CE 131 – Structural Theory

Course Description
A professional course common to all civil engineering students designed to provide
fundamental concepts, principles, and theories in the theory of structures and structural
analysis for internal actions in a structure and its deformation under load.
Course (Subject) Learning Outcomes
At the end of the course, the students must be able to:
1. Identify and classify various types of planar and these are supported for stability spatial;
structural systems and the manner by which these are supported for stability;
2. Determine the state of static and kinematic determinacy and stability of structural
systems, externally and internally;
3. Apply the methods of structural analysis for external and internal actions on various
types of structural systems due to static and moving loads;
4. Develop intuition and deflected shapes of structures under loading.

General Class Policies

1. Students must wear a presentable outfit better yet must be in uniform during the on
line class.
2. Students must observe “Good Manners and Right Conduct” in the class room and during
the on line class.
3. Any student caught cheating during examination shall be given a failing grade.
4. Students with 10% or more than the total number of hours absences during the
semester will be considered drop.
Assignment Policies:
5. Assignments should be written in an A 4 bond paper and must be hand written. Solution
must be properly presented neat and organized.
6. The assignments should be submitted within a specific day and time after they are
given. Late assignments will no longer be accepted except for a valid reason.
7. Assignment submitted on online should be should follow the format in policy # 1 and
can submit through my messenger or at my e-mail account.
Course Materials
1. Wang/Eckel, Elememntary Theory of Structures
2. Besavilla, Structural Engineering and Construction, Volume 1
3. Besavilla, Structural Analysis (Theory of Structures) Hibbler, R.C Structural Analysis, 9​th
Ed, Prentice Hall ,Rajan S.D

Module 1
• Structural Theory​ – it is the method or tool by which we find out a structure or a
member of a structure behaves when subjected to certain excitation. In other words
finding out internal forces ( axial force, shear force, moment), stress, strain, deflection,
etc in a structure under applied load conditions.
•
Pretest (How well do you?)

1. Identify what type of beam is it

1.1 a) fixed b) simply supported c) cantilever d) continous
 1.2 a) ​fixed b) simply supported c) cantilever d) continuous

1.3 ​a) fixed b) simply supported c) cantilever d) continuous

2. These are static forces that are relatively constant for an extended time.
a) Live loads b) Dead loads c) Wind loads d) Earthquake loads

3. A framework, typically consisting of rafters, post and struts

supporting a roof, bridge or other structures.
a) Beam b) Truss c) Frame d) Composite structures

4. A sketch indicating all external forces and reactions representing the action exerted on the
body.
a) Free Body b) Free body diagram c) Falling body

5. A structural element that primarily resists loads that are applied perpendicular to its axis.
a) Beam b) Truss c) Frame d) Composite structures

6. Simple truss consists of entirely of triangle. True or false

a) True b) False
7. Trusses and frames are different as,
a) Trusses can bend, frames can’t
b) Both can bend
c) None of them can bend
d) Trusses can’t but frame can

8. How many equilibrium equations do we need to solve generally on each joint of a truss.
a) 1 b) 2 c) 3 d) 4

9. How many equilibrium equations are used in method of joints

a) 2 b) 4 c) 3 d) 5

10. In trusses, a member in the state of tension is subjected to.

a) Push b) pull c) lateral force d) either push or pull

Lesson 1
.​1 Introduction

1.1 Introduction to structural engineering, the analysis and design process:

structural forms, nature of loads, building materials.

Course Intended Learning Objectives

To understand the concept and principles of structural analysis.

TYPES OF STRUCTURES
• 1. Beams- is the simplest of all structures which is a straight member subjected to a
transverse loads.( simply supported, cantilever, fixed support, continuous beams)
• 2. Planar and Space Trusses – For longer spans trusses are often used instead of beams.
Trusses support the loads primarily by axial forces in the members. Triangular
arrangements of members are used in trusses.
• 3. Arches and Cables- for longer span​ another​ type of structure is the arch. It is
characterized by low bending moment and large compressive forces with supports
capable of resisting horizontal forces due to the tendency of the arch to flatten out under
load. (suspension bridges). Basically, a cable acts as tension and tends to lengthen under
load.
• 4. Rigid Frames – are structures used for buildings. They are assembled for moment
members joined at the ends by moment resisting connections. From a structural
standpoint rigid frames are often highly statically indeterminate.
• 5. Composite Structures – Structures in which some of the members are subjected to axial
forces only, while some of the members are subjected to bending are called composite
structures.
• Structures
• Beams Continous beam Inverted T beam
 •

