energies
Article
A DC Microgrid System for Powering Remote Areas †
Tri Ardriani 1 , Pekik Argo Dahono 1, *, Arwindra Rizqiawan 1 , Erna Garnia 2 , Pungky Dwi Sastya 3 ,
Ahmad Husnan Arofat 3 and Muhammad Ridwan 3






Citation: Ardriani, T.; Dahono, P.A.;
Rizqiawan, A.; Garnia, E.; Sastya, P.D.;
Arofat, A.H.; Ridwan, M. A DC
Microgrid System for Powering
Remote Areas . Energies 2021, 14, 493.
https://doi.org/10.3390/en14020493
Received: 20 December 2020
Accepted: 14 January 2021
Published: 18 January 2021
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iations.
Copyright: © 2021 by the authors.
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This article is an open access article
distributed under the terms and
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Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
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4.0/).
Energies 2021, 14, 493. https://doi.org/10.3390/en14020493
1 Institut Teknologi Bandung, School of Electrical Engineering and Informatics, Jl. Ganesha 10,
Bandung 40111, Indonesia; ardriani.t@gmail.com (T.A.); windra@std.stei.itb.ac.id (A.R.)
2 Faculty of Economics, Universitas Sangga Buana, Jl. PHH Mustofa (Suci) 68, Bandung 40111, Indonesia;
erna.garnia@usbypkp.ac.id
3 Technology Development Division, PT. Len Industri (Persero), Jl. Soekarno-Hatta 442,
Bandung 40111, Indonesia; pungkydwisastya@gmail.com (P.D.S.); ahmad.husnan@len.co.id (A.H.A.);
muhammad.ridwan@len.co.id (M.R.)
* Correspondence: pekik@konversi.ee.itb.ac.id
† This paper is an extended version of our paper published in the Proceeding of 2018 Conference on Power
Engineering and Renewable Energy (ICPERE), 29–31 October 2018, Solo, Indonesia.
Abstract: DC microgrid has been gaining popularity as solution as a more efficient and simpler
power system especially for remote areas, where the main grid has yet to be built. This paper
proposes a DC microgrid system based on renewable energy sources that employs decentralized
control and without communication between one grid point and another. It can be deployed as an
individual isolated unit or to form an expandable DC microgrid through DC bus for better reliability
and efficiency. The key element of the proposed system is the power conditioner system (PCS) that
works as an interface between energy sources, storage system, and load. PCS consists of modular
power electronics devices and a power management unit, which controls power delivery to the AC
load and the grid as well as the storage system charging and discharging sequence. Prototypes with
3 kWp solar PV and 13.8 kWh energy storage were developed and adopt a pole-mounted structure
for ease of transportation and installation that are important in remote areas. This paper presents
measurement results under several conditions of the developed prototypes. The evaluation shows
promising results and a solid basis for electrification in remote areas.
Keywords: DC microgrid; power conditioner system; renewable energy; scalable microgrid
1. Introduction
As an archipelago with more than 17,000 islands, Indonesia faces a challenge in
delivering electricity to all its citizens, particularly to those who live in the remote areas and
outer islands. According to the Indonesian Ministry of Energy and Mineral Resources [1],
although the total electrification ratio of Indonesia in 2019 has reached almost 99%, there are
places that lag behind and around 1 million families still without access to electricity.
Additionally, strong grids are only available to the main islands of the country, where the
central government and most of the population live. There are also areas where electricity
is available only for several hours a day.
Located in the equator, the solar potential in Indonesia is estimated to be around
208 GWp, much higher than other types of RES such as hydro (75 GWp), wind (60 GWp),
and geothermal (29.5 GWp) [2]. It is one of the most evenly distributed RES throughout the
country. Therefore, a solar-based system is very suitable to accelerate providing electricity
to rural villages.
Solar PV has been a popular choice RES because they are getting cheaper by the
day and are easy to install. In urban cities, small-scale solar power systems are installed
on rooftops, such as described in [3,4], both to provide green energy and to reduce bills.
The disadvantage of PV rooftops is that it usually needs the AC grid to run and cannot
https://www.mdpi.com/journal/energies
Energies 2021, 14, 493 2 of 15

