Utilization of Electrical

Power [UEP]
(Professional Elective)
17EE742
VII Sem. EEE

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 Electrical Power Transmission, Distribution and Utilization
• There is one saying that, “one unit of electric energy saved is equal to two units of electric energy
generated”.
• Figure shows the single line diagram of a power system.

• Every apparatus has its own efficiency.

• Say the Generator has an efficiency of 80%, transformer T1 of 95%, transmission line of 80%, transformer T2,T4,T6 each of 95%
then the overall efficiency is the product of all these efficiencies which is: (0.80x0.95x0.80x0.95x0.95x0.95) = 0.52 or 52%,
that means 48% of power is lost during its transmission from the sending end to receiving end.
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 • Therefore, Electric Energy is very precious and costly, it should be used judiciously and
effectively.
• This course is an application oriented course for all Engineers especially of Electrical and
Mechanical streams.
• In the course of Power systems we concentrate on power generation, transmission and
distribution.
• After the distribution its utilization starts. The utilization is for different purposes such as:
heating, welding, electrolytic process, illumination, traction, etc .…
• This course deals with all these above in depth so that the learning outcome is that how
Electric Energy can be used very efficiently in both domestic and industrial applications.
• This course is studied under five different modules covering all these aspects.

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 Course Outcomes [CO’s]
Course Bloom’s
Description POs/PSOs
Code Cognitive level
Discuss the art and science of Resistance heating, Induction heating, Arc 1,2,3/1
15EE742.1 heating and Dielectric heating , Electric Resistance and Arc Welding processes Apply
and Electro Metallurgical process for Industrial applications.
Extend the laws of illumination for designing lighting requirement for 1,2,3/1
15EE742.2 Apply
industry, flood lighting.
Discuss the Electric Traction services and to calculate the time taken, velocity, 1,2/1
15EE742.3 power requirement for traction applications. Discuss on adhesive weight and Apply
torque.
Explain the methods of speed control and braking of different types of DC 1,2/1
15EE742.4 Apply
and AC traction motors.
Explain the mechanism and architecture of Electric and Hybrid Electric 1,2 / 1
15EE742.5 Vehicles. Understand

15EE742.6 Understand the different ultra-modern welding techniques. Understand 1, 2 / 1

Analyze the impact of electric traction and hybrid vehicles on environment. 1,2,7 / 1
15EE742.7 To study the modern methods of speed control of traction motors. Understand

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 Books to refer
• 1. A Text Book on Power System Engineering. –by A.Chakkrabarti,
M.L.Soni, P.V.Gupta, U.S.Bhatnagar. Dhanpat Rai& Co (Pvt.)Ltd.
• 2. A Course in Power systems. -by J.B.Gupta, S.K.Kataria & Sons.
• 3. Utilization of Electric Power & Electric Traction by J.B.Gupta.
S.K.Kataria & Sons.
• 4. Modern Electric, Hybrid Electric and Fuel Cell Vehicles –
Fundamentals Theory & Design. –by Mehrdad Ehsani. CRC Press.

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 Books for reference

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 Module-1.
Electric Heating and Welding
a. Electric Heating: Principles, types and advantages.
 Resistance heating, Resistance ovens,
 Radiant heating,
 Induction heating,
 High Frequency Eddy Current Heating,
 Dielectric Heating,
 Arc heating, Arc furnace,
b. Heating of buildings, Air-conditioning,
c. Electric Welding: Types, principles and applications. Modern Welding techniques.
d. Electro-Metallurgical process- Ionization, Faraday’s laws of Electrolysis,
Definitions, Extraction of Metals. Refining of Metals, Electro-Deposition.

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 Electric Heating
Electric heating is a process in which electrical energy is converted to HEAT energy.
This heat is transferred to the
object through:
 i) Conduction, [through solid],
ii) Convection [through liquid] and
iii) Radiation [through gas or air].

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 Advantages of Electric Heating:
1. Precise control of temperature and distribution of heat energy.

2. Electric heat can be accurately applied at the precise point/area needed in

a
process, at high concentration of power per unit area or volume.
3. Electric heating devices can be built in any required size and can be
located any where within a plant.
4. Electric heating processes are generally clean, quiet, and do not emit much
byproduct heat (flue gasses) to the surroundings.
5. Electrical heating equipment has a high speed of response, leading it to
rapid-cycling mass-production equipment.

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 Limitations
• The limitations and disadvantages of Electric Heating are:
• Higher cost of electrical energy compared to direct use of fuel,
and the capital cost of both the electric heating apparatus itself.
• The infrastructure required to deliver large quantities of
electrical energy to the point of use.
• This may be some what offset by in-plant (on-site) efficiency
gains in using less energy overall to achieve the same result.

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 Electric Heating

Electric heating can be classified as:

1. Power frequency heating,
2. High frequency heating.
• The heating element inside every electric heater is a
convertor which works on the principle of Joule heating.
[1 Joule = 1 Watt sec]
• In most of the modern heating devices the heating element
is the Nichrome wire.

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 Classifications of Industrial Electric Heating
• Industrial heating processes can be broadly categorized as:
• 1. Low-temperature (up to about 400 °C),
• 2. Medium-temperature (between 400 °C and 1,150 °C) and
• 3. High-temperature (beyond 1,150 °C).

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 Classification of Industrial electric heating

• Low temperature processes include ‘Baking’, ‘Drying’,

‘Curing’, ‘Soldering’, ‘Molding’ and ‘Shaping of plastics’.
• Medium temperature processes include ‘Melting’ plastics and
some non-metals for Casting or Reshaping, Annealing, heat
treatment metals.
• High temperature processes include Steel making, Brazing,
Welding, Casting metals, Cutting, Smelting and preparation of
some chemicals.

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 METHODS OF ELECTRIC HEATING:

• Basically heat will be produced due to the circulation of current

through resistance element.
• It may be due to induced eddy currents in a core.
• In magnetic materials hysteresis losses causes heating, inter-
molecular friction produced by repeated change in alignment
can also be source of heat.
• Striking an arc between electrodes in the vicinity of the source
can heat the object.

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 The broad classification of heating methods

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 • Direct Resistance heating: The current is made to pass through the charge
to be heated. Eg. Electrode boiler.
• Indirect Resistance heating: The current is made to pass through a wire or
high resistive heating element. The heat developed is transferred to
charge from heating element by convection or radiation.
• Infrared (IR) or Radiant heating: The heat energy is transferred from
source and focused upon the body to be heated up in the form of
electromagnetic radiation. Eg. Drying clothes in textile industry, Medical
therapy.
• Direct Arc heating: Arc is struck between the charge and the electrode.
The heat so developed is directly conducted to charge. The furnace
operating on this principle is called Direct Arc Furnace. Eg. Production
of steel
• Indirect Arc heating: Arc is established between two electrodes. Heat so
produced is transferred to charge by radiation. Eg. Used in non-ferrous
metals.

