrödinger
ˆ P2 h2 2
equation for the stationary state could be H= + V (r ) = − ∇ + V (r )
2m 2m
obtained: (32)
h2  ∂2 ∂2 ∂2 
r r =−  2 + 2 + 2  + V (r )
Hˆ ψ ( r ) = Eψ (r ) (28) 2m  ∂x ∂y ∂z 

Where E is the total energy of the system or the Substituting the above formula, we have
particle. Solving the above equation, the wave
function can be obtained and the energy  h2  ∂2 ∂2 ∂2  
−  2 + 2 + 2  + V (r)ψ (x, y, z) = Eψ (x, y, z)
corresponding to the wave function could be also  2m  ∂x ∂y ∂z  
achieved. Classically, the Hamiltonian H is (33)
defined as the summation of kinetic and potential Rearrange this formula, we have
energies:  ∂2 ∂2 ∂2  2m
 2 + 2 + 2 ψ + 2 (E − V )ψ = 0
P2 r  ∂x ∂y ∂z  h
H = Ek + E p = + V (r , t ) (29) (34)
2 2 2
2m ∂ ψ ∂ ψ ∂ ψ 2m
+ + + (E − V )ψ = 0
∂x 2 ∂y 2 ∂z 2 h 2

531 | P a g e
 ∞ ∞ rigid walls. So, there is no probability to find the
V( particle at x =0, L. According to the
x)
interpretation of wave functions, they should be
equal to zero at x =0, L.
0
According to the interpretation of wave
Fig. 1 One-dimensional square well potential with perfectly rigid walls.
functions, they should be equal to zero at x =0, L.
These conditions are called
Let’s have a look some examples boundary conditions. Let’s derive the
Try this example: A free particle moves along x- Schrödinger equation in the system. Generally,
direction. Set up its Schrödinger equation. The ∂ 2ψ ∂ 2ψ ∂ 2ψ 2m
+ + + (E − V )ψ = 0
answer should be ∂x 2 ∂y 2 ∂z 2 h 2
d 2ψ 2mE But now only one dimension and and V=0, so we
+ 2 ψ =0 (9.35)
dx 2 h have
If the particle moves in a potential field with ∂ 2ψ 2m d 2ψ
+ 2 Eψ = 0 ⇒ + k 2ψ = 0 (37)
potential energy function V(x), its Schrödinger ∂x 2
h dx 2

equation is This differential equation having the same form

d 2ψ 2m with the equation of SHM. The solution can be
+ 2 (E − V ( x) )ψ = 0 (9.36)
dx 2 h written as
That is because the total energy changes in such ψ ( x ) = A sin kx + B cos kx (38)
a case. with
1
 2 mE 
2

One-dimensional infinite deep potential well k = 2  (39)

 h 
As a simple explicit example of the calculation
Application of the boundary condition at x =0
of discrete energy levels of a particle in quantum
and L gives
mechanics, we consider the one-dimensional
ψ ( 0) = 0 ⇒ B cos k 0 = 0
motion of a particle that is restricted by reflecting
walls that terminate the region of a constant ψ ( L) = 0 ⇒ A sin kL + B cos kL = 0

potential energy. Solving these equations, we obtain

It is supposed that the V(x) = 0 in the well but
A sin kL = 0 & B=0
becomes infinity while at x = 0 and L. Therefore,
the particle in the well cannot reach the perfectly Now we do not want A to be zero, since this
would give physically uninteresting solution y =0

532 | P a g e
everywhere. There is only one possible solution
that is given as Discussion
1. Zero-point energy
sin kL = 0, ⇒ kL = nπ n = 1,2,3, L When the temperature is at absolute zero degree
0°K, the energy of the system is called the zero-
So, the wave function for the system is
point energy. From above equations, we know
nπ
ψ ( x ) = A sin x n = 1,2,3, L (41) that the zero energy in the quantum system is not
L
zero. Generally, the lowest energy in a quantum
It is easy to see that the solution is satisfied with
system is called the zero-point energy. In the
the standard conditions of wave functions and the
system considered, the zero-point energy is
energies of the particle in the system can be
easily found by the above two equations (39) and π 2h 2
ε 0 = E1 = (46)
2mL2
(40)
2. Energy intervals

1
Comparing the interval of two immediate energy
nπ  2 mE  2 π 2h 2n 2
= 2  ⇒E= n = 1,2,3, L levels with the value of one these two energies,
L  h  2 mL2
we have
It is evident that n = 0 gives physically E n +1 − E n (n + 1) 2 − n 2 2n + 1
= = (47)
uninteresting result y = 0 and that solutions for En n2 n2

negative values of n are not linearly independent If we study the limiting case of the system, i.e. n
of those for positive n. the constants A and B can →∞ or very large, the above result should be 2/n
easily be chosen in each case so that the normal and approaches zero while n is very large.
functions have to be normalized by. Therefore, the energy levels in such a case can be
L
L considered continuous and come to Classical
∫ψ * ( x)ψ ( x) = A
2
=1 (43)
0
2 physics.

So, the one-dimensional stationary wave function

in solid wells is 3. Distributions of probabilities of the particle
appearance in the solid wall well
2  nπ 
ψ ( x) = sin x (44) n = 1, the biggest probability is in the middle of
L  L 
the well, but it is zero in the middle while n =2.
And its energy is quantized,
π 2h 2 n 2 ψ2(x)
E= n = 1,2,3,L (45)
2mL2

533 | P a g e
 The tunneling effect
This effect cannot be understood classically.
When the kinetic energy of a particle is smaller
than the potential barrier in front of it, it still
have some probability to penetrate the barrier.
This phenomenon is called tunnelling effect. In
quantum mechanics, when the energy of the
particle is higher than the potential barrier, the
particle still has some probabilities to be
reflected back at any position of the barrier.
Fig.2 The wave shape and distribution of the I II III

density of the probability of the particle V0

appearance.

When n is very large, the probability of the

Fig.3 the tunnel effect
particle appearance will become almost equal at
any point and come to the classical results. The If you would like to solve the problem quantum-
phenomenon within well can also be explained mechanically, you have to solve the Schrödinger
by standing wave theory. equations at the three regions in Fig 3 and the
λ h nh nπh standard and boundary conditions of wave
L = n⋅ = n⋅ ⇒ p= = (48)
2 2p 2L L function have also to be used to solve them. This
where λ should be the wavelength of De Broglie case is a little bit more complex than previous
wave function in the well and the energy in the one.
infinite deep well could be easily found using the V 0≤x≤a
V ( x) =  0 (50)
particle momentum found above: 0 x < 0, x > a
p 2 n 2π 2 h 2 Based on the potential in different regions, the
E= = (49)
2m 2mL2 Schrödinger equations at the three regions in Fig.
This is the simplest example in quantum 9.3 could be written as
mechanics. Students should fully understand all
d 2ψ
+ k12ψ = 0 (I & III) (x <0, x > a) (51)
the concepts involved in the example. dx 2

534 | P a g e
 d 2ψ
2
+ k 22ψ = 0 (II)
dx
(0 ≤ x ≤ a) (52)
where
2mE 2m( E − V0 )
k12 = , k 22 = (53)
h2 h2
•The scanning tunnelling microscope (STM)
resolutions: lateral resolution ~ 0.2 nm vertical
resolution ~ 0.001nm
• The STM has, however, one serious limitation:
it depends on the electrical conductivity of the
sample and the tip. Unfortunately, most of the
materials are not electrically conductive at their
surface. Even metals such as aluminium are
covered with nonconductive oxides. A new
microscope, the atomic force microscope (AFM)
overcomes the limitation. It measures the force
between the tip and sample instead of electrical
current and it has comparable sensitivity with
STM
The concept of atomic structure in quantum
mechanics
We consider one-electron atoms only, Hydrogen
or hydrogen-like atoms. The real system does not
have to be in one-dimensional space between two
rigid reflecting walls but in three-dimensional
space. For hydrogen atom, a central proton holds
the relatively light electron within a region of
space whose dimension is of order of 0.1nm.
As we know, the one-dimensional example has
one quantum number. But for an atomic quantum
system, it is three dimensional, so we have three
quantum numbers to determine the state of the
system.
In order to set up the Schrödinger equation of the
hydrogen system, we need to find potential
energy for the system. It is known that such a
system contains a proton in the centre of the
atom and an electron revolving around the
proton. The proton has positive charge and the
electron has negative charge.
If we assume that the proton should be much
heavier than the electron and the proton is taken
as stationary, the electron moves in the electrical
field of the proton. The electrostatic potential
energy in such a system can be written easily as
e2
V (r ) = − (54)
4πε 0 r
Of course, this formula is obtained in the
electrically central force system, the proton is
located at r = 0 and the electron is on the
spherical surface with radius r. The Schrödinger
equation of the atomic system is
∂ 2ψ ∂ 2ψ ∂ 2ψ 8π 2 m  e2 
+ + +  E + ψ = 0
∂x 2 ∂y 2 ∂z 2 h 2  4πε 0 r 
(55)
Completely solving the problem (using spherical
coordinates, Ψ = Ψ(r,θ,ϕ)), the wave function
should have the form Ψ = Ψnlm (r,θ,ϕ).
535 | P a g e
Therefore, solving the Schrödinger equation, we
have three quantum numbers. Of course, we have
another one for electron spin.
Four quantum numbers
1. Energy quantization --- principal quantum
number
The first one is called principal quantum number
n. The energy of the system depends on this only
while the system has a spherical symmetry. The
energy is
me 4 Z 2
En = − 2 2 ⋅ 2 n = 1,2,3,L (56)
8ε 0 h n
where Z is the number of protons in hydrogen-
like atoms.
2. Angular momentum quantization
When the symmetry of the system is not high
enough, the angular momentum is not in the
ground state (l = 0) but in a particularly higher
state. For a given n, angular momentum can be
taken from 0 to n -1 different state. In this case,
the angular momentum has been quantized
h
L = l (l + 1) l = 0,1,2,3, L , ( n − 1)
2π
l is called angular quantum number and taken
from 0 to (n –1). The corresponding atomic states
are called s, p, d, f, … states respectively.
3. Space quantization --- magnetic quantum
number
when atom is in a magnetic field, the angular
momentum will point different directions in the
space and then has different projection value on
the direction of the magnetic field. This
phenomenon is called space quantization. Its
quantum number, called magnetic quantum
number, denoted by m, has values from –l to l.
h
Lz = m m = −l ,−l + 1, L ,−1,0,1,2, L , l
2π
m is called magnetic quantum number. Hence,
even we have the same angular momentum, it
still has (2l+1) different states which have
different orientation in the space.
4. Spin quantization ---- spin quantum number
The electron has two spin state generally, its spin
angular momentum is defined as
h
L s = s ( s + 1) (59)
2π
S is called spin quantum number. For electron,
proton, neutron, s is equal to ½.
The total number of electronic states for a given
main quantum number n
The possible number of electronic states in an
atom in En state should be:
• when n is given, the angular momentum
can be changed from 1 to n-1;
• for each l, magnetic quantum number m
(lz) can be from –l to +l including zero,
this is (2l+1);
• for each nlm state, there are two spin
states.
536 | P a g e
 Therefore the total number of electronic impossible for two or more electrons to stay in
states for a given n should be: one electronic state. This principle is called Pauli
n −1 exclusion principle.
Z n = ∑ 2(2l + 1) = 2n 2 (60)
l =0 The distribution of the electrons in an atom has
This explains why in the first shell of an atom, rules. They are determined by the energies of the
two electrons can be hold, and at the second electronic state.
shell, eight electrons could be hold and so on. In addition to the principal quantum number, the
angular momentum number is also quite
Electronic energy levels in and out atom important. For any principal number, different
The energy levels in an atom is given by angular momentum number l has different name.
me 4 Z 2 It is given by
En = − ⋅ n = 1,2,3,L
8ε 02 h 2 n 2 l= 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, …
The lowest energy in the Hydrogen-like atoms is s, p, d, f, g, h, …
n = 1, for hydrogen atom, the ground energy is 2(2l+1) = 2, 6, 10, 14, 18, …

me 4 The ground-state configuration of many of the

E1 = − 2 2 = −13.6eV (61)
8ε 0 h elements can be written down simply from a
The other energies are called excited energies knowledge of the order in which the energies of
and their corresponding states are called excited the shells increase. This order can be inferred
states. As the excited state energies are inversely from spectroscopic evidence and is given as
follows:
proportional to n2, the excited energy levels can
1s,2s,2p,3s,3p,[4s,3d],4p,[5s,4d],5p,[6s,4f,5d
be easily obtained.
],6p,[7s,5f,6d]
When the principal quantum number is very
The brackets enclose shells that have so nearly
large, the energy approaches zero. From above
the same energy that they are not always filled in
we can see that from n=6 to n = infinity, all the
sequence. Those shell energies are close together
corresponding energy levels are packed between
because the increase in n and the decrease in l
–0.38eV and zero. Therefore, at the very large
tend to compensate each other; thus, the 4s,
region of n, the discrete energy levels can be
which has a higher energy than 3d state in
recognized as continuous.
hydrogen, is depressed by the penetration caused
Atom with multiple electrons
by its low angular momentum.
In 1925, Pauli arrived at a principle from his
experiments. This principle says that in atom it is

537 | P a g e
The s shell in each bracket is always filled first,
although it can lose one or both of its electrons as
the other shells in the bracket fill up. Apart from
the brackets (parenthesis and braces), there are
no deviations from the indicated order of filling.
Because of time, we have to terminate quantum Success and Failure
theory here. However, quantum theory is far Explained successfully the phenomenon of
more complicated than we introduced above. For thermionic emission, photoelectric emission and
hydrogen, its eigenvalue equations can be written ionization. The model fail to explain the
as scattering of α-particles and it cannot explain the
Hˆ ψ nlm (r , θ , ϕ ) = E nψ nlm (r , θ , ϕ ) origin of spectral lines observed in the spectrum
Lˆ2ψ nlm (r , θ , ϕ ) = l (l + 1)h 2ψ nlm (r , θ , ϕ ) (9.62) of hydrogen and other atoms
Lˆ ψ (r , θ , ϕ ) = mhψ (r , θ , ϕ )
z nlm nlm 2 Rutherford’s model
Rutherford's α-particle scattering experiment
Summary Rutherford performed experiments on the
(1) Thomson's model scattering of alpha particles by extremely thin
J.J. Thomson gave the first idea regarding gold foils and made the following observations.
stru
ctur
e of
ato
m.
Acc (i) Most of the α-particles pass through the foil
ordi straight away undeflected.
ng (ii) Some of them are deflected through small
to this model. angles.
• An atom is a solid sphere in which entire and
positive charge and its mass is uniformly
distributed and in which negative charge (i.e.
electron) are embedded like seeds in
watermelon.

538 | P a g e
(iii) A few α-particles (1 in 1000) are deflected (b) Nucleus is positively charged and it's size is
through the angle more than 90o. of the order of 10–15m ≈ 1 Fermi.
(iv) A few α-particles (very few) returned back (c) In an atom there is maximum empty space
i.e. deflected by 180o. and the electrons revolve around the nucleus in
(v) Distance of closest approach (Nuclear the same way as the planets revolve around the
dimension) sun.
The minimum distance from the nucleus upto Drawbacks
which the α-particle approach, is called the (i) Stability of atom: It could not explain stability
distance of closest approach From figure of atom because according to classical
electrodynamic theory an accelerated charged
particle should continuously radiate energy.
.
Thus, an electron
(vi) Impact parameter (b): The perpendicular
moving in an circular path around the nucleus
distance of the velocity vector ( ) of the α-
should also radiate energy and thus move into
particle from the centre of the nucleus when it is smaller and smaller orbits of gradually
far away from the nucleus is known as impact decreasing radius and it should ultimately fall
parameter. It is given as into nucleus.

If t is the thickness of the foil and N is the

number of α-particles scattered in a particular
direction (θ = constant), it was observed that

After Rutherford's scattering of α-particles

(ii) According to this model the spectrum of
experiment, following conclusions were made as
atom must be continuous whereas practically it is
regard as atomic structure:
a line spectrum.
(a) Most of the mass and all of the charge of an
(iii) It did not explain the distribution of
atom concentrated in a very small region is
electrons outside the nucleus.
called atomic nucleus.

539 | P a g e
3 Bohr's model For an electron in the nth orbit of hydrogen atom
Bohr proposed a model for hydrogen atom which in Bohr model, circumference of orbit = nλ;
is also applicable for some lighter atoms in where λ= de-Broglie wavelength
which a single electron revolves around a Drawbacks of Bohr's atomic model
stationary nucleus of positive charge Ze(called (i) It is valid only for one electron atoms,
hydrogen like atom) e.g.: H, He+, Li+2, Na+1 etc.
Bohr's model is based on the following postulates (ii) Orbits were taken as circular but
(i) The electron can revolve only in certain according to Sommerfield these are
discrete non-radiating orbits, called stationary elliptical.
orbits, for which total angular momentum of (iii) Intensity of spectral lines could not be
the revolving electrons is an integral multiple explained.
of (iv) Nucleus was taken as stationary but it
also rotates on its own axis.
i.e. where n = 1,2,3,
(v) It could not be explained the minute
……………. = principal quantum number structure in spectrum line.
(ii) The radiation of energy occurs only when an (vi) This does not explain the Zeeman effect
electron jumps from one permitted orbit (splitting up of spectral lines in magnetic
to another. When electron jumps from field) and Stark effect (splitting up in
higher energy orbit (E1) to lower energy electric field)
orbit (E2) then difference of energies of (vii) This does not explain the doublets in the
these orbits i.e. E1–E2 emits in the form spectrum of some of the atoms like
of photon. But if electron goes from E2to sodium (5890Å & 5896Å)
E1it absorbs the same amount of energy.

Note:
According to Bohr theory the momentum of an
e− revolving in second orbit of H2 atom will be
Exercise
1. State the statistical explanations of the wave
functions and the physical properties of the
wave functions. If a wave function ψ is
divided by 2, what does the new function
mean?
2. A sodium surface is illustrated with the light
of wavelength 3.00 × 10-7 m. The work

540 | P a g e
 function for sodium is 2.46 eV. Find (a) the
kinetic energy of the ejected photoelectrons
and (b) the cutoff wavelength for sodium.
3. The speed of an electron is measured to be
5.00 × 103 m/s to an accuracy of 0.003%.
Find the uncertainty in determining the
position of this electron.
4. Find under what conditions you could obtain
the Wein’s and Rayleigh-Jeans’ formulae
from Plank’s formula for blackbody
radiation. Give your proof details.
5. One used two wavelengths of λ1 = 400 nm
and λ2 = 0.05 nm in his Compton effect
experiments. With the scattered angle of π,
x < a), Find the positions corresponding to
the highest probabilities of finding the
particle.
8. Give the simple explanations to the four
quantum numbers n, l, m, ms for hydrogen.
9. Suppose that a particle is limited in an
infinite deep potential well and its wave
2  πx 
function is given by ψ = sin  (0 < x
a a
< a), find the probability of finding the
particle within the range of [0, a/8].
10. A particle with mass of 10-17 kg is trapped
in a cell with diameter of 10-5 meters.
According to the infinite deep potential well,

find the two scattered wavelengths find the energies of the particle when n =

respectively and their corresponding ∆λ ⁄ λ. 100 and 101. What is the difference between

Give your comments about these two the two energies?

experiments.
6. In the hydrogen spectrum of Balmer series,
there is a spectral line with wavelength
430nm.
(a) Find the photon energy corresponding to
the spectral line;
(b) Suppose that the spectral line is
produced by the electron transmission
from energy levels En to Ek, find n and
k.
7. Suppose that a particle is limited in an
infinite deep potential well and its wave

2  2πx 
function is given by ψ = sin   (0 <
a  a 

541 | P a g e
 CHAPTER FOURTY TWO technique for understanding the structure of
X-Rays matter.
In 1895 at the University of Wurzburg, Wilhelm Typical x-ray wavelengths are about 0.1 nm,
Roentgen (1845–1923) was studying electrical which is on the order of the atomic spacing in a
discharges in low-pressure gases when he solid. We now know that x-rays are a part of the
noticed that a fluorescent screen glowed even electromagnetic spectrum, characterized by
when placed several meters from the gas frequencies higher than those of ultraviolet
discharge tube and even when black cardboard radiation and having the ability to penetrate most
was placed between the tube and the screen. He materials with relative ease. X-rays are produced
concluded that the effect was caused by a when high-speed electrons are suddenly slowed
mysterious type of radiation, which he called x- down—for example, when a metal target is
rays because of their unknown nature. struck by electrons that have been accelerated
Subsequent study showed that these rays through a potential difference of several
travelled at or near the speed of light and that thousand volts.
they couldn’t be deflected by either electric or
magnetic fields. This last fact indicated that x- Rontgen discovered that when pressure inside a
rays did not consist of beams of charged discharge tube kept 10–3 mm of Hg and potential
particles, although the possibility that they were difference is 25 kV then some unknown
beams of uncharged particles remained. In 1912 radiations (X-rays) are emitted by anode.
Max von Laue (1879–1960) suggested that if x-
rays were electromagnetic waves with very short Production of X-rays
wavelengths, it should be possible to diffract There are three essential requirements for the
them by using the regular atomic spacing’s of a production of X-rays
crystal lattice as a diffraction grating, just as (i) A source of electron
visible light is diffracted by a ruled grating. (ii) An arrangement to accelerate the
Shortly thereafter, researchers demonstrated that electrons
such a diffraction pattern could be observed. The (iii) A target of suitable material of high
wavelengths of the x-rays were then determined atomic weight and high melting point on
from the diffraction data and the known values of which these high-speed electrons strike.
the spacing between atoms in the crystal. X-ray
diffraction has proved to be an invaluable

542 | P a g e
 Coolidge X-ray tube
It consists of a highly evacuated glass tube
containing cathode and target. The cathode
consists of a tungsten filament. The filament is
coated with oxides of barium or strontium to
have an emission of electrons even at low
temperature. The filament is surrounded by a
molybdenum cylinder kept at negative potential
w.r.t. the target.
The target (it's material of high atomic weight,
high melting point and high
conductivity) made of tungsten or molybdenum
is embedded in a copper block.
The face of the target is set at 45o to the incident
electron stream.
V
Lead
chamber Anode
C controlled by varying the potential difference
Water
T between the cathode and the target.
F For
Filament W
Target
Window X-rays
The filament is heated by passing the current
through it. A high potential difference (≈ 10 kV
to 80 kV) is applied between the target and
cathode to accelerate the electrons which are
emitted by filament. The stream of highly
energetic electrons are focussed on the target.
Most of the energy of the electrons is converted
into heat (above 98%) and only a fraction of the
energy of the electrons (about 2%) is used to
produce X-rays.
During the operation of the tube, a huge quantity
of heat is produced in this target, this heat is
conducted through the copper anode to the
cooling fins from where it is dissipated by
radiation and convection.
(i) Control of intensity of X-rays: Intensity
implies the number of X-ray photons produced
from the target. The intensity of X-rays emitted
thermal is directly proportional to the electrons emitted
per second from the filament and this can be
increased by increasing the filament current. So,
intensity of X-rays ∝ Filament current
(ii) Control of quality or penetration power of
X-rays: Quality of X-rays implies the
penetrating power of X-rays, which can be
large potential difference, energy of
bombarding electrons will be large and hence
larger is the penetration power of X-rays.
Depending upon the penetration power, X-rays
are of two types
543 | P a g e
 Hard X-rays Soft X-rays (ix) They ionise the gases
More penetration power Less penetration (x) X-rays do not pass through heavy metals
power and bones.
More frequency of the order Less frequency of (xi) They affect photographic plates.

of ≈ 1019 Hz the order of ≈ 1016 (xii) Long exposure to X-rays is injurious for

Hz human body.