operate in stand-alone mode. Extending the main grid to remote areas require a lot of time
and effort. One viable solution to this problem is to build independent power systems that
do not need to rely on the main grid, i.e., a microgrid. These systems tap into RES near the
local load, effectively eliminating the cost needed to draw long cables from the main grid
and reducing dependency on fossil fuel-based power generation.
There are two types of microgrids, AC and DC microgrids. In AC microgrids, en-
ergy sources that produce DC power, such as PV panels and a fuel cell, will obviously need
DC-AC conversion to connect to the lines. Interestingly, sources that produce AC power,
such as wind, hydro, and geothermal, may require AC-DC-AC conversion for better syn-
chronized connection to the grid [5–7]. Meanwhile, in DC microgrid, both DC-producing
and AC-producing sources may require only one conversion, resulting in fewer convert-
ers needed, which in turn gives better efficiency. Nowadays, DC microgrid is gaining
popularity due to its simplicity and higher power quality than its AC counterpart [7–9].
In DC system, the control is simpler because there is no problem with synchronization and
reactive power [5–17].
Many DC microgrid systems have been proposed in the literature. Refs. [18,19] discuss
microgrid systems that are reliant on AC utility. These systems are similar to the ones
in [3,4] in that they are more suited for urban areas where the network is strong. In [10],
a DC microgrid system for rural areas is designed to be able to operate independently in
the absence of power network, but it only has stand-alone mode, meaning it does not have
power sharing capability.
For rural areas, building centralized microgrids is a poor choice [11–13]. This is due
to the socio-environmental conditions of rural areas. Firstly, the geographical terrain is
difficult. This calls for a system that can be easily transported and installed. Secondly, com-
munities are formed in clusters where homes, schools, hospital, and other public facilities
are built apart from each other, which means a centralized generation system will have a
lot of conductor losses. Thirdly, in rural areas, communication infrastructure is lacking.
Therefore, the system needs to be able to operate in stand-alone mode. To accommodate
future expansion, the equipment that go into the system have to be modular and can be
installed in a plug-and-play manner [5].
Distributed DC microgrid systems are proposed in [11–17]. Refs. [11–15] take into
account the fact that a lot of home appliances can run on low-voltage DC power. These de-
vices also do not require a lot of power. Because of that, the system can be designed
with low specification that costs considerably less than other systems. Unfortunately,
its strength can also be its weakness, because at present, AC-powered home appliances are
still very common.
The systems described in [16,17] are made of a DC bus and power converters that
interface it with the energy source, ESS, and other microgrid elements. Loads will tap into
the DC bus directly. This system can be built for large scale; however, loads may be located
far away from the source and the distribution losses may be quite high.
In addition to the topology, discussion on power electronics technology and control
methods is indispensable. There are a lot of different power converter topologies to choose
from, all ranging from basic, uni-directional DC-DC converter, to multilevel and modified
converters [14,16,20–23] with unique features that can be harnessed for a plethora of
different purposes. Although, a system with many different kinds of power converters,
such as in [10,16,24], may be expensive due to the higher design and production cost.
Furthermore, replacement units may be limited to the same manufacturer, making it an
inflexible system. Ref. [25] proposes a uniform design of multi-purpose converters for
microgrids, but presently the technology has only been applied to DC-to-DC conversion.
In the realm of control techniques, one of the central issues is the power sharing
method between microgrid elements. Ref. [26] proposes forecasting algorithm for an
isolated DC microgrid system to regulate power flow. This algorithm has succeeded in
reducing generation costs, but the predictive aspect of the control is prone to uncertainties
and complex to implement. Ref. [27] propose droop control method based on state of
 and complex to implement. Ref. [27] propose droop control method based on state
charge (SoC). These methods are easier to implement, especially because in rural area
Energies 2021, 14, 493
maintenance and operation have to be kept simple. Ref. [28] proposes using3 of peer-to-pe
15
control between microgrids, while [29] opts using switching frequency modulation-base
communication, which is a good choice for systems in urban area where communicatio
link can be established
charge fairly easily,
(SoC). These methods but to
are easier not as feasible
implement, in the country
especially because inandruralremote
areas, island
Generally, individual
maintenance microgrid
and operation have control
to be keptissimple.
preferred because
Ref. [28] proposesfailure in one system m
using peer-to-peer
not affect thebetween
control othersmicrogrids,
[30,31]. while [29] opts using switching frequency modulation-based
communication,
This paper proposes which is a good
a DC choice for system
microgrid systems that
in urban
hasarea where
all the communication
requirements mention
link can be established fairly easily, but not as feasible in the country and remote islands.
above,Generally,
as well individual
as the main building block of the system. The key features of this syste
microgrid control is preferred because failure in one system may not
are asaffect
follow: (1) Modular;
the others [30,31]. (2) expandable; (3) independent/without communication; (
easily transported;
This paper and (5) each
proposes a DCsystem
microgrid covers
systemathat
smallhasground area. The last
all the requirements point is cruc
mentioned
above, as well as the main building block of the system. The key
for places with land-ownership problems. Figure 1 shows a multi-point DC microgrid features of this system are
as follow: (1) Modular; (2) expandable; (3) independent/without communication; (4) easily
the proposed system, with the primary equipment denoted as PCS. Each system consis
transported; and (5) each system covers a small ground area. The last point is crucial for
of theplaces
following four elements:problems.
with land-ownership (1) A locally
Figureavailable energy source;
1 shows a multi-point (2) ESS;of(3)
DC microgrid theAC load
and (4) DC bussystem,
proposed interconnection.
with the primary If more points
equipment are toasbe
denoted integrated,
PCS. Each systemthey canofbetheconnecte
consists
via thefollowing
DC grid. fourEach
elements:
point(1)isAcapable
locally available
of bothenergy
taking source;
and (2) ESS; (3)
giving AC loads;
energy from andand to t
grid. (4) DC bus interconnection. If more points are to be integrated, they can be connected via
the DC grid. Each point is capable of both taking and giving energy from and to the grid.

SOURCE SOURCE SOURCE

POWER
CONDITIONER
DC GRID DC GRID
SYSTEM (PCS) PCS PCS PCS

STORAGE STORAGE STORAGE

TOWER TOWER TOWER
CLUSTER OF CLUSTER OF CLUSTER OF
STRUCTURE STRUCTURE STRUCTURE
AC LOADS AC LOADS AC LOADS
(Option) (Option) (Option)
SINGLE-POINT DC MICROGRID

Figure 1. The proposed DC microgrid system.

Figure 1. The proposed DC microgrid system.
This paper is structured as follows: PCS as the main element of the proposed system will be
explained in Section 2. Comparison with other DC microgrid systems that have been proposed
This paper is structured as follows: PCS as the main element of the proposed syste
and implemented for rural areas will also be covered in this section. Section 3 discusses the
will be explained
evaluation of PCSintoSection
show the2. Comparison
feasibility with other
of implementing DC microgrid
this system. systems
Section 4 touches on thethat ha
been proposed
business andand implemented
investment forproposed
side of the rural areas will alsoinstallation
DC microgrid be coveredfor ainremote
this section.
area
Section 3 discusses the evaluation of PCS to show the feasibility of implementing this sy
in Indonesia. Finally, Section 5 contains the conclusion to this paper.
tem. Section 4 touches on the business and investment side of the proposed DC microgr
2. A Modular, Independent, and Expandable DC Microgrid System
installation for a remoteSystem
2.1. Power Conditioner area in Indonesia. Finally, Section 5 contains the conclusion
this paper.PCS is the primary element in the DC microgrid system proposed in this paper.
It interfaces an energy source such as solar PV, wind, and hydro, an ESS, AC loads, and the
2. A Modular,
DC grid. PCSIndependent, andconverters
consists of power Expandable DC energy
to harvest Microgrid System
from the source, charge and
discharge the ESS, and regulate power to loads and grid. Figure 2a shows the inner
2.1. Power Conditioner System
configuration of a PCS. It may be deployed to form an isolated, independent system, but it
PCS is the
can also primary
connect element
to other PCS andin thepower
share DC microgrid
between each system proposed
other. Each PCS hasin
its this
own paper.
management unit that keeps track the energy stored in its ESS, and export
interfaces an energy source such as solar PV, wind, and hydro, an ESS, AC loads, and tor import power
to and from its neighboring points according to this data [32].
DC grid. PCS consists of power converters to harvest energy from the source, charge an
discharge the ESS, and regulate power to loads and grid. Figure 2a shows the inner co
figuration of a PCS. It may be deployed to form an isolated, independent system, but
can also connect to other PCS and share power between each other. Each PCS has its ow
management unit that keeps track the energy stored in its ESS, and export or impo
power to and from its neighboring points according to this data [32].
 Energies
Energies 2021,
2021, 14, 14,
493 x FOR PEER REVIEW 4 of 15 4

TO DC BUS

DC GRID CHOPPER

DC LINK

SOURCE CHOPPER STORAGE CHOPPER INVERTER

TO SOURCE TO STORAGE TO AC LOAD

(a)

L S1 S2

SOURCE
250 Vdc
S3 S4
Source Chopper (DC-DC) S1 S2 L

C
L S1 S2

C S3 S4
DC Grid Chopper (DC-DC) DC GRID
STORAGE 370 Vdc
250 Vdc
S3 S4
Storage Chopper (DC-DC)