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• Direct induction heating: Currents are induced by electro magnetic action in the
charge to be heated. These induced currents are used to melt the charge in
induction furnace.
• Indirect induction heating: Eddy currents are induced in the heating element by
electromagnetic action. Thus the heat developed in heating element is
transferred to the charge by convection or radiation. This method is used
induction furnace for heat treatment of metals.
• Dielectric heating: Heat is produced in non-metallic materials due to inter -
atomic friction known as dielectric losses. This method is used for preheating
plastics, baking foundry cores etc.
• Microwave heating: It is a sub-category of dielectric heating at frequency
>100MHz. The electromagnetic waves can be launched from a small dimension
emitter and guided through radiation to the charge/object to be heated.

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 RESISTANCE HEATING
 The power (I2R) dissipated in an resistive material us used to generate
heat.
 If ‘P’ watts is the power in the heating element and ‘t’ is time in secs then
the caloric heat produced is:
H = 0.24Pt calories. [Note: 1 calorie = 4.184 Joule,
(1/4.184=0.24)]
‘P’ depends upon the magnitude of current through the circuit.
 The source of supply can be AC/DC of any suitable voltage and frequency.
 In case of AC supply reactance is negligibly small such that the operating
power factor of circuit is very high and no extra capacitors are required for
power factor improvement. If 1-phase supply is used then high chances of
unbalancing at distribution exists while this will not exist in 3-phase
supply.
 Electrical resistance heating
Electrical resistance heating is 100% energy efficient, in the
sense that all the incoming electric energy is converted to
heat.
However, most electricity is produced from coal, gas, or oil
generators that convert only about 30% of the fuel's energy
into electricity.
 Because of generation and transmission power losses,
electric heat is often more expensive than heat produced in
homes or businesses that use combustion appliances, such as
natural gas and other means.
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 Direct resistance heating
• Electrodes are immersed in material or charge to be heated.
• The current flows through the charge and heat is produced in the charge itself.
• In this case no transfer of heat is involved. i.e. high efficiency can be obtained.
• The charge may be a powder, pieces or liquid. Electrodes are connected to
AC/DC supply.
• When metal pieces are to be heated, powder of high resistance is sprayed over
the surface to be heated to avoid short circuit.
• This method is highly efficient. It is used in “Salt Bath furnaces”. They contain
some slat like molten sodium chloride.
• These furnaces have an operating temperature between 500˚C - 1400˚C.

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 Resistance Heating elements
i) Nichrome: up to 12000C (Ni-80%, Cr-20%).
ii) Kanthal*: up to 14000C.
iii) Cupronickel: up to 6000C (Cu+Ni+Fe+Mn).
iv) Platinum: up to 13000
Most widely used one is Nichrome
Resistivity: 40 micro Ω cm
Temp. coefficient.: 0.004/0C
Melting point: 14000C
Specific gravity: 8.4 gm/cm3
* Ready-made metallic heating elements made from wire or strip in Kanthal iron-
chromium-aluminium alloys or Nikrothal nickel-chromium alloys for element
temperatures between 50°C - 1200°C Element types.

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 Direct resistance heating
• The baths are used for heat treatment of mechanical components and the
process involved can be hardening, tempering, annealing etc.
• The bath uses supply voltage of 5 V-20 V at 3000A. For this purpose a special
transformer is required which has 3-phase primary and 1-phase secondary.
[Scott connection]
• The salt used are generally insulators in solid state but conductors in molten
state.

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• Heat treatment involves the use of heating or chilling, normally to extreme temperatures, to achieve
the desired result such as hardening or softening of a material. Heat treatment techniques include
Annealing, Case Hardening, Precipitation Strengthening, Tempering, Carburizing, Normalizing and
Quenching.
• The hardening process consists of heating the components above the critical (normalizing)
temperature, holding at this temperature for one hour per inch of thickness cooling at a rate fast
enough to allow the material to transform to a much harder, stronger structure, and then tempering.
• Annealing is a heat treatment process which alters the microstructure of a material to change its
mechanical or electrical properties. Typically, in steels, annealing is used to reduce hardness, increase
ductility and help eliminate internal stresses.
• Tempering is a heat treatment technique applied to ferrous alloys, such as steel or cast iron, to achieve
greater toughness by decreasing the hardness of the alloy. The reduction in hardness is usually
accompanied by an increase in ductility, thereby decreasing the brittleness of the metal.
• Carburization is a heat treatment process in which iron or steel absorbs carbon while the metal is
heated in the presence of a carbon-bearing material, such as charcoal or carbon monoxide.
• Quenching is the rapid cooling of a work-piece in water, oil or air to obtain certain material properties.
A type of heat treating, quenching prevents undesired low-temperature processes.
• Normalizing involves heating a material to an elevated temperature and then allowing it to cool back to
room temperature by exposing it to room temperature air after it is heated. This heating and slow
cooling alters the microstructure of the metal which in turn reduces its hardness and increases its
ductility.

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 Indirect Resistance heating
• A high current is passed through heating element. The heat so generated is
transferred to charge to be heated by convection or radiation. The heating element
is placed in a jacket called heating chamber.
This arrangement provides uniform
temperature and automatic temperature
control.
Most of the domestic appliances like water
heaters, electric iron etc., makes use of this
principle.
It is used for low temperature salt bath.

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 Resistance oven
• Resistance oven consists of a heating chamber in which heating element is
placed.
• The inner surface of heating chamber is made to suit the character of
the charge and the type of furnace or oven.
• The type of insulation used for heating chamber is determined by the
maximum temperature of heating chamber.
• These are suitably insulated closed chamber with provision for ventilation. It is
used for hardening synthetic materials, drying varnish coating etc.
• Refractory material is a non metallic material suitable for structures exposed to
temperature > 1000˚C.
• Heat produced by the heating element is used to:
• Raise the temperature of oven,
• Raise the temperature of containers,
• Heat conducted through walls.
• Heat loss due to operation of oven door
• Heating the charge.
• The efficiency of resistance over lies between 60-80%.

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 Resistance ovens
• Used for i) Heat treatment of metals,
ii) Pottery, iii) Domestic cooking.
Temperatures up to 10000 C
Supply: Power frequency at normal voltages.
Heating element: Ni-Chrome wire for 10000 C
Ni-Cr-Fe wire for 8500 C in the form of ribbons of circular or
rectangular wire.
Ovens are made of fire bricks with iron framework.
Heating elements are placed in the top or sides of the oven

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 Properties of resistance heating elements
• 1. Should have high specific resistance.
• 2. Should have high melting point.
• 3. Should resist oxidation at high temps.
• 4. Should have low temperature coefficient.
• Property (1) makes the use of shorter length coils
for a particular temperature.
• Property (3) increases the life of the coil.
• Property (4) helps for accurate temp control.