Lesser wavelength range More wavelength (xiii) Lead is the best absorber of X-rays.

(0.1Å – 4Å) range (4Å – 100Å) (xiv) For X-ray photography of human body
parts, BaSO4 is the best absorber.
(xv) They produce photoelectric effect and
Note: Production of X-ray is the reverse
Compton effect
phenomenon of photoelectric effect.
(xvi) X-rays are not emitted by hydrogen atom.
(xvii) These cannot be used in Radar because
Properties of X-rays
they are not reflected by the target.
(i) X-rays are electromagnetic waves with
(xviii) They show all the important properties of
wavelength range 0.1Å – 100Å.
light rays like; reflection, refraction,
(ii) The wavelength of X-rays is very small in
interference, diffraction and polarization
comparison to the wavelength of light.
etc.
Hence they carry much more energy
(This is the only difference between X- Absorption of X-rays
X-rays are absorbed when they incident on
rays and light)
substance.
(iii) X-rays are invisible.
(iv) They travel in a straight line with speed
of light. I0 Emergent X-
rays
(v) X-rays are measured in Rontgen (measure
I
of ionization power). Incident X-rays

(vi) X-rays carry no charge so they are not

x
deflected in magnetic field and electric
field.
(vii) λ Gama rays < λ X -rays < λUV rays Intensity of emergent X-rays I = I 0 e − µx
So, intensity of absorbed X-rays
(viii) They used in the study of crystal
structure. I' = I 0 − I = I 0 (1 − e − µx )

544 | P a g e
where x = thickness of absorbing medium, µ = during deceleration is emitted in the form of X-
absorption coefficient rays.
Note: The X-ray photons emitted so form the
The thickness of medium at which intensity of continuous X-ray spectrum.
I0 Note: Continuous X-rays are produced due to the
emergent X-rays becomes half i.e. I' = is
2 phenomenon called "Bremsstrahlung". It means
called half value thickness (x1/2) and it is given slowing down or braking radiation.
0 . 693 Minimum wavelength
as x 1 / 2 = .
µ When the electron loses whole of its energy in a
Classification of X-ray single collision with the atom, an X-ray photon
In X-ray tube, when high speed electrons strike of maximum energy hνmax is emitted i.e.
the target, they penetrate the target. They lose 1 hc
mv 2 = eV = h ν max =
their kinetic energy and comes to rest inside the 2 λ min
metal. The electron before finally being stopped where v = velocity of electron before collision
makes several collisions with the atoms in the with target atom, V = potential difference
target. At each collision one of the following two through which electron is accelerated, c = speed
types of X-rays may get form. of light = 3 × 108 m/s
Maximum frequency of radiations (X-rays)
(1) Continuous X-rays eV
ν max =
As an electron passes close to the positive h
nucleus of Minimum wave length = cut off wavelength
hc 12375
of X-ray λ min = = Å
eV V
X-ray photon
e– Note: Wavelength of continuous X-ray photon
+
ranges from certain minimum (λmin) to infinity.

νma logeν logeλ

λmin
atom, the electron is deflected from its path as
shown in figure. This results in deceleration of V logeV V logeV

the electron. The loss in energy of the electron

545 | P a g e
 Intensity wavelength graph electron jumps from a higher energy orbit E1 to
The continuous X-ray spectra consist of all the lower energy orbit E2, it radiates energy (E1 –
wavelengths over a given range. These E2). Thus, this energy difference is radiated in
wavelengths are of different intensities. the form of X-rays of very small but definite
Following figure shows the intensity variation of wavelength which depends upon the target
different wavelengths for various accelerating material. The X-ray spectrum consist of sharp
voltages applied to X-ray tube. lines and is called characteristic X-ray spectrum.
For each voltage, the intensity curve starts at a
e–
particular minimum wavelength (λmin). Rises
X-ray photon
rapidly to a maximum and then drops gradually. e–
e–
+
K
L
The wavelength at which the intensity is M

maximum depends on the accelerating voltage,

being shorter for higher voltage and vice-versa.
K, L, M, …… series
Y
If the electron striking the target eject an electron
from the
Intensity

30 kV
20 kV
10 kV
λmin
Wave length
(2)
Characteristic X-rays
Few of the fast-moving electrons having high
velocity penetrate the surface atoms of the target
material and knock out the tightly bound
electrons even from the inner most shells of the
atom. Now when the electron is knocked out, a
vacancy is created at that place. To fill this
vacancy electrons from higher shells jump to fill
the created vacancies, we know that when an
O n=5
N n=4
Mα Mβ
M n=3
M-series
Lα Lβ Lγ
L n=2
L-series
Kα Kβ Kγ
K n=1
K-series
K-shell of the atom, a vacancy is crated in the K-
shell. Immediately an electron from one of the
outer shell, say L-shell jumps to the K-shell,
emitting an X-ray photon of energy equal to the
energy difference between the two shells.
Similarly, if an electron from the M-shell jumps
to the K-shell, X-ray photon of higher energy is

546 | P a g e
 emitted. The X-ray photons emitted due to the INTENSITY-WAVELENGTH GRAPH
jump of electron from the L, M, N shells to the
Intensity Kα
K-shells gives Kα, Kβ, Kγ lines of the K-series of Kβ
Lα
the spectrum. Lγ Lβ
K-series
If the electron striking the target ejects an L-series

electron from the L-shell of the target atom, an λmin Wavelength

electron from the M, N ….. shells jump to the L-

shell so that X-rays photons of lesser energy are At certain sharply defined wavelengths, the
emitted. These photons form the lesser energy intensity of X-rays is very large
emission. These photons form the L-series of the as marked Kα, Kβ …. As shown in figure. These
spectrum. In a similar way, the formation of M X-rays are known as
series, N series etc. may be explained. characteristic X-rays. At other wavelengths, the
Energy and wavelength of different lines intensity varies gradually and these X-rays are
Series Transition Energy Wavelength called continuous X-rays.
Kα L →K
( 2) (1)
EL − EK = h ν Kα λ = hc = 12375 Å
Kα
EL − EK (EL −EK)eV
Mosley's law
Kβ M→K
(3 ) (1)
E M − E K = hν K
λKβ =
hc
=
12375
Å Mosley studied the characteristic X-ray spectrum
EM − EK (EM − EK)eV
of a number of heavy elements and concluded

Lα M→ L E M − E L = hν Lα hc 12375 that the spectra of different elements are very

(3 ) (2) λLα = = Å
EM − EL (EM − EL)eV similar and with increasing atomic number, the

spectral lines merely shift towards higher

frequencies.
Note:
The wavelength of characteristic X-ray doesn't kβ
ν
depend on accelerating voltage. It depends on the kλ

atomic number (Z) of the target material.

λ Kα < λ L α < λ Mα and

Z

ν Kα > ν L α > ν M α
He also gave the following relation
λ Kα > λ L β < λ Kγ
ν = a (Z − b )

547 | P a g e
where ν = Frequency of emitted line, Z = Atomic (vii) Wave length of characteristic spectrum
number of target, a = Proportionality constant, 1  1 1 
= R ( Z − b ) 2  2 − 2  and energy of
b = Screening constant. λ  n1 n 2 
Note: a and b doesn't depend on the nature of X-ray radiations.
target. Different values of b are as follows hc  1 1 
∆E = h ν = = Rhc ( Z − b ) 2  2 − 2 
b = 1 for K-series λ  n1 n2 

b = 7.4 for L-series (viii) If transition takes place from n2 = 2 to n1 =

b = 19.2 for M-series 1 (Kα - line)
(Z – b) is called effective atomic number.
3 RC
(a) a = = 2 . 47 × 10 15 Hz
4
More about Mosley's law (b)
(i) It supported Bohr's theory  1  3RC
ν Kα = RC(Z −1)2 1 − = (Z −1)2 = 2.47 ×1015 (Z −1)2 Hz
(ii) It experimentally determined the atomic  22  4

number (Z) of elements.

(c) In general the wavelength of all the K-
(iii) This law established the importance of
1  1 
ordering of elements in periodic table by lines are given by = R(Z − 1) 2 1 − 2 
λK  n 
atomic number and not by atomic weight.
where n = 2, 3, 4, …. While for Kα line
(iv) Gaps in Moseley's data for A = 43, 61, 72, 75
1216
suggested existence of new elements λ Kα = Å
( Z − 1)
which were later discovered.
(d) E Kα = 10 . 2(Z − 1)2 eV
(v) The atomic numbers of Cu, Ag and Pt were
X-ray Fluorescence
established to be 29, 47 and 78
Since X-rays are rather energetic, excitation of
respectively.
sample electrons will give rise to fluorescence as
(vi) When a vacancy occurs in the K-shell, there
the sample electrons are excited and return to
is still one electron remaining in the K-
their ground states in a series of electronic
shell. An electron in the L-shell will feel
transitions.
an effective charge of (Z – 1)e due to +
When a primary x-ray excitation source from an
Ze from the nucleus and – e from the
x-ray tube or a radioactive source strikes a
remaining K-shell electron, because L-
sample, the x-ray can either be absorbed by the
shell orbit is well outside the K-shell
atom or scattered through the material. The
orbit.

548 | P a g e
process in which an x-ray is absorbed by the
atom by transferring all of its energy to an
innermost electron is called the "photoelectric
effect." During this process, if the primary x-ray
had sufficient energy, electrons are ejected from
the inner shells, creating vacancies. These
vacancies present an unstable condition for the
atom. As the atom returns to its stable condition,
electrons from the outer shells are transferred to
the inner shells and in the process give off a
characteristic x-ray whose energy is the
difference between the two binding energies of
the corresponding shells. Because each element
has a unique set of energy levels, each element
produces x-rays at a unique set of energies,
allowing one to non-destructively measure the
elemental composition of a sample. The process
of emissions of characteristic x-rays is called "X-
ray Fluorescence," or XRF. Analysis using x-ray
fluorescence is called "X-ray Fluorescence
Spectroscopy." In most cases the innermost K
and L shells are involved in XRF detection. A
typical x-ray spectrum from an irradiated sample
will display multiple peaks of different
intensities.
X-ray Diffraction
Like other forms of electromagnetic radiation, X-
rays are also susceptible to diffraction. This
property is most useful in determining the
structure of single crystal samples. Here’s the
basic idea: In crystals, we have an essentially
infinitely repeating sequence of atoms that are
usually layered one on top of another. In X-ray
diffraction, parallel beams of X-rays are sent into
a sample; some will immediately be reflected by
the surface layer; some will penetrate into inner
layers. As the X-rays travel into the inner layers,
some will be reflected and some will continue
through the sample and so. We now have a series
of reflected X-rays that can form an interference
pattern with each other; we will obtain an
interference pattern where dark regions
correspond to destructive interference and light
regions correspond to constructive interference.
The Bragg equation gives the angle of incidence
where constructive interference occurs in terms
of the interatomic distance between crystal
planes:
Sin θ = (nλ)/2d
Where, θ= angle of incidence
λ = wavelength
d = interplane distance of crystal
Below is a figure of the diffraction of X-rays by
a crystal.
549 | P a g e
 Diffraction and Bragg's Law
Diffraction occurs as waves interact with a
regular structure whose repeat distance is about
the same as the wavelength. The phenomenon is
common in the natural world, and occurs across a
broad range of scales. For example, light can be
diffracted by a grating having scribed lines
spaced on the order of a few thousand angstroms,
about the wavelength of light.
It happens that X-rays have wavelengths on the Uses of X-rays

In study of crystal structure: Structure of
order of a few angstroms, the same as typical
DNA was also determined using X-ray
interatomic distances in crystalline solids. That
diffraction.
means X-rays can be diffracted from minerals

In medical science.
which, by definition, are crystalline and have

In radiograph
regularly repeating atomic structures.

In radio therapy
When certain geometric requirements are met, X-

In engineering
rays scattered from a crystalline solid can

In laboratories
constructively interfere, producing a diffracted

In detective department
beam. In 1912, W. L. Bragg recognized a

In art; the change occurring in old oil
predictable relationship among several factors.
paintings can be examined by X-rays.
1. The distance between similar atomic planes in
a mineral (the interatomic spacing) which we call
Note:
the d-spacing and measure in angstroms.
 Nearly all metals emits photoelectrons when
2. The angle of diffraction which we call the
exposed to UV light. But alkali metals like
theta angle and measure in degrees. For practical
lithium, sodium, potassium, rubidium and
reasons the diffractometer measures an angle
cesium emit photoelectrons even when
twice that of the theta angle. Not surprisingly, we
exposed to visible light.
call the measured angle '2-theta'.
 Oxide coated filament in vacuum tubes is
3. The wavelength of the incident X-radiation,
used to emit electrons at relatively lower
symbolized by the Greek letter lambda and, in
temperature.
our case, equal to 1.54 angstroms.

550 | P a g e
 Conduction of electricity in gases at low
pressure takes because colliding electrons
acquire higher kinetic energy due to increase
in mean free path.
 Kinetic energy of cathode rays depends on
both voltage and work function of cathode.
 Photoelectric effect is due to the particle
nature of light.
 Hydrogen atom does not emit X-rays because
it's energy levels are too close to each other.
 The essential difference between X-rays and
of γ-rays is that, γ-rays emits from nucleus
while X-rays from outer part of atom.
 There is no time delay between emission of
electron and incidence of photon i.e. the
electrons are emitted out as soon as the light
falls on metal surface.
 If light were wave (not photons) it will take
about a year take about an year to eject a
photoelectron out of the metal surface.
 Doze of X-ray are measured in terms of
produced ions or free energy via ionization.
 Safe doze for human body per week is one
Rontgen (One Rontgon is the amount of X-
rays which emits 2.5 × 104 J free energy
through ionization of 1 gm air at NTP)
 Nearly all metals emits photoelectrons when
exposed to UV light. But alkali metals like
lithium, sodium, potassium, rubidium and
cesium emit photoelectrons even when
exposed to visible light.
 Oxide coated filament in vacuum tubes is
used to emit electrons at relatively lower
temperature.
 Conduction of electricity in gases at low
pressure takes because colliding electrons
acquire higher kinetic energy due to increase
in mean free path.
 Kinetic energy of cathode rays depends on
both voltage and work function of cathode.
 Photoelectric effect is due to the particle
nature of light.
 Hydrogen atom does not emit X-rays because
it's energy levels are too close to each other.
 The essential difference between X-rays and
of γ-rays is that, γ-rays emits from nucleus
while X-rays from outer part of atom.
 There is no time delay between emission of
electron and incidence of photon i.e. the
electrons are emitted out as soon as the light
falls on metal surface.
 If light were wave (not photons) it will take
about an year take about an year to eject a
photoelectron out of the metal surface.
 Doze of X-ray are measured in terms of
produced ions or free energy via ionisaiton.
Safe doze for human body per week is one
Rontgen (One Rontgon is the amount of X-rays
which emits 2.5 × 104 J free energy through
ionization of 1 gm air at NTP
Examples
551 | P a g e
1. Photo-energy 6 eV are incident on a surface of of a metal (for which work function is 1.65 eV)
work function 2.1 eV. What are the stopping will be?
potential? Threshold wavelength
By using Einstein’s equation E = W0 + Kmax ⇒ 12375 12375
λ0 = = = 7500 Å.
6 = 2 . 1 + K max ⇒ K max = 3 . 9 eV
W0 (eV ) 1 .65

K max ∴ so, minimum

Also V0 = − = − 3 .9 V .
ρ frequency
2. When radiation of wavelength λ is incident on c 3 × 10 8
ν0 = = = 4 × 10 14 Hz .
a metallic surface the stopping potential is 4.8 λ0 7500 × 10 −10

volts. If the same surface is illuminated with 4. Light of two different frequencies whose
radiation of double the wavelength, then the photons have energies 1 eV and 2.5 eV
stopping potential becomes 1.6 volts. Then the respectively, successively illuminates a metal of
threshold wavelength for the surface is? work function 0.5 eV. The ratio of maximum
hc 1 1  kinetic energy of the emitted electron will be
By using V0 =  − 
e  λ λ0 
(K max )1 1 − 0 .5 0 .5 1
⇒ = = = .
hc 1 1  (K max ) 2 2.5 − 0.5 2 4
4 .8 =  −  …… (i) and
e  λ λ0  5. Photoelectric emission is observed from a
hc  1 1  metallic surface for frequencies ν 1 and ν 2 of the
1 .6 =  −  ……….. (ii)
e  2λ λ 0 
incident light rays (ν1 > ν 2 ) . If the maximum

From equation (i) and (ii) λ0 = 4 λ. values of kinetic energy of the photoelectrons

3. When radiation is incident on a photoelectron emitted in the two cases are in the ratio of 1 : k,
emitter, the stopping potential is found to be 9 then the threshold frequency of the metallic

volts. If e/m for the electron is 1 . 8 × 10 11 Ckg −1

the surface is

maximum velocity of the ejected electrons is By using hν − hν 0 = k max

1 2 e ⇒ h(ν 1 − ν 0 ) = k 1 and h(ν 1 − ν 0 ) = k 2

m v max = eV 0 ⇒ v max = 2  . V0
2 m  ν1 −ν 0 k 1 kν 1 − ν 2
Hence = 1 = ⇒ ν0 =
ν 2 −ν 0 k 2 k k −1
= 2 × 1 . 8 × 10 11 × 9 = 1 . 8 × 10 6 m / s .
6. Light of frequency 8 × 10 15 Hz is incident on a
3. The lowest frequency of light that will cause
substance of photoelectric work function 6.125
the emission of photoelectrons from the surface

