HOA III

INDIA & PAKISTAN

PABLO, NILO C.
PAPA, ALEXANDRA MARIE J.
PASILAN, MARY ANN F.
REATAZA, KEN JOSHUA C.
RENIVA, KIM ANGELICA S.

CAVITE STATE UNIVERSITY | BS ARCHITECTURE 3-1

 Contents
INDIAN ARCHITECTURE
01 INTRODUCTION

01 INFLUENCES ON THE DEVELOPMENT

OF ARCHITECTURE

04 PERIODS OF DEVELOPMENT

06 ARCHITECTURAL CHARACTER

12 SAMPLE STRUCTURES

15 DISTINCT TERMINOLOGIES

PAKISTANI ARCHITECTURE
17 INTRODUCTION

17 INFLUENCES ON THE DEVELOPMENT

OF ARCHITECTURE

18 PERIODS OF DEVELOPMENT

20 ARCHITECTURAL CHARACTER

21 SAMPLE STRUCTURES

24 DISTINCT TERMINOLOGIES
 PART I:

INDIAN ARCHITECTURE
 INTRODUCTION

INDIAN ARCHITECTURE IS THE TYPE OF ARCHITECTURE WHICH WAS KNOWN TO ABSORB THE
ELEMENTS OF ITS INFLUENCERS AND CREATE UNIQUE VARIANTS. IT INCLUDES THE PRESENT-DAY INDIA,
PAKISTAN, BANGLADESH, AND SRI LANKA. THE RESULT OF THIS IS AN EVOLVING RANGE OF
ARCHITECTURAL CREATION THAT NONE THE LESS RETAINS A CERTAIN AMOUNT OF CONTINUITY ACROSS
HISTORY.

INFLUENCES IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF ARCHITECTURE

I. GEOGRAPHICAL

INDIA, A THREE-CORNERED COUNTRY, OCCUPIES AN

AREA FIFTEEN TIMES GREATER THAN GREAT BRITAIN.
MOST OF INDIA FORMS A PENINSULA, WHICH MEANS IT IS
SURROUNDED BY WATER ON THREE SIDES. THE WORLD'S
HIGHEST MOUNTAIN RANGE, THE HIMALAYA, RISES IN THE
NORTH. INDIA’S RIVERS AND OTHER BODIES OF WATER
WERE IMPORTANT AS AFFORDING EMPLOYMENT TO
THOUSANDS OF BOATMEN.

DELHI, THE CENTRE OF INDIA, HAS A COLLECTION OF

RUINS OF DIFFERENT CITIES. IT COVERS NEARLY 50SQ.
MILES. ITS ARCHITECTURAL IMPORTANCE WAS PROBABLY
GAINED THROUGH BEING AT THE JUNCTION OF FOUR
HISTORIC ROADS: LOWER GANGES, HINDU KOOSH, INDUS
VALLEY, AND THE GULF OF CAMBAY.

II. GEOLOGICAL

THE CENTRE OF THE PENINSULA AND THE HILL COUNTRY WERE GENERALLY ABOUND IN EXCELLENT
BUILDING STONE, WHICH HAD CONSIDERABLE INFLUENCE ON INDIAN ARCHITECTURE FROM THE
EARLIEST TIMES.

PINK MARBLE, SANDSTONE, GRANITE, AND TIMBER WERE PROMINENT IN SOME PARTS OF INDIA.
TERRACOTTA SEEMS TO HAVE BEEN EMPLOYED IN EARLY TIMES, AND MAY HAVE INFLUENCED LATER
WORK IN PRODUCING THE EXUBERANCE OF ORNAMENT, RENDERED EASY BY THE PRESSING OF
PLASTIC CLAY INTO MOULDS.