L S1 S2

AC LOAD
230 Vac
S3 S4

Inverter (DC-AC)
DC LINK
500 Vdc

(b)
Figure 2. (a) Block diagram
Figure 2. (a)of a power
Block conditioner
diagram of a powersystem (PCS).
conditioner (b) Converters
system topologytopology
(PCS). (b) Converters employed in PCS.
employed
in PCS.
Figure 2b shows the converter topology that is being used for this system. It ca
Figure
seen 2b the
that shows the converter
hardware topology
has the that is being
same bridge used for
topology thatthis
cansystem. It can
be used be as DC-
either
seen that the hardware has the same bridge topology that can be used either as DC-DC, DC-
DC-AC, or AC-DC converter. However, at present the system is designed primarily
AC, or AC-DC converter. However, at present the system is designed primarily for solar PV.
solarthis
By using PV.approach,
By usingthethis approach,
technology the technology
is made is made
simple, which simple,
is important forwhich is importan
application
application in remote islands. Modular plug and play feature
in remote islands. Modular plug and play feature may be expected of this system. may be expected of this
tem.
The power converters inside PCS are connected by an internal DC link bus (Figure 2b),
The power
whose voltage is beingconverters
maintainedinside PCS
at 500 V. are beginning
At the connectedofby an internal
operation, DC linkac-
precharging bus
tion (Figure
takes place as soon as the ESS is plugged into the storage chopper terminal.
2b), whose voltage is being maintained at 500 V. At the beginning of opera Once the
DC link voltage isaction
precharging established, the management
takes place as soon as unit thenisactivates
the ESS pluggedthe source
into chopper,chopper
the storage
inverter,
minal. Once the DC link voltage is established, the management unithas
and DC grid chopper depending on the specified SoC limits. Each PCS thentheactivates
total capacity of 3 kW.
source chopper, inverter, and DC grid chopper depending on the specified SoC lim
Each PCS has the total capacity of 3 kW.
Table 1 lists the specification of the converters in every PCS, whereas Table 2 sh
the state of each converter based on SoC. The flowchart in Figure 3 shows the decis
making process of the management unit according to guidelines set in Table 2.
Energies 2021, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 5 of 16

Energies 2021, 14, 493 5 of 15

Table 1. Specifications of each converter in a PCS unit.

Source of the converters

Table 1 lists the specification Storage in every PCS, DCwhereas
Grid Table 2 shows the
state of each converterChopper
based on SoC. The flowchart in Figure 3 shows Inverter
the decision-making
Chopper Chopper
process of the management unit according to guidelines set in Table 2.
Rated Power 3000 W 3000 W 1000 W 3000 VA
DC Link Voltage DC 500 V DC 500 V
Table 1. Specifications of each converter in a PCS unit. DC 500 V DC 500 V
Input/Output
Source Chopper DC 250
Storage V
Chopper DC 250DC V Grid Chopper DC 370 V AC 230 V
Inverter
Voltage
Rated Power 3000 W 3000 W 1000 W 3000 VA
Rated Current DC 12 A DC 12 A DC 2.7 A AC 13 A
DC Link Voltage DC 500 V DC 500 V DC 500 V DC 500 V
Controlled DC Bus
DC 250 V DC 250 V DC 370 V
Input/Output Voltage
Voltage Range: AC 230 V Rated
Rated Current DC 12 A MPPT
DC 12 A Bidirectional DC 2.7 A AC 13 A
Other DC 350-390 V Frequency:
Algorithm power flow
Controlled DC Bus Voltage Range: Rated
MPPT Bidirectional Bidirectional power 50 Hz (1-phase)
Other DC 350–390 V Frequency:
Algorithm power flow flow
Bidirectional power flow 50 Hz (1-phase)

Table 2. PCS converter states based on state of charge (SoC).

Table 2. PCS converter states based on state of charge (SoC).
SoCSoC Source Chopper
Source Chopper *Storage
* ChopperDC
Storage Chopper Grid
DCChopperInverter
Grid Chopper Inverter
0—10%
0–10% ON or OFF
ON or OFF Charging
Charging Charging
Charging OFF OFF
10—30%
10–30% ON or OFF
ON or OFF Charging
Charging Charging
Charging ON ON
OFF
OFF
Charging
Charging
Charging
Charging ON
30—70%
30–70% ON
ONON
Discharging
Discharging
Discharging
Discharging
70—100%
70–100%
ONONororOFF
OFF
Discharging
Discharging
Discharging
Discharging
ON ON
* Source chopper
* Source chopper operates
operates based
based on theon the availability
availability of power
of power generated bygenerated
PV panels. by PV panels.

START

PRECHARGE DC LINK VIA

STORAGE CHOPPER

NO SoC NO SoC NO NO
SoC < 10% SoC > 70%
10-30% 30-70%

YES YES YES YES

SOURCE NO
ACTIVE

YES

TURN OFF TURN ON TURN ON TURN ON TURN ON

INVERTER INVERTER INVERTER INVERTER INVERTER

SET GRID SET GRID SET GRID SET GRID SET GRID
CHOPPER TO CHOPPER TO CHOPPER TO CHOPPER TO CHOPPER TO
CHARGING CHARGING DISCHARGING CHARGING DISCHARGING

DISCHARGE DISCHARGE
CHARGE ESS CHARGE ESS CHARGE ESS
ESS ESS

Flowchart of
Figure3.3.Flowchart
Figure of the
thePCS
PCSmanagement
managementunit.
unit.

The proposed DC microgrid system has the capability of working both as a single-
point and multi-point system to serve single or multiple clusters of loads. Figure 4 shows
the multi-point configuration with different kinds of loads. A single-point system converts
 Energies 2021, 14, 493 6 of 15
Energies 2021, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 6 of 16

Energies 2021, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 6 of 16

The proposed DC microgrid system has the capability of working both as a single-
power
point from the sourcesystem
and multi-point and stores
to serveit insingle
the battery and/or
or multiple transfer
clusters it to Figure
of loads. the AC4 loads.
shows In the
multi-point
power frommode,
the multi-point the proposed
theconfiguration
source withDC
and stores it microgrid
different
in thekinds system
of
battery loads.works similar
A single-point
and/or transfer tothe
a single
system
it to point,Inbut
converts
AC loads. the
power sharingthecapability
source and is through
stores it in the
the DC bus.
battery Each
and/or point
transfer controls
multi-point mode, the proposed DC microgrid system works similar to a single the
power from it to the AC its charge
loads. In and dis-
point, but
multi-point
charge states mode,
with the
its proposed
own managementDC microgrid system works similar to a single point,
power sharing capability is through theunit
DCthebus.way it
Each does
point incontrols
a single-point system
its charge andanddis-
but power sharing
independent of what capability
the other is point
through the DC bus. Each point controls its charge and
does.
charge states with its own management unit the way it does in a single-point system and
discharge states with its own management unit the way it does in a single-point system
independent of what
and independent thethe
of what other point
other pointdoes.
does.