552 | P a g e
 eV. The maximum kinetic energy of the emitted is (h = Planck's constant, c = velocity of light in
photoelectrons is? air)?
Energy of incident photon hc 1
By using E = W0 + K max ⇒ = W 0 + mv 2
λ 2
E = hν = 6.6 × 10 −34 × 8 × 10 15 = 5.28 × 10 −18 J = 33 eV .
hc 1
−9
= W0 + mv 2 ……(i) and
400 × 10 2
From E = W0 + K max
hc 1
= W0 + m (2v ) 2 ……(ii)
⇒ K max = E − W0 = 33 − 6 .125 250 × 10 −9 = 26 . 872 eV ≈ 27 eV .
7. A photo cell is receiving light from a source From equation (i) and (ii) W0 = 2hc × 10 6 J .
placed at a distance of 1 m. If the same source is 10. The work functions of metals A and B are in
to be placed at a distance of 2 m, then the ejected the ratio 1 : 2. If light of frequencies f and 2f are
electron? incident on the surfaces of A and B respectively,
1 the ratio of the maximum kinetic energies of
Number of photons ∝ Intensity ∝
(distance) 2
photoelectrons emitted is (f is greater than
2 2
N1  d 2  N1  2  threshold frequency of A, 2f is greater than
⇒ =  ⇒ − 
N 2  d 1  N2 1  threshold frequency of B)?
N1 By using E = W0 + K max
⇒ N2 = .
4
⇒ E A = hf = W A + K A and
8. When yellow light incident on a surface no
EB = h (2 f ) = WB + KB
electrons are emitted while green light can emit.
1 WA + K A
If red light is incident on the surface then? So, = ……(i)
2 WB + K B
λGreen < λ Yellow < λRed
WA 1
According to the question λ Green is the maximum also it is given that =
WB 2
wavelength for which photoelectric emission ……..(ii)
takes place. Hence no emission takes place with From equation (i) and (ii) we get
red light. KA 1
= .
9. When a metal surface is illuminated by light of KB 2
wavelengths 400 nm and 250 nm the maximum 11. When a point source of monochromatic light
velocities of the photoelectrons ejected are v and is at a distance of 0.2m from a photoelectric cell,
2v respectively. The work function of the metal the cut-off voltage and the saturation current are
0.6 volt and 18 mA respectively. If the same

553 | P a g e
source is placed 0.6 m away from the 4 
2  E
photoelectric cell, then? 4  3  2W0
⇒ E ' = E hence v ' = −
3 m m
Photoelectric current (i) ∝ Intensity ∝
1/2
4 2E 2W0
1 ⇒ v ' =   − 1/2
. 3 m 4
(distance) 2 m 
3
If distance becomes 0.6 m (i.e. three times) so 1/2
4 
1 ⇒ v' =  
current becomes times i.e. 3
9
1/2
2E 2W0 4
2mA. X = − > v so v ' >   v.
m 4 
1/2
3
Also, stopping potential is m 
3
independent of intensity i.e. it remains 0.6 V.
13. The minimum wavelength of X-rays
12. In a photo-emissive cell with exciting
produced in a coolidge tube operated at potential
wavelength λ , the fastest electron has speed v. If
difference of 40 kV is?
the exciting wavelength is changed to 3 λ / 4 , the
12375
speed of the fastest emitted electron will be? λmin = = 0 . 309 Å
40 × 10 3
1 2
From E = W 0 + mv max ≈ 0 . 31 Å
2
14. The X-ray wavelength of Lα line of
2 E 2W0 hc
⇒ v max = − (where E = )
m m λ platinum (Z = 78) is 1 .30 Å. The X –ray
If wavelength of incident light charges from λ to wavelength of La line of Molybdenum (Z =
3λ 42) is?
(decreases)
4
The wave length of Lα line is given by
Let energy of incident light charges from E to E'
1  1 1  1
and speed of fastest electron changes from v to v = R(z − 7 . 4 )2  2 − 2  ⇒ λ ∝
λ 2 3  (z − 7 . 4 )2
′ then
λ1 (z 2 − 7 . 4 )2 1 . 30 (42 − 7 . 4 )2
2 E 2W0 ⇒ = ⇒ =
v= − …..(i) and λ2 (z1 − 7 . 4 )2 λ2 (78 − 7 . 4 )2
m m

2 E ' 2W0
v' = − …….(ii) λ2 = 5 . 41 Å .
m m ⇒

As E ∝
1 15. The cut off wavelength of continuous X-ray
λ
from two coolidge tubes operating at 30 kV but

554 | P a g e
using different target materials (molybdenum ∴
Z= 42 and tungsten Z = 74) are? ∆λ ' = λ Kα − 2λ min
Cut off wavelength of continuous X-rays = 2(∆λ) − λ Ka
depends solely on the voltage applied and does
∴ ∆λ ' < 2 (∆λ)
not depend on the material of the target. Hence
the two tubes will have the same cut off 18. Molybdenum emits Kα-photons of energy
wavelength. 18.5 keV and iron emits Kα photons of energy

hc 34.7 keV. The times taken by a molybdenum Kα

Ve = h ν =
λ photon and an iron Kα photon to travel 300 m are

or Photon have the same speed whatever be their

energy, frequency, wavelength, and origin.
hc 6 . 627 × 10 −34 × 3 × 10 8 =10
λ= = m = 414 × 10 m = 0 . 414 Å.
Ve 30 × 10 3 × 1 . 6 × 10 −19 ∴ time of travel of either photon

16. Two photons, each of energy 2.5eV are 300

= 8
= 10 − 6 s = 1 µ s
simultaneously incident on the metal surface. If 3 × 10
the work function of the metal is 4.5 eV, then
from the surface of metal
Photoelectric effect is the phenomenon of one to
one elastic collision between incident photon and
an electron. Here in this question one electron
absorbs one photon and gets energy 2.5 eV which
is lesser than 4.5 eV. Hence no photoelectron
emission takes place.
17. In X-ray tube when the accelerating voltage
V is halved, the difference between the
wavelength of Kα line and minimum wavelength
of continuous X-ray spectrum
∆λ = λ Kα − λ min when V is halved λ min

becomes two times but λ Ka

remains the same.

555 | P a g e
 CHAPTER FOURTY-THREE
RADIOACTIVITY AND NUCLEAR
ENERGY
After having learned Röntgen’s discovery of X-
rays, H. Becquerel tried to see if X-rays were
emitted among the fluorescence from uranium
salts. He further subjected his sample of uranyl
sulfate, K2UO2(SO4)2*2H2O, to sun light
hoping that his sample will collect the solar
energy for the release of fluorescence. To his
surprise, he found the fluorescence persisted after
the sample was removed from the sun light. In
his first article reporting the phenomenon
(February 24, 1896), he stated that he wrapped
the silver bromide photographic plate in two
sheets of very heavy black paper so that the plate
did not fog on a day's exposure to sunlight. A
lamella of uranium-potassium double salt was
placed above the paper on the outside and the
whole was exposed to the sun for several hours.
Becquerel’s Experim ents Leading to the Discovery
of Radioactivity
Uranium
salt
Ag Br Photographic plate
wrapped in black paper.
Im age of uranium salt on plate
When the photographic plate was later
developed, the black silhouette of the double salt
lamella appeared on the negative photographic
plate. These experiments have been repeated by
placing a coin or a sheet of metal pierced with an
open work design between the salt disks and the
paper. The images of these objects can be seen
appearing on the negative photographic plates.
Thus, Becquerel concluded that the salt disk of
fluorescence material emitted radiation that
penetrated black paper and reduced the silver
bromide.
At about the same time, but independently, Marie
Curie and Gerhard Carl Schmidt, found that
compounds of thorium also emit similar rays. As
she began to study minerals, she found the rays
emitted by pitchblende very strong and intense.
Some ores of uranium were found to be more
radioactive than pure uranium or the chemically
“synthetic ores” from uranium. These discoveries
were difficult to explain at that time, and the
difficulty was a challenge that kept her research
interest on radioactivity. Marie Curie received
the Nobel Prize for chemistry in 1911 for having
discovered, isolated, and identified the element
radium isolated from pitchblende.
Pierre Curie concentrated his study on the
physical properties of radioactivity from uranium
and thorium. He subjected radioactive rays to the
influence of electric and magnetic fields and
556 | P a g e
found them consisting of varying amount of three gamma rays falls off exponentially, and zero
types. Rutherford, working in Thomson’s lab, intensity can only be achieved with very thick
also studied radioactive rays. Using metal foils as absorber. The ability to absorb these rays
absorbers, Rutherford also found three increases with the atomic weights of material in
components in the radioactive rays with different the stopping medium.
penetrating power. Curie and Rutherford called - and -particles and -rays all produce
the least penetrating and positively charged rays ionization as they move through a gas. On
alpha (α), the medium penetrating and average, -particles produce about 1000 times as
negatively charged rays beta (β), and the most many ions per unit length of their path as -
penetrating and neutral rays gamma (γ). They particles, which in turn produce about 1000 times
published these findings before they have as many ions as -rays. There are numerous
identified what α, β and γ rays were. Concepts
detectors of ionizing radiations such as - and -
had yet to be developed, and experiments had yet
particles and -rays. We begin by describing two
to be designed and performed in order to identify
detectors used in laboratories.
these three types of rays.
It took much more study to learn that alpha, α,
Geiger-Muller Tube
rays consists of heavy particles identical to the
A Geiger-Muller (GM) tube is widely used for
nuclei of helium (He) atoms. Rutherford and his
detecting ionizing particles. In one form, it
student Royds allowed alpha particles to be
consists of an insulated wire A mounted in a
defused through a thin glass wall to an evacuated
thin-walled glass tube B coated with aquadag (a
glass tube, in which they later detected the
colloidal suspension of graphite) and earthed
presence of helium from its emission (line)
(Fig. 1). A p.d V of the order of 400 volts is
spectrum. They concluded that alpha, α,
maintained across A, B. When a single ionizing
particles were indeed helium ions, in 1907.
particle enters the chamber,
Studies also showed that beta, β, particles, are
high-speed electrons emitted from atomic
nuclei whereas gamma, γ, rays are high-
energy photons with wavelengths shorter than
those of X-rays. Alpha particles can be stopped
by a thick aluminum foil, but beta rays require
100 times the thickness to stop. The intensity of Fig.1. Principle of Geiger-Muller tube.

557 | P a g e
a few electrons and ions are produced in the gas.
If V is above the breakdown potential of the gas,
the number of electrons and ions are multiplied
enormously. The electrons are attracted by and
move towards A, and the positive ions move
towards B. Thus, a 'discharge' is suddenly
obtained between A and B. The current flowing
in the high resistance R produces a p.d. which is
amplified and passed to a counter. This registers
the passage of an ionizing particle or radiation
through the tube.
The discharge persists for a short time, as
secondary electrons are emitted from the cathode
by the positive ions which arrive there. This
would upset the recording of other ionizing
particles following fast on the first one recorded.
The air in the tube is therefore replaced by argon
mixed with bromine vapour, which has the
property of quenching the discharge quickly.
Electrical methods are also used for quenching.
Solid State Detector
A solid-state detector (Fig. 2) is made from
semiconductors. Basically, it has a p-n junction
which is given a small bias in the non-
conduction direction. When an energetic ionizing
particle such an -particle falls on the detector
more electron-hole pairs are created near the
junction.
Fig. 2. Solid-State Detector
These charge carriers move under the influence
of the biasing potential and so a pulse of current
is produced. The pulse is fed to an amplifier and
the output passed to a counter.
The solid-state detector is particularly useful for
-particle detection. If the amplifier is specially
designed, -particles and -rays of high energy
may also be detected. This type of detector can
thus be used for all three types of radiation.
Dekatron Counter. Ratemeter
As we have seen, each ionizing particle or
radiation produces a pulse voltage in the external
circuit of a Geiger-Muller or solid state detector.
In order to measure the number of pulses from
the detectors, some form of counter must be
used.
A dekatron counter consists of two or more
dekatron tubes, each containing a glow or
discharge which can move around a circular
scale graduated in numbers 0-9, together with a
mechanical counter (Fig. 3). Each impulse causes
the discharge in the first tube, which counts units
to advance one digit.
558 | P a g e
 Fig. 4. Principle of a Ratemeter
The pulses received are passed to a capacitor C,
Fig. 3. Dekatron Counter
which then stores the charge. C discharges
The circuit is designed so that on the tenth pulse,
slowly through a high resistor R and the average
which returns the first counter to zero, a pulse is
discharge current is recorded on a microammeter
sent to the second tube. The glow here then
A. The greater the rate at which the pulses arrive,
moves on one place. The second tube thus counts
the greater will be the meter reading. The meter
the number of tens of pulses. After ten pulses are
thus records a current which is proportional to
sent to the second tube, corresponding to a count
the count rate. If a large capacitor C is used, it
of 100, the output pulse from the second tube is
will take a long time to charge and the pulses
fed to the mechanical counter. This, therefore,
will be averaged over a long time. A switch
registers the hundreds, thousands and so on.
marked 'time constant' on most ratemeters allows
Dekatron tubes are used in radioactive
the magnitude of C to be chosen. If a large value
experiments because they can respond to a rate
of C is used, the capacitor will take a relatively
of about 1000 counts per second. This is greatly
long time to charge and correspondingly it will
in excess of the count rate possible with a
be a long time before a reading can be taken. The
mechanical counter.
reading obtained, however, will be more accurate
In contrast to a scaler, which counts the actual
since the count rate is then averaged over a
number of pulses, a ratemeter is a device which
longer time (see below). For high accuracy, a
provides directly the average number of pulses
small value of C may be used only if the count
per second or count rate. The principle is shown
rate is very high.
in Fig. 4 below.
Errors in Counting Experiments
Radioactive decay is random in nature. If the
count rate is high, it is not necessary to wait so
long before readings are obtained which vary

559 | P a g e
relatively slightly from each other. If the count
rate is low, successive counts will have larger
percentage differences from each other, unless a
much longer counting time is employed.
The accuracy of a count does not depend on the
time involved but on the total count obtained. If
N counts are received, the statistics of random
processes show that this is subject to a statistical
error of . The percentage error is thus
A radium source S, producing - and -particles
and -rays, is placed at a fixed small distance
from a solid-state detector A and sensitive low-
noise pre-amplifier, which is connected to a
counter C (or ratemeter) (Fig. 5 (i)). Foils of
increasing thickness are placed over the source,
starting with very thin foils of paper and then
aluminium foils.

If 10 per cent accuracy is required, = 10 and

hence N = 100. Thus, 100 counts must be
obtained. If the counts are arriving at about 10
every second, it will be necessary to wait for 10
seconds to obtain a count of 100 and so achieve Fig. 5. Existence of - and -particles and -rays
10 per cent accuracy. Thus, a ratemeter circuit A graph of count rate against thickness of foil is
must be arranged with a time constant (CR) of 10 then plotted. The resulting curve, Fig. 5 (ii),
seconds, so that an average is obtained over this shows three distinct portions. To begin with, ,
time. If, however, the counts are arriving at a rate
and all pass through the very thin foils such as
of 1000 per second on average, it will be
paper. After a particular thickness the a-particles
necessary to wait only l/10th second to achieve
are absorbed, and beyond this point the curve
10 per cent accuracy. Thus, the 1 second time
does not then fall off with distance as quickly. A
constant scale on the ratemeter will be more than
similar change takes place when the -particles
adequate.
are all absorbed at a particular thickness of
Existence of -, -particles and -rays
aluminium plate, leaving another radiation, the
The existence of different ionizing particles or
-rays. This straightforward experiment shows
radiations from radioactive substances can be
the existence of three different types of radiation,
shown by an absorption experiment, using a
- and -particles and -rays.
counter or ratemeter.

560 | P a g e
 Alpha-Particles
It is found that -particles have a fairly definite
range in air at atmospheric pressure. This can be
shown by slowly increasing the distance between
a pure -source and a detector. The count rate is
observed to fall rapidly to zero at a separation
greater than a particular value, which is called
Nature of the -particle
Lord Rutherford and his collaborators found by
deflection experiments than an a-particle had a
mass about four times that of a hydrogen atom,
and carried a charge +2e, where e was the
numerical value of the charge on an electron. The
atomic weight of helium is about four. It was

the 'range' of the -particles. The range depends thus fairly certain that an a-particle was a helium

on the source and on the air pressure. nucleus, that is, a helium atom which has lost

Using the apparatus in figure 6 below, it can be two electrons. In 1909 Rutherford and Royds

shown the -particles are positively charged. showed conclusively that -particles were

When there is no magnetic field, the solid-state helium nuclei.

detector is placed so that the tube A is horizontal

in order to get the greatest count.
Radon, a gas given off by radium which emits -
particles, was
collected above
mercury in a thin-
walled tube P.
After several

Fig. 6. Charge on -particle days, some of the

a-particles passed
When the magnetic field is applied, the detector
through P into a
has to be moved downwards in order to get the
surrounding
greatest count. This shows that the -particles
vacuum Q, and in
are deflected by a small amount downwards. By
about a week, the
applying Fleming's left-hand rule, we find that
space in Q was
particles are positively charged. The vacuum
reduced in volume by raising mercury reservoirs.
pump is needed in the experiment, as the range
A gas was collected in a capillary tube R at the
of -particles in air at normal pressures is too
top of Q. A high voltage from an induction coil
small.
was then connected to electrodes at A and B, and

561 | P a g e
the spectrum of the discharge was observed to be
exactly the same as the characteristic spectrum of
helium.
Fig. 7. Rutherford and Royds’ experiment
on -particles
Beta-particles and Gamma-rays
By deflecting -particles with perpendicular
magnetic and electric fields, their charge-mass
ratio could be estimated. This is similar to
Thomson's experiment. These experiments
showed that -particles are electrons moving at
high speeds. Generally, -particles have a greater
penetrating power of materials than a-particles.
They also have a greater range in air than
particles, since their ionization of air is relatively
smaller, but their path is not so well defined.
Using a Ticonal bar magnet, it can be shown that
-particles are strongly deflected by a magnetic
field. The direction of the deflection corresponds
to a stream of negatively-charged particles, that
is, opposite to the deflection of -particles in the
same field. This is consistent with the idea that
-particles are usually fast-moving electrons.
The nature of -rays was shown by experiments
with crystals. Diffraction phenomena are
obtained in this case, which suggest that -rays
are electromagnetic waves (compare X-rays).
Measurement of their wavelengths, by special
techniques with crystals, show they are shorter
than the wavelengths of X-rays and of the order
10-9 cm. -rays can penetrate large thicknesses
of metals, but they have far less ionizing power
in gases than -particles.
If a beam of -rays are allowed to pass through a
very strong magnetic field no deflection is
observed. This is consistent with the fact that -
rays are electromagnetic waves and carry no
charge.
Beta-paricles are streams of very fast electrons
whose velocity exceeds that of ordinary cathode
(electron) rays and approaches that of light in a
vacuum. Their energy is 10 MeV. The character
of beta-particles has been confirmed by
-
measuring their specific charge, q / mβ , where
mβ is the mass of a beta-particle.
Gamma-rays are a hard electro-magnetic
radiation much more penetrating of all
radioactive rays. The properties of gamma-rays
mostly from their absorption and scattering by
substances. It has been found that they cause a
weak ionization in the material they traverse.
Since they have higher frequencies (that is,
shorter wavelengths) than X-rays, their quantum-
562 | P a g e
mechanical properties stand out with special Where λ is a constant characteristic of the atom
clarity. concerned called the radioactivity decay contant.
Experiments have shown that all radioactive Thus, if N0 is the number of radioactive atoms
radiations cause: present at a time t = 0, and N is the number at the
• chemical effects, end of a time t, we have, by integration,
• blacken photographic plates,
• ionize gases and, some solids and liquids to
fluoresce.
These properties are at the basis of experimental
(i)
techniques for the detection and investigation of
Thus, the number N of radioactive atoms left
radioactive rays
decreases exponentially with the time t, and this
is illustrated in Fig. 9 above.
Half-life Period
The half-life period T1/2 of a radioactive element
Radioactivity, or the emission of - or -
is defined as the time taken for half the atoms to
particles and -rays, is due to disintegrating
disintegrate, that is, in a time T1/2 the
nuclei of atoms. The disintegrations obey the
radioactivity of the element diminishes to half its
statistical law of chance. Thus, although we
value. Hence, from (i),
cannot tell which particular atom is likely to
disintegrate next, the number of atoms
disintegrating per second, dN/dt, is directly T1/2 (ii)
proportional to the number of atoms, N, present The half-life period varies considerably in a
at that instant. Hence: particular radioactive series. In the uranium
series for example, uranium I has a half-life
period of the order of 4500 million years, radium
has one of about 1600 years, radium F about 138
days, radium B about 27 minutes, and radium C
about 10-4 second.
The half-life of thoron, a radioactive gas with a
short half-life, can be measured with this
apparatus that is showed in figure 10. A solid-

563 | P a g e
state detector is mounted inside a closed chamber
and some thoron gas is passed in from a bottle Solution
containing thorium hydroxide which produces We have
Fig. 10. Half-life of thoron
the gas. The total count is measured every 30
seconds for about 5 minutes, when counting has
Hence, when N = 1012,
virtually stopped, and a graph of total count v.
time is then plotted. Now λ s-1

Number of disintegrations per second

When N = 104, we have

10

Fig. 11. Count in half-life experiment Taking logs to base 10,

Fig. 11 above shows the shape of the graph
obtained. To find the half-life, a line PQ is drawn
at half the final count. Half the atoms have
disintegrated in the time AB and hence AB is the
half-life, T1/2, of thoron. This is read from the
axis. Since,

Number of disintegrations per hour

Example
At a certain instant, a piece of radioactive
material contains 1012 atoms. The half-life of the = 9.6

material is 30 days. Example

1. Calculate the number of disintegrations in The half-life of radium equal to 1590 years. Find

the first second. its decay constant λ . and determine the number

2. How long will elapse before 104 atoms of nuclei in one gram of radium.

remains Solution.