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 Resistance Oven

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 Control of heat in resistance ovens
Control of temperature is necessary in resistance oven.
• We know that, Heat energy H = (V2/R)t [or] (I2R)t.
Therefore the temperature of the furnace can be controlled by
i) Varying applied voltage.
ii) Varying current passing through the elements
iii) Varying /rearranging the resistance of elements.
iv) Use of automatic temperature control systems.

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 Control of heat in resistance ovens
• Operating voltage control: Ovens are operated at low voltages of 240V / 415V.
• The additional cost of HV units are not required for output less than 60 kW.
• Change of supply voltage can be achieved by using transformers with tapped
primary.
• Control of Current: Current can be varied by variation of tap at the secondary of the
transformer.

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 Control of heat in resistance ovens
Variable no. of elements: If R is the total resistance of one element and ‘n’ is the no. of
elements connected in parallel. Therefore the equivalent resistance is R/n
• Therefore H = [V2/(R/n)] = [(V2 n) / R]
• Thus if the no. of elements are in parallel then the heat is increased. This method does not
provide uniform heating unless elements in use are well distributed.
Series parallel (or) star - delta arrangement of elements:
• If available supply is single phase, then heating elements can be connected in series for low
temperature and connected in parallel for the high temperature by means of series-parallel
changeover switch.
• If available supply is 3-phase, then heating elements are connected in star for low
temperature and in delta for high temperature.
• Automatic temperature control: Can be achieved using thermostats. When temperature
changes beyond a certain value thermostat will operate a relay to reduce/cut off the
current.
The temperature control by the following methods are also possible:
• Bucking-boosting secondary voltage, auto transformer control, and series reactor control.

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• Protection against overloads: It is to protect the oven against the possibility of
furnace being overloaded.
• The control exercised on larger furnace is automatic which can be
electromagnetic (or) electronic including servomechanism.
• The three modes of control are i)Two step ii) Three step iii) Continuous.
• Two step: The two step can be ON-OFF or LOW-HIGH.
• In ON-OFF mode when temperature reaches desired value the supply of heating
element should be switched off. In LOW-HIGH mode the circuit is not to be
switched off but heat generated should be reduced to a level defined.
• Three step: The temperature control depending upon the temperature inside
furnace is adjusted every time.

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 Design of heating elements.
• (a) Circular conductor: Assume that whole of heat energy is dissipated
solely by radiation.
We know that as per Stefan’s law heat dissipated per unit area is :
T1 4 T2 4
• 4
H = 5.72 ∗ 10 ke [ 1000 − 1000 ] W/m2 ----------(1)
• T1 and T2 are temperatures in degree Kelvin, e - emissivity, k-radiation
efficiency
• Let V be input supply voltage and R be the resistance of the heating
element. Then the electrical resistance
ρ∗l ρ∗l 4∗ρ∗l
R= i.e. R = πd2
=
a πd2
4
πd2 V2
• Therefore, Electrical power input P = V2/R = ,
4ρl
l πV2
• Therefore, = ----------------(2)
d2 4ρP

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 Design of heating elements
• Surface area of circular heating element 𝑺 = 𝝅𝒅𝒍
• Therefore, Total head dissipated = S * H = 𝜋𝑑𝑙 ∗ 𝐻
• Under thermal equilibrium, Power input = Heat dissipated.
• 𝑷 = 𝝅𝒅𝒍 ∗ 𝑯
𝜋𝑑 2 𝑉 2
= 𝜋𝑑𝑙 ∗ 𝐻
4𝜌𝑙
𝑑 4𝜌𝐻
• Therefore, 2 = 2 ----------------(3)
𝑙 𝑉
• By solving equations (2) and (3) the length(l) and the diameter(d)
of circular heating element wire can be calculated.

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 Design of heating elements
• (b). Ribbon type conductor(rectangular cross section): Let ‘w’ be the width and ‘t’ or ‘b’ be the
thickness of ribbon type heating element.
ρ∗l
• Electrical power input P = V2/R where R = the area a = (wt)
w∗t
w∗t∗V2
• Therefore, P =
ρl
l 2
V ∗t
• = --------------------------------(1)
w P∗ ρ
• Surface area of rectangular heating element 𝐒 = 𝐥 𝟐𝐰 = 𝟐𝐥𝐰
• Therefore Total head dissipated = S*H = 2lw ∗ H
• Under thermal equilibrium Power input = Heat dissipated.
• 𝑷 = 𝟐𝐥𝐰 ∗ 𝐇
P
• Therefore l∗w= -------------------(2)
2∗H
• Solving equations (1) and (2) the length (l) and the width (w) of heating element can be found.

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 Causes of failure of heating elements
(1) Due to formation of hot spot: Hot spots are the points in heating elements
that are at higher temperature than that of the body of element. The hot spots are
due to high rate of oxidation, poor heat radiation and sagging may result in
various spacing thereby leading to high temperature rise of points.
(2) Oxidation & intermittent operation: At high temperatures oxide scaling is
formed on the surface. Frequent cooling and heating of element leads to thermal
stresses. Thus the oxide layer cracks off and exposing further fresh metal to
oxidation. This local oxidation develops hot spots.
(3) Embrittlement due to grain and growth: All heating alloys forms large
brittle grain at high temperature leading to mechanical failure.
(4) Contamination & corrosion: Elements may be subjected to corrosion
which is another reason for uneven temperature rise.

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 Temperature Problems
• There are 4 things that can cause temperature problems with oven or
stove top.
• 1 The thermostat or sensor fails to detect the correct temperature
within the oven cavity and doesn’t open or close the circuit when it
should; causing an oven that is ether to hot or to cold.
• 2 The control thermostat or burner switch won’t close or sticks
closed.
• 3 The heating element fails to heat properly.
• 4 Or a conducting wire is cut or broken and cannot carry electricity to
the heating element.

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 Applications of resistance furnaces
• For metals: heating for case hardening, annealing, melting
lead, tin, zinc, general heat treatments etc.
• For ceramics: Treating china earth/ceramic wares, baking of
insulators.
• For chemical purpose: Cracking of gasses.
• For domestic: Room heating, for building heating, electric
kettles, iron, oven for baking, immersion heater etc..

