ARRESTING BEAUTY:

THE PERFECTIONIST I MPULSE OF PEALE’S BUTTERFLIES ,

HEADE’S HUMMINGBIRDS , BLASCHKA ’S FLOWERS , AND
SANDOW’S BODY
Ellery E. Foutch

A DISSERTATION
in

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History of Art
Presented to the Faculties of the University of Pennsylvania
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in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the
Degree of Doctor of Philosophy
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2011
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________________________________
Michael Leja, Professor, History of Art
Supervisor of Dissertation

________________________________
Robert G. Ousterhout, Professor
Graduate Group Chair

Committee members:
Karen Beckman, Jaffe Associate Professor of the History of Art, University of Pennsylvania
Wendy Bellion, Associate Professor, University of Delaware
Gwendolyn DuBois Shaw, Associate Professor, University of Pennsylvania
 UMI Number: 3463006

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ARRESTING BEAUTY: THE PERFECTIONIST IMPULSE OF PEALE’S
BUTTERFLIES, HEADE’S HUMMINGBIRDS, BLASCHKA’S FLOWERS, AND
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SANDOW’S BODY

© 2011
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ELLERY ELISABETH FOUTCH
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 To my parents

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Over the past several years, many people have contributed their time, energy,

intellectual rigor, ideas, questions, and friendship to help make this project possible. I feel

like the luckiest student in the world to have worked with Professor Michael Leja, whose

intellect, kindness, and sense of humor sustained and encouraged my thinking and writing.

His comments on written drafts were invaluable for pushing me to think more deeply about

issues of temporality, as he asked questions that guided me to hone in on my topic and led to

deeper insights. Somehow, I always emerged from meetings with Michael feeling better

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about both my project and my prospects, and I appreciate that he was also willing to brave

technological minefields to discuss the project even when we were separated by an ocean,
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communicating by Skype. I am grateful for his encouragement and his example.

The University of Pennsylvania has been an ideal place to be a graduate student. The
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community of scholars at Penn is a very special one, and I feel indebted to the faculty and

fellow graduate students for their camaraderie, engagement, and general goodwill, all of
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which made progressing toward the degree as enjoyable as is humanly possible; the Jaffe

History of Art Building and the carrels of the Fine Arts Library were environments of

collaborative intellectual adventure. I especially wish to thank Karen Beckman for her tireless

reading of drafts, her mind-blowing questions and comments, her sense of humor, and her

invigorating intellect; Gwendolyn DuBois Shaw for her engagement and her inspiring

example; David Brownlee for his incisive comments in our dissertation proposal workshops

and for making Jaffe feel like such a home through his role as Department Chair (a.k.a.

“Papa Jaffe”) in my first few years at Penn; Larry Silver for his unfailingly broad-ranging

expertise and generosity; Chris Poggi for her encouragement and uncanny ability to articulate

iv
the most complicated concepts of art and theory with delightful clarity; visiting professor

Richard Meyer for his continued support and provocative inquiries; and André Dombrowski

for his challenging and always-insightful questions and comments. Darlene Jackson, Tammy

Betterson, and Brooke Seitensons keep Jaffe running like a well-oiled machine and have

saved the day for all of us many a time. The University’s Interlibrary Loan Office has

shouldered many a burden for me, and I also wish to thank the good-natured and extremely

helpful staff of the Fine Arts Library: Kirby Bell, Ed Deegan, Ken Graitzer, Bill Keller, and

Bob Lawley.

In addition to my colleagues at Penn, I have had the good fortune to study at two

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other institutions whose faculty, staff, and fellow graduate students have been a community
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and an inspiration. I completed a year of PhD coursework at the University of Delaware,

and I have been grateful to be a part of its community of Americanists; I still treasure the
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friendships and intellectual development cultivated by colleagues in both Art History and the

History of American Civilization departments. A course with Wendy Bellion introduced me

to Titian Ramsay Peale, and I’ve also been grateful for Wendy’s incisive questions,
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remarkably insightful comments, and her generosity as a scholar. A seminar on U.S. Social

and Cultural History with Susan Strasser gave me a broader foundation in the study of

American culture, and Monica Dominguez Torres piqued my interest in earlier centuries of

cultural production in the Americas and the epistemological categories of art, science, and

natural history.

The Graduate Program in the History of Art at Williams College was a rigorous

atmosphere that nurtured and challenged me to pursue my current path. Scholars and

mentors Nancy Mowll Mathews, Mark Haxthausen and Marc Simpson taught me what

research and scholarship really involved. Working as Nancy’s research assistant for the
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exhibition Moving Pictures: American Art and Early Film was an incredibly rewarding and

formative experience, broadening my interest in American art and mass culture and fatefully

introducing me to Eugen Sandow; in addition, Nancy has been an important personal and

professional mentor to me. I also owe a debt of gratitude to librarian Nancy Spiegel,

formerly of the Clark Art Institute library, who unveiled a spectacular array of databases and

research tools that have deepened and enlivened my projects. My friendships and scholarly

exchanges with former and succeeding generations of Williams students have been a joy and

an inspiration.

Many foundations and institutions have contributed important material and

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intellectual support. I am especially grateful to the American Council of Learned Societies
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and the Andrew W. Mellon Foundation for their generous support in the final year of this

project with a Dissertation Completion Fellowship. The University of Pennsylvania and its
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School of Arts and Sciences provided several years of funding through the Benjamin

Franklin Fellowship, the Charles Williams Art History Fund, and the Frances Shapiro-

Weitzenhoffer fellowship, and I consider myself lucky to have been a part of this University
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with its marvelous research resources. In 2010-2011, the Penn Humanities Forum hosted a

year of stimulating exchange on the topic of “Virtuality,” of which I was happy to be a part.