A WOODEN ORIGIN IS TRACEABLE TO NEARLY ALL THE BUDDHIST ARCHITECTURAL FORMS. TEAK IS THE
PRINCIPAL WOOD OF THE COUNTRY, BEING FOUND IN LARGE FORESTS ON THE EASTERN AND WESTERN

01
GHATS, AND IN THE HIMALAYAS.

IN THE LOW-LYING PLAINS OF BENGAL, BRICK WAS USED TO SOME EXTENT, BUT THE ALLUVIAL SOIL OF
THIS DISTRICT DOES NOT AFFORD GOOD MATERIAL FOR BRICK-MAKING. LIME FOR BUILDING IS
OBTAINED BY BURNING LIMESTONE AND KANKAR, A NODULAR FORM OF IMPURE LIME FOUND IN MOST
RIVER VALLEYS, AND FROM SHELLS PLENTIFULLY FOUND IN THE MARSHES.
 INDIAN PINK MARBLE SANDSTONE INDIAN GRANITE TEAK

III. CLIMATE

INDIA LIES MOSTLY WITHIN THE TROPICS. TWO

PRINCIPAL SEASONS, WET AND DRY, DIVIDE THE
YEAR. THUS, THE CLIMATE BEING TROPICAL, FLAT
TERRACED ROOFS WERE USED FOR COOLNESS,
EXERCISE, OR SLEEPING.

THE GENERAL USE OF THE GREAT FAN OR PUNKAH

IN THE HOT SEASON IS SIGNIFICANT OF THE INTENSE
HEAT WHICH PREVAILS, WHICH INFLUENCED THE
SIZE AND FORMS OF ARCHITECTURAL OPENINGS.
FLAT TERRACED ROOFS
THE PIERCED SCREEN OR LATTICE WINDOW IN
INDIAN AND ALL EASTERN ART IS A DECORATIVE
FEATURE DUE TO PERSISTENT SUNSHINE, AND
ACTING AS A FINE ARCHITECTURAL SCREEN AGAINST
THE EXCESSIVE LIGHT AND HEAT.

WATER STORAGE IS IMPORTANT FOR IRRIGATION

AND AS A PROVISION FOR THE DRY SEASON,
RENDERED NECESSARY THE NUMBER OF CANALS,
RESERVOIRS, AND TANKS IN CONNECTION WITH
TEMPLES AND PALACES. THESE FORM SUCH SPECIAL
FEATURES IN INDIAN ARCHITECTURE.
PUNKAH

02
LATTICE WINDOWS WATER STORAGE
IV. RELIGION

A. BUDDHISM
RELIC WORSHIP IS AN ESSENTIAL FEATURE OF
THE BUDDHIST RELIGION. IT NECESSITATED
THE ERECTION OF THE MANY IMPORTANT
TOPES OR DAGOBAS CONTAINING A RELIC OF
A DECEASED SAINT, SUCH AS A TOOTH, BONE,
TOE-NAIL, OR EVEN HAIR.

TREE AND SERPENT WORSHIP, WHICH WAS BUDDHA'S TOOTH

INTRODUCED BY THE NON-ARYAN PEOPLES
OF INDIA, STILL PREVAILS, AND IS
RESPONSIBLE FOR MANY DECORATIVE
EMBLEMS, AS SEVEN-HEADED SERPENTS. THE
CELEBRATED "BO-TREE" AT ANURADHAPURA,
IN CEYLON, HAS BEEN WORSHIPPED FOR
OVER TWO THOUSAND YEARS.

B. JAINA
THIS RELIGION, WHICH ROSE TO IMPORTANCE
ABOUT A.D. 1000, SEEMS TO HAVE BEEN SEVEN-HEADED SERPENT
FOUNDED ON BUDDHISM. A STATUE OF ONE
OF THE TWENTY-FOUR JINAS OR SAINTS (WITH
DISTINCTIVE SIGN, AS A BULL, ELEPHANT,
MONKEY, CROCODILE, RHINOCEROS, OR LION)
IS PLACED IN EACH TEMPLE. THE
EXTRAORDINARY NUMBER OF IMAGE CELLS IN
ONE BUILDING, NUMBERING 236, HAS LED
SOME TO SUPPOSE THAT THE JAINS BELIEVED
THE SAINT WAS HONORED IN DIRECT RATIO
TO THE NUMBER OF HIS STATUES.