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 Resistance heating element

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 Resistance ovens for different applications

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 Electric Resistance Heater

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 Infra Red [IR] or Radiant heating
• Infra-red heaters work by converting electricity into radiant heat. Infra-red is part of
the electromagnetic spectrum.
• Infra-red heating is a heating system that works by infra-red waves (radiant heat).
These heat the objects directly without heating the air.
• An infra-red heater or heat lamp is a body with a higher temperature which transfers
energy to a body with a lower temperature through electromagnetic radiation. No
contact or medium between the two bodies is needed for the energy transfer. Infra-
red heaters can be operated in vacuum or atmosphere.

Infra-red radiation is used in industrial, scientific, military and medical applications.

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 Infra Red [IR] or Radiant heating
• Heat transfer takes place from the source to the body to be heated
through radiation.
• This method is useful for low and medium temperature applications.
• The heating element consists of tungsten filament lamps together with
reflector and to direct all the heat on the charge.
• Tungsten filament lamps are made to operate at 2300˚C instead of
3000˚C to give greater portion of IR radiation and a longer life.
• Application of this type of heating is in drying enamel or painted surfaces.
• The main advantage is that heat absorption remains approximately
constant whatever the change in temperature.
• The lamp rating used is usually between 250 W – 1000 W at 115 V.

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 Infra Red [IR] or Radiant heating
1. Can infrared heaters heat a house?
• Infrared panels can heat a whole house. The low wattage requirements
of infrared compared with convection heaters makes it an attractive energy
- saving heating solution.
• Convection is where the room warms up due to the movement of hot air,
such as through storage heaters and gas central heating systems.
2. Is infrared heat better than electric?
• Infrared Heaters Help Save Money on Heating Costs.
Infrared heaters heat a room in less time than electric, kerosene, propane,
or wood heat.
The amount of energy needed to run an infrared heater is also less.

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 Infra Red [IR] or Radiant heating
3. How safe is infrared heaters are?
• Far infrared heating is 100% safe and natural for our bodies, and
our well-being, as the human body is designed to accept and
emit infrared.
• The feeling of warmth from infrared is particularly comfortable.
It is UV that is harmful, not infrared, and so there is no need to
worry.
4. Are infrared heaters a fire hazard?
• Because infrared heaters do not use fossil fuels such as kerosene or
propane, these heaters don't emit pollutants such as carbon
monoxide, and will not cause fires and explosions due to a
flammable fuel source.
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 Infra Red [IR] or Radiant heating
4. Infrared Heaters Provide Instant Heat.
Instead of warming the air like other conventional heaters, infrared
heaters heat objects directly in their paths.
• Heating the air wastes energy and the benefits of the heat aren't felt
immediately. The rays produced by infrared heaters penetrate and warm you
beneath the skin.
5. Can infrared heaters cause health problems?
• Infrared heaters can cause burns, eye damage and dehydration.
• Those who use infrared saunas should be aware of the possible
hazards, and those who have other infrared heating systems should keep in
mind some of the more common health problems associated with prolonged
exposure.

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 Infra Red [IR] or Radiant heating
(UL- Underwriters Laboratories.)

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 Infra Red [IR] or Radiant heating

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 Infra Red [IR] or Radiant heating

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 Comparison between Infra Red & conventional heating.

Sl. No IR heating Conventional heating

1. Silent operation, a pleasant ambiance day and Noisy, which interrupts the ambiance in a room and
night. sleep.
2. Emit sun-like warmth to the occupants and Warms a room, but the ceiling is the warmest place due
objects in the room, even the floors!. to warm/hot air rising.
3. Maintenance-free. Requires maintenance.
4. Often save %30-40 operating cost compared to Often expensive to operate.
conventional heating systems.
5. ~30-year life-cycle. Often supplemented with plug-in “space heaters” which
can be dangerous and have lead to home fires and
deaths.
6. Are conducive to a healthy indoor environment. These can lead to unhealthy indoor air quality, triggering
asthma, allergies, etc.
7. 5 year to a lifetime warranty, requiring no Short life-cycle, often less than 15 years, requiring
maintenance. maintenance.
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50
2020 20
 Arc heating / Furnaces
• If HV is applied across an air gap, the air gap gets ionized under the
influence of electrostatic forces and becomes conducting medium.
• Current flows in the form of continuous spark known as ARC. The
HV requires to strike can be obtained by using step-up transformer.
• Another method is to use LV but short circuit two electrodes
momentarily and withdraw them back. It is used for temperature
3000-3500˚C.
• Usually carbon (or) graphite electrodes are used. Carbon
electrodes are used with small furnaces for manufacturing of
Ferro-alloys, aluminium phosphorous etc.

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 • Numerical examples on resistance heating.
• 1. A 15 kW, single phase, 220 V resistance oven is to use Nickel-chrome wire for its heating
elements. If the wire temperature is not to exceed 10000C and the temperature of the charge is to be
6000C, calculate the dimensions of the wire taking the radiating efficiency and emissivity of 0.6
and 0.9 respectively. Take the specific resistance of Ni-Cr of 1.106 x 10-6 Ohm.m. also find the
temperature of the wire when the charge is cold.
• 2. A 16 kW, single phase, 220 V resistance oven is to use Nickel-chrome wire for its heating
elements. If the wire temperature is not to exceed 11700C and the temperature of the charge is to be
5000C, calculate the dimensions of the wire taking the radiating efficiency and emissivity of 0.57
and 0.9 respectively. Take the specific resistance of Ni-Cr of 1.09 x 10-6 Ohm.m. also find the
temperature of the wire when the charge is cold.
• 3. A 30 kW, 3-phase 400 V resistance oven is to use Nickel-chrome wire strip of 0.254 mm thick
for the star connected heating elements. If the wire temperature is not to exceed 11000C and the
temperature of the charge is to be 7000C, calculate the suitable width and length of the strip taking
the radiating efficiency and emissivity of 0.5 and 09 respectively. Take the specific resistance of
Ni-Cr of 1.106 x 10-6 Ohm.m. also find the temperature of the wire when the charge is cold.

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• 4. A 50 kW, 3-phase 440 V resistance oven is to use Nickel-chrome wire strip of 0.30 mm
thick for the star connected heating elements. If the wire temperature is not to exceed
15000C and the temperature of the charge is to be 10000C, calculate the suitable width and
length of the strip taking the radiating efficiency and emissivity of 0.6 and 0.91
respectively. Take the specific resistance of Ni-Cr of 1.106 x 10-6 Ohm.m. also find the
temperature of the wire when the charge is cold.
• 5. A 10 kW heating resistance element is to be operated in such a way that its maximum
temperature is not to exceed 18270C. The initial temperature of the charge is 4270C. If the
length of the Ni-Cr strip is used is 10 m, determine the thickness and width of the strip.
Assume the radiating efficiency and the emissivity as both unity, specific resistance of
NiCr as 101.6 x 10-6 Ohm.cm and the resistance is operated at 200 V. Also determine the
temperature of the resistance if the charge is cold at 270C.