I also wish to thank the History of Art department for travel fellowships that were pivotal

for visiting archives and collections, through the Farquhar Summer Travel Grant (summers

of 2006 and 2007) and a Luce Travel Fellowship for Preliminary Dissertation Research. A

Travel Grant for Research Students, sponsored by Penn’s Graduate and Professional

Student Assembly (GAPSA), enabled a research trip to London in the spring of 2010 and my

participation in the Victoria & Albert Museum’s conference Plaster & Plaster Casts: Materiality

and Practice. An Ailsa Mellon Bruce Predoctoral Fellowship for Historians of American Art to
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Travel Abroad, administered by the Center for Advanced Study in the Visual Arts (CASVA),

made it possible for me to travel to museums and archives in London and Paris for the first

time; my study of Wunderkammern, Kunstkammern, and cabinets of curiosities in these cities

and in towns across Germany and Austria was quite influential in the development of this

project.

Residential fellowships have assisted not only financially but also by creating

wonderfully supportive communities with ample opportunities for reflection and scholarly

exchange. The Terra Foundation for American Art Summer Residency in Giverny provided

idyllic surroundings, marvelous colleagues with thought-provoking insights, and lasting

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friendships fostered by Veerle Thielemans, Miranda Fontaine, and Katie Bourguignon, with
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research support from Ewa Bobrowska. The Philadelphia Area Center for History of Science

has sponsored a stimulating program of lectures, workshops, and events tirelessly and
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inclusively organized by Babak Ashrafi and Bonnie Clause, and I am grateful to have been

affiliated with this institution and to have received a month-long Dissertation Research

Fellowship from them. In the earlier stages of this project, I was fortunate to receive a
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Wyeth Predoctoral Fellowship at the Smithsonian American Art Museum, which supported

a year of dissertation research and writing in the intellectual and social community of the

Victor Building. I am thankful to have had this opportunity and to have made the

acquaintance of my fellow Fellows and scholars affiliated with the Smithsonian. I am

especially grateful for advisors, organizational masterminds, and mentors Cynthia Mills,

Amelia Goerlitz, William Truettner and David C. Ward, as well as for the superhuman feats

performed by the Smithsonian Institution Interlibrary Loan Office. While the many

rewarding conversations in formal and informal settings are too numerous to mention here,

I especially appreciate the many fruitful exchanges with Fellows Sarah Carter, Jason
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LaFountain, Alex Mann, and Robin Veder. I was also very happy to participate in the Getty

Dissertation Workshop sponsored by the Getty Research Institute in the spring of 2008,

which offered lively and in-depth critiques and discussions led by Kara Cooney, Hollis

Clayson, and Stephen Nelson. A summer fellowship at the Center for American Art at the

Philadelphia Museum of Art supported my work as I was developing and refining my

dissertation topic; I am grateful for the financial support and for the scholarly development

encouraged by Kathleen Foster and Audrey Lewis, and I am especially grateful for Carol

Soltis’s generosity and willingness to share her extensive knowledge about the Peale family.

Archivists and librarians at many institutions have been incredibly patient and

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helpful. I remain especially grateful to the staff of the Library of the American Museum of
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Natural History in New York, who welcomed me into their library nearly every day in the

summer of 2007. Tom Baione, Barbara Mathé, Mary DeJong, and Annette Springer not only
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granted me unprecedented access to Titian Peale’s butterfly manuscripts but also made me

feel a part of their community; conservator Barbara Rhodes met with me to discuss Titian

Peale’s use of wide-ranging media and materials. Philadelphia’s Academy of Natural Sciences
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similarly supported my research, tirelessly retrieving boxes of archival materials or showing

me rarely-seen objects and enthusiastically sharing their knowledge; I wish to thank archivist

Clare Flemming, librarian Eileen Mathias, and entomologists Jason Weintraub, Greg

Cowper, and David Wright. Lisa DeCesare and the staff of the Harvard University Botany

Libraries generously fielded questions about the Ware Collection and enthusiastically shared

archival materials and ephemera related to the Glass Flowers both during my extended visits

to Cambridge and via e-mail inquiries, as did former Keeper of the Glass Flowers, Susan

Rossi-Wilcox. James Hatton of the Natural History Museum, South Kensington heroically

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hunted down dozens of boxes of archival materials and enlightened me about the

institutional history of the museum, suggesting helpful sources.

Several curators and archivists have also generously responded to inquiries about

objects in their collections, often unearthing objects from deep storage. Mark Nesbitt,

Curator of the Economic Botany Collection of the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, fielded

many questions about botanical models, gave me a tour of Kew’s extensive collection of wax

orchids, and patiently unpacked several boxes of 19th-century models. Arne Nowak, current

resident of the Blaschka-Haus in Hosterwitz, was a delightful host, giving me an extensive

tour of his house, the Blaschkas’ gravesite, and nearby Pillnitz Gardens; I am also grateful

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for his generosity in showing me artifacts he found after purchasing and working on the
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house, as well as photographs of the house’s condition. Nive Chatterjee and staff of the

Rakow Research Library at the Corning Museum of Glass were extremely helpful in sharing
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their wealth of Blaschka-related materials. I was given access to Titian Peale’s photograph

albums at the Smithsonian National Museum of American History by Shannon Perich and

Ryan Lintelman. At the Library of Congress, I was also grateful for the research assistance
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provided by Zoran Sinobad of the Moving Image Section, who shared his knowledge about

Sandow’s films and assisted me in viewing them, and by Kristi Finefield and her fellow staff

of the Photographs Division, who shared photographs, cabinet cards, and stereoviews of

Sandow and by Titian Peale. Jordan Goffin of the Rhode Island Historical Society and Kim

Nusco of the J. Carter Brown Library helpfully furnished me with copies of Martin Johnson

Heade’s letters to John Russell Bartlett in both of their collections, when I was unable to

travel to Providence myself.