3. What is the count rate at this time?

564 | P a g e
The the number of radium atoms per gram. It is
equal to Avogadro’s number, N A , divided by the
mass of one kilomole, M:
6.023 ×10 26 × 1/ kmole
N = NA / M = = 2.67 ×10 24 kg −1
226 kg/kmole
=2.67 ×10 24 g -1
Then the activity of one gram of radium will be
0.693
A = λ N = 0.693N / T = 2.67 ×1021 then the dust-free air in Y is subjected to a
1590 × 365 × 24 × 3600
controlled adiabatic expansion of about 1-31 to
= 3.7 ×1010 s −1
That is, the number of decays per second in one
gram of radium is 37000 milion
The definition of the cirie used at present reads
as follows: The curie is a unit of radioactivity
defined as the quantity of any radioactive nuclide
in which the number of decays per second is
3.7 × 1010 .
Wilson’s Cloud Chamber
C. T. R. Wilson’s cloud chamber, invented in
1911, was one of the most useful early inventions
for studying radioactivity. It enabled photographs
to be obtained of ionizing particles or radiation.
Basically, Wilson's cloud chamber consists of a
chamber Y into which saturated water-vapour is
introduced (Fig. 12). When the pressure is
suddenly reduced below a hollow glass piston X,
the latter drops down and the air in Y undergoes
an adiabatic expansion and cools. The dust nuclei
are all carried away after a few expansions by
drops forming on them, and
1-38 times its original volume. The air is now
supersaturated, that is, the vapour pressure is
greater than the saturation vapour pressure at the
reduced temperature reached but no water-
vapour condenses. Simultaneously, the air is
exposed to ionizing agents such as -, -particles
and -rays, and water droplets immediately
collect round the ions produced which act as
centres of formation. The drops are photographed
by light scattered from them, and in this way, the
tracks of ionizing particles or radiation are made
visible. Wilson's cloud chamber has proved of
immense value in the study of radioactivity and
nuclear structure.
Fig. 12. Principle of Cloud
Chamber-Wilson
The random nature of radioactive decay can be
seen by using a Wilson cloud chamber. Particles
emitted by a radioactive substance do not appear
at equal intervals of time but are sporadic or
entirely random. The length of the track of an
565 | P a g e
emitted particle is a measure of its initial energy.
The tracks of -particles are nearly all the same,
showing that the a-particles were all emitted with
the same energy. Sometimes two different
lengths of tracks are obtained, showing that the
-particles may have one of two energies on
emission.
Glaser's Bubble Chamber
In the same way as air can be super-saturated
with water vapour, a liquid under pressure can be
heated to a temperature higher than that at which
boiling normally takes place and is then said to
be superheated. If the pressure is suddenly
released, bubbles may not form in the liquid for
perhaps 30 seconds or more. During this quiet
period, if ionizing particles or radiation are
introduced into the liquid, nuclei are obtained for
bubble formation. The liquid quickly evaporates
into the bubble, which grows rapidly, and the
bubble track when photo- graphed shows the
path of the ionizing particle.
Glaser invented the bubble chamber in 1951. It is
now widely used in nuclear investigations all
over the world, and it is superior to the cloud
chamber. The density of the liquid ensures
shorter tracks than in air, so that a nuclear
collision of interest by a particle will be more
likely to take place in a given length of liquid
than in the same length of air. Photographs of the
tracks are much clearer than those taken in the
cloud chamber, and they can be taken more
rapidly. In 1963 a 1.5 metre liquid hydrogen
bubble chamber was constructed for use at the
Rutherford High Energy Laboratory, Didcot,
England. High energy protons, accelerated by
millions of volts are used to bombard hydrogen
nuclei in the chamber. The products of the
reaction are bent into a curved track by a very
powerful magnetic field, and the appearance and
radius of the track then provides information
about the nature, momentum or energy of the
particles emitted.
Scintillations and Photomultiplier
In the early experiments on radioactivity,
Rutherford observed the scintillations produced
when an a-particle was incident on a material
such as zinc sulphide. This is now utilized in the
scintillation photo- multiplier, whose principle is
illustrated in Fig. 13. When an ionizing particle
strikes the scintillation material or phosphor S,
the light
Fig. 13. Principle of photomultiplier
falls on a photo-sensitive material A and ejects
electrons. In one type of tube, these are now
focused towards and accelerated to an electrode
B, coated with a material which emits secondary
566 | P a g e
electrons four or five times as numerous as those
incidents on it. The secondary electrons then
strike an electrode C after further acceleration,
thus multiplying the number of electrons further,
and so on along the tube. A single ionizing
particle can produce a million electrons in a
photomultiplier tube, and the pulse of current is
amplified further and recorded. By choosing a
suitable phosphor, scintillation counters can
detect electrons and gamma rays, as well as fast
neutrons.
Emulsions
Special photographic emulsions have been
designed for investigating nuclear reactions. The
emulsions are much thicker than those used in
ordinary photography, and the concentration of
silver bromide in gelatine is many times greater
than in ordinary photography, -particles,
protons and neutrons can be detected in
specially-prepared emulsions by the track of
silver granules produced, which has usually a
very short range of the order of a millimetre or
less. Consequently, after the plate is developed
the track is observed under a high-power
microscope, or a photomicrograph is made.
Nuclear emulsions were particularly useful in
investigations of cosmic rays at various altitudes.
Discovery of Nucleus
In 1909 Geiger and Marsden, at Lord
Rutherford's suggestion, investigated the
scattering of a-particles by thin films of metal of
high atomic weight, such as gold foil. They used
a radon tube S in a metal -block as a source of a-
particles, and limited the particles to a narrow
pencil (Fig. 14). The thin metal foil A was placed
in the centre of an evacuated vessel, and the
scattering of the particles after passing through A
was observed on a fluorescent screen B, placed at
the focal plane of a microscope M. Scintillations
are seen on B whenever it is Struck by -
particles.
Fig. 14. Discovery of Nucleus-Geiger and
Marsden.
Geiger and Marsden found that -particles struck
B not only in the direction SA, but also when the
microscope M was moved round to N and even
to P. Thus, though the majority of -particles
were scattered through small angles, some
particles were scattered through very large
angles. Rutherford found this very exciting news.
It meant that some a-particles had come into the
567 | P a g e
repulsive field of a highly concentrated positive
charge at the heart or centre of the atom, and on
the basis of an inverse-square law repulsion he
calculated the number of -particles scattered in
a definite direction. The relationship was verified
by Geiger and Marsden in subsequent
experiments. An atom thus has a nucleus, in
which all the positive charge and most of its
mass is concentrated.
Atomic
Mass and
Atomic
Number
In 1911,
Rutherford proposed the basic structure of the
atom which is accepted today, and which
subsequent experiments by Moseley and others
have confirmed. A neutral atom consists of a
very tiny nucleus of diameter about 10-13 cm
which contains practically the whole mass of the
atom. The atom is largely empty. If a drop of
water was magnified until it reached the size of
the earth, the atoms inside would then be only a
few metres in diameter and the atomic nucleus
would have a diameter of only about 10-2
millimetre.
The nucleus of hydrogen is called a proton, and it
carries a charge of +e, where e is the numerical
value of the charge on an electron. The helium
nucleus has a charge of +2e. The nucleus of
copper has a charge of + 29e, and the uranium
nucleus carries a charge of +92e.
Generally, the positive charge on a nucleus is
+Ze, where Z is the atomic number of the
element and is defined as the number of protons
in the nucleus. Under the attractive influence of
the positively-charged nucleus, a number of
electrons equal to the atomic number move round
the nucleus and surround it like a negatively-
charged cloud.
Discovery of Protons in Nucleus
In 1919 Rutherford found that energetic -
particles could penetrate nitrogen atoms and that
protons were ejected after the collision. The
apparatus used is shown in Fig. 15. A source of
-particles, A, was placed in a container D from
which all the air had been pumped out and
replaced by nitrogen. Silver foil, B, sufficiently
thick to stop -particles, was then placed
between A and a fluorescent screen C, and
scintillations were observed by a microscope M.
The particles which have passed through B were
shown to have a similar range, and the same
charge, as protons.
Fig. 15. Discovery of protons in the
nucleus-Rutherford
Protons were also obtained with the gas fluorine,
and with other elements such as the metals
sodium and aluminium. It thus became clear that
the nuclei of all elements contain protons. The
number of protons must equal the number of
568 | P a g e
electrons surrounding the nucleus, so that each is
equal to the atomic number, Z, of the element. A
proton is represented by the symbol, ; the top
number denotes the mass number, the whole
number nearest to the relative atomic mass, and
the bottom number the nuclear charge in units of
+e.
The helium nucleus such as an -particle is
represented by ; its mass number is 4 and its
nuclear charge is +2e, so that the nucleus
contains two protons. One of the heaviest nuclei,
uranium, can be represented by ; it has a
mass number of 238 and a nuclear charge of
+92e, so that its nucleus contains 92 protons.
Discovery of Neutron in Nucleus
In 1930 Bothe and Becker found that a very
penetrating radiation was produced when -
particles were incident on beryllium. Since the
radiation had no charge it was thought to be y-
radiation of very great energy. In 1932 Curie-
Joliot placed a block of paraffin-wax in front of
the penetrating radiation, and showed that
protons of considerable range were ejected from
the paraffin-wax. The energy of the radiation
could be calculated from the range of the ejected
proton, and it was then found to be improbably
high.
In 1932 Chad wick measured the velocity of
protons and of nitrogen nuclei when they were
ejected from materials containing hydrogen and
nitrogen by the penetrating radiation. He used
polonium, A, as a source of -particles and the
unknown radiation X, obtained by impact with
beryllium, B, was then incident on a slab C of
paraffin-wax (fig. 17).
Fig. 17. Discovery of the neutron-Chadwick
The velocity of the protons emitted from C could
be found from their range in air, which was
determined by placing various thicknesses of
mica, D, in front of an ionization chamber, E,
until no effect was produced here. By previous
calibration of the thickness of mica in terms of
air thickness, the range in air was found.
Chadwick repeated the experiment with a slab of
material containing nitrogen in place of paraffin-
wax. He then applied the laws of conservation of
linear momentum and energy to the respective
collisions with the hydrogen and nitrogen atoms,
assuming that the unknown radiation was a
particle carrying no charge and the collisions
were elastic. From the equations obtained, he
calculated the mass of the particle, and found it
to be about the same mass as the proton.
Chadwick called the new particle a neutron, and
it is now considered that all nuclei contain
protons and neutrons. The neutron is represented
569 | P a g e
by the symbol as it has an atomic mass of 1
and zero charge.
We can now see that a helium nucleus, , has
2 protons and 2 neutrons, a total mass number of
4 and a total charge of +2e. The sodium nucleus,
, has 11 protons and 12 neutrons. The
involves production of an alpha (α) particle,
which is a helium nucleus and assigned the 42 He.
This is the common mode of decay for heavy
radioactive nuclides (those with atomic number,
Z > 83). When a nucleus loses an alpha particle
its mass number (A) decreases by 4 units and the

uranium nucleus, , has 92 protons and 146 atomic number (Z) decreases by 2 units. The
product of an alpha decay is a nuclide with two
neutrons. Generally, a nucleus represented by
less protons and neutrons, respectively, than the
has Z protons and (A — Z) neutrons.
original nuclide. For example, uranium-238
( 238 226
92 U) and radium-226 ( 88 Ra) decay by alpha
Radioactive Decay
Nuclei with unsuitable compositions are unstable particle emission, which change them to thorium-

and they undergo spontaneous disintegration or 234 and radon-222, respectively.

nuclear decay. Nuclides that undergo

238 234 4
spontaneous decay are said to be radioactive. 92 U  90 Th + 2 He;
Nuclear decay changes a radioactive nuclide into 226
Ra  222
Rn + 4
He
88 86 2
a stable one, which also change the identity of
the nuclide. For example, when a carbon-14
Beta Decays
nuclide decays by emitting a beta particle, it
Another common nuclear decay involves
becomes nitrogen-14 (which is stable).
the production of a beta (β) particle, which is a
nuclear particle identical to an electron in mass
14 14 0
C  N + e 0
6 7 −1
and charge, and is assigned the symbol −1 e. For
example, radioactive nuclides such as cobalt-60
Therefore, unlike a chemical reaction, nuclear 60
( 27 Co) and carbon-14 ( 146 C), decay by emitting β
reactions alter the identity of the atom.
particle.
60 60 0
27 Co  28 Ni + −1 e;
Types of Radioactive Decay
14 14 0
Alpha Decays 6 C  7 N + −1 e;
There are several different types of radioactive
decay. One frequently observed decay process The lost of a beta particle convert a neutron to a

570 | P a g e
proton: 1
0 n  1
1 H+ 0
−1 e. Thus, the product of When a nuclide emits a positron, a proton is
1
beta decay is a nuclide with the same mass converted to neutron: 1 p  01 n + 0
1 e. Thus, the

number (A), but with an atomic number one unit product of positron emission is a nuclide with the
higher than the original nuclide. Both decay same mass number (A), but with one unit lower
processes (as well as other types of radioactive in atomic number relative to the original nuclide.
decay) are accompanied by the production of Positron is not easily detected because as soon as
gamma (γ) rays, which are high-energy photons it is released it will encounter an electron outside
of electromagnetic radiation that has a very short the nucleus and they annihilate each other,
wavelength (λ ~ 10-13 m) and a very high producing characteristic γ rays that go in
frequency (f ~ 1021 s-1). The new nuclide opposite directions: 0
1 e + 0
−1 e  2e. This
formed in the decay process goes to an excited annihilation process is an example whereby
nuclear energy state, which then relaxes to the matter is converted to energy, and positron is
ground state and releases the excess nuclear often referred to as antimatter.
energy as γ radiation. For example, when
uranium-238 decays, two types of γ rays of Electron Capture
different energy are produced in addition to alpha Some radioactive nuclides decay by the electron
particle ( 42 He): capture (EC) process; that is, an electron from
the innermost shell (n = 1) is absorbed by the
238
U  234
Th + 4
He + 2 00 γ; nucleus, where it combines with a proton to form
92 90 2
1 0 1
a neutron: 1 p + −1 e  0 n.

γ rays are photons, which have zero charge and As in the positron emission, an electron capture
mass. The production of γ ray does not change produces a nuclide with the same mass number
the mass number (A) nor the atomic number (Z). (A), but with one unit less in atomic number (Z).
For example:
195 0 195
Positron Emission 79 Au + −1 e  78 P
A positron is identical to an electron in mass, but
it is positively charged. The symbol used for Radioactive Decay Series
0
positron is 1 e. For example, carbon-11 decays Heavy radioactive nuclides, such as radium-226
by a positron emission: and uranium-238, cannot gain stability by
11
C  11
B + 0
e; emission of a single radioactive particle. They
6 5 1

571 | P a g e
undergo a decay series, producing either an alpha Nuclear Transformation or Transmutation
or a beta particle and gamma radiation during Transmutation is an induced nuclear reaction that
each step, until a stable nuclide is formed. For results when a target nucleus is bombarded with
example, uranium-238 undergoes a decay series a fast moving particle or nuclear particle called
to form a stable lead-206. projectile. The first transmutation process was
238
92 U  234
90 Th  234
91 Pa  234
92 U  observed by Rutherford in 1919, who noticed
230 226 222 218 that when nitrogen-14 was bombarded with an
90 Th  88 Ra  86 Rn  84 Po 
alpha particle an oxygen-17 is formed:
214 214 214 210
82 Pb  83 Bi  84 Po  82 Pb 
210 210 206
Bi  Po  Pb 14 4 17 1
83 84 82
7 N + 2 He  8 O + 1 p
(How many  and  particles, respectively, are
About 14 years later, Irene Curie and her
produced in this decay series?)
husband, Frederick Joliot, observed a similar
transformation of aluminum to phosphorus when
Balancing Nuclear Reactions
bombarded by alpha particles.
In nuclear reactions, equations are balanced by 27 4 30 1
13 Al + 2 He  15 P + 0 n
matching the atomic number (that is, the charges)
Transmutation can also be carried out by
and the mass number on both side of the
bombarding the target with other positive ions.
equation. Once the atomic number of the product
Since the bombarding particles (the projectile)
nuclide is determined, it must be assigned proper
are positively charged and strongly repelled by
symbol. For example, polonium-212 decays by
the target nuclei, they must be accelerated to a
an alpha emission. Identify the new nuclide
very high speed in order to acquire sufficient
formed.
kinetic energy that would overcome the repulsion
212 4
84 Po  2 He + ?
force. This is accomplished in various types of
To identify the second product, its mass number
particle accelerators, such as the Stanford Linear
and atomic number must be determined. That is,
Accelerator, the cyclotron at UC Berkeley
the new nuclide has an atomic number = 84 - 2 =
Lawrence Livermore Lab, and other particle
82 (which is lead) and a mass number = 212 - 4 =
accelerators.
208. The nuclide symbol of the new nuclide is
All transuranium elements (those with Z > 93)
S(208, 82)Pb. The nuclear equation is written as:
are produced by transmutation processes. For
212 4 208
84 Po  2 He + 82 Pb example, element-106 (Seaborgium) was formed
by bombarding californium-249 with oxygen-18

572 | P a g e
nuclei, the projectiles are accelerated in a linear This law was stated in 1913 by Soddy, Russell
accelerator, called Superhilac. and Fajans.