​
Steel beams
Arches and Cables

Frames
Composite structures

Different kind of truss

• Different types of beams can be classified based on the type of support.
The four different types of beams are:
• Simply Supported Beam
• Fixed Beam
• Cantilever Beam
• Continuously Supported Beam
• Simply Supported Beam
If the ends of a beam are made to rest freely on supports beam, it is called a simple
(freely) supported beam.
• Fixed Beam
If a beam is fixed at both ends it is free called fixed beam. Its another name is a built-in
beam or encase beam

•
• Cantilever Beam
If a beam is fixed at one end while the other end is free, it is called cantilever beam

•
• Continuously Supported Beam
If more than two supports are provided to the beam, it is called continuously supported
beam

•
• BUILDING LOADS
• The loads to be considered to be considered in designing a building are the dead and live
loads.
• Dead loads​ are static forces that are relatively constant for an extended
• time.They can be in tension or compression. Any part of a building which is permanently
installed heating to the total dead loads.(floor and roof materials, beams, girders and
columns, including the footings, ceiling materials, including heating and air conditioning
ducts and electrical power installations, mechanical equipment, including elevators and
escalators.
• Li​ ve Loads- a
​ re transient and movable loads within the buildings. Wind, earthquake,
snow loads are also considered as live loads. (People in class rooms, auditoriums,
theater, and other buildings where people assemble, office equipment and machines,
furniture partitions which are move occasionally, products in a warehouse & storage
buildings.

• Recommended values of live load are usually specified in building codes. Reduction in
the tabulated live loads is allowed by most building codes when the area involved is very
large. The reduction is the least of the following values of R.
• R = 0.0086 x area ( when the area exceeds 11.2 m2 )
D+L
• R= 4.33L
R ≤ ( 0.40 for beams and girders, 0.60 for vertical

• members)
• Where: R = reduction factor
• D = dead loads, kPa
• L = Live load, kPa
• Live load reductions are not allowed for places of public assembly, warehouses, garages
and roofs.
• Wind loads
• Due to frequent occurrence of typhoons, wind loads must be included in the analysis
and design of buildings, especially for high rise structures. Wind pressures can be
computed approximately as:
• q = 0.0000473 V 2 kPa ( V in km/hr)

• q = 0.00256 V 2 psf (V in miles/hr)

• Earthquake loads
• The Phils. Falls within one of the most active earthquake zonesin the world; so it is nec.
To consider seismic forces in the design of buildings, bridges and other structures. An
earthquake causes an acceleration of the ground surface. This acceleration has both
vertical and horizontal components. The vertical components is usually assumed to be
negligible, but the horizontal component is one of that can cause considerable damaged
and destruction.
• The minimum lateral earthquake force for which a building is to be designed can be
computed from the formula:
• F = ZIKCSW
• The C factor is based on the fundamental building period T:
1
• C= 15√T
≤0.12

• And the product of the factors C and S is to be

• CS ≤0.14
• For SI units, the building period T is computed by T ype equation here.
0.91 H
• T= √D√
(seconds)

• Where H = height of the building, meters

• D = dimension of the building in the direction being analyzed, meterspWhen the
building frame is made up of ductile material such as steel, the approximate building
period maybe calculated by
• T = 0.10 x number of stories above the base
• The lateral force from the eqn 1 is to be distributed as follows
• F top = 0.07 TF ≤0.25F
• But F top is zero when T = 0.70 second. For any story at a height hn from ground
W h hn
• Fn = (F – F top) = ∑W n hn
The terms in the preceding equations not previously
defined are:
• I = Occupancy importance factor
• 1.5 for essential facilities
• 1.25 for assembly halls
• 1.0 for all other occupancy
• K = lateral force coefficient based on the building tyoe
• S = numerical coefficient for the site resonance
• 1.5 unless site geothecnical data are available
• W = total dead load + 25% of live loads for storage or warehouse
buildings
• Wn = load on the nth floor
• Z = earthquake zone coefficient
• Load combinations
• Knowing the different source of loading of a structure, the designer must consider the
different combinations of loads which have the most unfavorable effect on the
structure. Some load combinations are:
• 1. Dead load + Live load
• 2. Dead Load + Live Load + Wind Load
• 3. Dead Load + Live Load + Earthquake Load
• Conversion Between SI and U.S. Customary Units
• Length: The basic unit of length in SI system is m
• 1 ft = 0.3048 m 1 m = 3.281 ft
• 1 in = 25.40 mm 1mm = 0.03937 in
• Mass: The basic unit of mass in SI is Kilogram (kg). Lbm = pound-mass
• 1 lbm = 0.4536kg 1kg = 2.205 lbm
• Force and Mass
• Weight is defined as the force required to restrain a body against the acceleration of
gravity. The unit of force in Si system is Newton (N). A newton is defined as the force
that gives an acceleration of 1m/ s2 to a mass of 1 kg.
• The expression for the weight of 1kg mass using the standard value for the acceleration
of gravity g = 9.807 m/ s2 is
• W = mg = (1kg) (9.807m/ s2 ) = 9.807 N
• 1 lbf = (0.4536 kg) (9.807m/ s2 ) = 4.448 N
• The US Customary unit kilopound (kip) is equal to a force of 1000 lb.
• 1 kip = 4.448 x 103 N
• Stress
• The unit of stress in the unit system is the Pascal (Pa) which is defined as
• 1 N/ m2 .