DC BUS DC BUS
PCS DC BUS PCS DC BUS PCS
PCS PCS PCS

OFFICE SCHOOL HOMES

FigureOFFICE SCHOOL configuration.HOMES
4. Multi-point DC microgrid
Figure
Figure 4.
4. Multi-point DCmicrogrid
Multi-point DC microgrid configuration.
configuration.
Figure 5 shows the power flow in the system based on the storage SoC level. The
system that has
Figure
Figure higher
55shows
shows theenergy
power
the powerlevel,
flow in or
flow thestate
in theof
system chargeon
based
system (SoC), exports
the storage
based on theSoC power,
level. SoC
storage whereas
The level. the
sys- The
tem
system that
thathas higher
lacks energy
energy level,
imports or
it. state of
Consider charge
the (SoC),
leftmost exports
system. power,
Its whereas
SoC is the
above 70%,
system that has higher energy level, or state of charge (SoC), exports power, whereas the
sosystem that
the DCthat gridlacks energy
chopper imports
works it. Consider
in discharge the leftmost
mode regardlesssystem.
of Its SoC
what stateis above
the is 70%, chop-
source
system
so the DC lacks
grid energy
chopper imports
works it. Consider
in discharge the leftmost
mode regardless system.
of what Its SoC
state the source above 70%,
chop-
per
so and
the storage
DCstorage chopper
grid chopper are in. Similarly, if the SoC is under 30%, then the management
per and chopper works
are in. in discharge
Similarly, mode
if the SoC isregardless
under 30%, of then
whatthe state the source chop-
management
unit
per will
and automatically
storage chopper setare
the in.
DCSimilarly,
grid chopper if thetoSoC
charging
is under (not shown
30%, theninthe themanagement
figure).
unit will automatically set the DC grid chopper to charging (not shown in the figure).
unit will automatically set the DC grid chopper to charging (not shown in the figure).
DC BUS

DC BUS

PCS PCS PCS

PCS PCS PCS

SOURCE STORAGE LOAD SOURCE STORAGE LOAD SOURCE STORAGE LOAD

SOURCE STORAGE LOAD 5. Power

Figure SOURCE STORAGE DCLOAD
flow in multi-point SOURCE
microgrid system. STORAGE LOAD
Figure 5. Power flow in multi-point DC microgrid system.
In the5.middle-level
Figure Power flow SoC, DC grid chopper
in multi-point operation
DC microgrid is based on the status of the source
system.
In the middle-level SoC, DC grid chopper operation
and storage choppers. If the storage chopper is running, then power is based on thefrom
is supplied status
the of the
source
sourceInand
thestorage
and the PCSchoppers.
has the
middle-level IfDC
the
ability
SoC, storage
togrid
sendchopperchopper
power out viais the
operationrunning,
DC then
is grid
based power
terminal.
on theOn is the
supplied
status of the
contrary,
from the if the source
source and chopper
the PCS is notthe
has running,
ability then
to the power
send power of the
out unit
via isthe
wholly
DC supplied
grid terminal.
source and storage choppers. If the storage chopper is running, then power is supplied
Onbythebattery.
contrary, This causes the management unitrunning,
to set thethenDC thegridpower
chopper to charging.
from the sourceifandthe the
source
PCSchopper
has the is not
ability to send power out via the
Consider the middle and rightmost system in Figure 5. The system in the middle charges
of the
DCunit
gridisterminal.
wholly
supplied
On by battery. This causes the management unit to set the DC grid chopperunit is charg-
to
its the contrary,
storage systemifbecause
the source chopper
the source is not running,
is unavailable, while then
the the power
system on theof the
right-hand wholly
ing. Consider
supplied the
by battery.middle and
Thisthough rightmost
causesits the system
management in Figure 5. The system in the middle
side exports power even storage is not in unit to set thebecause
full condition DC gridthe chopper
source to is charg-
charges
ing. its storage system because the source is unavailable, while the
available. The operational settings that are shown in Table 2 are configurable prior to middle
Consider the middle and rightmost system in Figure 5. The system
system inon the
the right-
hand
fieldside
charges exports
its storage
installation. power
systemeven though
because theits storage
source is not in full condition
is unavailable, becauseon
while the system the thesource
right-
ishand
available. The operational
side exports settings
power even thoughthat are shown
its storage ininTable
is not 2 are configurable
full condition prior
because the to
source
field installation.
is available. The operational settings that are shown in Table 2 are configurable prior to
field installation.
2.2. Implementation of the Proposed DC Microgrid System in Isolated Remote Areas
 Energies 2021, 14, 493 7 of 15

Energies 2021, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 7 of 1

2.2. Implementation of the Proposed DC Microgrid System in Isolated Remote Areas
In rural areas, oftentimes the land to install public facilities is difficult to obtain because
of unclear ownership or the land is forbidden to be used as per the local or cultural belief.
belief.
To To minimize
minimize the installation
the installation area, the
area, the proposed DCproposed DC microgrid
microgrid system system can
can be configured as be con
pole-mounted along with the other equipment such as PV panels and batteries. Figure 6batteries
figured as pole-mounted along with the other equipment such as PV panels and
Figurea solar
shows 6 shows a solar
tower with atower with
set of PV a setaof
panels, PVbatteries,
PCS, panels, anda PCS, batteries,
a control panel.and a control pane
Multi-point
Multi-point implementation
implementation of this
of this configuration configuration
is shown in Figure 1.is shown in Figure 1.

Figure6.6.Solar
Figure Solartower: AnAn
tower: implementation of PCS.
implementation of PCS.