249 18 263
98 Cf + 8 O  106 Sg + 4 01 n

Element 110, which is not yet named, was Bainbridge Mass Spectrometer

produced by bombarding lead-208 with nickel-64 Thomson's

ions: earliest
208 64 271 1 form of
82 Pb + 28 Ni9+  110 E + 0 n;
mass
(E is not actual symbol)
spectromete
Neutrons are also used as projectiles in many
r was
transmutation processes. Since neutrons are
followed by
neutral particles, they are not strongly repelled
more sensitive forms. In 1933 Bainbridge
by target nuclei and do not to be accelerated as
devised a mass spectrometer in which the ions
fast as positively charged particles. Instead,
were photographed after being deflected by a
neutrons are accelerated by heat, thus called
magnetic field. The principle of the spectrometer
thermal neutrons, which gives them enough
is shown in figure 18. Positive ions were
energy to enter target nuclei. The reaction is
produced in a discharge tube and admitted as a
called neutron capture:
fine beam through slits S1, S2. The beam then
59 1 60 0
27 Co + 0 n 27 Co + 0 e
passed between insulated plates P, Q, connected
Summarizing, we can say that:
to a battery, which created an electric field of
(i) when the nucleus of an element loses an a-
intensity E. A uniform magnetic field B1,
particle, the element is displaced two places to
perpendicular to E, was also applied over the
the left in the periodic table of the elements,
region of the plates, and all ions, charge , with
which follows in the order of its atomic number,
the same velocity given by B1 will
and lowers its mass number by two units;
then pass un-deflected through the plates and
(ii) when the nucleus of an element loses a -
through a slit S3. The selected ions are now
particle, the element is displaced one place to the
deflected in a circular path of radius r by a
right in the periodic table and its mass number is
uniform perpendicular magnetic field B2, and an
unaltered.
image is produced on a photographic plate A, as

573 | P a g e
shown. In this case, Fig. 18. Principle of
Bainbridge’s
Mass Spectrometer
But for the selected ions, from
above.
,
for given magnetic and electric fields.
Since the ions strike the photographic plate at a
distance 2r from the middle of the slit S3, it
follows that the separation of ions carrying the
same charge is directly proportional to their
mass. Thus, a 'linear' mass scale is achieved. A
resolution of 1 in 30000 was obtained with a later
type of spectrometer.
Einstein's Mass-Energy Relation
In 1905 Einstein showed from his Theory of
Relativity that mass and energy can be changed
from one form to the other. The energy E
produced by a change of mass m is given by the
relation:
where c is the numerical value of the velocity of
light. E is in joules when m is in kg and c has the
numerical value 3 x 108. Thus, a change in mass
of 1 g could theoretically produce 9 x 1013
joules of energy. Now 1 kilowatt-hour of energy
is 1000 x 3600 or 3.6 x 106 joules, and hence 9 x
1013 joules is 25 x 107 or 25 million kilowatt-
hours. Consequently, a change in mass of 1 g
could be sufficient to keep the electric lamps in a
million houses burning for about a week in
winter, on the basis of about seven hours' use per
day.
In electronics and in nuclear energy, the unit of
energy called an electron-volt ( ) is often used.
This is defined as the energy gained by a charge
equal to that on an electron moving through a p.d
of one volt.
1 eV = 1.6 x 10-19 joule
The megelectron-volt (MeV) is a larger energy
unit, and is defined as 1 million eV.
Atomic Mass Unit
If another unit of energy is needed, then one may
use a unit of mass, since mass and energy are
interchangeable. The atomic mass unit (a.m.u.) is
defined as one-twelfth of the mass of the carbon
atom Now the number of molecules in 1 mole
of carbon is 602 x 1023, Avogadro's constant,
and since carbon is monoatomic, there are 6.02 x
1023 atoms of carbon. These have a mass 12 g.
Mass of 1 atom of carbon
= 12 a.m.u.
574 | P a g e
1 a.m.u
We have seen that 1kg change in mass produces
9 x 1016 joules, and that 1 MeV = 1.6 x 10-13
joule.
1 a.m.u.
1 a.m.u. = 931 MeV (1)
This relation is used to change mass units to
MeV, and vice-versa, as we shall see shortly. An
electron mass, 91 x 10-31 kg, corresponds to
about 0.5 MeV.
Binding Energy
The protons and neutrons in the nucleus of an
atom are called nucleons. The work or energy
needed to take all the nucleons apart so that they
are completely separated is called the binding
energy of the nucleus. Hence, from Einstein's
mass-energy relation, it follows that the total
mass of all the individual nucleons is greater than
that of the nucleus, in which they are together.
The difference in mass is a measure of the
binding energy.
As an example, consider a helium nucleus
This has 4 nucleons, 2 protons and 2 neutrons.
The mass of a proton is 1.0076 and the mass of a
neutron is 1.009 a.m.u.
.'. total mass of 2 protons plus 2 neutrons
= 2 x 1.0076 + 2 x 1.009
= 4.0332 a.m.u.
But the helium nucleus has a mass of 4.0028
a.m.u.
.'. binding energy = mass difference of
nucleons and nucleus
= 4.0332 – 4.0028
= 0.0304 a.m.u.
= 0.0304 x 931 MeV = 28.3 MeV.
The binding energy per nucleon of a nucleus is
binding energy divided by the total number of
nucleons. In the case of the helium nucleus, since
there are four nucleons (2 protons and 2
neutrons), the binding energy per nucleon is
28.3/4 or about 71 MeV. Figure 19 below shows
roughly the variation of the binding energy per
nucleon among the elements. The great majority
have a value of about 8 MeV per nucleon. In
spite of considerable binding energy, elements
with high mass numbers may have a tendency to
disintegrate. This is not surprising because a very
heavy nucleus contains many
.
Fig. 19. Variation of binding energy per nucleon
with mass number
protons (and neutrons) packed into a very tiny
volume, and strong forces of repulsion may then
exist. An -particle, perhaps formed by two
575 | P a g e
neutron-proton pairs, may then be expelled from
the nucleus. A -particle is emitted when a
neutron changes into a proton in the nucleus.
Stability of Nuclei
It is instructive to consider, from an energy point
of view, whether a particular nucleus is likely to
disintegrate with the mission of an -particle. As
an illustration, consider radium F or polonium,
. If an -particle could be emitted from the
nucleus, the reaction products would be the
particle or helium nucleus, , and a lead
nucleus, , a reaction which could be
-particle, , = 4.004 a.m.u.
.'. total mass = 210.038 a.m.u.
Now polonium , = 210.049 a.m.u.
Thus, the atomic masses of the products of the
reaction are together less than the original
polonium nucleus, that is,
→ ,
where Q is the energy released. It therefore
follows that polonium can disintegrate with the
- emission of an -particle and a release of energy,
that is, the polonium is unstable.
Suppose we now consider the possibility of a

represented by: lead nucleus, , disintegrating with the

→ (i) emission of an -particle, . If this were

It should be noted that the sum of the mass possible, a mercury nucleus, , would be
numbers, 210, and the sum of the nuclear formed. The atomic masses are as follows:
charges, +84e, of the lead and helium nuclei is Mecury, , = 202.035 a.m.u.
equal to the mass number and nuclear charge of -particle, , = 4.004 a.m.u.
the polonium nucleus. .'. total mass = 206.039 a.m.u.
If we require to find whether energy has been
Now lead , = 206.034 a.m.u.
released or absorbed in the reaction, we should
Thus, unlike the case previously considered, the
calculate the total mass of the lead and helium
atomic masses of the mercury nucleus and a-
nuclei. and compare this with the mass of the
particle are together greater than the lead
polonium nucleus. It is more convenient to use
nucleus, that is,
atomic masses rather than nuclear masses, and
since the total number of electrons required on
where Q is the energy which must be given to the
each side of (i) to convert the nuclei into atoms is
lead nucleus to obtain the reaction products. It
the same, we may use atomic masses in the
follows that the lead nucleus by itself is stable.
reaction. These are as follows:
Lead , = 206.034 a.m.u.

576 | P a g e
Generally, then, a nucleus would tend to be
unstable and emit an -particle if the sum of the
atomic masses of the products are together less
than that of the nucleus, and it would be stable if
the sum of the atomic masses of the possible
reaction products are together greater than the
atomic mass of the nucleus.
Artificial Disintegration
Uranium, thorium and actinium are elements
which disintegrate naturally. The artificial
disintegration of elements began in 1919, when
Rutherford used -particles to bombard nitrogen
and found that protons were produced. Some
nuclei of nitrogen had changed into nuclei of
oxygen, that is, transmutation had occurred, a
reaction which can be represented by:
In 1932 Cockcroft and Walton produced nuclear
disintegrations by accelerating protons with a
high-voltage machine producing about half a
million volts, and then bombarding elements
with the high-speed protons. When the light
element lithium was used, photographs of the
reaction taken in the cloud chamber showed that
a-particles were produced. The latter shot out in
opposite direction from the point of impact of the
protons, and as their range in air was equal, the
a-particles had initially equal energy. The nuclear
reaction was:
(i)
where Q is the energy released in the reaction.
To calculate Q, we should calculate the total
mass of the lithium and hydrogen nuclei and
subtract the total mass of the two helium nuclei.
As already explained, however, the total number
of electrons required to convert the nuclei to
neutral atoms is the same on both sides of
equation (i), and hence atomic masses can be
used in the calculation in place of nuclear
masses. The atomic masses of lithium and
hydrogen are 7.018 and 1.008 a.m.u.
respectively, a total of 8.026 a.m.u. The atomic
mass of the two a-particles is 2 x 4.004 a.m.u. or
8008 a.m.u. Thus:
energy released, Q = 8.026-8008 = 0.18 a.m.u.
= 0.018 x 931 MeV = 16.8 MeV
Each -particle has therefore an initial energy of
8.4 MeV, and this theoretical value agreed
closely with the energy of the a-particle
measured from its range in air.
Cockcroft and Walton were the first scientists to
use protons for disrupting atomic nuclei after
accelerating them by high voltage. Today, giant
high-voltage machines are being built at Atomic
Energy centres for accelerating protons to
enormously high speeds, and the products of the
nuclear explosion with light atoms such as
hydrogen will yield valuable information on the
structure of the nucleus.
577 | P a g e
 Energy released in Fission
In 1934 Fermi began using neutrons to produce
nuclear disintegration. These particles
generally more effective than -particles or
protons for this purpose, because they have no
charge and are therefore able to penetrate more
deeply into the positively-charged nucleus.
Usually the atomic nucleus charges only slightly
after disintegration, but in 1939 Frisch and
Meitner showed that a uranium nucleus had
disintegrated into two relatively-heavy nuclei.
This is called nuclear fission, and as we shall
now show, a large amount of energy is released
in this case.
Natural uranium consists of about 1 part by
weight of uranium atoms and 140 parts by
weight of uranium atoms . In a nuclear
reaction with natural uranium and slow neutrons,
it is usually the nucleus which is fissioned.
If the resulting nuclei are lanthanum and
bromine , together with several neutrons,
then:
(i)
Now and together have a mass of (235.1
+ 1.009) or 236.1 a.m.u. The lanthanum, bromine
and neutrons produced together have a mass
= 148.0 + 84.9 + 3 x 1.00 = 235.9 a.m.u.
. . energy released = mass difference
= 0.2 a.m.u. = 0.2 x 931 MeV = 186 MeV
= 298x10-13 J (approx.).
This is the energy released per atom of uranium
fissioned. In 1 kg of uranium there are about
are x 6 x 1023 or 26 x 1023 atoms,
since Avogadro's number, the number of atoms
in a mole of any element, is 6.02 x 1023. Thus, if
all the atoms in 1 kg of uranium were fissioned,
total energy released
= 26 x 1023 x 298 x 10-13 joules
= 2 x 107 kilowatt-hours (approx.),
which is the amount of energy given out by
burning about 3 million tonnes of coal. The
energy released per gramme of uranium fissioned
= 8 x 1010 joules (approx.).
To make practical use of nuclear fission, the
incident neutrons must be moderated in speed so
that they are 'captured' by the nuclei in a mass of
uranium. Carbon rods are used as moderators.
The neutrons produced in the nuclear reaction in
equation (i), p. 1062, in turn produce fission
swiftly in other uranium nuclei, and so on, thus
creating a multiplying rapid chain reaction
throughout the mass of uranium.
Energy released in Fusion
In fission, energy is released when a heavy
nucleus is split into two lighter nuclei. Energy is
also released if light nuclei are fused together to
form heavier nuclei, and a fusion reaction, as we
shall see, is also a possible source of
considerable energy. As an illustration, consider
the fusion of the nuclei of deuterium, .
Deuterium is an isotope of hydrogen known as
578 | P a g e
'heavy hydrogen', and its nucleus is called a
'deuteron'. The fusion of two deuterons can result
in a helium nucleus, , as follows:
Now mass of two deuterons
= 2 x 2.015 = 4.03 a.m.u.,
And mass of helium plus neutron
= 3.017 + 1.009 = 4.026 a.m.u
Mass converted to energy by fusion
= 4.03 – 4.026 = 0.004 a.m.u.
= 0.004 x 931 MeV = 3.7 MeV
= 3.7 x 1.6 x 10-13 J = 6.0 x 10-13 J
Energy released per deuteron
= 3.0 x 10-13 J.
6 x 1023 is the number of atoms in a mole of
deuterium, which is about 2 grammes. Thus, if
all the atoms could undergo fusion, energy
released per gramme
= 30 x l0-13 x 3 x l023 J
= 9 x 1010 J (approx.).
Other fusion reactions can release much more
energy, for example, the fusion of the nuclei of
deuterium , and tritium , isotopes of
hydrogen, releases about 30 x 1010 joules of
energy according to the reaction:
In addition, the temperature required for this
fusion reaction is less than that needed for the
fusion reaction between two deuterons given
above, which is an advantage. Hydrogen contains
about l/5000th by weight of deuterium or heavy
hydrogen, needed in fusion reactions, and this
can be obtained by electrolysis of sea-water,
which is cheap and in plentiful supply.
Application of Radioactivity
Radioactive Dating
The decrease in the number of radioactive nuclei
according to radioactive decay law, may be used
as a means for measuring the time that passes
since a specimen known to contain N0
radioactive atoms initially and the instant when
their number is N . In other words, radioactivity
provides a kind of time scale. According to the
law of radioactivity: N = N 0 e − λ t , the time
interval between the instants when the number of
radioactive nuclei is N 0 and N is
1 N  N 
t =   ln  0  = 1.44t1/ 2 ln  0 
λ  N   N 
As a rule, N represents the number of unchanged
nuclei at the present time, so that above equation
gives the age the specimen containing the
radioactive nuclei
In geologic studies, a different radioactive time
scale is required for each application. In
determining the age of rocks, for example, one
should use a sufficiently slow radioactive time
scale, that is, radioactive decays with a half-life
of the same order of magnitude as geological
epochs, running in to hundreds of millions or
even millions of millions of years. This condition
579 | P a g e
is satisfied by the half-live of 238
U and 235
U. colliding with the nuclei of the elements that

Naturally occurring uranium is actually a mixture form the Earth’s atmosphere, break them up into

of both. Their half-lives are 4500 million and 900 fragments These fragments are highly energetic,

million years, respectively. too, and form the so-called secondary cosmic

At present, chemically pure and naturally rays. The interaction of cosmic rays with the
238 nuclei of atmospheric nitrogen turns them into
occurring uranium contains 99.28% 92 U, ,
the nuclei of carbon with mass number 14,
235 234
0.714% 92 U, 0.006% 92 U the latter being the 14
instead of 12, as with ordinary carbon. 6 C has a
238
decay product of U . Since its content is very
half-life of about 5570 years, which fits
234 238
small, U may be neglected. Each of the U archaeologists well. Moreover, because the
234
and U isotopes is the parent of a radioactive intensity of primary cosmic rays remains

series of its own, both of which terminate in lead practically constant, there is an unvarying supply

isotopes. Thus, lead nuclei are the end products of radioactive carbon in the atmosphere.

of the radioactive decay of uranium nuclei. Using
the ratio between uranium and the lead derived
from it in natural uranium, one can readily
determine the time interval during which this
amount of lead has accumulated.
In archaeology, radioactivity is used to date the
objects found in excavations.
applications, the uranium time scale is unsuitable
for at least two reasons. For one thing, artefacts
have never contained uranium. For another, the
uranium time scale clock is too slow for human
history where time is usually measured in
centuries or millennia. In
archaeological dating one needs a radioactive
time scale with a half-life of a few centuries or
Radioactive carbon produces radioactive carbon
14
dioxide through plants and the food chain 6 C,
finds its way into animals and becomes part of
their organs and tissues.
In a living plant or animal, the per cent content of
radioactive carbon in comparison with the
In such ordinary carbon dos not change with time,
because any losses are made good by food. If,
however, a plant or an animal dies, food cannot
replenish the loss of radioactive carbon any
longer. Thus, one can determine the time passing
since the death of the organism or the age of an
other words, artifice made of an organic material.
Using a charged particle counter, it has been
found 14
C decays by emission of beta particles
6

millennia. Nature has provided such time scales.

that one gram of radioactive carbon contained in
The particles that make up the so-called primary
the in the cellulose of a living or a recently
cosmic rays are extremely energetic and,

580 | P a g e
activity of the radioactive isotope is 17.5
particles per minute. That is, the activity of the
radioactive isotope is 17.5 decays per minute.
Converting t1/ 2 = 5570 years into minutes, we
find the number of 14
C nuclei that have this
6
magnitude of activity:
N = (1/ λ )( ∆N / ∆t )
= 1.44t1/ 2 ( ∆N / ∆t )
= 1.44 × 5570 × 365 × 24 × 60 ×1.75
≈ 7.5 × 1010
Thus, one gram of carbon in the cellulose of a
living or a recently cut tree contains 75 000
million nuclei of radioactive carbon. This
number progressively decreases because it is not
replenished (and this happens when the tree is
cut), the original number will decrease with time.
That is, the activity of the remaining radioactive
carbon will decrease progressively. If we
compare its present activity to the activity that
was present when the wood was cut down, we
can determine the time interval between these
two instants.
When this technique is applied to wooden
artefacts usually found in archaeological
excavations, one actually finds the time at which
a tree was cut. This gives the age of the artefacts
made from it.
Thermonuclear Reaction
The binding energy curve shows that elements
with low atomic mass, up to about 56, can
produce energy by fusion of their nucleons. For
fusion to take place, the nuclei must at least
overcome their nuclear repulsion when
approaching each other. Consequently, for
practical purposes, fusion reactions can best be
achieved with the lightest elements such as
hydrogen, whose nuclei carry the smallest
charges and hence repel each other least.
In attempts to obtain fusion, isotopes of
hydrogen such as deuterium , and tritium ,
are heated to tens of millions of degrees
centigrade. The thermal energy of the nuclei at
these high temperatures is sufficient for fusion to
occur. One technique of promoting this
thermonuclear reaction is to pass enormously
high currents through the gas, which heat it. A
very high percentage of the atoms are then
ionized and the name plasma is given to the gas.
Interstellar space or the aurora borealis contains a
weak form of plasma, but the interior of stars
contains a highly concentrated form of plasma.
The gas discharge consists of parallel currents,
carried by ions, and the powerful magnetic field
round one current due to a neighbouring current
draws the discharge together. This is the so-
called 'pinch effect'. The plasma, however,
wriggles and touches the sides of the containing
vessel, there- by losing heat. The main difficulty
in thermonuclear experiments in the laboratory is
to retain the heat in the gas for a sufficiently long
time for a fusion reaction to occur, and the
581 | P a g e
stability of plasma is now the subject of Plutonium isotopes (Pu239, Pu240
considerable research. and Pu241) are the most commonly
It is believed that the energy of the sun is used fuels in the reactor.
produced by thermo- nuclear reactions in the ii. Moderator: Moderator is used to slow
heart of the sun, where the temperature is many down the fast-moving neutrons. Most
millions of degrees centigrade. Bethe has commonly used moderators are
proposed a cycle of nuclear reactions in which, graphite and heavy water (D2O).
basically, protons are converted to helium by iii. Control Material: Control material is
fusion, with the liberation of a considerable used to control the chain reaction and
amount of energy. to maintain a stable rate of reaction.
Nuclear Reactor This material controls the number of
neutrons available for the
fission. For example,
cadmium rods are inserted
into the core of the reactor
because they can absorb the
neutrons. The neutrons
available for fission are
controlled by moving the
A nuclear reactor is a device in which nuclear cadmium rods in or out of
fission can be carried out through a sustained and the core of the reactor.
a controlled chain reaction. It is also called an iv. Coolant: Coolant is a cooling material
atomic pile. It is thus a source of controlled which removes the heat generated due
energy which is utilised for many useful to fission in the reactor. Commonly
purposes. used coolants are water, CO2 nitrogen
Parts of a Nuclear Reactor etc.
i. Fissionable material (Fuel): The v. Protective shield: A protective shield in
fissionable material used in the the form a concrete thick wall
reactor is called the fuel of the surrounds the core of the reactor to
reactor. Uranium isotope (U235) save the persons working around the
Thorium isotope (Th232) and reactor from the hazardous radiations.

582 | P a g e
 Note: It may be noted that Plutonium is the
best fuel as compared to other fissionable
material. It is because fission in Plutonium
can be initiated by both slow and fast
neutrons. Moreover, it can be obtained from
U238.
Uses of nuclear reactor
i. In electric power generation.
ii. To produce radioactive isotopes for their
use in medical science, agriculture
and industry.
iii. In manufacturing of PU239 which is used
in atom bomb.
iv. They are used to produce neutron beam
of high intensity which is used in the
treatment of cancer and nuclear
research.
Mass of H plus Li = 1.0073 u + 7.0160 u = 8.0233 u
Mass of two He = 2 × 4.0015 u = 8.0030 u
Difference ∆m = 8.0030 u − 8.0233 u = −0.0203 u
So we can find the mass difference in kg:
∆m = −0.0203 u ×1.6605 ×10 −27 kg = −3.3708 × 10 −29 kg
b. The energy of the protons was 800 000
electron volts (800 keV). The lithium was
in solid form so the nuclei would only
have been vibrating due to thermal
energy, less than an electron volt.
The reaction was captured in this
photograph:

Examples
1. An atomic mass unit, symbol u, is equal to
1.6605 x 10–27 kg.
a. Show that the mass decreases in this
reaction.
1 7
1H + 3Li → 24 He + 42He.

Calculate m in atomic mass units and in

kilograms. Two pairs of alpha particles, emerging in
Solution opposite directions, can be seen in the
Hint: Compare masses of H plus Li with mass of photograph.
two He nuclei. From the range of the tracks through the
cloud chamber the energy of the alpha

583 | P a g e
 particles was measured to be 8.5 MeV
If E = mc2, then c2 = 7.7 ´ 1016J kg–1, so c =
each.
2.8 ´ 108 m s–1.
Show that the total kinetic energy of the
particles increases, and calculate DE in
4. The bubble chamber is in a magnetic field, so
MeV and in joules.
charged particles bend due to the force Bqv
Solution
on a moving charge. How does the
Hint: Two 8.5 MeV alpha particles come out, but
photograph show that the two particles have
one 800 keV proton goes in.
opposite charges?
Increase in energy:
Solution
∆E = 2 × 8.5 MeV − 0.8 MeV = 16.2 MeV
Hint: What is the difference between forces F
In joules:
and - F?
∆E = (16.2 × 10 6 eV) × (1.6 × 10 −19 J eV −1 ) = 2.6 × 10 −12 J
The force on a moving charged particle is Bqv. If
the charge q changes sign, the direction of the
2. If the increase in kinetic energy comes from
force is reversed, so the curvature is opposite.
the decrease in rest energy you should expect

E = mc2. Calculate the ratio of the change

5. The mass of the electron is 5.5 ´ 10–4 u.
in kinetic energy to the change in
What is the minimum energy photon that will
mass E/ m in J kg–1. produce an electron–positron pair? From
Solution what part of the electromagnetic spectrum is
Hint: Compare the answers to questions 1 and 2.
this? (Planck constant h = 6.63 ´ 10–34 J Hz–
−12
∆E 2.60 × 10 J
= − 29
= 7.7 ×1016 J kg −1 . 1.)
∆m 3.37 × 10 kg
Solution
3. Show that the value of the ratio E/ m is
Hint: Start with the mass of an electron in atomic
approximately consistent with the
mass units. Convert to kilograms. Write down
relationship E = mc2. the mass of an electron–positron pair. Use
Solution Erest = mc2 to get the rest energy of the pair in
Hint: Don’t expect to get exactly the speed of joules. Then use E = hf.
light. Remember to take the square root of c2! The mass of an electron or positron is equal to:
(5.5 × 10 −4 u) × (1.66 × 10 −27 kg) = 9.1 × 10 −31 kg.