JAIN SCULPTURES
C. HINDU
THE MODERN HINDU RELIGION, GENERALLY
KNOWN AS THE BRAHMANICAL (THE NAME
OF THE PRIESTLY ORDER), DATES FROM ABOUT
A.D. 750. THE BRAHMANICAL IDEA ON THE
TRANS-MIGRATION OF SOULS DID NOT
ENCOURAGE TOMB BUILDING.

MONASTIC LIFE CEASED WITH THE DECAY OF

BUDDHISM, MONASTERIES WERE REPLACED
BY HYPOSTYLE HALLS, SERVING AS SHELTERS
FOR PILGRIMS AND HAVING SACRED LAKES HINDU TEMPLE
OCCASIONALLY SURROUNDED WITH

03
PORTICOS.
 PERIODS OF DEVELOPMENT
I. BUDDHIST ARCHITECTURE (250 B.C. – 750 A.D)

THE MONUMENTS CAN BE DIVIDED INTO:

A. STABHAS (OR LATS)

STABAS (ALSO KNOWN AS LATS) WERE COLUMNS ON
WHICH WERE CARVED INSCRIPTIONS, THE TOP BEING
CROWNED WITH EMBLEMS, SUCH AS THE ELEPHANT AND
LION.

EXAMPLE: LION CAPITAL OF ASHOKA

B. TOPES (OR STUPAS)

THESE WERE MOUNDS (HENCE, THE TERM “STUPAS”)
ERECTED TO COMMEMORATE SOME SACRED SPOT AND TO
CONTAIN SACRED RELICS KNOWN AS DAGOBAS.

EXAMPLES: GREAT STUPA AT SANCHI AND GREAT STUPA

AT AMARAVATI

C. RAILS
RAILS WERE OFTEN USED AS ENCLOSURES TO THE TOPES.
THEY CLEARLY INDICATE A WOODEN ORIGIN AND WERE
ELABORATELY ORNAMENTED WITH SCULPTURE. THE
SYMBOLIC SCULPTURE IS OF HISTORIC INTEREST: IT TELLS
THE LIFE STORY OF BUDDHA, AND ILLUSTRATES THE
WORSHIP OF RELICS, TREES, LAW, AND BATTLE SCENES.

EXAMPLE/S: THE RAIL & GATEWAYS SURROUNDING THE

SANCHI TOPE

D. CHAITYAS (OR TEMPLES)

ARE A SHRINE, SANCTUARY, TEMPLE OR PRAYER HALL IN
INDIAN RELIGIONS. THEY ARE ALL EXCAVATED OUT OF THE
SOLID ROCK, THUS PRESENTING ONLY ONE EXTERNAL
FACE.

EXAMPLE: BHAJA ROCK-CUT CHAITYA HALL

E. VIHARAS (OR MONASTERIES)

ARE RESIDENTIAL QUARTERS OF A BUDDHIST
MONASTERY, OR BY EXTENSION A MONASTERY IN
GENERAL. THE NORMAL TYPE IS A CENTRAL SQUARE

04
SPACE, WITH OR WITHOUT COLUMNS, SURROUNDED BY
CHAMBERS FOR THE PRIESTS, AND OCCASIONALLY
CONTAINING A SANCTUARY FOR THE SHRINE.

EXAMPLE: BUDDHIST VIHARA AT PAHARPUR

 PERIODS OF DEVELOPMENT
II. JAINA ARCHITECTURE (1000 AD – 1300 AD)

JANIA ARCHITECTURE WERE ESSENTIALLY RESTRICTED TO

TEMPLES AND MONASTERIES. THEY REFLECT THE
PREVAILING STYLE OF THE PLACE AND TIME THEY WERE
BUILT.