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 Arc heating / Furnaces
• The features of carbon and graphite electrodes are:
• Resistivity: The graphite electrodes have low specific resistance than carbon
electrode, so the graphite required is half the size for same current.
• This results in easy replacement.
• Oxidation: Graphite begins to oxidize at 600˚C whereas carbon at 400˚C.
• Electrode consumption: For steel melting furnace consumption of carbon
electrode is about 4.5 kg per ton of steel and for graphite electrodes
2.3 kg - 6.8 kg per ton of steel.
• Cost: Graphite electrodes cost twice as much as carbon electrode.

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 Direct arc furnace
• When supply is given to electrodes two arcs are established
and passes through the charge.
As the arc is in direct contact with the charge
and heat is also produced by current flowing
through the charge itself, it is called DIRECT
ARC FURNACE. If available power is 1-phase
AC or DC two electrodes are sufficient. For
3-phase supply, 3-electrodes are required and
is to be arranged to form an equilateral
triangle. The current flow through the charge,
the stirring action is inherent due to
electromagnetic force setup by the current.
For one ton furnace power required is about
200KW and energy consumed is 1.0 MWh/ton
Application: Manufacturing of steel alloy.

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 Indirect Arc furnace
• The arc strikes between two electrodes by bringing momentarily in
contact and then with drawing them apart.
The heat developed due to the striking of arc
across air gap is transferred to charge is purely by
radiation. It is used for 1-phase AC supply only and
limited to 1-phase load up to 1-ton. There is no
inherent stirring action provided in this furnace as
current does not flow through the charge and
furnace must be rocked mechanically. The
electrodes are projected through this chamber at
each end along horizontal axis. This furnace is also
called “Rocking ARC Furnace”.
The charge is heated mainly by radiation from arc
between the electrode tip and also by heated
Application: To melt non-ferrous metals. refractory wall due to rocking action. This
increases efficiency.

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 3-phase ARC furnace
• The 3-phase arc furnace has a steel chamber with refractory lining. The roof of the
furnace is in the shape of dome having refractory lining. The furnace is mounted on
a tilting mechanism so that molten metal can be poured out through a door in the
side of the shell.
• Application: Production of steel (steel smelting furnace)

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 Indirect arc furnace
• In this type an arc is struck between two electrodes, the
charge receives the heat by radiation.
• As the current is not through the charge, there is no
stirring of the charge, it has to be rocked mechanically
from outside.
• Applications: For melting non ferrous metals.

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 The reasons for employing low voltage high current power supply for arc furnaces

• (i) Heating effect is proportional to the square of the current,

therefore, to achieve higher temperatures heavy currents are essential.
• (ii) The maximum secondary voltage is also limited to 275 V
(line-to-line open-circuit voltage) because of insulation and safety
considerations.
• (iii) By using low voltage and high current the electrodes are kept
very near to the charge as the arc is of small length. Thus, arc remains
away from the roof and, therefore, life of the roof refractory is
increased.
• (iv) Higher voltage causes higher voltage gradient between the
electrode and the charge causing nitrogen of furnace atmosphere
ionized and absorbed by the charge, which produces embrittlement.
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 Characteristics of Arc furnace

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 Energy Losses in Arc Furnaces and the Electrodes.
• The power losses are:
1. Losses through walls of the furnace.
2. Losses through the escaping gases at the outlets.
• Electrodes: The electrodes are of Carbon or Graphite material.
• They should have:
(a) Good mechanical strength,
(b) Low thermal conductivity,
(c) Non-corrosive property,
(d) High conductivity.

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 Direct arc furnace

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 3-phase Direct arc furnace

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 Arc Furnace Transformer

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 The Equivalent circuit of arc furnace
The equivalent circuit of arc furnace is given below:

Where, Rt = [R02 + RL + RE]

Xt = [X02 + XL]
EA = voltage across arc = I*Ra
R02, X02 = resistance & reactance of
transformer referred to secondary.
RL & XL = resistance and reactance of
the load
RE= resistance of the electrode.
Ra = arc resistance
I = arc current.

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 Numerical examples
• 1. Find the current per line in a 3-ph arc furnace to melt 5 tonnes of steel in one hour at an
overall efficiency of 50% if the arc is voltage is 115V per phase,. The initial temperature
is 300 C, melting point of steel is 13700C, specific heat of steel is 278 J/kg/0C, Latent heat
of steel is 37000 J/kg.
• 2. In a 3-ph arc furnace to melt 10 tonnes of steel in 2 hours, estimate the average input to
the furnace if the overall efficiency is 50%. If the current input is 9000 A and the
resistance and reactance of the furnace leads in addition to those of the transformer are
0.003 Ω and 0.005Ω respectively. Estimate the arc voltage and the total kVA taken from
the supply. Take the specific heat of steel of 444 J/kg/0C, Latent heat of fusion of steel as
37.25 kJ/kg and melting point of steel as 13700C.
• 3. Calculate the time taken to melt 3 metric tonnes of steel in a 3-ph arc furnace having
the following data: Current: 5000 A, Arc voltage: 60 V, Resistance of transformer: 0.003
Ohm, reactance of the transformer:0.005 Ohm, Specific heat of steel: 0.12, Latent heat of
steel: 8.89 kCal/kg, Melting point of steel: 13700 C, Initial temp of steel: 180C

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 • Specific heat [s]: It is the amount of heat per unit mass required
to raise the temperature by one degree centigrade.
• Latent heat of fusion [L]: the amount of heat required to change
1 gm of substance at the temperature of its melting point from
the solid state to the liquid state without changing the
temperature.

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 High Frequency Heating:
• In power frequency heating, heat is transferred either by conduction, convection or radiation.
• But in HF heating, electromagnetic energy is converted into heat energy inside the material.
• When HF heating is used for heating conducting materials like Ferro-magnetic & non-
ferromagnetic materials it is called “INDUCTION HEATING” and when used for heating insulating
materials it is called ”DIELECTRIC HEATING”.
• INDUCTION HEATING: It uses current induced by electromagnetic action in the material to be
heated. The heat developed is dependent on:
• Primary coil current,
• No. of turns of coil,
• Supply frequency,
• High electric resistivity of material.

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 Induction Heating
Principle of induction heating.
• This is also named as eddy current heating.
• When ac source is applied across a coil wound over an iron
core, the flux set up in the core links the core and induce eddy
currents which flow through it and it sets up heat in the core
due to its resistance.