Philadelphia collector John Whitenight graciously offered me a tour of his extensive

collection of 19th-century taxidermy and parlor domes, allowing me to see the amazing
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variety of period artificial flowers first-hand. At the Natural History Museum, South

Kensington, Robert Kruszynski (Curator of Anthropology & Human Remains) granted

access to the Sandow cast, while Ruth Nott of the NHM Entomology Library shared their

copy of Titian Peale’s Lepidoptera Americana with me. Kiri Ross-Jones, Archivist at the Royal

Botanical Gardens, Kew, assisted me in finding letters between E. Ray Lankester of the

British Museum and W. T. Thiselton-Dyer of Kew Gardens. Archivist Armand Esai of the

Field Museum fielded questions about Titian Peale’s correspondence with Herman Strecker,

and I am grateful to Lacey Baradel for photographing these letters on a trip to Chicago.

Valerie-Ann Lutz facilitated access to the American Philosophical Society’s extensive

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collections of Titian Ramsay Peale sketches and manuscripts, while Susan Fugate and Emelie
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Rubin of the National Agricultural Library assisted me with the study of Titian Peale I’s 1796

entomology sketchbook.
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Elizabeth Mitchell at the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston, provided access to the

Martin Johnson Heade sketchbooks, journals, and chromolithographs, as did Suzanne

Greenawalt and Lisa Hodermarsky at the Yale University Art Gallery, whose collection also
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includes remarkable sketchbooks by Titian Ramsay Peale. Sarah Cantor of the Philadelphia

Museum of Art granted access to a T. R. Peale butterfly illustration in that museum’s

collection. Judy Rudoe and staff of the British Museum permitted me to examine the

hummingbird jewelry in their collection and also suggested helpful research resources, as did

Richard Edgcumbe of the Victoria and Albert Museum. Ethan Robey of the Cooper-Hewitt

and Alicia Weisberg-Roberts of the Walters Art Museum provided thorough responses to

inquiries about hummingbird jewelry in their collections, as well. Renowned Heade scholar

Theodore Stebbins, Jr., graciously responded to emailed inquiries and shared his extensive

knowledge of the artist and his works.

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 I also wish to express my gratitude to the dozens of staff at the British Library, the

Wellcome Library, New York Public Library’s Billy Rose Theater Collection, the

Pennsylvania Historical Society, the Smithsonian Institution Libraries, and the National

Archives, UK, for their research assistance and retrieval of important documents. One of the

dangers of writing a dissertation on perfection is that I know it cannot itself be “perfect,”

and I fear these acknowledgements are incomplete; I hope readers will excuse any

inadvertent omissions.

Last but not least, I wish to express my profound gratitude to my parents, Linda and

Bill Foutch, for their unceasing encouragement, support, and love. Over the years, they have

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made many sacrifices, and not only have they continually emphasized the importance of
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education, they have also made it possible for me to pursue these endeavors. They

encouraged my intellectual curiosity and expressed enthusiasm for my ideas and ambitions;
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this dissertation is dedicated to them. Thank you for believing in me even when I did not

believe in myself.
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 ABSTRACT

ARRESTING BEAUTY:
THE PERFECTIONIST IMPULSE OF PEALE’S BUTTERFLIES,
HEADE’S HUMMINGBIRDS, BLASCHKA’S FLOWERS, AND SANDOW’S BODY
Ellery Foutch

Michael Leja, Advisor

The pursuit of perfection pervades nineteenth-century art and culture. Whereas

prevailing views of the period posit a binary opposition of competing desires—an embrace

of progress and new technologies, versus anti-modernist nostalgia—my work identifies and

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analyzes a previously unstudied phenomenon: the desire to stop time at a “perfect moment,”

pausing the cycle of growth, degeneration, and rebirth by isolating and arresting a perfect
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state, forestalling decay or death. Yet ironically, this very perfection and its suspension are

incompatible with vitality, suffocating or eliminating organic life. Four case studies in diverse
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visual media illuminate this concept of arrested perfection and its ultimate impossibility:

Titian Ramsay Peale’s Lepidoptera illustrations and specimen boxes; Martin Johnson

Heade’s “Gems of Brazil” hummingbird paintings and chromolithographs; films,

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photographs, and sculptures (including life casts) of bodybuilder Eugen Sandow; and

Harvard’s collection of Glass Flowers crafted by Leopold and Rudolf Blaschka. Each of

these projects betrays the desire to isolate and preserve a perfect state: butterflies forever

suspended in glass cases, hummingbirds artificially arrested on canvas and in jewelry of the

period, a bodybuilder transformed into a sculpture that won’t age, and flowers that will never

wilt or decay yet are also incapable of growth.

In both conception and reception, these projects pursued notions of perfectibility

and engaged wide-ranging contemporary discourses—including evolution, theology and

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spirituality, bodily decline, eugenics, and theories of the cyclical nature of history and

civilizations, from the allegorical trope of the Course of Empire to J.J. Winckelmann’s

articulation of cycles of artistic production. These works are cross-sections of a perfect

moment captured in a culture that was made increasingly aware of temporality by the

introduction of standardized time, train schedules, alarm clocks, the demands of factory

schedules, and the rage for instantaneous photography and the emerging medium of film.