Houses in remote islands are assumed to use electricity for very basic needs, such as
Houses in remote islands are assumed to use electricity for very basic needs, such a
lighting, cooking, and, in places with access to communication facilities, to power up
lighting, cooking, and, in places with access to communication facilities, to power up
phones. Therefore, in this context, each house may be limited to use around 0.5 kWh
phones.
each day. Therefore,
An individual in this
systemcontext, each house
of the proposed DCmay be limited
microgrid to use around
has capacity of 3 kWp0.5 kWh eac
and
13.8 kWh of ESS per cluster, which is reasonable to serve 0.5 kWh per day for 10 houses.and 13.
day. An individual system of the proposed DC microgrid has capacity of 3 kWp
kWh
The of ESSsuch
system per as
cluster,
the one which is reasonable
in Figure 6 uses 12 to
PVserve
panels0.5ofkWh
260 Wpper each
day for 10 houses. Th
to achieve
3system
kWp. The such as the
panels are one in Figure
positioned 6 uses shading
as a canopy 12 PV panels
around of m2 ofWp
18 260 eachtotominimize
ground achieve 3 kWp
land
The utilization.
panels are positioned as a canopy shading around 18 m2 of ground to minimize land
In the proposed system, every point is designed with higher power rating, where loads
utilization.
can connect directly to the load converter side of PCS. Table 3 compares the key charac-
In the proposed system, every point is designed with higher power rating, wher
teristics of proposed method and several DC microgrid systems in the literature. All of
loads can connect directly to the load converter side of PCS. Table 3 compares the ke
these systems have modular components that make scaling up the size of the network
characteristics
easy, of proposed
and each independent unitmethod
is designedandforseveral DC microgrid
small-power use of ruralsystems
homes. Thein the
mainliterature
advantage of the proposed DC microgrid system over the others are the AC output into the net
All of these systems have modular components that make scaling up the size of
work the
which easy, andplug.
loads eachEven
independent
though a lot unit is designed
of home for operate
appliances small-power
on DCuse of rural
power, AC- homes
The main
powered advantage
devices are stillof
in the proposed
abundance and DC microgrid
easily obtained. Bysystem
usingover thesystem
a power othersthat
are the AC
outputs
output AC intopower,
which users
theare not required
loads plug. Even to change
thoughall of their
a lot ofelectronic appliances.operate
home appliances It will on DC
also be easier to switch to the AC utility grid when it reaches the remote
power, AC-powered devices are still in abundance and easily obtained. By using a powe areas.
system that outputs AC power, users are not required to change all of their electroni
appliances. It will also be easier to switch to the AC utility grid when it reaches the remot
areas.
Energies 2021, 14, 493 8 of 15
Energies
Energies 2021, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 88 of 16
Energies 2021,
2021, 14,
14, xx FOR
FOR PEER
PEER REVIEW
REVIEW 8 of
of 16
16

Table 3. Comparison of several DC microgrid systems.

Table
Table 3. Comparison of several DC microgrid systems.
Table 3.
3. Comparison
Comparison of
of several
several DC
DC microgrid
microgrid systems.
systems.
No. Source No. Description
Source Description Topology
Topology
No. Source Description Topology
•• Distributed
Distributed generation
generation that
that 1 HOME UNIT
1 48 V
can 1 HOME
HOME UNIT
UNIT 48
48 V
can be integrated with
be integrated with cen-
= V DC
cen- =
= =
DC
DC
LOADS
=
• Distributed generation that can be integrated
tralized
tralized power with and
power source
source and
= LOADS
LOADS
=
centralized power source andstorage
storagevia
storage viaDC
via DCgrid.
DC grid.
grid.
=
= =
=
= BATTERY
• •• Every
Every unit consists of PV panels, battery,consists
and
Every unit
unit consists of
of PV
BATTERY
BATTERY
PV DC BUS 380 V
power converters. panels,
1. Ref [12] panels, battery, and power
battery, and
1. Ref [12] DC
DC BUS
BUS 380
380 V
V
1. Ref [12] power
• DC grid voltage: 380 V. converters.
converters. 1 HOME UNIT
1
1 HOME
HOME UNIT
• Load voltage: 48 V. •• DC UNIT =

• DC grid
Power rating per unit: 125 •W.Load grid voltage:
voltage: 380
380 V.
V. =
= =
=
=
voltage: 48
• Load voltage: 48 V. V. BATTERY
BATTERY
BATTERY
=
•• Power
Power rating
rating per
per unit:
unit: 125
125 =
= =
DC
DC
DC
LOADS
=
= 48 V LOADS
LOADS
48
48 V
W.
W.
V

SOURCE UNIT 2 - 20 kW
SOURCE
SOURCE UNIT
UNIT 22 -- 20
20 kW
kW
=
=
•• Centralized
Centralized generation
generation forfor
= =
=
=
several DC BUS 360 - 400 V
several clusters of
clusters of loads,
loads, DC
DC BUS
BUS 360
360 -- 400
400 V
V
one
one cluster
cluster consists
consists of
of sev-
sev- 1 HOME UNIT 100 W
• Centralized generation for several clusters of loads, = Local DC Bus 48 V 11 =HOME
HOME UNIT
UNIT 100 W
100DC
W
eral households.
eral households. =
= =
Local
Local DC
DC Bus
Bus 48
48 V
V =
= =
DC
DC
LOADS
one cluster consists of several households.
• Distributed voltage =
= =
= 12 V LOADS
voltage control
12
12 V LOADS
Distributed voltage control•assisted
FAN OUT V
• Distributed
by control FAN OUT
FAN OUT
CONVERTER
assisted
assisted by
by digital
digital commu-
commu-
CONVERTER
CONVERTER

2. Ref [13] 2.
2. Ref
Ref [13]
digital communication.[13] nication. BATTERY
• DC grid voltage: 360–400 V. nication. BATTERY
BATTERY
•• DC
DC grid
grid voltage:
voltage: 360—400
360—400
• Load voltage: 12 V.
V.
• Power rating per unit: 100 W.V. 1 HOME UNIT 100 W
•• Load
Load voltage:
voltage: 12
12 V.
V.
11 =HOME
HOME UNIT
=
=
UNIT 100 W
100DC
W
DC
DC
= LOADS
•• Power
Power rating per unit:
rating per unit: 100
100
=
= 12
12
V
12 V
V
LOADS
LOADS

W.
W.
1 CLUSTER BATTERY
11 CLUSTER BATTERY
BATTERY
CLUSTER

DC BUS 380 V
DC
DC BUS
BUS 380
380 V
V

= 48 V =
48
48 V
•• Distributed
Distributed generation.
generation.
=
= =
=
V =
= =
=
= =
UNIT

•• DC
UNIT

DC grid
grid voltage:
voltage: 380
380 V.
UNIT

• Distributed generation. V. =
POWER

• =
1POWER

Load voltage: 48 V. =
11POWER

• Load voltage: 48 V. =
WW

• DC grid voltage: 380 V. =

=
W
100

V. [14] •• Power
Power rating
rating per
per unit:
unit: 100
100

BATTERY
100

• Load voltage:
3. 48 Ref 100 BATTERY
BATTERY
3. Ref [14] 3. Ref [14] W. =
• Power rating per unit: 100 W.W. =
= =
• •• DC loads
48 Varebusconnected
to avoid di- =
=
UNIT