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 Core type induction furnace
• This type of furnace works on the principle of a transformer.
• The charge (metal to be melted) acts as a short circuited single turn secondary.
• The short circuit current is so large and heat (I2R) is set up in the charge creates
electromagnetic forces in the molten metal.
• The electromagnetic forces cause ‘pinch effect’* which depends on the supply frequency.
• To reduce the pinch effect the supply frequency is to be reduced.

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 Draw backs of Core type induction furnace

• Due to poor magnetic coupling, the leakage reactance is high and the
power factor is low.
• Low frequency source is to be employed to minimize the ‘pinch effect’.
(needs a frequency converter).
• The shape of the crucible is very inconvenient.
• In order to close the secondary circuit an iron ring is to be placed in the
crucible for the Short circuit current to flow to produce heat. This will
avoid the pinch effect.

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 Vertical Core type induction furnace
[Ajax Wyatt Furnace]

• The ‘pinch effect’ can be removed by making the core vertical instead of
horizontal one.
• Circulation of molten metal is kept round the VEE portion by convection of
currents.
• The narrow part of VEE channel keeps the secondary closed even with small
amount of charge.
• The power factor is comparatively high.
• Tilting of the furnace for pouring out the molten metal is done by hydraulic
means.

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 Ajax Wyatt vertical core furnace.

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 Ajax Wyatt vertical core furnace.

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 Ajax Wyatt vertical core furnace.

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 Ajax Wyatt vertical core furnace.
• It is an improved form of core type induction furnace.
• This furnace is very suitable for continuous operation, and it can be operated on standard
supply frequency i.e., 50 Hz.
• The core is made of laminated steel, and the single turn of molten metal forms the secondary
circuit.
• The charge is given from above, and the molten metal is taken out through the spout.
• The stirring action is produced by the pinch effect, which is proportional to the square of
amp-turns.
• The secondary circuit is only complete when there is sufficient molten metal in the ‘V’ to
complete the secondary circuit.
• In case the furnace is to be kept overnight without operation, a reduced voltage is applied,
which supplies just enough energy to keep the metal in ‘V’ in the molten state.

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 Ajax Wyatt vertical core furnace.
• Applications of Ajax Wyatt Furnace
• Ajax Wyatt vertical core furnace is very suitable for continuous operation.
• A proper arrangement is made for fitting the furnace to take out molten
metal.
• The power factor of the circuit is about 0.8, and the power required for the
furnace to complete melt in a reasonable time is about 200 kW per ton.
• The melt is completed in about 1 to 2 hours for large sizes and in lesser time
for smaller sizes.
• Ajax Wyatt Vertical Core Furnace is used for melting and refining of non-
ferrous metals like brass, copper, and zinc.
• Its efficiency is about 75 percent. Standard sizes of these furnaces are
60 kW to 300 kW, single phase 50 Hz working at 600 volts.

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 Ajax Wyatt vertical core furnace.
• Advantages of Ajax Wyatt Furnace
• Control is simple.
• It provides an ideal working condition in a cool atmosphere
with no dirt, noise, or smoke.
• High power factor 0.8 to 0.85 comparatively
• The absence of crucible.
• The uniform stirring of charge gives the homogeneous
composition.

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 Coreless type induction furnace
• No core is provided in the coreless induction furnace.
• A crucible of good convenient shape can be employed.
• In this case, the charge to be melted will become the secondary of
the transformer.
• The primary is wound over the crucible itself.

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 Coreless type induction furnace
• The eddy currents produced in the charge not only heat it up but also
account for the stirring action.
• Iron laminations are provided outside the primary winding to create a
low reluctance path for flux and also contain the stray field which may
otherwise induce the heavy current in supporting steel structure.
• The frequency employed depends upon the size of the coreless
induction furnace.
• For lower capacities of furnaces higher frequency of the order of 3000
Hz are employed whereas for higher capacities frequencies are down
to 600 Hz.
• To reduce copper losses, hollow copper tubes are used in which cold
water is circulated.

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 Advantages of Coreless Induction Furnace

Advantages:
Low operating cost.
• The automatic stirring action produced by eddy currents.
• Low erection lost.
• The absence of dirt, smoke noise etc.
• Less melting time.
• Simple charging and pouring, precise control of power.
• Most suitable for the production of high-grade alloy steels.

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 Power Supply for Coreless Induction Furnaces

• For coreless induction furnaces power supply is obtained

from ordinary supply system and its frequency is converted
to the higher value by means of oscillators.
The oscillators can generate a very high frequency in the
order of megahertz.
The AC supply is stepped up by a transformer and then
rectified by using a bridge rectifier circuit.
The rectified voltage is applied to the oscillator and high-
frequency output is fed to the charge to be heated through an
output transformer.

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 Coreless type induction furnace
• The flux set up by the primary winding produces eddy
currents in the charge.
• The heating effect of the eddy current melts the charge.
• The Stirring action is by the electromechanical forces.
• The heating effect is due to the skin effect at high
frequencies.
• The coils are made hollow and water is circulated through
this for cooling.
• The operating frequency is from 1kHz to 3 kHz and the
normal working range is 500 to 600 Hz.

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 Coreless type induction furnace
• The maximum power increases with frequency.
• There is an optimum frequency .
• The force acting is inversely proportional to the
square root of frequency.

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 Coreless type induction furnace

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Furnace sizes: For cast iron and steel
Capacity Power, max. Melting rate (max)
(kg) (kW) (kg/h)
500 500 950
750 750 1,400
1,000 1,000 1,900
1,500 1,500 2,850
2,000 2,000 4,000
3,000 3,000 6,000
4,000 4,000 8,000
5,000 5,000 10,000
6,000 6,000 12,000
8,000 8,000 16,000
10,000 10,000 20,000
12,000 12,000 24,000
16,000 14,000 28,000
18,000 16,000 32,000
25,000 20,000 40,000

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 Coreless type induction furnace

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 Coreless type induction furnace

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 Coreless type induction furnace

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 Power source and applications for Coreless type
induction furnace
• The high frequency power supply is obtained by oscillators up to 1kHz.
• For frequencies up to 10 kHz an inductor alternator is used.
• The operating voltage varies from 1 kV to 2kV and
up to 10 kV in some applications. [Scott connection]
• This type of furnaces are used for the production of steel in larger
capacity (4 to 5 tons).
• Not suitable for small capacity.
• The power factor is low.
• Using static capacitors power factor can be improved.