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 TABLE OF CONTENTS

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS ……………………………………………………………… xv

INTRODUCTION ………………………………………………………………………… 1
Arresting Beauty

CHAPTER ONE ………………………………………………………………………… 14

Arresting the Perfect State:
Temporality and Metamorphosis in Titian Peale’s Butterfly Works

CHAPTER TWO ………………………………………………………………………… 93

Taxidermied Jewels:
Martin Johnson Heade’s Gems of Brazil

CHAPTER THREE ……………………………………………………………………. 167

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Embodying Perfection:
The Petrification of Eugen Sandow

CHAPTER FOUR ……………………………………………………………………… 285

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“Time Does Not Have a Stop”:
The Ware Collection of Blaschka Glass Models of Plants at Harvard University
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CONCLUSION ………………………………………………………………………… 368
The Incompatibility of Perfection and Vitality

BIBLIOGRAPHY ……………………………………………………………………… 379

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ILLUSTRATIONS ……………………………………………………………………… 439

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LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
Fig. 0.1 Thomas Cole, The Course of Empire, 1833-1836

Fig. 1.1 Titian Ramsay Peale I, title page of Drawings of American Insects, 1796
Fig. 1.2 Titian Ramsay Peale I, plate 7 of Drawings of American Insects, 1796
Fig. 1.3 detail, Titian Ramsay Peale notes on plate 7 of Drawings of American Insects, 1818 and 1830
Fig. 1.4 detail, Drawings of American Insects, pl. 33
Fig. 1.5. T.R. Peale, Pamphila verna (Moths), 1817
Fig. 1.6. T.R. Peale, Monarch butterfly, 1817
Fig. 1.7. T. R. Peale, Hipparchia, ca. 1828
Fig. 1.8. Edward Donovan, Natural History of British Insects, pl. 145, 1795

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Fig. 1.9. T. R. Peale, Smerinthus, ca. 1824
Fig. 1.10. T. R. Peale, Zeuxera regalia, ca. 1833
Fig. 1.11. Maria Sibylla Merian, Emperor Moth, 1705
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Fig. 1.12. T. R. Peale, Saturnia Promethea Female, ca. 1833
Fig. 1.13. T. R. Peale, Saturnia Promethea Male, ca. 1833
Fig. 1.14. T. R. Peale, cover of Lepidoptera, Larva, Food-plant, Pupa, &c., ca. 1830-1880
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Fig. 1.15. T. R. Peale, Charts from Lepidoptera, Larva, Food-plant, Pupa, &c., ca. 1833-1834
Fig. 1.16. T. R. Peale, title page, Butterflies of North America, ca. 1880
Fig. 1.17. T. R. Peale, Papilio, ca. 1840s
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Fig. 1.18. T. R. Peale, Agraulis, ca. 1850s

Fig. 1.19. detail, Agraulis
Fig. 1.20. T. R. Peale, Saturnia, ca. 1840s-1870s
Fig. 1.21. Detail, Saturnia
Fig. 1.22. T. R. Peale, Caligo Martia (Butterflies), 1878
Fig. 1.23. T. R. Peale, Moth, “Double Lens,” ca. 1850s
Fig. 1.24. T. R. Peale, Moth- July 4/56, 4’ expos., old coll’n, 1856
Fig. 1.25. T. R. Peale, Rock Creek, ca. 1860s
Fig. 1.26. T.R. Peale, Tools for the Preservation of Objects of Natural History, ca. 1830
Fig. 1.27. T.R. Peale, Tools for the Preservation of Objects of Natural History, ca. 1833
Fig. 1.28. A.E. Balland, frontispiece, Les Papillons, leur Histoire… &a., 1823
Fig. 1.29. A.E. Balland, title page, Les Papillons, leur Histoire… &a., 1823
Fig. 1.30. T. R. Peale, Specimen boxes, ca. 1840-1880

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Fig. 1.31. T. R. Peale, Specimen box 75, 1879-1882
Fig. 1.32. T. R. Peale, Specimen Box 15, exterior, ca. 1840
Fig. 1.33. T. R. Peale, Specimen Box 23, exterior, ca. 1840-1880
Fig. 1.34. T. R. Peale, Specimen Box 38, exterior, ca. 1840-1880
Fig. 1.35. T. R. Peale, Lepidoptera specimen box, ca. 1863
Fig. 1.36. T. R. Peale, Lepidoptera box 7 [assembled], ca. 1840-1880
Fig. 1.37. Title page, Scientific and Descriptive Catalogue of Peale’s Museum, 1796
Fig. 1.38. Advertisement for Peale’s Museum (Baltimore), 1822
Fig. 1.39. Admission ticket to Peale’s Philadelphia Museum, 1820s
Fig. 1.40. Attributed to Raphaelle Peale, Catalogue Deception, ca. 1813
Fig. 1.41: Title page, Historical Catalogue of the Paintings in the Philadelphia Museum, 1813
Fig. 1.42. Charles Willson Peale, The Peale Family, 1773-1809

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Fig. 1.43. T. R. Peale, Lepidoptera Box 23, ca. 1846-1880
Fig. 1.44. T. R. Peale, Watchglass-Encased Specimens, Box 102, ca. 1840s
Fig. 1.45. “The Butterfly: Vanity and Self-Conceit,” ca. 1750
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Fig. 1.46. Julius Minn & Co., Wm. S. Kimball Co., Butterfly cigarette card list, ca. 1888
Fig. 1.47. Julius Minn & Co., Wm. S. Kimball Co., Butterfly card no. 18, Papilio machaon, ca. 1888
Fig. 1.48. Julius Minn & Co., Wm. S. Kimball Co., Butterfly card no. 24, Papilio hippodamus, ca. 1888
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Fig. 1.49. Julius Minn & Co. and Wm. S. Kimball Co., Butterfly card no. 37, Catocala nupta, ca. 1888
Fig. 1.50. Matthew Darly, The Fly-Catching Macaroni [Caricature of Sir Joseph Banks], 1772
Fig. 1.51. Rea Irvin, Eustace Tilley, 1925
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Fig. 1.52. T. R. Peale, Box 97, recto, n.d.