Lesson 2
Lesson 2​: Types of supports, support reactions, degrees of static and kinematic indeterminacy
for planar and spatial structures, degrees of stability and redundancy members.

Learning Objectives​:​ To identify and recognize the different types of loads, , supports and degree
of determinacy of structures.

• Stability and Determinacy of Structures

• In calculating the reactions for a structure, it is wise to visualize how the loads are
transmitted to the supports. The analyst must assess whether the reactions can be
determined by the equations of statics and whether the structure will collapse and
experience a change in geometry due to loads.
• a) Stability and Determinacy of Beams.
• 1. Statically Determinate –The beam is statically determinate with 3 independent
reactive force which can be calculated by 3 available equations of static equilibrium.
• 2. Statically Indeterminate – It is statically indeterminate with one redundant reaction,
By definition, the redundancy of a structure is the difference between

•
• Determinate structures​ are analyzed just by the use of basic equilibrium equations. By
this analysis, the unknown reactions are found for the further determination of stresses​.
• Redundant or indeterminate structures​ are not capable of being analysed by mere use
of basic equilibrium equations. Along with the basic equilibrium equations, some extra
conditions are required to be used like ​compatibility conditions​ of deformations etc to
get the unknown reactions for drawing ​bending moment and shear force diagrams​.
• Example of determinate structures​ are: simply supported beams, cantilever beams,
single and double overhanging beams, three hinged arches, etc.
• Examples of indeterminate structures​ are: fixed beams, continuous beams, fixed
arches, two hinged arches, portals, multistoried frames, etc.
• Special methods like strain energy method, slope deflection method, moment
distribution method, column analogy method, virtual work method, matrix methods, etc
are used for the analysis of redundant structures
• Indeterminate Structures
• A structure is termed as statically indeterminate, if it can not be analysed from
principles of statics alone, i.e. . A statically indeterminate structure may be classified
as:
1. Externally indeterminate, (example: continuous beams and frames shown in figure-1(a)
and (b)).
2. Internally indeterminate, (example: trusses shown in figure-1(c) and (d)).
3. Both externally and internally indeterminate, (example: trussed beams, continuous
trusses shown in figure-1 (e) and (f)).
 • Externally Indeterminate Structures
A structure is usually externally indeterminate or redundant if the reactions at the supports can
not be determined by using three equations of equilibrium, i.e. . In the case of beams
subjected to vertical loads only, two reactions can be determined by conditions of equilibrium.
Therefore, simply supported cantilever and overhanging beams shown in figure 2 are statically
determinate structures
• Thus, the behavior of beams can be classified according to their reactions by considering
by considering the relation between the number of reaction components and the
number of equations available or connections. If r is the number of independent
unknown reactive forces and c is the numbers of equations of condition (c = 0 for a
beam without internal construction details or connections; c = 1 for a hinge; c = 2 for a
roller); we have the following criterion:
• 1) If r = c + 3, the beam is statically determinate
• 2) If r > c + 3, the beam is statically indeterminate
• 3) If r < c + 3, the beam is statically unstable ( a mechanism)
• STABILITY AND DETERMINANCY OF TRUSSES
• A simple rigid truss is formed by starting with a triangle consisting of three members
and three joints and subsequently adding two members and a joint to form another
triangle. This addition of 2 members and a joint is continued until the final truss
configuration is attained. A truss with j joints will require
• (j – 3) additional joints to expand the structure beyond the original three joint triangle.
Since each additional joint is formed by the intersection of 2 members , the total number
of members m to force a simple rigid truss is
• m = 2(j – 3 ) + 3 = 2j – 3
• To develop a criterion ​for the stability and determinacy of trusses, consider the
equilibrium​ of a simple truss. At each joint of a truss there is a concurrent force system
consisting of the forces in two members plus any applied loads and reactions. The
equations ∑F h = 0 and ∑F v = 0 are sufficient to determine the unknown forces in the
two members acting at a point. For a truss with j joints there are 2j independent
equations of equilibrium which involve ( m + r ) unknowns, where r is the number of
reaction components. The criterion used for classification is summarized as follows: I)
If m + r = 2j, the truss is statically determinate
• 2) If m + r > 2j, the truss is statically indeterminate
• 3) If m + r < 2j, the truss is unstable (a mechanism)