DC loads are connected directly

DCto loads are connected di-
UNIT
UNIT

conversion losses. rectly

rectly to
to 48
48 VV bus
bus to
to avoid =
POWER

avoid =
1POWER

=
11POWER

=
WW

Energies 2021, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW conversion 9 of 16

conversion losses.
=
=
W

losses.
100
100

BATTERY
100

BATTERY
BATTERY
DC
DC
DC
LOADS
LOADS
LOADS
No. Source Description Topology
•Distributed generation. 1 HOME UNIT 200 W
BATTERY
•DC grid voltage: 380 V.
• Distributed generation. •Load voltage: 48 V. =
=
• DC grid voltage: 380 V. •Power rating per unit: 200
DC
• Load voltage: 48 V. W. LOADS
=
=
• • Coordination between units
Power rating per unit: 200 W.
4.between
Ref [15] DC BUS 48 V AND UP
4. Ref [15] • Coordination units isisachieved
achievedbybythe
the convert-
converters’ interaction withiners’
the interaction
units. within the = 1 HOME UNIT 200 W
=
• Communal loads are suppliedunits. by the power generated
=
from the home units. • Communal loads are sup- =
COMMUNAL
LOADS
plied by the power gener- DC
LOADS
ated from the home units. BATTERY

1 PCS UNIT 3 KW
• Distributed generation.
=
• DC grid voltage: 370 V. =

• Load voltage: 230 VAC 1-

500 V

=
=
phase BATTERY
• Power rating per unit: 3 ζ =
= =
kW. AC LOADS
Proposed • Each unit supplies a cluster DC BUS 370 V
5
 BATTERY
• DC grid voltage: 380 V.
• Load voltage: 48 V. =
=
• Power rating per unit: 200
DC
=
W. LOADS
=

Energies 2021, 14, 493 • Coordination between units DC BUS 48 V AND UP 9 of 15

4. Ref [15]
is achieved by the convert-
= 1 HOME UNIT 200 W
ers’ interaction within the =
units. =
=
• Table
Communal loads are sup-
3. Cont. COMMUNAL
LOADS
plied by the power gener- DC
LOADS
No. Source ated from the home units.
Description BATTERY Topology
1 PCS UNIT 3 KW
• Distributed generation.
=
• DC grid voltage: 370 V. =

• Load voltage: 230 VAC 1-

500 V
=
=
• Distributed generation. phase BATTERY
• DC grid voltage: 370 V. • Power rating per unit: 3 ζ =
• Load voltage: 230 VAC 1-phasekW. = =
AC LOADS
Proposed • Power rating per unit: 3 kW.
Proposed • Each unit supplies a cluster DC BUS 370 V
5 • Each unit 5supplies a clusterofofhouses
housesand
andmanages
managesits
System System = =
its own energy consumption ownindividually.
energy consumption = =
• Outputs 230 VAC to accommodate common home
individually. =

500 V
appliances that run on AC power. =
• Outputs 230 VAC to accom- BATTERY
modate common home ap-
=
pliances that run on AC ζ

power. 1 PCS UNIT 3 KW AC LOADS

3. Functional and Performance Evaluation of the Proposed DC Microgrid System

3.1. Evaluation
3. Functional Methodology Evaluation of the Proposed DC Microgrid System
and Performance
There are two evaluation sections: Lab testing and field testing. In lab testing, the
3.1. Evaluation Methodology
proposed DC microgrid system are tested as a single-point system and a multi-point sys-
There are two evaluation sections: Lab testing and field testing. In lab testing, the pro-
tem. Dummy SoC data are used to avoid having to charge or discharge the batteries to the
posed desired
DC microgrid system are tested as a single-point system and a multi-point system.
level as doing so is too time-consuming. Single-point system evaluation mainly
Dummy SoC data are usedfunctional
focuses on each point’s to avoid specifications.
having to charge or discharge
Precharging sequencethe batteries
is done to the
manually
desiredusing
level192-ohm
as doing so is too time-consuming. Single-point system evaluation
resistor and 40-amps DC circuit breaker. The multi-point system evalua- mainly
focusestion
on tests
eachthepoint’s functional
PCS operation specifications.
sequence. Their DC Precharging
grid terminals sequence
are beingis connected
done manually and
using 192-ohm resistor and 40-amps DC circuit breaker. The multi-point
the parameters observed. The units automatically precharge as they get connected system evaluation
to
tests the PCSsource
power operation sequence.
and then follow theTheir
same DC grid terminals
procedure aresystem
as in single being initialization.
connected and the
parametersThe parameters
observed. Theand equipment
units used forprecharge
automatically lab testing are as follow:
as they Two sets ofto
get connected batter-
power
ies: OPZV batteries 240-V 1,000-Ah and LiFePo batteries 256-V
source and then follow the same procedure as in single system initialization. 70-Ah; two sets of PV mod-
ules:
The each consists
parameters andofequipment
40 50-Wp 12-V usedPVfor
panels in seriesare
lab testing and
asparallel
follow:toTwoachieve
sets aoftotal 340
batteries:
V and 2 kWp; and two sets of 3-kW heater as resistive loads.
OPZV batteries 240-V 1,000-Ah and LiFePo batteries 256-V 70-Ah; two sets of PV modules:
The field testing is conducted to gather data regarding conductor losses. Conductor
each consists of 40 50-Wp 12-V PV panels in series and parallel to achieve a total 340 V and
losses need to be evaluated because in the target location for implementing this system,
2 kWp; and two sets of 3-kW heater as resistive loads.
the residential area is thinly distributed. Figure 7 shows the field-testing setup. PCS are
The fieldwith
loaded testing
LEDislights
conducted
located to
100gather
m away data
fromregarding
it, assuming conductor
that the losses.
houses in Conduc-
rural
tor losses need to be evaluated because in the target location for implementing
villages could be this far apart from the energy source. Measurements are done at the this system,
AC
the residential area isofthinly
output terminal the PCS distributed. Figure
and at the load 7 shows
connection theThe
point. field-testing
charging and setup. PCS are
discharging
loadedprocess
with LED lights
are also locatedwith
monitored 100changing
m awayload from it, assuming that the houses in rural
currents.
villages could be this far apart from the energy source. Measurements are done at the AC
output terminal of the PCS and at the load connection point. The charging and
Energies 2021, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 10 ofdischarging
16
process are also monitored with changing load currents.

Figure 7.7.PCS
Figure PCSfield evaluation
field with
evaluation distant
with loads.
distant loads.