Fig. 1.53. T. R. Peale, Box 97, verso, n.d.
Fig. 1.54. T.R. Peale, Box 97, index page (detail)
Fig. 1.55. W. W. & Co., Easter card, ca. 1860s (recto and verso)
Fig. 1.56. W. Curtis Taylor, Walt Whitman, 1877
Fig. 1.57. Photograph of Whitman’s cardboard butterfly, ca. 1938
Fig. 1.58. Table of contents, 1860 edition of Leaves of Grass
Fig. 1.59. Backstrip of 1884 edition of Leaves of Grass
Fig. 1.60. T. R. Peale and A. Gardner, “The National Cemetery, Rear of Soldiers’ Home, Washington
D.C.: Under the supervision of Capt. James M. Moore, A.Q.M., U.S.A.”
Fig. 1.61. T. R. Peale, Urania Fernandinae, n.d.
Fig. 1.62. T. R. Peale, Urania Fernandinae, n.d. (detail)
Fig. 1.63. John R. Cannon, “Construction of Glass Coffins,” 1859

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Fig. 1.64. Joseph Karwowski, “Method of Preserving the Dead,” 1903
Fig. 1.65. Lamson Family, Gravestone for James Waterman, after 1798
Fig. 1.66. Detail, James Smithson’s Tomb, ca. 1830
Fig. 1.67. Detail, “Drawing of the tomb of James Smithson in Genoa, Italy,” ca. 1896

Fig. 2.1. Photographer unknown, Mr. and Mrs. Heade in St. Augustine, ca. 1880
Fig. 2.2. “A St. Augustine Pet Hummingbird, Photographed from Life,” ca. 1893
Fig. 2.3. Martin Johnson Heade, Brazilian Forest, 1864
Fig. 2.4. Martin Johnson Heade, Loddigesia Mirabilis-Gould, ca. 1865
Fig. 2.5. M. J. Heade, Hummingbird sketch, ca. 1865
Fig. 2.6, M. J. Heade, Crimson Topaz (exactly 8 inches in length), ca. 1865
Fig. 2.7. M. J. Heade, Racket Tail Female, ca.1865

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Fig. 2.8. Heade, Tufted Coquette, ca. 1865
Fig. 2.9. M. J. Heade, Gems of Brazil: Frilled Coquette [Lophornis magnifica], ca. 1865
Fig. 2.10. Hummingbird taxidermy mount, ca. 1830s
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Fig. 2.11. M. J. Heade, Gems of Brazil: Tufted Coquette [Lophornis ornata], ca. 1865
Fig 2.12. Hummingbird taxidermy mount, ca. 1830s
Fig. 2.13. M. J. Heade, Gems of Brazil: Fork-tailed Woodnymph [Thalurania furcata], ca. 1865
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Fig. 2.14. Hummingbird taxidermy mount, ca. 1830s
Fig. 2.15. M. J. Heade, Gems of Brazil: Crimson Topaz [Topasa pella], ca. 1865
Fig. 2.16. Hummingbird taxidermy mount, ca. 1830s
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Fig. 2.17. M. J. Heade, White-vented Violet-ear [Colibri serrirostris], ca. 1865

Fig. 2.18. Hummingbird taxidermy mount, ca. 1830s
Fig. 2.19. Peter Spicer, Red Grouse, mid-19thc.
Fig. 2.20. Peter Spicer, Ptarmigans, mid-19thc.
Fig. 2.21. Peter Spicer, Merlins, mid-19thc.
Fig. 2.22. McClay of Ivernness, Kestrel Family, mid-19thc.
Fig. 2.23. John Gould, Augastes lumachellus, Hooded vizor-bearer, 1849-1860
Fig. 2.24. M. J. Heade, Brazilian Ruby [Clytolaema rubricauda], ca. 1864-65
Fig. 2.25. M. J. Heade, Sun Gems, ca. 1864-5
Fig. 2.26. M. J. Heade with Day or Hanhart, Brazilian Hummingbirds IV, ca. 1864-5
Fig. 2.27. M. J. Heade with Day or Hanhart, Brazilian Hummingbirds I, ca. 1864-5.
Fig. 2.28. M. J. Heade with Day or Hanhart, Brazilian Hummingbirds II, ca. 1864-5
Fig. 2.29. M. J. Heade with Day or Hanhart, Brazilian Hummingbirds III, ca. 1864-5