THE NORMAL TYPE OF TEMPLE IS A SQUARE “VIMANA” LIT

FROM THE DOOR ONLY, ROOFED WITH A PYRAMIDAL
STORIED TOWER. IN THE LARGER MONUMENTS THE
TEMPLE IS PLACED IN AN ENCLOSURE, AGAINST THE WALL
OF WHICH THE IMAGE CELLS OPEN ON TO THE INTERNAL
COURTYARD ADINATH TEMPLE

III. HINDU (OR BRAHMAN) ARCHITECTURE

A. NORTHERN HINDU (600 A.D. TO THE PRESENT TIME)

PALACES, TOMBS, AND GHATS (LANDING PLACES)
ARE ABUNDANT.
THE GHATS ARE TYPICAL INDIAN FEATURES; THEY
ARE USED BY THE HINDUS AS BATHING PLACES,
AND CONSISTS OF LONG RANGES OF STEPS,
STOPPED BY KIOSKS AND BACKED BY BUILDINGS
WITH ORNAMENTAL FACADES; USED AS
SHELTERS, OR TEMPLES.

GHANGA GHAT

B. CHALUKYA ARCHITECTURE (1000 A.D. – 1200 A.D.)

SMALL BASE DESIGN
HORSE SHOE BASE
PILASTERED WALLS WITH PANEL INSERTS
DECCAN STYLE IS IN THEIR BALCONY SEATING,
ANGLED EAVES AND SLOPING ROOFS, AND
ELABORATELY CARVED COLUMNS AND CEILINGS.

SANGAMESHVARA TEMPLE

C. DRAVIDIAN ARCHITECTURE (1350 A.D. – 1750 A.D.)

ALWAYS SQUARE IN PLAN
SURMOUNTED BY A PYRAMIDAL ROOF OF ONE OR
MORE STORIES.

05
ITS TEMPLES WERE THE TALLEST BUILDINGS; THEY
WERE BUILT IN ZONES WHERE POSITIVE
VIBRATIONS FROM THE EARTH'S MAGNETIC AND
ELECTRIC FIELD CAN BE TAPPED IN ABUNDANCE.
CHENNAKESAVA TEMPLE
 PERIODS OF DEVELOPMENT
C. DRAVIDIAN ARCHITECTURE (1350 A.D. – 1750 A.D.) CONT.
GOPURA – MONUMENTAL GATE TOWER OF DRAVIDA
TEMPLES. WITH THE INCREASING THREAT FROM
INVADING ARMIES, THE TEMPLE CITIES FOUND IT
EXPEDIENT TO ERECT A SERIES OF PROTECTIVE
WALLS TO SAFEGUARD AND DEFEND THEIR TEMPLES,
PALACES AND CITIES. THE GOPURAS CONSTRUCTED
ON THE GATEWAYS LEADING FROM ONE ENCLOSURE
TO THE NEXT, INITIALLY, SERVED AS WATCH TOWERS
FOR DEFENSE.

SUNDARA PANDYA GOPURA

ARCHITECTURAL CHARACTER
A. PLANS

BUDDHIST
THE REMAINS OF BUDDHIST CHAITYAS (TEMPLES) ARE ALL HEWN OUT OF THE ROCK, AND
THEREFORE HAVE ONLY ONE EXTERNAL FACADE. IN PLAN, THEY RESEMBLE CHRISTIAN
CATHEDRALS IN HAVING THREE AISLES FORMED BY TWO ROWS OF PIERS; THE
SANCTUARY, AROUND WHICH THE AISLE IS CARRIED, IS SEMI-CIRCULAR.

THE VIHARAS (OR MONASTERIES) ARE ALSO ROCK-CUT. THEY CONSIST GENERALLY OF
CENTRAL HALL SURROUNDED ON THREE SIDES BY CELLS FOR THE PRIESTS. IN LATER AND
LARGER EXAMPLES, COLUMNS ARE INTRODUCED IN THE CENTRAL SPACE TO SUPPORT
THE ROCK OVERHEAD. IN THE MOST IMPORTANT EXAMPLES THE SANCTUARY IS PLACED
IN A SPECIAL APARTMENT, AND PROVIDED WITH A SCREEN OF COLUMNS.