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 Comparison between core type and coreless type induction
furnaces

Sl.no Core type Core less type

1 Less leakage flux
2 Power factor is good
3 Work at normal frequency
4 Weight and size is more
5 Can be designed for higher capacity
6 Crucible used is either horizontal or
vertical.
7 Initial cost is less
8 Used to melt only conducing materials
9 Time required for melting is more as the Time for melting is less as high frequency supply is
supply frequency is used
More leakage flux
Power factor is poor
High frequency supply is required
As there is no core, weight and size is less
Can only be designed for lower capacity
Crucible used can be of any shape
Initial cost is more as high frequency supply is required.
Used to melt both conduction and non conducting
materials
used

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 High frequency eddy current heating
• In this type ‘skin effect’ is greatly used.
• Skin effect* is predominant at high frequencies.
• It is possible to restrict the heat produced by a proper choice of frequency.
• Fig. shows a steel bar hardened by induction heating.
• [*Skin effect is the tendency of
an alternating electric current to
become distributed within a
conductor such that the current
density is largest near the surface
of the conductor and decreases
exponentially with greater depths
in the conductor].
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 Principle of High Frequency Eddy Current Heating

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 Advantages of Eddy Current Heating
Advantages
(1) It is quick, and clear.
(2) There is little wastage of heat as heat is produced in the body to be
heated up directly.
(3) Temperature control is easy i.e. by controlling the supply frequency and
flux density.
(4) The heat can be made to penetrate into the metal surface to any desired
depth.
(5) The equipment can be operated even by unskilled workers.
• Disadvantages of Eddy Current Heating:
1. It is costly method for the production of heat.
2. Low efficiency.
3. Initial cost of apparatus is high.

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 Features of high frequency eddy current heating

• Heat is generated at the surface of the material piece.

• Heat at a very high rate is produced.
• The area of the surface over which heat is produced can be
accurately controlled.
• The amount of heat and time can be easily controlled.
• Heat can be produced in any atmosphere even in vacuum.
• Initial cost is high.
• Efficiency is less (50%)

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 Applications of high frequency eddy current heating
1. Surface hardening of steel.
2. Annealing of metals.
3. Soldering at high temperatures,
4. Brazing of silver, copper and alloys.
5. Drying of paints,
6. Forging of bolt heads, rivet heads.
7. Sterilization of surgical instruments.

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 Mathematical analysis of Induction Heating

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 Numerical examples on Induction heating.
• 1. Estimate the energy required to melt 500 kg of brass in a single phase Ajax-Wyatt
furnace. If the melt is to be carried out in ¾ th hour, what must be the average power input
to the furnace?. Take specific heat of brass of 393.6 J/kg0C.
Latent heat of fusion of brass of 163 x 10-3 J/kg. Melting point of brass of 9200C and the
furnace efficiency of 70%. [Energy = 102.57 kWhr]
• 2. Estimate the efficiency of a high frequency induction furnace which takes 10 minutes to
melt 1.8 kg of aluminium. The input to the furnace is 5 kW and the initial temperature is
150C. Given: The specific heat of aluminium of 880 J/kg0C, Latent heat of fusion of
aluminium of 32 J/kg. Melting point of aluminium of 6600C. [36%]
• 3. Calculate the energy required to melt one metric tonne of brass in a single phase
induction furnace3. If the time taken is 1.5 Hour, find the power input to the furnace.
Given: The specific heat of brass of 0.094 kCal/kg. Latent heat of fusion of brass of
38kCal/kg. Melting point of brass of 9200C and the furnace efficiency of 80%. Initial
temperature is 200C. [Energy = 178.19 kWhr, Power rating= 118.80 kW]
• 4. An induction furnace is required to melt 1000 kg of tin in 1 hour. Calculate the
efficiency of the furnace, if it consumes 80 kW of power. Given: The specific heat of tin
of 0.055 kCal/kgoC. Latent heat of fusion of tin of 14 kCal/kg. Melting point of brass of
2360C Initial temperature is 250C. [37.21%]

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 Numerical examples
• 5. Determine the energy required to melt brass at the rate of 1 tonne per
hour in a single phase Ajax-wyatt furnace, given: The specific heat of brass
of 0.094 kCal/kg. Latent heat of fusion of brass of 40 kCal/kg. Melting
point of brass of 9200C and the furnace efficiency of 65%. Initial
temperature is 240C.
• 6. A low frequency induction furnace operating at 10 V in the secondary
circuit takes 500 kW at 0.5 pf when the hearth is full. If the secondary
voltage is maintained at 10 V, estimate the pf and power absorbed when the
hearth is half full. Assume the resistance of the secondary circuit is doubled
and the reactance value is un changed.
• 7. A low frequency induction furnace operating at 10 V in the secondary
circuit takes 400 kW at 0.6 pf when the hearth is full. Assuming the
resistance of the secondary circuit to vary inversely as the height of the
charge and the reactance to remain constant, find the height up to which the
hearth should be filled to obtain maximum heat.

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 Dielectric Heating
[High frequency Capacitance Heating]
• Capacitance or [Radio Frequency - (20 kHz to around 300 GHz)]
dielectric heating has great potential for achieving rapid and uniform
heating patterns in foods, providing safe, high quality food products.
• This method is employed for heating non-metals like wood plastics.
• The frequency used is from 10MHz to 30 MHz.
• Voltage up to 20 kV.
• The heating takes place in the material itself.
• The time taken for heating is very less.
• Applications:
1.Heating of raw plastics, 2. Gluing of wood, 3.Electronic sewing, 4.Food
processing, 5.Pasteurizing milk, 6.Dehydrating fruits, vegetables, 7. Defrosting
frozen foods. 8. Drying Tobacco, 9. Producing artificial fibers, heating of bones
and tissues etc.,
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 Dielectric heating – Eg. Micro oven

RF dielectric heating is done at intermediate frequencies, due to its

greater penetration over microwave heating, shows greater promise
than microwave systems as a method of very rapidly heating and
uniformly preparing certain food items, and also killing parasites
and pests in certain harvested crops.

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 Principle of dielectric heating
• When a capacitor is subjected to a sinusoidal voltage, the current drawn by it
is never leading the voltage exactly by 900 [‹ 900], hence there is a small in-
phase component of current which produces power loss in the dielectric of
the capacitor.
• At power frequency of 50 Hz this loss is very small.
• At high frequencies this loss is very large which is used for heating.
• The material to be heated is placed between the two parallel plates
separated by the dielectric which is to be heated.

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 Dielectric heating
• Dielectric heating is also known as radio frequency heating or electronic
heating.
• When non-metallic parts such as wood, plastics, bones and ceramics are
subjected to an alternating electrostatic field, dielectric loss occurs.
• These losses are used in dielectric heating which appears in the form of heat.

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 Dielectric heating

The material to be heated is placed as a slab between two metallic

electrodes across which high-frequency voltage is applied.
 To ensure sufficient loss and to give an adequate amount of heating,
frequencies between 10 MHz to 20 MHz must be used.
The voltage varies from 10 to 20 kV.
The necessary high-frequency supply voltage is obtained from an
oscillator.