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Fig. 2.30. M. J. Heade with Day or Hanhart, Brazilian Hummingbirds III, ca. 1864-5
Fig. 2.31. Harry Emanuel, Humming-Bird Necklace, ca. 1865
Fig. 2.32. Harry Emanuel, Earrings, ca. 1865
Fig. 2.33. Day & Co., “Articles de Paris,” 1866
Fig. 2.34. X-rays of V&A earrings, ca. 2009
Fig. 2.35. Harry Emanuel, Humming-Bird Necklace (detail)
Fig. 2.36. A.T. or T.A., “Court Jewels,” 1868
Fig. 2.37. Unknown maker, Hummingbird brooch, ca. 1865-1900
Fig. 2.38. Unknown maker, Hummingbird brooch, ca. 1860-1900
Fig. 2.39. Unknown maker, Hummingbird brooch, ca. 1860-1900
Fig. 2.40. South American, Necklace of hummingbird skulls, n.d.
Fig. 2.41. Unknown maker, Hummingbird brooch, ca. 1900

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Fig. 2.42. “The Collecting Mania,” 1882
Fig. 2.43. Wanamaker & Brown, “Monomaniacs,” 1885
Fig. 2.44. M. J. Heade, Gremlin in the Studio II, ca. 1865-1875
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Fig. 3.1. E. Aubrey Hunt, Sandow as Gladiator, ca. 1889
Fig. 3.2. Cover of bound edition, Sandow’s Magazine, ca. 1900
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Fig. 3.3. Cover of Sandow’s Magazine, 1900
Fig. 3.4. Photograph of the Sandow Institute reception room, 1898
Fig. 3.5. B. J. Falk, Sandow, 1894
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Fig. 3.6. Napoleon Sarony, Sandow, 1893

Fig. 3.7. B.J. Falk, Sandow, 1894
Fig 3.8. Warwick Brooks, cabinet cards (ca. 1901)
Fig. 3.9. “He Doesn’t Look It!” 1889
Fig. 3.10. “Sandow Grip Dum Bell—Haltère a Ressorts vers la Force et la Sante,” n.d.
Fig. 3.11. “The Strongest Man on Earth—and the Strongerest,” 1889
Fig. 3.12. “Fashion of the Week: The Sandow Costume,” 1889
Fig. 3.13. “The Democratic Sandow,” 1895
Fig. 3.14. Keppler, “Let Boss Platt Beware: Father Knickerbocker Is in Training for this ‘Sandow
Act,’” 1897
Fig. 3.15. “Marvel of the Age,” 1896
Fig. 3.16. Detail, advertisement for the Sandow Suit, 1893
Fig. 3.17. Advertisement for Kirk’s American Family Soap, 1893

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Fig. 3.18. Detail of Trocadero program, 1893
Fig. 3.19.“Sandow, the Perfection of Physical Manhood,” 1893
Fig. 3.20. “Woman’s Idea of Manly Beauty,” 1898
Fig. 3.21. “The Surprise Dumbbell,” 1893
Fig. 3.22. “The Dumbbell Opened,” 1893
Fig. 3.23. “Opening Sandow’s Dumbbell,” 1893
Fig. 3.24. Solly Walter, “Sandow the Strong,” 1894
Fig. 3.25. Strobridge Lithography Co., The Sandow Trocadero Vaudevilles, 1894
Fig. 3.26. “Breaking Chain by Action of the Biceps,” 1895
Fig. 3.27. “Long Bar Dumb-bell Exercise No. 1,” 1895
Fig. 3.28. “They Glared at One Another,” 1894
Fig. 3.29. Advertisement for Fragments in Baskets, 1894

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Fig. 3.30.“The Ladies Idolize Sandow,” 1894
Fig. 3.31. B. West Clinedienst, “The Latest Society Fad: Fashion Pays Court to Sandow,” 1894
Fig. 3.32. “He’s done it,” 1889 IE
Fig. 3.33. “Be Your Own Sandow,” 1895
Fig. 3.34. “This Is Sandow’s Arm. Why Not Get One Like It?” 1902
Fig. 3.35. “Make a Sandow of Yourself,” 1900
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Fig. 3.36. Box for Sandow’s Developer, ca. 1905
Fig. 3.37. Sandow with his developer, 1897
Fig. 3.38. “To-day’s Inauguration of a Great Enterprise: Perfected Cocoa for Health and Strength,”
PR

1911
Fig. 3.39. C. Schellig, Letter to Sandow with measurements and photograph, ca. 1896
Fig. 3.40. Lucien Faure, “Sandow’s Own Combined Developer,” 1899
Fig. 3.41. Poster at Northey’s School of Physical Culture, Dunedin, ca. 1910.
Fig. 3.42. “Sandow’s Latest Patent Grip Dumb-bell,” ca. 1902
Fig. 3.43. “George Cooke, Caricature of Tom Hearn,” 1905
Fig. 3.44. Unknown photographer, photograph [Tom Hearn?], ca. 1905
Fig. 3.45. “Yer Want Ter Take Er Persition Jes’ Like Des: Savvy?,” 1896
Fig. 3.46 “It Has Probably Settled in Your Neck,” 1896
Fig. 3.47. “Athlete’s Dens,” ca. 1900
Fig. 3.48. Diagrams indicating Sandow photographs on the wall of W.R. Pope’s “Corner
Gymnasium”
Fig. 3.49. “Athlete’s Dens,” ca. 1900

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Fig. 3.50. “Sandow’s Concise Anatomical Chart for Sandow’s Combined Developer,” ca. 1896
Fig. 3.51. “Figure of Athlete, Showing Muscles, Anterior Aspect,” 1894
Fig. 3.52. B.J. Falk, Sandow, no. 31, 1894
Fig. 3.53. Napoleon Sarony, Sandow, Light-Weight Dumb-Bell Exercises, 1893
Fig. 3.54. Eadweard Muybridge, Lifting 50-lb. Dumbbell, ca. 1884-6
Fig. 3.55. “Heavy Dumb-bell Exercise No. 2,” 1895
Fig. 3.56. Napoleon Sarony, Sandow, Light-Weight Dumb-Bell Exercises, 1893
Fig. 3.57. Gerome, Pelt Merchant of Cairo, 1869
Fig. 3.58. Frank Duveneck, The Turkish Page, 1876
Fig. 3.59. William Merritt Chase, Tenth Street Studio I, ca. 1890
Fig. 3.60. Napoleon Sarony, Sandow No. 8, 1893
Fig. 3.61. London Stereoscopic Co., Sandow, 1890