3.2. Evaluation Results

3.2.1. Lab Testing
The storage chopper activates after the management unit (operated manually by us-
ing a laptop PC) gives the signal. Current drawn from battery indicates that the battery
Energies 2021, 14, 493 10 of 15

Figure
3.2. 7. PCS field evaluation
Evaluation Results with distant loads.
3.2.1. Lab Testing
3.2. Evaluation Results
The
3.2.1. Lab storage chopper activates after the management unit (operated manually by using
Testing
a laptop PC) gives the signal. Current drawn from battery indicates that the battery chopper
The storage chopper activates after the management unit (operated manually by us-
is working. The measured voltage at DC link is 500 V. The battery chopper charges battery
ing a laptop PC) gives the signal. Current drawn from battery indicates that the battery
after the PV is connected to the source input terminal and the SoC in the management
chopper is working. The measured voltage at DC link is 500 V. The battery chopper
unit isbattery
charges set to 4%.
afterThe battery
the PV chargingtooperation
is connected the sourceindicates that the
input terminal andPVthechopper is working.
SoC in the
management unit is set to 4%. The battery charging operation indicates that the PV chop- battery
When the inverter is activated and loaded, the current flows from both the PV and
pervia their respective
is working. When the choppers.
inverter is activated and loaded, the current flows from both the
Performance of the inverter
PV and battery via their respective is summarized in Figure 8. During this test, PV is deacti-
choppers.
vated, and the supply goes solely from the battery.
Performance of the inverter is summarized in FigureThe inverter
8. During voltage
this test, PVoutput is stable at
is deac-
228 Vand
tivated, AC,the loaded
supplyat goes
maximum 2.4 kW.
solely from theThe amount
battery. of DC power
The inverter that
voltage is converted
output is stable into AC
at is
228generally measured
V AC, loaded by the 2.4
at maximum efficiency
kW. Thethat can be
amount calculated
of DC by using
power that Equation
is converted into (1).
AC is generally measured by the efficiency that can be calculated by using Equation (1).
AC Output
AC Output
Efficiency =
Efficiency= (1) (1)
Battery
Battery Input Input

100%
95% 92.662%
91.594%
92.752%
90% 92.582%
91.262%
85% 88.747%
80%
Efficiency

75%
70%
65%
60%
55%
50%
- 500 1,000 1,500 2,000 2,500 3,000
Energies 2021, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW Load (W)
11 of 16

(a)

2.4%
2.124%
2.2%
Total Harmonic Distortion

2.022%
1.967%
2.0% 2.078%
1.840% 1.980%
1.800% 1.948%
1.8%
1.558% 1.790%
1.6% 1.700%
1.567%
1.4% VoltageTHD
Series1

1.2% Current THD

Series2

1.0%
- 500 1,000 1,500 2,000 2,500 3,000
Load (W)

(b)
300

250 263.70 262.71 263.05261.78 261.08 260.56

200 228.00 228.00 227.94 227.72 227.74 227.65

Voltage (V)

150

100

Battery Voltage
Series1
50
Inverter Output
Series2
0
- 500 1,000 1,500 2,000 2,500 3,000
Load (W)

(c)
Figure 8. Inverter evaluation: (a) Efficiency vs. load, (b) voltage and current THD vs. load, and (c)
Figure
battery Invertervoltage
8. inverter
and evaluation: (a) Efficiency vs. load, (b) voltage and current THD vs. load, and (c) bat-
vs. load.
tery and inverter voltage vs. load.
The efficiency data are shown in Figure 8a. The efficiency rises together with the load
increase, reaching over 90% with load above 1100 W. It can be expected that at full load
the efficiency will be higher than 92.75%. The power quality measurement results in
Figure 8b shows that the harmonic level is well below standardized limits according to
the IEEE Std 519-2014. The distortion levels increase along with the load in an almost lin-
Energies 2021, 14, 493 11 of 15

The efficiency data are shown in Figure 8a. The efficiency rises together with the load
increase, reaching over 90% with load above 1100 W. It can be expected that at full load the
efficiency will be higher than 92.75%. The power quality measurement results in Figure 8b
shows that the harmonic level is well below standardized limits according to the IEEE Std
519-2014. The distortion levels increase along with the load in an almost linear manner.
According to the trend, at full load they are predicted not to exceed the standard limit.
The inverter also feeds stable voltage throughout the test, delivering up to 80% of rated
output power without any significant drop in voltage, as shown in Figure 8c.
The DC grid chopper is being activated last. During this test, because the SoC is
set to 4%, the DC grid chopper runs in charging mode (refer to Figure 4). When it is not
connected to the other PCS to draw current from, the measured voltage at the DC grid
chopper terminal is 390 V.
During this test, the power consumption of PCS units is also measured. In idle state
when no switching occurs, the power consumed is 16–20 W. When switching occurs,
the power consumption rises to 100 W.
For the multi-point evaluation, the precharging sequence is done automatically using
precharging module within PCS. The precharging is done in 1.5 s and the discharging in
2 s. To make the PCS share power between each other, SoC of one PCS is set to 30% with
the PV disconnected, while SoC of the other PCS is set to 70%. The management unit of the
first PCS will detect that its battery needs to be charged. Therefore, management unit of
the first PCS sets its DC grid chopper to charging mode. Meanwhile, management unit of
the second PCS sets its DC grid chopper to discharging mode. Because the first PCS is set
to absorb power from the DC bus and the second PCS to inject power, power will naturally
flow from the second PCS to the first one.

3.2.2. Field Testing

Figure 9a shows that the inverter output voltage drops at the load point of connection.
The proposed DC microgrid system does not use closed-loop control to keep constant
voltage in the consumer to keep the simplicity. In addition, the household devices in remote
area are not sensitive to constant voltage. At 9 A of load current (70% of rated current),
the voltage drop does not exceed 10% of its nominal value, which is still acceptable for
common AC-powered household devices. The voltage drops more when the load current
is bigger due to the losses at the cable. Figure 9b shows the measured power at both end
of the cable. During this experiment, the cable type NYYHY 3 × 2.5 mm2 that is readily
available in general stores was used. If a better quality is required, a different type of cable
with less resistance may solve the problem.
Figure 10 shows the charging and discharging of battery bank with varying load
current. This experiment is done by increasing and then decreasing the load demand.
When the PV produces power more than the load demand (the charging process at the left-
hand side), PCS will charge the battery, signified by the negative battery power. When the
load demands power higher from the PV capacity (the discharging process in the middle),
the battery enters discharging mode, hence the positive battery power. Battery gives out
the necessary power to meet the load demand, and the power it exerts rises along with
the increase in load current. PCS then goes back to charging mode when the load demand
decreases to under the PV production. This experiment shows that the charging and
discharging of the battery bank has worked well to meet the needs of the varying loads.
 rent), the voltage drop does not exceed 10% of its nominal value, which is still accep
for common AC-powered household devices. The voltage drops more when the load
rent is bigger due to the losses at the cable. Figure 9b shows the measured power at
end of the cable. During this experiment, the cable type NYYHY 3 × 2.5mm2 that is re
Energies 2021, 14, 493 12 of 15
available in general stores was used. If a better quality is required, a different type of
with less resistance may solve the problem.