CHAITYA (TEMPLE)
PLAN AND SECTION

06
VIHARA (MONASTERY)
PLAN AND SECTION
 ARCHITECTURAL CHARACTER

JAINA
TEMPLES OWE MUCH OF THEIR ATTRACTIVENESS TO THEIR ENVIRONMENT, BY BEING
PICTURESQUELY GROUPED ON MOUNTAIN TOPS OR IN WOODED VALLEYS.

IN PLAN, THEY CONSIST OF A SQUARE CELL CONTAINING THE IMAGE OF THE JINA, ROOFED
WITH A HIGH CURVILINEAR PYRAMIDAL TOWER CALLED A SIKHARA. IN FRONT WAS A
PILLARED PORTICO, CROWNED BY A POINTED DOME USUALLY SUPPORTED ON EIGHT
PILLARS FORMING POINTS OF AN OCTAGON, AND BROUGHT TO A SQUARE BY INSERTING
FOUR ANGLE COLUMNS.

THE COLUMNS ARE EXTENDED SO AS TO MAKE THE WHOLE STRUCTURE CRUCIFORM ON

PLAN, WHICH IS APPARENT EXTERNALLY. THE PLANNING OF THE DOME ON THE
OCTAGONAL BASE CAUSES THE WIDTH OF THE CENTRAL NAVE TO THE AISLES TO BE IN
THE PROPORTION OF 10 TO 7.

JAIN TEMPLE - PLAN

PARTS AND LEGENDS:

A - ASSEMBLY HALL
B - HIGH HALL
CENTRER (MAIN SHRINE) - "MULA-PRASADA"

HINDU (OR BRAHMAN)

THE HINDU TEMPLES ARE SIMILAR IN PLAN TO THE JAINA TEMPLES, WITH LOCAL
DIFFERENCES FOR INSTANCE,

DRAVIDIAN TEMPLES HAVE, IN ADDITION, THE CHARACTERISTIC CHOULTRIES (OR RESTING

PLACE), OR HALLS OF 1,000 COLUMNS, AND ARE GENERALLY SURROUNDED BY A WALL,
INCLOSING LAKES OR TANKS OF WATER FOR PRIESTLY PURPOSES, WHILE CHALUKYAN
TEMPLES ARE USUALLY STAR-SHAPED ON PLAN.

HINDU (DRAVIDIAN) TEMPLE - PLAN

PARTS:
VIMANA - “TOWERED SANCTUARY” OF
THE HINDU TEMPLE
GOPURA - MONUMENTAL GATE TOWER

07
OF DRAVIDA TEMPLES.
CHOULTRY - RESTING PLACE
 ARCHITECTURAL CHARACTER

B. WALLS
THESE WERE CONSTRUCTED PRINCIPALLY OF THE GRANITE, STONE OR MARBLE WITH
WHICH THE COUNTRY ABOUNDS, THE MASSIVE BLOCKS BEING SOMETIMES LAID WITHOUT
MORTAR. PLAIN WALLING SEEMS TO HAVE BEEN AVOIDED, AND SCULPTURE IS
EMPLOYED IN A BEWILDERING AND CONFUSING WAY. THE CHARACTERISTIC EASTERN
TREATMENT OF DECORATING WITH SCULPTURES THE WHOLE SURFACE OF THE WALLS IS
EMPLOYED IN ALL THREE STYLES.

C. OPENINGS
BUDDHIST
IN ROCK-CUT EXAMPLES, THE HORSESHOE
FORM OCCURS ON THE FACADE, FORMING, AS
IT WERE, ONE GREAT EYE, AND BEING THE
ONLY OPENING FOR LIGHT. WITHIN THIS ARCH
WAS USUALLY AN OPEN DECORATED
FRAMEWORK OF WOOD, PROBABLY USED AS A
SCREEN TO THE GLARING EASTERN SUN; THUS,
THE SUBDUED LIGHT WAS THROWN ON THE
SHRINE FROM BEHIND THE SPECTATOR,
PRODUCING A FAVORABLE EFFECT OF LIGHT
AND SHADE ON THE CLOSE-SET COLUMNS OF
THE INTERIOR HORSESHOE OPENING

JAINA
OPENINGS ARE NORMALLY FLAT/SQUARE-
HEADED. DOMES, WHEN EMPLOYED, WERE
FORMED OF HORIZONTAL COURSES, AS IN
EARLY GREEK ARCHITECTURE. SUCH A SYSTEM
WAS NECESSARY IN THE CASE OF DOMES
SUPPORTED ON SLENDER COLUMNS, WHICH
COULD SUSTAIN NO OUTWARD THRUST.