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Fig. 3.62. Henry van der Weyde, “Sandow,” ca. 1889
Fig. 3.63. “The Roman Column,” 1893
Fig. 3.64. Sandow in gladiatorial costume, ca. 1897
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Fig. 3.65. Napoleon Sarony, John McCullough as Spartacus, ca. 1875
Fig. 3.66. Napoleon Sarony, Sandow, 1893
Fig. 3.67. Napoleon Sarony, Sandow, no. 13, 1893
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Fig. 3.68. George Steckel, Sandow, 1894
Fig. 3.69. George Steckel, Sandow, 1894
Fig. 3.70. Trocadero Program featuring Sandow, 1893
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Fig. 3.71. Napoleon Sarony, “Sandow in Pose of ‘The Farnese Hercules’ (Front View),” 1894
Fig. 3.72. Underwood & Underwood, “The Famous Hercules, Grand National Museum, Naples,
Italy,” 1897
Fig. 3.73. Sandow’s Magazine, November 1900
Fig. 3.74. B.J. Falk, Sandow as the Dying Gaul, 1894
Fig. 3.75. London Stereoscopic Company, Sandow and Goliath, 1890
Fig. 3.76. Napoleon Sarony, “The Dying Gladiator,” 1894
Fig. 3.77. Cover, Sarony’s Living Pictures, 1894
Fig. 3.78. Napoleon Sarony, “King Lear,” 1894
Fig. 3.79. Napoleon Sarony, “Sandow in pose of ‘The Wounded Parthian’ and ‘The Dying
Gladiator,’” 1894
Fig. 3.80. “Stepping Out of the Picture—‘Maid Marian,’” 1893
Fig. 3.81. “Strength and Genius,” 1902

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Fig. 3.82. “Kinetoscope Pictures of Sandow,” 1896
Fig. 3.83. B.J. Falk, Sandow, No. 33, ca. 1894
Fig. 3.84. Film still, Edison Manufacturing Company, Sandow, 1894
Fig. 3.85. George Steckel, Sandow, 1894
Fig. 3.86. George Steckel, Sandow, no. 24, 1894
Fig. 3.87. Film still, Edison Manufacturing Company, Sandow, 1894
Fig. 3.88. Napoleon Sarony, Sandow, No. 8, 1894
Fig. 3.89 Film still, Edison Manufacturing Company, Sandow, 1894
Fig. 3.90. George Steckel, Sandow, No. 10, 1894
Fig. 3.91. W.K.L. Dickson, Souvenir Strip, The Edison Kinetoscope: Eugene Sandow, 1894 (LoC)
Fig. 3.92. W.K.L. Dickson, Souvenir Strip, The Edison Kinetoscope: Eugene Sandow, 1894 (NPS)
Fig. 3.93. American Mutoscope & Biograph Company, film stills, Sandow, ca. 1902

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Fig. 3.94. “Automatic Mutoscope with Coin-Operating Attachment (Inside View),” 1901
Fig. 3.95. “Done by Turning a Crank,” 1897
Fig. 3.96. “Sandow’s Upper Arm and Fore-arm Under the X-Rays,” 1901
IE
Fig. 3.97. “Sandow’s Chest Under the X-Rays,” 1901
Fig. 3.98. “The Edison Fluroscope [sic] In Use,” 1896
Fig. 3.99. Page view from The International Mutoscope Syndicate, The Age of Movement, 1901
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Fig. 3.100. Poster, “The Wonderful Mutoscope Showing Moving Pictures Photographed from Life,”
ca. 1896
Fig. 3.101. “Sandow,” from AM&B Picture catalog, 1902
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Fig. 3.102. W.K.L. Dickson, “Edison Perforated film, Geo. Eastman Base,” ca. 1890s
Fig. 3.103. Napoleon Sarony, Sandow no 3, 1893
Fig. 3.104. Oscar Wilson, “A Modern Eve,” 1901
Fig. 3.105. Arthur Weston, “Photograph of E. Sandow showing the legs encased in plaster,” ca. 1901
Fig. 3.106. Arthur Weston, “Photograph of Sandow showing a cast being taken of his abdominal
muscles,” ca. 1901
Fig. 3.107. Arthur Weston, “Photograph of Sandow being rubbed with oil to prevent the plaster
adhering to the skin,” ca. 1901
Fig. 3.108. Arthur Weston, “The Cast,” 1901
Fig. 3.109. “A Supreme Test of Sandow’s Fortitude,” New York World, 1901
Fig. 3.110. Arthur Weston, “Photograph of Sandow being washed down to remove the particles of
plaster,” ca. 1901
Fig. 3.111. Arthur Weston, “Photograph of Sandow being wiped down after bath,” ca. 1901