584 | P a g e
From Erest = mc2, the rest energy of an (b) Calculate the binding energy of the
electron–positron pair is: deuteron in J and in MeV.
E rest = 2 × 9.1× 10 −31 kg × (3 × 10 8 m s −1 ) 2 = 1.6 × 10 −13 J. Solution
Hint: Erest = mc2 again. But now use the
If this energy is supplied by a photon of energy E electron charge to get to electron volts and
= hf, then: MeV.
1.6 × 10 −13 J Bindingenergy= −3.98 × 10−30 kg × (3 × 108 m s−1)2
f = −34 −1
= 2.5 ×10 20 Hz.
6.63 × 10 J Hz
= –3.58 × 10−13 J
This is the frequency of a gamma ray. 3.58 × 10−13 J
=– −19 −1
= –2.2 × 106 eV
1.6 × 10 J eV
6. The simplest compound nucleus is the = –2.2 MeV.
deuteron, the nucleus of hydrogen-2. It
consists of a proton and a neutron bound (c) Calculate the binding energy per nucleon

together by the strong nuclear force. The of the deuteron.

masses of these particles are: Solution

Hint: How many nucleons in a deuteron?
• proton: 1.0073 u
The deuteron has two nucleons so the binding
• neutron: 1.0087 u
energy per nucleon is
• deuteron: 2.0136 u.
–2.2 MeV / 2 = –1.1 MeV.
(a) Calculate the difference in mass between
a deuteron and one proton and one
(d) Express the difference in mass as a
neutron
percentage of the sum of the masses of
Solution
the proton and neutron.
Hint: Doing this one in the same way as
Mass change in nuclear fission:
question 1.
A possible reaction for the nuclear fission of
The mass difference is:
uranium-235 is:
2.0136 u − (1.0073 u + 1.0087 u) = −0.0024 u.
235
92 U + 10 n→133 99 1
51 Sb + 41 Nb + 4 0 n.

In kg, the mass difference is: The masses of the particles are
− 0 .0024 u × (1.66 × 10 −27 kg) = −3.98 × 10 −30 kg. • U-235 = 235.0439 u
• Sb-133 = 132.9152 u
• Nb-99 = 98.9116 u

585 | P a g e
 • neutron (n) = 1.0087 u. Ans: The alpha 'ray' consists of alpha particles.
Solution Each alpha particle has a + 2 charge. The beta
Hint: Best to take the difference as a fraction 'ray' consists of electrons. Each electron has a -1
of the mass before charge. A magnetic field will push the
As a percentage, the mass difference is equal oppositely charged particles in opposite
to: directions. The gamma ray consists of photons of
0.0024u light. They are not charged at all.
= 1.2×10−3 ×100= 0.1% (approximat
ely)
1.0073u +1.0087u 2) How does the source differ for a beam of
gamma rays and a beam of X-rays?
(e) Show that the energy change per atom of Ans: Gamma rays come from the nuclei of some
uranium is about 200 MeV and calculate atoms. X rays come from the reconfiguration of
m/m. electrons surrounding the nucleus of an atom.
Solution They may also be produced when an electron
Hint: Add up before and after masses in undergoes a large acceleration.
atomic mass units first. Don’t forget there’s 3) Give two examples of a nucleon.
one extra neutron to start with and four extra Ans: Protons and neutrons are found in the nuclei
neutrons afterwards. Then convert mass of atoms and are therefore called nucleons.
changes first to joules and then to MeV. 4) Give the atomic number for deuterium and
Massafter=132.9152
u +98.9116
u +(4×1.0087u)= 235.8616u for tritium.
Ans: Deuterium and tritium are both isotopes of
Mass difference = 236.0526 u − 235.8616 u = 0.191 u.
hydrogen. Deuterium has one proton and one
neutron while tritium has one proton and two
0.191 u × (1.66 × 10 -27 kg) × (3 × 10 8neutrons.
m s −1 ) 2 The both8 have atomic number 1.
Change in rest energy = = 1.78 ×10 eV = 178 MeV.
1.6 ×10 −19 J eV −1 5) How does the mass of a nucleon compare

with the mass of an electron.

The ratio is given by:
Ans: One nucleon is approximately 1800 times
∆m / m = 0.191 u / 236 u = 8.1× 10 −4 ~ 0.1%.
more massive than an electron.
Other Examples 6) When beta emission occurs, what change
1) How do the electric charges of alpha, beta takes place in an atomic nucleus?
and gamma rays differ? Ans: Beta emission occurs when a neutron emits
an electron. The neutron changes into a proton

586 | P a g e
in the process. The atomic nucleus now has one
more proton that before the emission and thus is
now an atom of a different element.
7) Distinguish between an isotope and an ion.
Ans: An isotope of an element has a different
number of neutrons than a different isotope of
the same element. An ion is a charged atom. It
is charged because it does not have the same
number of protons as electrons.
8) What is meant by radioactive half-life?
Ans: Radioactive half-life is the time required for
one half the remaining radioactive nuclei to
undergo radioactive decay.
9) When thorium, atomic number 90, decays by
emitting an alpha particle, what is the atomic
number of the resulting nucleus. What
happens to its atomic mass?
Ans: An alpha particle consists of two protons
and two neutrons. When thorium undergoes
alpha decay, the remaining nucleus will have 88
protons instead of 90. The new atom will be
atomic number 88, which is radium-a different
element than before. The alpha particle consists
of two protons and two neutrons. Alpha decay
reduces the atomic mass by four.
10) When thorium decays by emitting a beta
particle (an electron), what is the atomic
number of the resulting nucleus? What
happens to its atomic mass?
Ans: When a nucleus undergoes beta decay, one
of its neutrons changes into a proton as it emits
an electron. Therefore, the atomic number
increases by one. The new atomic number will
be 91. Although the fleeing electron carries a
tiny bit of mass away with it, the atomic mass of
the atom does not change.
11) What is the effect on the makeup of a
nucleus when it emits an alpha particle? A
beta particle? A gamma ray?
Ans: When the nucleus of an atom emits an alpha
particle, it loses two protons and two neutrons.
When the nucleus of an atom emits a beta
particle a neutron changes to a proton. When the
nucleus of an atom emits a gamma ray the
nucleus reconfigures itself to a less energetic
state.
12) Which isotope of carbon is radioactive?
Carbon-12 or Carbon -14
Ans: Carbon-14 is a radioactive isotope of
carbon.
13) Why is there more C-14 in new bones than
there is in old bones of the same mass?
Ans: Carbon-14 changes to Nitrogen-14 with a
half-life of 5,730 years. So, the amount of
Carbon-14 present in a substance is reduced over
time
14) X rays are most similar to which of the
following: alpha, beta, or gamma?
Ans: X rays and gamma rays are most similar
because they are both photons of light. The
others are not.
587 | P a g e
15) Some people say that all things are possible.
Is it at all possible for a hydrogen nucleus to
emit an alpha particle? Explain your answer.
Ans: A hydrogen nucleus contains only one
proton and zero, one or two neutrons. An alpha
particle consists of two protons and two
neutrons. Therefore, a hydrogen atom cannot
emit an alpha particle. It cannot emit what it
doesn't have.
16) Why are alpha and beta rays deflected in
opposite directions in a magnetic field? Why
aren't gamma rays deflected?
Ans: Alpha rays consist of positively charged
helium nuclei. Beta rays consist of negatively
charged electrons. Gamma rays are uncharged
photons of light. A magnetic field will apply a
force to a moving charged particle. Positively
charged particles are accelerated in one direction
and negative charged particles are accelerated in
the opposite direction. Because gamma rays are
not charged, they are unaffected by the magnetic
field.
17) The alpha particle has twice the electric
charge of the beta particle but, for the same
velocity, accelerates less than the beta in a
magnetic field. Why?
Ans: From Newton's second law of motion we
know that acceleration is directly proportional to
the net force applied to an object and inversely
proportional to the objects mass. Although the
force applied to the alpha particle is twice that
applied to the beta particle, the alpha particle is
approximately 3600 times more massive than the
beta.
18) Which type of radiation results in the
greatest change in atomic mass? Atomic
number?
Ans: Alpha radiation. Alpha radiation. The
resulting nucleus will be missing two protons and
two neutrons. The atomic mass will be four less
than the original and the atomic number will be
two fewer than the original.
19) Which type of radiation results in the least
change in atomic mass? The least change in
atomic number?
Ans: Gamma radiation. There is no change in
mass number or atomic number because a
gamma ray is a photon of light.
20) In bombarding atomic nuclei with proton
"bullets", why must the protons be
accelerated to high energies if they are to
make contact with the target nuclei?
Ans: Atomic nuclei are positively charged. The
proton "bullets" are positively charged. They
will be repelled away from each other by the
electromagnetic force.
21) The amount of radiation from a point source
is inversely proportional to the distance from
the source. If a Geiger counter 1 meter from
a small sample reads 360 counts per minute,
what will be its counting rate 2 meters from
the source? 3 meters from the source?
588 | P a g e
Ans: Doubling the distance will result in a count atomic mass is 218. The reaction can be written

( ) as follows:
2
of 1 2 = 1 4 the original count. 1/4 of 360 =
218
84 Po → 218 0
85At + −1β, where -10β represents the emitted electron
90 counts per minute. Tripling the distance will

( )
2
result in 1 3 = 1 9 the original count. 1/9 of b) When the nucleus of an atom emits an
alpha particle, it loses two protons and two
360 = 40 counts per minute.
218
226
neutrons. If 84 Po emits an alpha particle its
22) When 88 Ra decays by emitting an alpha
new atomic number will be 82 and its new
particle, what is the atomic number of the
atomic mass will be 214. The reaction can be
resulting nucleus? What is the name of the
written as follows:
element?
218 214
84 Po → 82 Pb + 42 He
Ans: When the nucleus of an atom emits an alpha
particle, it loses two protons and two neutrons. 24) State the number of protons and neutrons in

The remaining nucleus will be atomic number 86 each of the following nuclei:
2 12 56 197 90 238
and its mass number will be 222. The reaction 1 H, 6 C, 26 Fe, 79 Au, 38 Sr, and 92 U
can be written as follows: Ans: Hydrogen 2 has 1 proton and 1 neutron.
226 222 4
88 Ra → 86 Ra + He
2 Carbon 12 has 6 protons and 6 neutrons.
23) When 218
84 Po emits a beta particle, it Iron 56 has 26 protons and 30 neutrons.

transforms into a new element. Gold 197 has 79 protons and 118 neutrons.

(a). What are the atomic number and atomic Strontium 90 has 38 protons and 52 neutrons.

mass of this new element? Uranium 238 has 92 protons and 146 neutrons.

(b). What are atomic number and atomic 25) How is it possible for an element to decay

mass if the polonium instead emits an alpha forward in the periodic table-that is, to decay

particle? to an element of higher atomic number?

Ans: Ans: When the nucleus of an atom of an element

a) Beta emission occurs when a neutron emits an undergoes beta decay, one of its neutrons

electron as it changes into a proton. When emits changes to a proton as it emits an electron. This

a beta particle, its atomic number increases by will increase the number of protons and therefor

one and its atomic mass remains unchanged. The the atomic number, by one.

resulting atom will be atomic number 85 and its

589 | P a g e
26) If a sample of a radioactive isotope has a
half-life of 1 year, how much of the original
sample will be left:
a) At the end of one year?
Ans: 1/2
b) At the end of two years?
Ans: 1/4
c) At the end of three years?
Ans: 1/8
27) A sample of a particular radioisotope is
placed near a Geiger counter, which is
observed to register 160 counts per minute.
Eight hours later the detector counts at a rate
of 10 counts per minute. What is the half-life
of the material?
Ans: The half-life is 2 hours. Here is my
reasoning. If you cut 160 in half you will have
80. 1/2 of 80 = 40. 1/2 of 40 = 20. 1/2 of 20 =
10. We repeated this process 4 times. Four half-
lives have elapsed. Eight hours divided by 4,
equals 2 hours.
CHAPTER FOURTY-FOUR
ELECTRONICS
Alternating current is easier distribute that direct
current, because alternating voltage can be
transformed easily up or down. For electrolysis,
battery - charging and the operation of radio-
receivers and transmitters, however, direct
current is essential. It can be obtained from an
alternating current supply by means of a rectifier,
which is a device that will only pass current in
one direction. A common type of rectifier is that
called a diode valve. It contains a metal filament,
F in Fig. 1 (i), surrounded by a metal anode A.
the filament is heated by a current drawn from a
low voltage supply, and emits electrons. A circuit
for varying the anode potential is shown in Fig. 1
(i).
Fig. 1. Diode valve
Since electrons are negative charges, such a
device passes current when its anode is made
positive with respect to its filament, but not when
the anode is made negative. Fig 1 (ii) shows the
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curve of anode current against anode potential provides the heating current from the filament.
for a small diode; it is called the diode's The current to be rectified is drawn from the
characteristic curve, or simply its characteristic. high-voltage secondary. One end of this
The current increases with the positive anode secondary is connected to the load, which could
potential as far as the point S. Beyond this point be, as shown,
the current does not increase, because the anode
is collecting all the electrons emitted by the
filament; the current is said to be saturated.
At first sight we might expect that any positive
anode potential, however small, would draw the
full saturation current from the filament to the
anode. But it does not, because the charges on
the electrons make them repel one another. Thus,
the cloud of electrons between the anode and Fig. 2. Rectifier circuit with diode

filament repels the electrons leaving the filament, an accumulator on charge; the other end of the

and turns some of them back. The electrons load is connected to the anode of the diode, and

around the filament are like the molecules in the other end of the secondary to one of the

cloud of vapour above a liquid; they are filament connexions. When the transformer

continually escaping from it and returning to it. secondary voltage VAE is greater than the e.m.f

The positive anode draws some away from the E of the accumulator, the anode is positive with

cloud, as a wind carries water vapour away from respect to the filament; electrons from the hot

a pool. The wind, or the anode, thins out the filament are then drawn to the anode, and a

cloud, so that more electrons or molecules escape current flow through the load (Fig. 2 (ii)). On

than return. The higher the anode potential, the half-cycles when the anode is negative, the

fewer electrons return to the filament; as the electrons are repelled, and no current flows.

anode potential rises, the current increases, to its Because it only allows current to flow through it

saturation limit. in one direction, a thermionic diode is often

called a Valve.
Rectifier Circuit
When a diode is used as a rectifier, it is Some rectifying valves contain a little mercury

connected in a circuit such as Fig 2 (i). The low - vapour. When electrons flow through them, they

voltage secondary of the transformer simply ionize the mercury atoms. The ions and electrons

591 | P a g e
thus produced make the valve a very good
conductor, and reduce the voltage drop across it;
they therefore allow more of the voltage from the
transformer to appear across the load.
The current from a rectifier flows in pulses,
whenever the anode is positive with respect to
the filament. Sometimes a smoother current is
required, as, for example, in a radio-receiver,
where the pulses would cause a humming sound
in the loudspeaker. The current can be smoothed
by connecting an inductance coil of about 30
henrys in series with the load. The inductance
prevents rapid fluctuations in current. So also
does a capacitor of about 16 microfarads
connected across the load. Generally, the two are
used together to give a very smooth output.
Metal Rectifier
Yet other rectifies are not thermionic at all. One
such type consists of an oxidized copper disc,
Cu2O/Cu, pressed against a disc of lead, pb (Fig.
3 (i)). These conducts well when the lead is made
positive, but very badly when it is made
negative; they are called metal rectifiers. A metal
rectifier can be used to convert a moving-coil
Fig. 3. Metal rectifier and use
milliammeter into an alternating - current
ammeter or voltmeter (Fig. 3 (ii)).such a meter is
more sensitive than a moving -iron or hot-wire
instrument, and has a more open scale near zero:
its deflection is roughly proportional to the
average value of the current or voltage.
Cathode-Ray Oscillograph
An oscillograph is an instrument for plotting one
varying physical quantity-potential difference,
sound-pressure, heart-beat-against another -
current, displacement, time. A cathode - ray
oscillograph, of the kind we are about to
describe, plots alternating potential difference
against time. It is also called because it traces the
desired wave-from with a beam of electrons and
beams of electrons were originally called cathode
rays.
A cathode- ray oscillograph is essentially an
electrostatic instrument. It consists of a highly
evacuated glass tube T in Fig. 4, one end of
which opens out to form a
592 | P a g e

Fig. 4. A cathode-ray oscillography tube
screen S which is internally coated with zinc
sulphide. A hot filament F, at the other end of the
tube, emits electrons. These are then attracted by
the cylinders A1 and A2, which have increasing
positive potentials with respect to the filament.
Many of the electrons, however, shoot through
the cylinders and strike the screen; where they do
so, the zinc sulphide fluoresces in a green spot.
On their way to the screen, the electrons pass
through two pairs of metal plates, XX and YY,
called the deflecting plates.
Deflection; time-base
if a battery were connected between the if a
battery were connected between the -plates, so as
to make the upper one positive, the electrons in
the beam would be attracted towards that plate,
and the beam would be deflected upwards. In the
same way, the beam can be deflected
horizontally by a potential difference applied
between the X-plates. When the oscillograph is
in use, the alternating potential difference to be
examined is applied between the Y-plates. If that
were all, then the spot would be simply drawn
out into a vertical line. To trace the wave-form of
the alternating potential difference, the X-plates
are used to provide a time-axis. A special valve
circuit generates a potential difference which
rises steadily to a certain value, as shown in Fig.
5 (i), and then falls rapidly to zero; it can be
made to go
Fig. 5. Action of a C.R.O
through these changes tens, hundreds, or
thousands of times per second. This potential
difference is applied between the X-plates, so
that the spot is swept steadily to the right, and
then flies swiftly back and starts out again. This
horizontal motion provides what is called the
time-base of the oscillograph. On it is
superimposed the vertical motion produced by
the Y-plates; thus, as shown in Fig. 5 (ii), the
wave-form of the potential difference to be
examined is displayed on the screen.
Focusing
To give a clear trace on the screen, the electron
beam must be focused to a sharp spot. This is the
function of the cylinders A1 and A2, called the
first and second anodes. Fig. 6 shows the
equipotentials of the field between them, when
their difference of potential is 500 volts.
593 | P a g e