IN THEIR PILLARED PORCHES, HORIZONTAL

STONE ARCHITRAVES RESTED ON THE
BRACKET CAPITALS, AND A CHARACTERISTIC
EASTERN FEELING WAS PRODUCED BY THE
STONE STRUTS SUPPORTING THEM FEATURES
WHICH WERE EVIDENTLY DERIVED FROM A FLAT/SQUARE-HEADED OPENING
TIMBER FORM

HINDU
FLAT/SQUARE-HEADED OPENINGS ARE THE
USUAL TYPE, BUT VARIATIONS ARE CAUSED IN
ROOFS BY THE USE OF BRACKETING SHAFTS
SUPPORTING PURLINS OF STONE, ON WHICH
INNER BRACKETS WERE PLACED, THUS

08
GRADUALLY REDUCING THE SPAN, TILL STONE
SLABS COULD ROOF THE APARTMENT, AS AT
THE DRAVIDIAN TEMPLE AT CHILLAMBARAM.
FLAT/SQUARE-HEADED OPENING
 ARCHITECTURAL CHARACTER

D. ROOFS
BUDDHIST
IN THE EARLY ROCK-CUT CHAITYAS, SEMI-CIRCULAR ROOFS ARE EXCAVATED IN THE
ROCK AND ORNAMENTED WITH WOODEN RIBS OR STONE IMITATIONS OF THEM

JAINA
THE SIKHARA, OR STONE ROOF, WHICH CROWNED THE IDOL-CELL HAD A HIGH CURVED
OUTLINE CROWNED WITH A MELON ORNAMENT AND FINIAL. SUCH A CURVED OUTLINE,
MAY HAVE BEEN PRODUCED BY FOLLOWING THE OUTLINE OF AN INTERNAL POINTED
DOME, FORMED WITH SLABS OF STONE IN HORIZONTAL COURSES. JAINA PORCHES ARE
CROWNED WITH (I) ROOFS FORMED OF FLAT SLABS OF STONE, OR (2) POINTED DOMES
FORMED IN HORIZONTAL COURSES.

HINDU
DRAVIDIAN EXAMPLES HAVE THE ROOF COVERING THE VIMANA OR THE STORIED
PYRAMIDAL TYPE, NORMALLY CARRIED TO A CONSIDERABLE HEIGHT AND CARVED WITH
REPRESENTATIONS OF ITSELF ALONG EACH WELL-DEFINED STORY. CHALUKYAN
EXAMPLES HAVE THE TOWERS EITHER OF THE STORIED DRAVIDIAN TYPE, FOLLOWING THE
CURVILINEAR OUTLINE OF THE NORTHERN HINDU EXAMPLES, OR FORM A STRAIGHT-
SIDED CONE ARRANGED IN STEPS.

BUDDHIST - SEMI-CIRCULAR ROOFS JAINA - HIGH CURVED (ELABORATE)

HINDU - VIMANA (STORIED PYRAMIDAL)

09
 ARCHITECTURAL CHARACTER

E. COLUMNS
INDIAN COLUMNS ARE MOST CHARACTERISTIC FEATURES, AND ARE UNLIKE THOSE IN
ANY OTHER STYLE. NO SYSTEMS OF SIMPLE WELL-KNOWN TYPES EXISTED, AS IN GREECE
OR ROME. THE ORIGIN OF THEIR FORM IS UNKNOWN, BUT IT SEEMS CERTAIN THAT THEY
COME OF A WOODEN PROTOTYPE. THE SHAFT IS AS MUCH ORNAMENTED AS THE CAPITAL
AND BASE. THE BRACKET CAPITAL IS A CHARACTERISTIC INDIAN FEATURE TAKING A
VARIETY OF FORMS.