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 Dielectric heating

• The current drawn by the capacitor, when an a.c. voltage is applied across its
two plates, does not lead by 90° exactly.
• It means that there is a certain component of the current which is in phase
with the voltage.
• Due to this component of current, heat is produced in dielectric material
placed in between the two plates of the capacitor.
IC = ISinФ, IR = ICosФ
Heat produced = (IR)2R

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 Dielectric heating

• This electric energy, dissipated in the form of heat energy in the dielectric
material is known as the dielectric loss.
• The dielectric loss is directly proportional to V 2f.
• That is why high-frequency and high voltage is used in dielectric heating.
• Generally, a.c. voltage of about 20 kV at a frequency of 10-30 MHz is used.
• Dielectric heating is also employed for drying of textiles, manufacture of
plywood, paper etc.
• The overall efficiency in case of dielectric heating is about 50%.

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 Limitations of dielectric heating
• The power is proportional to the frequency and to the square of the
voltage applied across the capacitor. [P α f V2]
• For a particular frequency power can be increased by increasing the
voltage.
• But there is a limit to this due to the dielectric strength of the material.
• Thickness of the dielectric also decides the operating voltage.
• Normal operating voltage is between 300 to 600 volts and a maximum
of 20 kV in some specific cases.

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 Advantages and Disadvantages of Dielectric Heating

• Advantages:
Since the heat is produced throughout the entire mass of the material, there will be
a uniform heating. By the conventional method of heating, it is not possible to
achieve this.
• Short time is required to complete the process as compared to another methods.
• Dielectric heating is suitable for non-conducting materials like wood, plastics and
synthetic compounds etc.
• Disadvantages:
Only those materials can be heated which have the high dielectric loss.(Glass,
Teflon, Polymeric materials)
• The cost of equipment required for dielectric heating is so high that it is employed
only where other methods are impracticable.
• The overall efficiency of dielectric heating is very low (about 50%).
• High frequencies may cause radio interference.

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 Numerical examples
• 1. A piece of insulating material is to be heated by dielectric heating. The size of the piece is 10 x
10 x 3 cm. a frequency of 20 MHz is used and the power absorbed is 400 W. Calculate the voltage
necessary for heating and the current through the material,. The material has relative permittivity of
5 and pf of 0.05. [V = 2076 V, I=3.85 A]

• 2. A laminated wooden board 0.3 m long, 0.15 m wide and 0.025 m thick is to be heated to 1600C
in 10 minutes by dielectric heating at a frequency of 30 MHz. The wood has a specific heat of 1465
J/kg/0C, weight of 575 kg/m3, permittivity of 5 and pf of 0.05. determine the power required , the
voltage across the work and the current through it. [P=237 W, V = 561.3 V, I = 8.43 A]

• 3. A laminated ply wood board of 40 cm x 25 cm x 1.8 cm is to be heated from 250C to 1600C in

12 minutes using a 25 MHz supply. The specific heat of wood is 0.32, density of 0.6 gm/cm3,
relative permittivity of 6 and pf of 0.05. find the supply voltage, power required and the current
drawn. Take the efficiency of the process as 75%. [V = 395 V, P=362 W, I = 18.32 A]

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 Numerical examples
• 4. A work piece of dielectric material of size of the piece is 25 x 15 x 1 cm. is to be heated
using 1 kW power. The material has relative permittivity of 4 and pf of 0.6, determine the
voltage rating of the source necessary at 40 mHz. [V= 200 V]

• 5. A laminated wooden board 0.5 m length, 0.10 m wide and 0.1 m thick is to be heated by
dielectric heating at 50 MHz. The weight of the board is 450 kg/m3 . The final temperature is
to be 1700C and the initial temperature is 200C and heating is to be done in 10 minutes. Find
the power required, voltage and current. The wood has a specific heat of 0.34, permittivity
of 5 and pf of 0.04. Єo= 8.854 x 10-12
[P = 1000 W, V = 1895 V, I = 13.19 A]

• 6. A laminated ply wood board of 50 cm x 25 cm x 2 cm is to be heated from 250C to 2500C

in 10 minutes using a 30 MHz supply. The specific heat of wood is 1500 J/kg/0C, weight of
600 kg/m3, relative permittivity of 6 and pf of 0.05. Find the power required. Take the
efficiency of the process as 50%. [P=750 W]

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 Numerical examples
• 7. A work piece of dielectric material of size of 130 cm2 in area and 1
cm thick is to be heated by dielectric heating. The power required is
380 W of 30 MHz. The material has relative permittivity of 5 and pf
of 0.05, determine the necessary voltage. Given, Єo= 8.854 x 10-12
[840 V]
• 5. A work piece of dielectric material of size of 120 cm2 in area and
2 cm thick is to be heated by dielectric heating. The power required
is 200 W at 600 V. The material has relative permittivity of 5 and pf
of 0.05, determine the necessary frequency. Given Єo= 8.854 x 10-12
[66.4 MHz]

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 Energy Losses in Arc Furnaces and the Electrodes.
• The power losses are:
1. Losses through walls of the furnace.
2. Losses through the escaping gases at the outlets.
• Electrodes: The electrodes are of Carbon or Graphite material.
• They should have:
(a) Good mechanical strength,
(b) Low thermal conductivity,
(c) Non-corrosive property,
(d) High conductivity.

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 Equivalent circuit of an arc furnace transformer
The equivalent circuit of an electric arc furnace is shown in Fig. where,
RT and XT are the equivalent resistance and reactance of the furnace transformer referred
to the secondary side.
RL and XL are the resistance and reactance of leads.
RE is the resistance of electrodes and EA = IRA, the voltage drop across the arc.
The arc current depends upon the resistance and reactance of transformer (RT and XT), resistance
and reactance of the leads (RL and XL), resistance of the electrodes (RE) and the arc resistance RA.
The arc voltage lies between50 to 150 volts and the arc current is of several hundreds of amperes.
This require a special furnace transformer which gives larger current at lower voltage in its secondary
side.

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 The reasons for employing low voltage high current power supply for arc furnaces

• (i) Heating effect is proportional to the square of the current,

therefore, to achieve higher temperatures heavy currents are essential.
• (ii) The maximum secondary voltage is also limited to 275 V
(line-to-line open-circuit voltage) because of insulation and safety
considerations.
• (iii) By using low voltage and high current the electrodes are kept
very near to the charge as the arc is of small length. Thus, arc remains
away from the roof and, therefore, life of the roof refractory is
increased.
• (iv) Higher voltage causes higher voltage gradient between the
electrode and the charge causing nitrogen of furnace atmosphere
ionized and absorbed by the charge, which produces embrittlement.
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 Characteristics of Arc furnace

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 Thanks

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