Fig. 6. Focusing in a C.R.O tube
Electrons entering the field from the filament
experience forces from low potential to high at
right angles to the equipotentials. They have,
however, considerable momentum, because they
have been accelerated by a potential difference of
about 500 volts, and are travelling fast.
Consequently, the field merely deflects them,
and, because of its cylindrical symmetry, it
converges the bean toward the point P. before
they can reach this point, however, they enter the
second cylinder. Here the potential rises from the
axis, and the electrons are deflected outwards.
However, they are now travelling faster than
when they were in the first cylinder, because the
potential is everywhere higher. Consequently,
their momentum is greater, and they are less
deflected than before. The second cylinder,
therefore diverges the beam less than the first
cylinder converged it, and the beam emerges
from the second anode, still somewhat
convergent. By adjusting the potential of the first
anode, the beam can be focused upon the screen,
to give a spot a millimetre or less in diameter.
Electron - focusing devices are called electron-
lenses, or electron-optical systems. For example,
the action of the anodes A1 and A2 is roughly
analogous to that of a pair of glass lenses on a
beam of light, the first glass lens being
converging, and the second diverging, but
weaker.
Uses of Oscillograph
In addition to displaying waveforms, the
oscillograph can be used for measurement of
voltage, frequently and phase.
1. A.C. voltage
An unknown a.c voltage, whose peak value is
required is, connected to the Y- plates. With the
time base switched off, the vertical line on the
screen is centred and its length then measured.
Fig. 7 (i). This is proportional to twice the
amplitude or peak voltage Vo. By measuring
the length corresponding to a known a.c voltage
V, then Vo can be found by proportion.
Fig. 7. Uses of oscillograph
Alternatively, using the same gain, the
waveforms of the unknown and known voltages
V0 and V, can be displayed on the screen. The
ratio V0/V is then obtained from measurement of
the respective peak-to-peak heights.
594 | P a g e
 2. Comparison of frequency is given by x = a sin t, where a is the amplitude
If a calibrated time - base is available, frequency in the x-direction, and the y-displacement by y =
measurements can be made. In Fig. 7 (ii), for sin( t + ф), where y1 is the amplitude in the
example, the trace shown is that of an alternating y-direction and ф is the phase angle. When x = 0,
waveform with the time-base switched to the
sin t=0, so that t=0. In this case, y = y2 = y1
'5millisec/cm' scale. This means that the time
sin ф. Hence sin ф = y2/y1, from which ф can be
taken for the spot to move 1 cm horizontally
found.
across the screen is 5 milliseconds. The
TRIODE VALVE - AMPLIFIER,
horizontal distance on the screen for one cycle is
OSCILLATOR, DETECTOR
2.4cm. This corresponds to a time of 5 x 2.4 ms
Triode Valve
or 12.0 ms = 12 x 10-3 seconds, which is the
A few years after the invention of the diode
period T.
valve. Lee de forest introduced the triode valve.
Frequency = = = 83 Hz.
This had three electrodes; a cathode C, the
If a comparison of frequencies f1, f2 is required, emitter of electrons: an anode A, the collector of
then the corresponding horizontal distances on electrons; and a gird G, a wire with open spaces,
the screen are measured. Suppose these are d1, placed between the anode and cathode (Fig. 8
d2 respectively. Then, f 1/T. (i)). The function of the grid is to control the
electron flow to the anode, and for this purpose
= =
the gird has a small negative potential relative to
3. Measurement of phase
the cathode. The gird is nearer the cathode more,
If only a single beam tube is available, an
with the result that the gird potential has a more
elliptical trace can be obtained. With the time-
delicate control than the anode potential over the
base switched off, one input is joined to the X-
anode current. As well shall see later, this
plates and the other to the Y-plates. We consider
enables the triode to act as an amplifier of
only the case when the frequencies of the two
alternating voltages as well as a detector.
signals are the same. An ellipse will then be seen
generally on the screen, as shown in Fig. 7 (iii).
The trace is centred, and the peak vertical
displacement y2 at the same middle O, and the
peak vertical displacement y1 of the ellipse, are
then both measured. Suppose the x-displacement

595 | P a g e

Fig. 8. Triode valve characteristics
Triode Valve Characteristics
In order to predict the performance of a valve in
a circuit, the characteristics of the valve must be
first determined. The chief characteristics are la -
Vg (Va constant), the variation of anode current
with gird voltage when the anode voltage is
constant; and la - Vg (Vg constant), the variation
of anode current with anode voltage when gird
voltage is constant. The la-Vg curves are known
as the valve's mutual characteristics; the la - Vg
curves as the anode characteristics.
The mutual characteristics obtained are shown in
Fig. 8 (ii). When the anode voltage is 80 volts, a
negative voltage on the gird such as - 15 volts
creates a resultant negative electric intensity at
the cathode, and hence no electrons flow past the
gird. As the negative voltage is reduced and
reaches a certain value the attractive effect of the
positive anode voltage overcomes the repulsive
effect of the gird voltage, and electrons now
reach the anode. As the negative voltage is
reduced further, more electrons reach the anode,
and the current increases as shown. The general
shape of the la - Vg curves is an initial curvature,
followed by a straight line.
The anode characteristics la - Vg curves, are
shown in Fig. 8 (iii), and are explained in a
similar way. As the anode voltage Vg, increases,
the anode current increases. Generally, the anode
current begins to flow at higher values of Va
when the gird voltage is increased more
negatively. If the anode voltage is increased
sufficiently, all the electrons emitted by the
cathode are collected, and the current has then
reached its saturation value.
Valve Constants
These are three main constants or properties of a
radio valve.
These are:
1. Anode or A.C. Resistance, Ra,
which is defined by
Ra = (Vg constant)
The changes in Va and Ia being taken on the
straight part of the anode characteristics
2. Mutual conductance gm, which
is defined by
gm = (Va constant)
the changes in la and Vg being taken on the
straight part of the mutual characteristics
3. Amplification factor, µ, which is
defined by
µ=
where produces the same change in anode
current (Vg constant) as (Va constant).
596 | P a g e
Thus, generally Ra is the 'resistance' of the valve
when the anode circuit variations are considered,
gm is the change in anode current produced by
unit gird voltage variation, and µ is a measure of
the 'step-up' in voltage produced in the anode
circuit by a change in the gird voltage.
Triode as Voltage Amplifier
When a valve is used as a voltage amplifier in
radio circuits, it is important to realize at the
outset that it amplifies alternating voltages, and
that these voltages are applied in the gird-cathode
circuit, as represented by V in Fig. 9 (i). the
action of the valve should not only result in an
increased alternating voltage Vo in the anode
circuit, known as the 'output voltage', but the
waveform of Vo should be exactly the same as
V1 the applied voltage, so that there is no
distortion. In order to obtain no distortion, a
steady negative p.d (grid-bias, G.B) is also
connected in the gird - cathode circuit, as shown
in Fig. 9 (i) below.
Fig. 9. Triode amplification
The most suitable value of the gird-bias p.d is
OX volts, where X (not shown) corresponds to
the middle of the straight part HK of the Ia - Vg
characteristic (Fig. 9 (ii). Then, if the applied
alternating voltage V has a peak value less than
OX, the actual gird potential values will produce
anode current variations corresponding to the
straight part of the characteristic. The anode or
output current will then have a wave-form
exactly the same as the applied or input voltage
V (Fig. 9 (ii)). As we shall now show, the triode
acts as a 'voltage amplifier' in this case.
Voltage Gain or Amplification Factor
The magnitude of the voltage amplification can
be found by replacing the valve circuit in Fig. 9
(i) by an 'equivalent A.C. circuit'. Since a change
of p.d Vg in the gird-cathode circuit is
equivalent to a change of µ V݃ in the anode
circuit, the alternating voltage V is equivalent to
an alternating voltage µV in the anode circuit.
We therefore consider that, between the anode
and cathode, the valve is an alternating voltage
generator of e.m.f µV, with an internal resistance
Ra.
To convert the alternating current in the anode
circuit to an alternating voltage, a large
resistance R is needed, of the order of thousands
of ohms. The internal resistance of the H.T.
battery and that of the G.B. voltages can also be
ignored. The complete valve equivalent a.c.
circuit is therefore as shown in Fig. 9 (iii).
597 | P a g e
The total resistance of the circuit is R + Ra.
Thus, the alternating current I, flowing
=
Output alternating voltage, Vo = IR =
Voltage gain or amplification factor = =
(i)
Thus is a triode has an amplification factor µ of
10, an internal resistance Rₐ of 8000 ohms and a
resistance R of 1000 ohms,
Voltage gain = = = 5.6
Hence if the applied alternating voltage is 0.2
volt (r.m.s)
Amplified output voltage = 5.6 x 0.2 =1.1 volts
(r.m.s)
Couplings
Fig. 10 shows how the output voltage Vo across
R is passed from the valve V1 to the next valve
V2. Fig. 10 (i) illustrates resistance-capacitance
coupling. Here one end of the load R is joined to
the coupling capacitor Cg. The other end of R is
joined to the lower end of the resistor Rg through
the relatively low internal resistance of the h.t
battery. Thus, from an a.c point of view, Cg and
Rg are effectively in parallel with R.
Fig. 10. Couplings: (i) Resistance-capacitance;
(ii) Transformer
Rg thus passes to V2 a fraction of the output (a.c)
voltage across R. Note that Cg is necessary to
isolate the gird of V2 from the positive potential
of the h.t battery.
Fig. 10 (ii) illustrates transformer coupling. The
load in the anode circuit is the primary coil P.
The output (a.c) voltage across this coil is
amplified by the transformer and passed to the
next value V2 by the secondary coil S.
Basic Oscillatory Circuit
About 1862, Lord Kelvin showed theoretically
that when an electrical disturbance is made in a
capacitor consisting of a capacitor and a coil and
then left, oscillations of current occur. Thus,
suppose a current I flows at an instant t in a
circuit consisting of a coil of inductance L and
negligible resistance, in series with a capacitor of
capacitance C (Fig. 11). Then, if Q is the charge
on the capacitor,
598 | P a g e
p.d across inductance = - L swing. In a similar way, the capacitor becomes
fully charged at one instant, the energy is stored
p.d across capacitor =
in the magnitude field of the coil. When the
-L = capacitor is fully discharged, the energy is
wholly in the magnetic field. After this, the
But I =
capacitor charges up the other way round, storing
-L = electrical energy, and when it is fully charged,
there is then no energy in the coil's magnetic
=- .Q (i)
field.
This is a 'simple harmonic' equation. Thus, Q, the
Damped and Undamped Waves
charge circulating, varies with time t according
The oscillations of charge or current in a circuit
to the relation
containing only an inductor and a capacitor will
Q =Qo sin t (ii)
theoretically last indefinitely with a constant
Where Q is the maximum value of the varying amplitude (Fig. 12 (i)). In practice, however,
charge and is a constant given by 2 = 1/LC, some of the energy is dissipated as heat in the
or resistance of the coil. Since this energy is no
= longer available as oscillatory energy, the
amplitude of the oscillations gradually
The frequency, f, of the oscillatory charge is
diminishes, and a damped oscillation is thus
given by
obtained (Fig. 12 (ii)). This is analogous to the
f= = (iii)
case of a vibrating turning-fork. If there were no
A coil-capacitor series circuit is thus a basic air
oscillatory circuit, and the frequency of the
oscillations of charge (or current) depends on the
magnitudes of the inductance L and capacitance
C.
The physical reason for the oscillations is the
Fig. 12. Undamped (continuous) waves and
constant interchange of energy between the
damped waves.
capacitor and the coil. When the bob of a
friction the oscillations of the prongs would
pendulum is oscillating, its energy at the end of a
proceed indefinitely with constant amplitude, but
swing is wholly kinetic at the middle of the

599 | P a g e
in practice the amplitude of the oscillations
gradually diminishes to Zero.
Triode as an Oscillator
A triode valve can be used to maintain
oscillations in a coil (L, R)- capacitor (c)
electrical circuit. The principle of the method is
shown in Fig. 13, which consists of the valve; a
coil L1, close to the oscillator coil, in the anode
circuit; a high-tension (h.t) battery; and a
capacitor Cg and a resistance Rg in the gird
circuit, for a reason to be explained later.
Fig. 13. Triode as oscillator
When the circuit is made, oscillations of current
occur in the coil (L, R)-capacitor (C) circuit, as
already explained. The oscillatory coil
alternating p.d across C, is amplified by the valve
and oscillatory currents are then obtained in the
anode circuit and hence in the coil L1. By mutual
induction M between the coils, some energy is
fed back to the oscillator circuit. If the feed-back
is correctly phased and is of the required amount,
it will help to maintain the oscillations of current
in the oscillatory current, which will then
become undamped. The magnitude and phase of
the feed-back can be varied by altering the
position of the coil L1 and, if necessary,
reversing its connections in the anode circuit.
With audio-frequency oscillations, a continuous
whistle can usually be heard.
Efficiency of Oscillator
The source of the oscillatory energy is the h.t
battery in the circuit. An oscillator is thus said to
be a device for converting d.c energy into a.c
energy. The efficiency of the circuit is defined
as:
X 100%.
Once the balance-wheel of a watch is set in
motion, energy is imparted to it regularly only at
certain times of its oscillation. In this way, the
balance-wheel is supplied with the least amount
of energy needed to maintain undamped
oscillations. For the same reason, the triode
oscillator circuit has a capacitor Cg and a high-
resistance Rg in the gird-circuit. See Fig. 13.
when the circuit is first made the p.d across Rg is
zero, and hence the gird is at zero potential. The
alternating or oscillatory voltage across the
capacitor C makes the gird positive in potential
for some part of its cycle. Some electrons are
therefore drawn into the gird circuit, charging the
capacitor Cg. During the oscillatory voltage,
some charge (electrons) leaks away through Rg,
and the gird thus becomes more negative in
potential. Fig. 14 shows roughly how the gird
potential decreases, and with suitably chosen
values of Cg and Rg it soon settles down to some
steady negative value Eg, which is the gird - bias
600 | P a g e
while the valve is functioning. In this condition
the oscillatory voltage across the capacitor C
only produces a pulse of current in the anode
circuit at brief intervals, as shown in Fig. 14, and
by mutual induction, energy is fed back
simultaneously by the coil L1 into the oscillatory
circuit (L, R and C) to make up for the energy
lost as heat in the resistance R.
Fig. 14. Variation of grid p.d and anode current
The valve is here said to be operating under 'class
C' conditions, that is, the negative grid-bias Eg is
the least twice the gird- bias value OA which
cuts off the anode current in the Ia - Vg
characteristics (Fig. 14). during part of the cycle
the gird potential becomes positive, as shown.
A fixed negative gird-bias equal to Eg is
unsuitable in a valve oscillator circuit. The
alternating (oscillatory) voltage across the
capacitor C, once obtained, would not produce
any current in the anode circuit and oscillations
would not produce any current in the anode
circuit and oscillations would then not continue
owing to lack of feed-back of energy.
Radio Waves and Modulation
In 1887, Hertz found by experiment that when an
oscillatory voltage of high frequency was
connected to two capacitor plates far apart, some
of the oscillatory energy travelled in space some
distance from the plates and was detected. This
was the first discovery of the existence of radio
waves. A transmitting aerial is a form of
capacitor in which one 'plate' is high above the
other 'plate', the earth. Theory and experiment
show that radio waves will not travel out far from
a transmitting aerial unless their frequency is
very high. Valve oscillator circuits therefore
usually produce alternating voltages of the order
of a million (106) Hz, 1 MHz, or more, known as
radio-frequencies (R.F). The Radio 4 station in
Britain, broadcasting on 330 metres wavelength,
sends out radio waves of a frequency of 908000
Hz (980 kHz). Another station sends out radio
waves of very high frequency (V.H.F) 90-0
MHz.
At broadcasting stations, the oscillator alone
would produce a radio wave of constant
amplitude (Fig. 15 (i), (ii)). When audio-
frequency (A.F) currents, due to
Fig. 15. Amplitude and frequency modulation
601 | P a g e
speech or music, are fed through a microphone
into the oscillatory circuit, the radio waves are
affected or 'modulated' accordingly. In amplitude
modulation (A.M) the amplitude of the radio-
frequency wave varies exactly as the audio-
frequency (Fig. 15(iii)). In frequency modulation
(F.M) the amplitude of the radio-frequency wave
is wave is constant but the audio-frequency is
superimposed on the frequency of the radio wave
(Fig. 15 (iv)).
Diode Valve Detection
The principle of the diode valve was discussed
previously. It was showed that a diode valve,
which consists of a nickel plate or anode placed
in a vacuum opposite a cathode emitting
electrons, allowed current to flow through it only
when the anode was positive in potential relative
to the cathode.
The diode can be used to convert alternating to
direct voltage. It can also be used to 'detect' the
audio-frequency variation carried along with the
modulated wave sent out by transmitters. If a
modulated wave is applied between the anode
and cathode of a diode, with a resistor R in the
circuit (Fig. 16 (i)), the valve conducts on the
Fig. 16. Diode valve detection
positive parts of the cycle. The variation of
current la in the anode circuit, the output current,
is then shown in Fig. 16 (ii), where OAB is the Ia
- Va curve. The average value of the current, it
will be noted, follows the variation of the
amplitude of the modulated wave, and hence the
voltage across R, called the output voltage, has
the same audio-frequency variation. In this way,
the diode is said to act as a 'detector' of the
audio-frequency. If the modulated wave were
applied to the resistance R without using the
diode, the average current obtained would be
Zero.
Triode as a Detector
We have just shown that the diode can act as a
'detector' of the audio-frequency carried with a
modulated wave. The triode can also act as a
detector, and in one method, known as anode-
bend detection, the modulated wave is applied in
the gird - cathode circuit, together with a steady
grid-bias (G.B) corresponding to a point on the
bend of the Ia-Vg characteristic (Fig. 17 (i)). The
swings of the modulated wave on one half of the
602 | P a g e
cycles now produce an anode-current variation,
but very little current flows on the other half-
cycles. The output, or anode current, thus varies
as shown in Fig. 17 (ii), and hence the average
current variation follows the variation of the
peaks of the current, which is the audio-
frequency variation carried along by the
modulated wave. By means of high resistance
earphones and a suitable capacitor across it, the
audio-frequency variation can be heard.
Fig. 17. Triode detection
Semiconductors
In receives, the radio valve has been superseded
by components made from semiconductors,
which perform the same function as the valve.
Semiconductors are a class of solids with
electrical resistivity between that of a conductor
and an insulator. For example, the resistivity of a
conductor is of the order 10-8 Ὠm, that of an
insulator is 104 Ὠm and higher, and that of a
semiconductor is 10-1 Ὠm. Silicon and
germanium are examples of semiconductor
elements widely used in industry.
Electrons and Holes
Silicon and germanium atoms tetravalent. They
have four electrons in their outermost shell,
called valence electrons. One valence electron is
shared with each of four surrounding atoms in a
tetrahedral arrangement, forming 'covalent
bonds' which maintain the crystalline solid
structure. Fig. 18(i) is a two-dimensional
representation of the structure.
Fig. 18. Semiconductor; Element (-) and hole (+)
movement
At 0 k, all the valence electrons are firmly bound
to the nucleus of their particular atom. At room
temperature, however, the thermal energy of a
valence electron may become greater than the
energy binding it to its nucleus. The covalent
bonds are then broken. The electron leaves the
atom, X say, and becomes a free electron. This
leaves X with a vacancy or hole. Fig. 18 (ii).
Since X now has a net positive charge, an
electron in a neighbouring atom may then be
attracted. Thus, the hole appears to move to Y.
The hole movement through a semiconductor is
random. But if a battery is connected, the valence
electrons are urged to move in one direction and
to fill the holes. The holes then drift in the
direction of the field. Thus, the holes move as if
they were carriers with a positive charge +e,
603 | P a g e
where e is the numerical value of the charge on
an electron.
Fig. 18 (iii). The current in the semiconductor is
also carried by the free electrons present. These
are equal in number to the holes in a pure
semiconductor and drift in the opposite direction
since they are negative charges. The mobility of
an electron, its average velocity per unit electric
field intensity, is usually much greater than that
of a hole.
In electrolytes, the current is also carried by
moving negative and positive charges but the
carriers here are ions. It should be noted that, in
pure semiconductor, there are equal numbers of
electrons and holes. Electron-hole pairs are said
to be produced by the movement of an electron
from bound state in an atom to a higher energy
level, where it becomes a free electron.
Effect of Temperature Rise
In contrast to a semiconductor, the carriers of
electricity in a metal such as copper are only free
electrons. Further, as the temperature of the
metal rises, the amplitude of vibration of the
atoms increases and more 'collisions' with atoms
are then made by drifting electrons. Thus, the
resistance of a pure metal increases with
temperature rise.
In the case of a semiconductor, however, the
increase in thermal energy of the valence
electrons due to temperature rise enables more of
them to break the covalent bonds and become
free electrons. Thus, more electron-hole pairs are
produced which can act as carriers of current.
Hence, in contrast to a pure metal, the electrical
resistance of a semiconductor decreases with
temperature rise. This is one way of
distinguishing between a pure metal and a
semiconductor.
P- and N-type Semiconductors
By 'doping' a semiconductor with a tiny amount
of impurity such as one part in a million, a
considerable increase can be made to the number
of charge carriers.
Arsenic atoms, for example, have five electrons
in their outermost or valence band. When an
atom of arsenic is added to a germanium crystal,
the atom settles in a lattice site with four of its
electrons shared with neighbouring germanium
atoms.
Fig. 19. N- and P- Semiconductors
The fifth electron may thus become free to
wander through the crystal. Since an impurity
604 | P a g e
atom may provide one free electron, an
enormous increase occurs in the number of
electron carriers. The impure semiconductor is
called an 'n-type semiconductor' or n-
semiconductor, where 'n' represents the negative
charge on an electron. Thus, the majority carriers
in an n-semiconductor are electrons. Positive
charges or holes are also present in the n-
semiconductor. These are thermally generated, as
previously explained, and since they are
relatively few they are called the minority
carriers. The impurity (arsenic) atoms are called
donors because they donate electrons as carriers.
P-semiconductors are made by adding foreign
atoms which are trivalent to pure germanium or
silicon. Examples are boron or indium. In this
case the reverse happens to that previously
described. Each trivalent atom at a lattice site
attracts an electron from a neighbouring atom,
thereby completing the four valence bonds and
forming a hole in the neighbouring atom as
shown in figure 19 (ii). In this way, an enormous
increase occurs in the number of holes. Thus, in a
p-semiconductor, the majority carriers are holes
or positive charges. The minority carriers are
electrons, negative charges, which are thermally
generated. The impurity atoms are called
acceptors in this case because each 'accepts' an
electron when the atom is introduced into the
crystal.
Summarizing: In a n-semiconductor, conduction
is due mainly to negative charges or electrons,
with positive charges (holes) as minority carriers.
In a p-semiconductor, conduction is due mainly
to positive charges or holes, with negative
charges (electrons) as minority carriers.
P-N Junction
By a special manufacturing process, p- and n-
semiconductors can be melted so that a boundary
or junction is formed between them. This
junction is extremely thin and of the order 10-4
cm. It is called a p-n junction. Figure 20(i).
When a scent
bottle is opened,
the high
concentration of
scent molecules in
the bottle causes
the molecules to
diffuse into the air.
In the same way,
the high
concentration of
holes (positive charges) on one side of a p-n
junction, and the high concentration of electrons
on the other side, causes the two carriers to
diffuse respectively to the other side of the
junction, as shown. The electrons which move to
the p-semiconductor side recombine with holes
there. These holes therefore disappear, and an
excess negative charge A