BUDDHIST
BUDDHIST COLUMNS ARE OFTEN OCTAGONAL ON PLAN. IT HAS SCULPTURED LIONS,
HORSES, OR ELEPHANTS SUPPORTING MEN, WOMEN, AND THE "CHAKRA" OR BUDDHIST
WHEEL OCCUR, AS AT BEDSA. IN OTHERS, AS AT KARLI, TORUS OR DUTCH CHEESE-LIKE
MOULDINGS ORNAMENTED WITH PALM LEAVES OCCUR UNDER A CAPITAL OF A ROMAN-
DORIC TYPE

JAINA
COLUMNS ARE A SPECIAL FEATURE AND EXHIBIT GREAT VARIETY OF DESIGN. THE
CAPITALS ARE OF THE "BRACKET" TYPE, PROBABLY DERIVED FROM A TIMBER ORIGINAL.
SOMETIMES, AS AT MOUNT ABU, THEY ARE SUPERIMPOSED, THE UPPER ONES
SUPPORTING AN ARCHITRAVE WHICH IS UPHELD IN THE CENTRE BY STONE STRUTS
RESTING ON THE LOWER CAPITAL

HINDU
THE CAPITALS ARE OF THE BRACKET TYPE, AND IN SOME INSTANCES NOT MORE THAN
TWO COLUMNS IN A BUILDING ARE ALIKE. SOME HAVE LIFE-SIZED FIGURES OF SAINTS, OR
YALI (WEIRD LION-LIKE MONSTERS) ATTACHED TO THEM, FORMING A CONTRAST TO GREEK
CARYATIDES. IN OTHER CASES, A COMPOUND PIER OF A STURDY AND LIGHT COLUMN IS
EMPLOYED.

BUDDHIST COLUMNS

JAINA COLUMNS

BRACKET COLUMNS
HINDU (YALI) COLUMNS

10
 ARCHITECTURAL CHARACTER

F. MOULDINGS
NORMALLY THESE ARE OF A BULBOUS SWELLING OUTLINE, THOSE TO THE COLUMNS
OFTEN LACKING REFINEMENT. A FORM MADE BY OVERLAPPING RECTANGULAR SLABS IS
FREQUENTLY USED IN THE BASES AND CAPITALS OF COLUMNS AND DAGOBAS. IN OTHER
INSTANCES, A SEMI-CIRCULAR OPEN-WORK MOULDING IS EMPLOYED. THE PLAIN TORUS IS
USED, AND THE DOUBLE-CONVEX SHAPE INTO WHICH THE CROSS PIECES OF THE "RAILS"
ARE CUT ARE USED AS DEEP HORIZONTAL BANDS OF ORNAMENTS, TAKING THE PLACE OF
MOULDINGS PROPER.

INDIAN ORNAMENTS

G. ORNAMENT
THIS IS PRINCIPALLY CONFINED TO SCULPTURE CARRIED OUT WITH A PROFUSENESS
UNKNOWN IN OTHER STYLES. EXECUTED PRINCIPALLY IN HARD STONE, AND HAVING
LITTLE PLAIN WALL SURFACE TO FRAME IT, IT FORMS A MONUMENT OF PATIENT LABOR,
PERHAPS UNEQUALLED.

THE SCULPTURE IS SO BOUND UP WITH THE PEOPLES' RELIGION AND MYTHOLOGY. IN

JAINA ARCHITECTURE, EACH OF THE TWENTY-FOUR JINAS HAD A DISTINCTIVE SIGN
WHICH WAS UTILIZED BY THE SCULPTORS: THE TRIDENT, SHIELD, AND CHAKRA (OR
WHEEL).