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Fig. 3.112. R. Noel Pocock, “Overheard in a Dressing-Room,” 1902
Fig. 3.113. “The Best Developed Man that Ever Lived,” New York Herald, 1902
Fig. 3.114. “A Magnificent Ornament,” 1900
Fig. 3.115. “Northey’s School of Physical Culture, Dunedin,” ca. 1910
Fig. 3.116. Detail of “Sandow’s Arm” in “Northey’s School of Physical Culture, Dunedin,” ca. 1910
Fig. 3.117. P.P. Caproni and Brother, “Arms,” from Catalogue of Plaster Reproductions, 1911
Fig. 3.118. Detail, Minutes of the Standing Committee, Natural History Museum, 1901
Fig. 3.119. E. K. R., “The Penalty of Success,” 1902
Fig. 3.120. Topical Press Agency, “Statue of Sandow,” ca. 1907
Fig. 3.121. “Statue of Eugen Sandow,” ca. 1905
Fig. 3.122. “Map of the Distribution of the Principal Modifications of Mankind According to Prof.
Huxley,” ca. 1865

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Fig. 3.123. Detail, “Sandow’s Anthropometrical Chart,” 1900
Fig. 3.124. “Practical Anatomy,” 1903
Fig. 3.125. “Sandow Anatomised,” Sandow’s Magazine, 1901
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Fig. 3.126. R.J. Colenso, illustration of Sandow as an ècorchè, 1901
Fig. 3.127. Plate 1, from “Artistic Anatomy,” 1902
Fig. 3.128. “Artistic Anatomy,” 1902
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Fig. 3.129. “Sandow Manikin,” 1907
Fig. 3.130. Sandow’s cast in Paleontology and Human Remains Storage, 2007
Fig. 3.131. “The Ilissus” and “The Centaur Vanquished,” 1901
PR

Fig. 4.1. Packaging material stamped “L. Blaschka, Modelleur,” installation view, 2007
Fig. 4.2. Blaschka Rhododendron model, installation view, 2009
Fig. 4.3. Botanical artifacts, Harvard Museum of Natural History, 2009
Fig. 4.4. Luigi Calamai, wax model of anatomical preparation of Cucurbita pepo, ca. 1836-1839
Fig. 4.5. Friedrich Ziegler, Wax model of embryo of Heliophila crithmifolia, ca. 1860
Fig. 4.6. R. Brendel, Pansy papier-mache model, ca. 1880
Fig. 4.7. R. Brendel, Flax model, ca. 1880
Fig. 4.8. Installation view, 19th-century Blaschka marine invertebrate models
Fig. 4.9. Installation view, “Male flower- Female flower- Perfect flower” models by R. Blaschka,
Harvard Natural History Museum
Fig. 4.10. Mrs. Mintorn, Wax model of roses, ca. 1899
Fig. 4.11. Mrs. Mintorn, Wax model of peach branch, ca. 1899

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Fig. 4.12. Instructions for making a plaster cast and mold from a living leaf, “Plant Forms in Wax,”
1911
Fig. 4.13. “Pouring the Hot Wax Over a Plaster Mold,” 1911
Fig. 4.14. Instructions for making wax leaves, 1911
Fig. 4.15. Caution signs, installation views, ca. 1931
Fig. 4.16. Dadman, installation view of Harvard Botanical Museum [detail of packing case], ca. 1931
Fig. 4.17. Harvard exhibit at 1893 Fair, from “Massachusetts at the World’s Fair,” New England
Magazine 1894
Fig. 4.18. “Glass Flowers at Harvard,” Boston Globe, 1905
Fig. 4.19. Franklin Baldwin Wiley, Flowers That Never Fade, 1897
Fig. 4.20. Frontispiece, Amelia M. Briggs, Flowers that Never Fade: Culled for Their Young Friends, 1853
Fig. 4.21. Dadman, Exhibition case of grasses, ca. 1931

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Fig. 4.22. Dadman, “View showing models of Strawberries and Pears,” ca. 1931
Fig. 4.23. Dadman, Economic botany display cases: Gums, resins, rubber, ca. 1931
Fig. 4.24. Dadman, “Exhibition case in amphibian and reptile room, [cocoa and coffee beans],” ca.
IE
1931
Fig. 4.25. Detail of Dadman photograph, cacao installation, ca. 1931
Fig. 4.26. Dadman, detail of installation view, cases no. 52a & 52b, ca. 1931
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Fig. 4.27. Hillel Berger, Installation photograph of cocoa model, ca. 1989.
Fig. 4.28. Dadman, Economic botany exhibit, detail [corn], ca. 1931.
Fig. 4.29. Dadman, detail of installation view, “King Corn” detail, ca. 1931
PR

Fig. 4.30. Installation views, New Jersey Tea and Tea of commerce models, ca. 2009.
Fig. 4.31. Detail of label, New Jersey Tea model
Fig. 4.32. The Ware Collection exhibition, ca. 2009
Fig. 4.33. Unknown photographer, Jewelry store, ca. 1905.
Fig. 4.34. Everts, Ensign & Everts, “Interior View…” [Store displays], ca. 1876
Fig. 4.35. Installation view of Blaschka maple models, fall and summer foliage, 2007
Fig. 4.36. Dadman, cases no. 52a & 52b, ca. 1931.
Fig. 4.37. Installation view of analytical details by Rudolf Blaschka, 2007
Fig. 4.38. “How to View the Glass Flowers,” installation view ca. 2007
Fig. 4.39. Hillel Berger, installation view of Leopold and Rudolf Blaschka, Mahonia aquifolium model,
ca. 1989 (model ca. 1893)
Fig. 4.40. Ferdinand Bauer, illustration for Curtis’s Botanical Magazine, 1880s
Fig. 4.41. Rudolf Blaschka, Photograph of exhibition at Blaschka House, Hosterwitz, ca. 1890s

xxiii