240
AT PCS
230

AC Voltage (V)
220

210
AT LOAD

200
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Current (A)
(a)
2500

2000

1500
AT PCS
Power (W)

1000 AT LOAD

500 P LOSSES

0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Current (A)
(b)
Energies 2021, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 13 of 1
Figure 9. Field
Figuretesting results:
9. Field testing (a) Voltage
results: drop
(a) Voltage ononcable,
drop and(b)
cable, and (b)losses
losses
on on cable.
cable.

Figure 10 shows the charging and discharging of battery bank with varying load
rent. This experiment
P PV > P INVis done by Pincreasing
PV < P INV and then
P PVdecreasing
> P INV the load demand. W
CHARGING DISCHARGING CHARGING
the PV producesMODE power more than the MODEload demand (the
MODEcharging process at the left-
2000
side), PCS will charge the battery, signified by the negative battery power. When the
1800 P
demands 1600 power higher from the PV capacity (the discharging process in the middle
battery1400
enters discharging mode, hence the positive battery power. Battery gives ou
1200 P PV
necessary
1000 power to meet the load demand, and the power it exerts rises along wit
increase800in load current. PCS then goes back to charging mode when the load dem
POWER (W)

600
decreases400 to under the PV production. This experiment shows that the charging and
200
charging 0
of the battery bank has Pworked
BATTERYwell to meet the needs of the varying loads
-200
-400
-600
-800
-1000
10.1 21.8 3
4.1 64 5
7.3 66 7
4.6 2.48 9
0.4
CURRENT (A)

Figure
Figure 10.10. Battery
Battery charging
charging and and discharging
discharging process
process with varying
with varying load current.
load current.

4. LCOE and Investment Analysis

Levelized cost of energy (LCOE) is defined as the average total cost to build and op
erate a power plant per output energy in a certain period of time. LCOE can be calculate
Equation (2).
Energies 2021, 14, 493 13 of 15

4. LCOE and Investment Analysis

Levelized cost of energy (LCOE) is defined as the average total cost to build and
operate a power plant per output energy in a certain period of time. LCOE can be calculated
Equation (2).
I (t)+ M (t)+ F (t)
NPVCost ∑ (1+r ) t
LCOE = = E(t)
(2)
NPVProduce ∑ (1+r ) t

where:
I = initial investment cost,
M = O&M cost,
F = fuel cost,
E = energy produced by the plant,
r = discount rate,
t = time,
NPVCost = net present value from the total cost spent in the plant’s lifetime, and
NPVProduce = net present value of the total energy generated by the plant during its lifetime.
The LCOE is computed using the following assumptions: Three systems such as
described in Figure 1 will be installed, which amount to total capacity of 9 kWp, each system
can be used to serve 10 homes running common home electronic appliances; investment
cost of each system is US$23,375; system efficiency is 95%; sun light is accessible for an
average 4.5 h/day all year; PV panel output degradation is 0.5%/year; O&M cost is 0.5%
from investment cost/year; O&M growth rate is 2%; interest rate is 9%/year, and because
70% of the investment comes from bank loan, the discount rate is 10.8%; and the project
lifespan is 20 years.
For 20 years, the total NPV for investment and O&M is US$72,975 and the total gen-
NPVCost
erated energy is 107.4 kW. Therefore, the LCOE = NPVProduce = US$72,975
107.4 = US$0.68/kWh.
If the tariff is the same as LCOE, the internal rate of return (IRR) is 10.82% and pay out in
8.26 years. This implies that in order for this project to be economically feasible, the LCOE
specifies the minimum tariff for this system. US$ 0.68/kWh is inexpensive compared to
diesel generator that is generally the main electricity source in remote areas. Adding up
the costs of transporting fuels, the total production cost may be well above US$ 1/kWh.
Moreover, by using the proposed DC microgrid, we will reduce dependency on the already
dwindling fossil fuel reserves.

5. Conclusions
This paper proposes a new DC microgrid system concept that is suitable for accelerat-
ing electricity delivery to rural and remote areas that has no access to the main utility grid.
Its modularity makes it easily transported and provides flexibility to the overall system.
The DC interface between points is also advantageous when they need to combine with
other points due to the absence of the need to synchronize as in AC-interfaced systems.
PCS is the key equipment for the proposed microgrid system. It interfaces the mi-
crogrid elements such as energy sources, ESS, and load, by using the same converter
topologies for those different purposes. It can be deployed as an individual isolated unit
and also form a grid through the DC bus for better reliability and efficiency. PCS manages
the available power and the load requirements, while able to exchange power between
connected points.
Prototypes have been developed to demonstrate the proposed DC microgrid system,
with capacity of 3 kWp of solar PV and 13.8 kWh of battery each. One such system can
be used to supply a cluster of 10 households. They are implemented in a pole-mounted
structure to save space, while the PV panels form a canopy shading 18 m2 of ground.
The system can be expanded to create a DC microgrid network by connecting several single
isolated systems through 370 VDC bus.
Energies 2021, 14, 493 14 of 15

The proposed DC microgrid system has been tested in laboratory and in the field,
both as a single-point and a multi-point system. Each of them runs well both in either
modes, reaching 92.75% of efficiency, and confirmed low THD levels, where the voltage
THD is 2.078% and current THD is 2.124%. The prototype field testing successfully demon-
strated the battery charge and discharge sequences following several load conditions.
Voltage drops is also tested to confirm the acceptable level of voltage in the consumer’s
household devices. Financial analysis based on LCOE concludes that the proposed system
is feasible for implementation with the minimum tariff US$0.68/kWh.

Author Contributions: Conceptual development P.A.D., A.R., and T.A.; economic analysis E.G.;
implementation and field testing A.H.A., P.D.S., and M.R. All authors have read and agreed to the
published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research is funded by the LPDP, Indonesia. This research is also partially funded by
the Indonesian Ministry of Research and Technology/National Agency for Research and Innovation,
and Indonesian Ministry of Education and Culture, under World Class University Program managed
by Institut Teknologi Bandung.
Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.
Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.
Data Availability Statement: Not applicable.
Acknowledgments: The authors would also like to thank Sanken Electric Co., Ltd. and PT Len
Industri (Persero), for cooperation during this research.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Abbreviations

AC Alternating Current
DC Direct Current
GWp gigawatt-peak
ESS Energy Storage System
kWh kilowatt-hour
kWp kilowatt-peak
LCOE Levelized Cost of Energy
O&M Operation and Maintenance
PCS Power Conditioner System
PV Photovoltaic
RES Renewable Energy Sources
SoC State of Charge
THD Total Harmonic Distortion

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