605 | P a g e
appears on this side. Figure 20 (ii).
Fig. 20. P-n junction and Barrier p.d
In a similar way, an excess positive charge B
builds up in the n-semiconductor when holes
diffuse across the junction. Together with the
negative charge A on the p-side, an e.m.f or p.d
is produced which opposes the diffusion of
charges across the junction. This is called a
barrier p.d and when the flow ceases it has a
magnitude of a few tenths of a volt.
Junction Diode
When a battery B, with an e.m.f greater than the
barrier p.d, is joined with its positive pole to the
p-semiconductor, P, and its negative pole to the
n-semiconductor, N, p-charges (holes) are urged
across the p-n junction from P to N and n-
charges (electrons) from N to P. Figure 21(i).
Thus, an appreciable current is obtained. The p-n
junction is now said to be forward-biased, and
when the applied p.d is increased, the current
increases.
Fig. 21. Junction diode characteristic
When the poles of the battery are reversed, only
a very small current flow. Fig. 21(ii). In this case
the p-n junction is said to be reverse-biased. This
time only the minority carriers, negative charges
in the p-semiconductor and positive charges in
the n-semiconductor, are urged across the p-n
junction by the battery. Since the minority
carriers are thermally-generated, the magnitude
of the reverse current depends only on the
temperature of the semiconductors.
It can now be seen that the p-n junction acts as a
rectifier. It has a low resistance for one direction
of p.d and a high resistance for the opposite
direction, as shown by the characteristic curve in
Fig. 21(iii).
It is therefore called a junction diode. The
junction diode has advantages over a diode
valve; for example, it needs only a low voltage
battery B to function; it does not need time to
warm up; it is less bulky, and it is cheaper to
manufacture in large numbers. On this account,
the junction diode has replaced the diode valve in
receivers.
Zener Diode
When the reverse bias or p.d is increased across a
p-n junction, a large increase in current is
suddenly obtained at a voltage Z. Fig. 22(i). This
is called the Zener effect, after the discoverer. It
is partly due to the high electric field which
exists across the narrow p-n junction at the
breakdown or Zener voltage Z, which drags more
electrons from their atoms and thus increases
considerably the number of electron-hole pairs.
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 Fig. 22. Zener diode and voltage regulation Fig. 23. Transistors and symbols

Ionization by collision also contributes to the respective three layers. In a n-p-n transistor, the

increase in carriers. emitter is n-type, the base is p-type and the

Zener diodes are used as voltage regulators or collector is n-type. Fig. 23(ii). The base is

stabilizers in circuits. In Fig. 22(ii), a suitable deliberately made very thin in manufacture. The

diode D is placed across a circuit L. Although the transistor, like the triode valve, is thus a three-

battery supply B may fluctuate, and produce terminal device.

changes of current in L and D, if R is suitably Fig. 23 shows the circuit symbols for p-n-p and

chosen, the voltage across D remains practically n-p-n transistors. In an actual transistor, the

constant over a reverse current range of tens of collector terminal is displaced more than the

milliamperes at the Zener voltage. See Fig. 22(i). others for recognition or has a dot near it.

The voltage across L thus remains stable.

The Transistor Common-Base (C-B) Arrangement

The junction diode is a component which can The transistor may be regarded as two p-n

only rectify. The transistor is a more useful junctions back-to-back. Fig. 24(i) shows batteries

component; it is a current amplifier. A transistor correctly connected to a p-n-p transistor. The

is made from three layers of p- and n- emitter-base is forward-biased; the collector-base

semiconductors. They are called respectively the is reverse-biased; and the base is common. This

emitter (E), base (B) and collector (C). Fig. 23(i) is called the common-base (C-B) mode of using

illustrates a p-n-p transistor, with electrodes a transistor. Note carefully the polarities of the

connected to the two batteries. The positive pole of the supply

voltage X is joined to the emitter E but the
negative pole of the supply voltage Y is joined to
the collector C.

607 | P a g e
 are more speedy carriers than holes. Thus, n-p-n
transistors are used in high-frequency circuits,
where the carriers are required to respond very
quickly to signals.
Common-Base Characteristics
The behaviour of a particular transistor in the
Fig. 24. Transistor action common-base arrangement can be obtained from
If batteries are connected the wrong way round its characteristic curves. Fig. 25 shows a circuit
to a transistor the latter may be seriously for determining the curves. Vcc represents the
damaged. In the case of a n-p-n transistor, supply voltage, for example 9V; A1, A2 are
therefore, the negative pole of one battery is current measuring instruments; V are voltmeters;
joined to the emitter and the positive pole of the and the two potentiometers of 1 megohm
other is joined to the collector. Fig. 24(ii).
Consider Fig. 24(i). Here the emitter-base is
forward biased by X, so that positive charges or
holes flow across the junction from E to the base
B. The base is so thin, however, that the great
Fig. 25. Common-base characteristics
majority of the holes are urged across the base to
investigation
the collector by the battery Y. Thus, a current I c
And 50 kilohm are used to vary the input or
flows in the collector circuit. The remainder of
emitter current, IE. The more important curves
the holes flow in the base circuit, so that a small
are:
current I B is obtained here. From Kirchhoff's
(1) Output characteristics (IC v. VCB, with
first law, it follows that, if I E is the emitter
IE constant),
current,
(2) (2) input characteristics (IE v. VEB, with
IE = IC + IB
VCB constant),
Typical values for a.f. amplifier transistors are:
(3) (3) transfer characteristics (IC v. IE, with
IE = 1.0 mA, IC = 0.98 mA, IB = 0.02 mA.
VCB constant).
Although the action of n-p-n transistors is similar
in principle to p-n-p transistors, the carriers of
the current in the former case are mainly
electrons and in the latter case holes. Electrons

608 | P a g e

Fig. 26. C-B characteristics
Typical results are shown in Fig. 26(i), (ii), (iii).
The flat output characteristics in Fig. 26(i) show
that the output resistance, VCB/ IC, is high.
The input resistance, VEB / IE, varies with the
slope of the curve in Fig. 26(ii) and is generally
low. From the straight-line graph of the transfer
characteristic in Fig. 26(iii), it follows that a
linear relation exists between IC and IE.
Common-Emitter (C-E) Arrangement
The slope of the transfer characteristic in Fig.
26(iii) provides the current gain of the transistor,
IC/ IE, it is practically 1, showing that the
common-base arrangement is unsuitable for
current amplification. Now in a typical transistor,
as already seen, IC = 0.98 mA and IB = 0.02 mA.
Thus, IC is 49 times as large as IB and a similar
order of magnitude for current gain occurs with
changes in IB. On this account the common-
emitter (or grounded-emitter) arrangement is
widely used in a.f. amplifiers.
Fig. 27. Common-emitter characteristics
investigation
Fig. 27 shows a circuit for determining the output
characteristics, input characteristics and transfer
characteristic in the common-emitter (C-E)
arrangement. The results are shown in Fig. 28(i),
(ii), (iii).
Output characteristic: Since the knee of the
curve occurs at a low voltage of the order of 1 V,
only low battery supply voltages are needed to
operate a transistor in the linear region beyond
the knee. This is an advantage of the transistor
compared with the valve. Further, the small slope
of the straight line shows that the output
resistance is high. Thus, although the load in the
collector circuit may vary, the collector current is
constant for a given alternating input or base
current. Hence the transistor can be considered as
a constant current generator in circuitry, whereas
the triode valve is treated as a constant voltage
generator with a given input.
609 | P a g e
 IC = IC +

Simplifying, (1)

If , then from (1).

Fig. 28. C-E characteristics Leakage Current

Transfer characteristic: The output current IC When the base current IB is zero, some current
varies fairly linearly with the input current IB. still flows in the collector circuit in the common-
The current gain, denoted by , is the ratio emitter arrangement. This is due to the minority

IC/ IE, VC constant. From Fig. 28 (iii), = carriers present in the collector-base part of the
transistor, which is reverse-biased. The collector
(10 – 5)mA/(200 – 100) A = 50. The reader
current when IB is zero is denoted by ICE0 and
should note that 'current amplification' usually
is called the leakage current.
refers to variations in current in amplifier circuit
In the common-base arrangement, the leakage
analysis. The ratio IC/IB provides the d.c. current
current obtained when IE is zero is denoted by
amplification.
ICB0. This is also due to minority carriers in the
Input characteristic: The input resistance, rb, is
collector-base, which is reverse-biased. Thus, the
the ratio VBE/ IB with VC constant. It varies
leakage current flows when a transistor is in the
at different points of the curve and has a medium
C-E or C-B arrangement.
value such as 1000Ω or 1 kΩ.
Since the current gain in the C-E arrangement
Relation between Current Gain in C-E and C-
is the ratio IC/ IB, with the usual notation, it
B Arrangements
follows that, generally,
In the C-B arrangement, the current gain is
IC = IB + ICE0 (1)
denoted by and is the ratio IC/ IE. In the C-E
Similarly, in the C-B arrangement,
arrangement, the current gain is denoted by
I c = IE + ICB0 (2)
and is the ratio IC/ IB. It is always true that IE
Now any change in ICE0 or minority carriers is
= IC + IB. Hence IE = IC + IE. Using
magnified times in the C-E arrangement, since
IC/ IB = , then IB = IC/ . Thus, by
ICE0 also flows in the base-emitter circuit when
substitution for IB in IE = IC + IB,
the transistor is operating. A temperature change
from 25°C to 45°C, which would increase the

610 | P a g e
current ICE0 by 10 µA say, would thus be
amplified to about 49 x 10 µA or 490 µA, if is
49. This increase in current, nearly 0.5 mA,
would have a considerable effect on the output in
the collector circuit, and it would lead to a
distorted output, for example.
On the other hand, = 0.98 for the same
Fig. 29. Simple amplifier
transistor. Thus, in the C-B arrangement, a
The base-emitter is then forward-biased but the
similar temperature rise and current increase of
collector-base is reverse-biased, that is, the
10 µA would produce a change in 0.98 x 10 µA,
potential of B is negative relative to E but
or nearly 10 µA, in the output or collector circuit.
positive relative to C.
This is only a very small change compared to the
Suppose a small signal is applied, so that the
C-E case. On this account the C-E arrangement,
base current changes by an amount IB. Then IC
which is very sensitive to temperature change,
changes by IB.
must be stabilized for excessive temperature rise.
Silicon transistors are much less sensitive to Voltage gain = =
temperature change than germanium transistors
=
and are hence becoming used more widely.
where ri is the input resistance or resistance to

Simple C-E Amplifier Circuit a.c. between base-emitter.

Fig. 29 shows a p-n-p transistor in a simple or If = 49, RL = 4700 Ω, ri = 1000 Ω, the voltage

basic C-E arrangement. It uses one battery
supply, VCC. A load, RL, is placed in the col-
lector or output circuit. A resistor R provides the
necessary bias, VBE, for the base-emitter circuit.
gain = 49 x 4.7 = 230 (approx.).
C-E Amplifier Circuit
In practice, Fig. 29 is unsuitable as an amplifier
circuit since there is no arrangement for
temperature stabilization. A more reliable C-E
a.f. amplifier circuit is shown in Fig. 30. Its
principal features are:

611 | P a g e
 Fig. 31 shows one form of transistor oscillator
circuit. Its main features are:

Fig. 30. Amplifier Circuit

(i) a potential divider arrangement, Rl, R2,
which provides the necessary base-bias;
(ii) a load K L which produces the output
Fig. 31. Transistor oscillator
across X, Y;
(i) a coil-capacitor, L-C, load in the collector
(iii) a capacitor C1 which isolates the d.c.
circuit;
component in the input signal from the
(ii) positive feedback through the coil L1 to
circuit;
maintain the oscillations in the L-C
(iv) a large capacitor C2 across a resistor R3,
circuit;
which prevents undesirable feedback of
(iii) a potential divider arrangement, R1, R2,
the amplified signal to the base-emitter
to provide the necessary base bias;
circuit;
(iv) an emitter resistor R 3 to stabilize the
(v) an emitter resistance R3, which stabilizes
circuit for excessive temperature rise;
the circuit for excessive temperature rise.
(v) large capacitors C x and C 2 across R 2
Thus, if the collector current rises, the
and R 3 respectively, which prevent
current through R 3 increases. This
undesirable feedback to the base circuit.
lowers the p.d. between E and B, so that
Approximately, the frequency of oscillation is
the collector current is automatically
given by ƒ = l/2 / , in this case an audio-
lowered.
frequency. Other frequencies may be obtained by
Transistor Oscillator Circuit
changing the magnitude of C.
Like the triode valve, a transistor can be arranged
Thermistor
to provide 'positive feedback' to an oscillatory
There are numerous semiconductor devices other
(L-C) circuit. Oscillations in the L-C circuit can
than the transistor. A thermistor is a heat-
thus be maintained.
sensitive resistor usually made from

612 | P a g e
semiconductor materials which have a high
negative temperature coefficient of resistance. Its
resistance thus decreases appreciably with
temperature rise.
One use of a thermistor is to safeguard against
current surges in circuits where this could be
harmful, for example, in a circuit where the
heaters of radio valves are in series. A
thermistor, T, is included in the circuit, as shown
(Fig. 32). When the supply voltage is switched
on, the thermistor has a high resistance at first
because it is cold. It thus limits the current to a
moderate value. As it warms up, the thermistor
resistance drops appreciably and an increased
current then flows through the heaters.
Thermistors are also used in transistor receiver
circuits to compensate for excessive rise in
collector current.
Fig. 32. Use of Thermometer
Phototransistor
A photodiode is a junction diode sensitive to
light. When the diode is reverse-biased, minority
carriers flow in the circuit and constitute a so-
called 'dark' current. If the junction of the diode
is now illuminated, the light energy produces
more electron-hole pairs, which are then swept
across the junction. The increased current which
flows is the 'light' current.
A phototransistor is a transistor sensitive to light
in which the base is usually left disconnected.
When light falls on the emitter side, more
electron-hole pairs are produced in the base. This
is amplified by transistor action, and a larger
collector current is obtained. In principle, the
phototransistor is a photodiode plus amplifier.
Fig. 33. Phototransistor operating relay
Fig. 33 shows a circuit in which a Mullard
phototransistor ocp71 is connected in series with
a relay coil D and a d.c. supply voltage. When
the photo- transistor is illuminated, the increase
in collector current closes the contacts of a
magnetic relay. Current then flows in a circuit
connected to the relay, and a bell, for example,
may then ring. Fig. 33. When the light is
switched off, the falling current in the relay coil
produces an induced voltage in the same
direction as the battery supply. This would raise
the collector voltage and prevent the switch-off
at the contacts. The diode oA81 across the coil
acts as a safeguard. As soon as the rising induced
voltage becomes equal to the battery voltage the
613 | P a g e
diode conducts, and prevents any further rise in if any, in the behaviour of the circuit would
collector voltage. result from an increase in (a) the temperature
of the cathode of the diode, (b) the value of
Exercise C, (c) the value of R?
1. Sketch graphs using the same axes Draw a diagram of a full-wave rectifier-
showing how the current through a smoother circuit, labelling each component
thermionic diode varies with the d.c. and explaining briefly its purpose.
potential difference applied between the 3. Give an account of thermionic emission.
anode and filament for two filament What analogy exists between thermionic
temperatures. Explain three special features emission and the evaporation of molecules
of the graphs. from the surface of a liquid?
What is meant by (a) half-wave rectification, Show how the introduction of the grid in a
(b) full-wave rectification? Explain with the triode enables it to be used as a voltage
aid of labelled circuit diagrams how each of amplifier. Draw a circuit diagram to show (i)
these may be achieved using thermionic where the voltage to be amplified is applied
diodes. to the triode, and (ii) where the amplified
2. Figure 41 represents a simple rectifier voltage is tapped off.
circuit. A sinusoidal 50 cycle alternating 4. Describe the structure of a diode and
voltage of peak value 100 V is applied describe an experiment to justify the term
between D and E, and a load circuit can be 'valve'.
connected between the output terminals X Explain how a triode (a) differs in structure
and Y. and operation from a diode,
(b) may be used to amplify small alternating
potential differences.
5. Describe the structure of a triode valve
and explain the functions of its component
Fig. 41 parts.
Draw a diagram showing the variation with Draw clearly labelled diagrams to show the
time of the p.d. between X and Y on open arrangements necessary (a) to determine the
circuit. Explain how this is modified when a grid characteristics of a triode for various
load is connected across X Y. What changes, fixed anode potentials,

614 | P a g e
 (b) to maintain electrical oscillations by
means of a triode.
6. For a triode, sketch curves to show (a) the
form of the anode current/grid voltage static
characteristics, (b) the form of the anode
current/anode voltage static characteristics.
How may the amplification factor of the
valve be deduced from these curves?
Explain, with the aid of a circuit diagram and
with reference to the static characteristics,
how the triode may be used to amplify a
small alternating voltage.
7. Describe the essential features of a triode
valve and comment on any one feature of its
construction which you consider of special
importance.
Describe briefly, with the aid of a diagram,
how you would investigate the variation of
anode current with anode potential, the grid
potential being constant and negative to the
filament. Sketch the curve you would expect
to obtain.
A triode valve is to be used to amplify a
direct current of 10-7 amps flowing in a
circuit incorporating a resistance of 105
ohms. The valve has a mutual conductance of
2 milliamp volt" 1 and an anode slope
resistance (impedance) of 10 6 ohms.
Draw a diagram of a suitable circuit and
calculate the current amplification.
8. What is meant by thermionic emission!
Describe how this phenomenon is used in the
action of a radio valve and give some other
use to which it is put.
Show how a triode can be used (a) to detect,
(b) to amplify, radio signals.
9. Give a brief description of the
construction of a high-vacuum diode. Draw a
graph which shows the variation of the
current through such a diode with the
potential difference across it, and account for
the main features of the curve.
Describe how the introduction of a third
electrode, the grid, makes possible (a) control
of the current which reaches the anode, and
(b) the amplification of a voltage.
10. Describe with the aid of a circuit diagram
how a triode valve can be used as an
oscillator. What factors determine (a) the
frequency, and (b) the amplitude of the
oscillation?
A certain triode valve has an amplification
factor of 100 and a mutual conductance of 2-
5 mA V-1. For reasons of stability, the
makers recommend that a resistance of not
more than 1-0 megohm shall be connected
between grid and cathode. If the valve is used
as an amplifier, calculate the maximum
possible value of
615 | P a g e
11. Draw a clear labelled diagram showing What is meant by stating that a cathode ray
the structure of a cathode ray tube. oscillograph is fitted with a linear time base
The potential difference between cathode and of variable frequency. (N.)
anode of a cathode ray tube is 500 volts. The
tube is set up with its axis along the direction
of the earth's resultant magnetic field and the
spot is focussed on the screen which is 150
cm from the anode. On rotating the tube
about a horizontal axis to a position at right
angles to the earth's resultant field the spot is
deflected through 0.75 cm. Find a value for
e/m for an electron. (Assume the magnetic
induction in the earth's magnetic field to be
050 x 10-4 Wb m-2.)
12. Describe an experiment to determine the
deflection sensitivity of a cathode-ray tube in
volts per cm.
Give an account of any experiment you have
performed, or seen performed, in which a
cathode ray oscilloscope is used to obtain
information. Explain the purpose of the
experiment, and the nature of the information
obtained from the oscillograph.
13. Draw a sketch to show the essential parts
of a cathode ray oscillograph having
electrostatic deflection.
With the help of your sketch explain how in a
cathode ray oscillograph: (a) the electrons are
produced; (b) the electrons are focused ; (c)
the spot is made visible; (d) the brightness of
the spot is controlled.

616 | P a g e