• If 3m + r = 3j + c, the frame is statically determinate

• If 3m + r > 3j + c, the frame is statically indeterminate
• I 3m + r < 3j + c, the frame is unstable
•

•
 •

•
Lesson 3
Concept of axial shear, torsional, flexural rigidities and stiffness of structural members
Course Intended Learning Objectives

Familiarize with the concept of axial shear, torsional, flexural rigidities and stiffness of structural
members.

Reactions for fixed Loads

General principles
A force is completely characterized by 3 properties . These are its magnitude, direction and line
of action or point of application.
For a body at rest to forces acting on a plane , there are 3 conditions of equilibrium which
must be satisfied.
∑Fx = 0 ∑Fy = 0 ∑M = 0
Special Cases of Equilibrium
1. Two forces: For 2 forces in equilibrium, they must be coplanar., collinear, equal in
magnitude, and acting in opposite direction.
2. Three Forces: For 3 forces in equilibrium, a nec condition is that they must be coplanar
and concurrent.. If they are not coplanar summation of forces perpendicular to the plane of any
2 of the 3 forces will not be zero. Similarly, if they are not concurrent, moment about the
intersection of any of the 2 forces will not vanish.

• 3. Several Forces All Coplanar except One: If all forces acting on a body are
coplanar with the exception of one force, equilibrium is not possible for there is no other
force to balance the non coplanar one.
• Types of Support

•
•
• When the linear relationship is assumed to exist between the applied loads and the
resulting displacements in a structure, the forces acting maybe considered separately and
the structure analyzed for the separate cases. The final result may be the algebraic sum of
the individual results.
• Stability and Determinacy of Structures
• In calculating the reactions for a structure, it is wise to visualize how the loads are
transmitted to the supports. The analyst must assess whether the reactions can be
determined by the equations of statics and whether the structure will collapse and
experience a change in geometry due to loads.
• a) Stability and Determinacy of Beams.
• 1. Statically Determinate –The beam is statically determinate with 3 independent
reactive force which can be calculated by 3 available equations of static equilibrium.
• 2. Statically Indeterminate – It is statically indeterminate with one redundant reaction,
By definition, the redundancy of a structure is the difference between

•
•
• Thus, the behavior of beams can be classified according to their reactions by considering
by considering the relation between the number of reaction components and the number
of equations available or connections. If r is the number of independent unknown
reactive forces and c is the numbers of equations of condition (c = 0 for a beam without
internal construction details or connections; c = 1 for a hinge; c = 2 for a roller); we have
the following criterion:
• 1) If r = c + 3, the beam is statically determinate
• 2) If r > c + 3, the beam is statically indeterminate
• 3) If r < c + 3, the beam is statically unstable ( a mechanism)
• STABILITY AND DEETERMINANCY OF TRUSSES
• A simple rigid truss is formed by starting with a triangle consisting of three members
and three joints and subsequently adding two members and a joint to form another
triangle. This addition of 2 members and a joint is continued until the final truss
configuration is attained. A truss with j joints will require
• (j – 3) additional joints to expand the structure beyond the original three joint triangle.
Since each additional joint is formed by the intersection of 2 members , the total number
of members m to force a simple rigid truss is
• m = 2(j – 3 ) + 3 = 2j – 3
• To develop a criterion ​for the stability and determinacy of trusses, consider the
equilibrium​ of a simple truss. At each joint of a truss there is a concurrent force system
consisting of the forces in two members plus any applied loads and reactions. The
 equations ∑F h = 0 and ∑F v = 0 are sufficient to determine the unknown forces in the
two members acting at a point. For a truss with j joints there are 2j independent
equations of equilibrium which involve ( m + r ) unknowns, where r is the number of
reaction components. The criterion used for classification is summarized as follows:
I) If m + r = 2j, the truss is statically determinate
• 2) If m + r > 2j, the truss is statically indeterminate
• 3) If m + r < 2j, the truss is unstable (a mechanism)
For the trusses in Figures 1.14a, b & c, we have:

Figure. 1.14a
Determinate truss
1.14a: ​m ​= 17, ​n ​= 10, and ​r =
​ 3. So, degree of static indeterminacy = 0,
that means it is a statically determinate system
Figure 1.14b (Internally) indeterminate truss
1.14b: ​m ​= 18, ​n ​= 10, and ​r =
​ 3. So, degree of static indeterminacy = 1.

Figure 1.14c (Externally) indeterminate truss

1.14c: ​m = 17, n = 10, and r = 4. So, degree of static indeterminacy = 1.

It should be noted that in case of 1.14b, we have one member more than
what is needed for a determinate system
(i.e., 1.14a), where as 1.14c has one unknown reaction component more
than what is needed for a determinate
system. Sometimes, these two different types of redundancy are treated
differently; as ​internal indeterminacy a​ nd
external indeterminacy ​. Note that a structure can be indeterminate either
externally or internally or both externally
and internally.
We can group external and internal forces (and equations) separately, which
will help us understand easily the cases
of external and internal indeterminacy. There are ​r n ​ umbers of external
unknown forces, which are the support
reactions components. We can treat 3 system equilibrium equations as
external equations. This will lead us to:
Degree of external static indeterminacy = ​r -​ 3.
The number of internal unknown forces is ​m a ​ nd we are left with (2 ​n -​ 3)
equilibrium equations. The 3 system
equilibrium equations used earlier were not independent of joint equilibrium
equations, so we are left with (2 ​n ​- 3)
equations instead of 2 ​n n ​ umbers of equations. So:
Degree of internal static indeterminacy = ​m -​ (2 ​n -​ 3).
Please note that the above equations are valid only for two-dimensional
pin-jointed truss systems. For example, for
three-dimensional ( “space” ) pin-jointed truss systems, the degree of static
indeterminacy is given by ( ​m +​ ​r ​- 3 ​n
). Similarly, the expression will be different for systems with rigid (fixed)
joints, frame members

Classify the trusses shown in ​Figure 5.5 through Figure 5.9​ as stable,
determinate, or indeterminate, and state the degree of
indeterminacy when necessary.

r​ = 3, ​m​ = 9, ​j​ = 6. From equation 3.5, 9 + 3 = 2(6). Statically determinate

r​ = 3, ​m​ = 10, ​j​ = 6. From equation 3.5, 10 + 3 > 2(6). Statically

indeterminate to 1°

r​ = 3, ​m​ = 9, ​j​ = 6. From equation 3.5, 9 + 3 = 2(6). Statically determinate

r​ = 3, ​m​ = 24, ​j​ = 14. From equation 3.5, 24 + 3 < 2(14). Statically
unstable

r​ = 5, ​m​ = 11, ​j​ = 7. From equation 3.5, 11 + 5 > 2(7).

Satically indeterminate to the 2°.
Assignment
Problem # 1. In letters a, b and c, classify each of the structures as statically determinate,
statically determinate, stable or unstable. If determinate, specify the degree of indeterminacy.
Quiz #1

1. If a truss consists of a non-triangular element, then it will essentially be unstable.

State whether the above statement is true or false.
 a) true
b) false

2. If a structure has total 10 joints, then what should be the minimum no. of joints in
which equilibrium equations should be concurrently satisfied for stability?
a) 7
b) 8
c) 9
d) 10

3. If 4 reactions are acting on a beam, then the system is:-

a) Unstable & indeterminate
b) Stable & indeterminate
c) Stable & determinate
d) Can’t say

4. In letters d and f, classify each of the structures as statically determinate, statically

determinate, stable or unstable. If determinate, specify the degree of indeterminacy.

5. In letters a & b classify each of the structures as statically determinate, statically

determinate, stable or unstable. If determinate, specify the degree of indeterminacy.