TO HINDUS, ALL LIFE IS SACRED AND DESERVING OF REPRESENTATION. BECAUSE OF THIS,

MOST OF THE TEMPLES SHOW FINE SCULPTURES AND CARVINGS OF ANIMALS. THE
TOWERS OF HINDU TEMPLES TELL STORIES AS THEY RISE SKYWARDS. EACH HAS ITS OWN
DISTINCTIVE “HANDWRITING” AND DEPICTS THE CONCERNS OF LOCAL CULTS AS WELL AS
UNIVERSAL THEMES.

ORNAMENT SAMPLES

11
SCULPTURE SAMPLES
 TAJ MAHAL

TAJ MAHAL IS CONSIDERED AS THE SYMBOL OF INDIA. IT IS AN

IVORY-WHITE MARBLE MAUSOLEUM ON THE SOUTHERN BANK OF
THE RIVER YAMUNA IN THE INDIAN CITY OF AGRA. IT WAS
COMMISSIONED IN 1632 BY THE MUGHAL EMPEROR SHAH JAHAN
TO HOUSE THE TOMB OF HIS FAVORITE WIFE, MUMTAZ MAHAL; IT
ALSO HOUSES THE TOMB OF SHAH JAHAN HIMSELF.

THE FOUR PILLARS (CALLED MINARETS) AROUND THE MAIN DOME

ARE 130FT IN HEIGHT AND ARE SLIGHTLY TILTED SO THAT THEY
FALL AWAY FROM THE CENTRAL TOMB, IN CASE THEY WERE TO
COLLAPSE. ITS DOME WAS DERIVED FROM BOTH HINDU TEMPLE
DESIGN AND PERSIAN TIMUR ARCHITECTURE.

SAMPLE STRUCTURES
 GOLDEN TEMPLE
THE GOLDEN TEMPLE, ALSO CALLED AS SRI HARMANDIR SAHIB
(WHICH MEANS “ABODE OF GOD”) HAS A UNIQUE SIKH
ARCHITECTURE. BUILT AT A LEVEL LOWER THAN THE
SURROUNDING LAND LEVEL, THE GURUDWARA TEACHES THE
LESSON OF EGALITARIANISM AND HUMILITY.

THE FOUR ENTRANCES OF THIS HOLY SHRINE, FROM ALL FOUR

DIRECTIONS, SIGNIFY THAT PEOPLE BELONGING TO EVERY WALK
OF LIFE ARE EQUALLY WELCOME.

SAMPLE STRUCTURES
 HAWA MAHAL

HAWA MAHAL (WHICH MEANS “PALACE OF THE WINDS”) IS A

PLACE IN JAIPUR, INDIA BUILT BY MAHARAJA SAWAI
PRATAP SINGH. CONSTRUCTED OF RED AND PINK, HAWA
MAHAL IS FAMOUS FOR ITS WINDOWS OR 'JHAROKHAS'
WHICH ENABLE FREE CIRCULATION OF AIR WITHIN THE
STRUCTURE.

SAMPLE STRUCTURES
 DISTINCT TERMINOLOGIES

CHAITYAS (OR TEMPLES) A R E A S H R I N E , S A N C T U A R Y , T E M P L E O R P R A Y E R

H A L L I N I N D I A N R E L I G I O N S .

DAGOBA A D O M E - S H A P E D M E M O R I A L A L L E G E D T O C O N T A I N

R E L I C S O F B U D D H A O R A B U D D H I S T S A I N T

GHAT S T A I R S O R A P A S S A G E L E A D I N G D O W N T O A R I V E R

GOPURA M O N U M E N T A L G A T E T O W E R O F D R A V I D A T E M P L E S .

STABHAS A L S O C A L L E D A S “ L A T S ” ; W E R E C O L U M N S O N W H I C H

W E R E C A R V E D I N S C R I P T I O N S , T H E T O P B E I N G

C R O W N E D W I T H E M B L E M S , S U C H A S T H E E L E P H A N T

A N D L I O N .

JHAROKHAS S T O N E W I N D O W S P R O J E C T I N G F R O M T H E W A L L F A C E

O F A B U I L D I N G , I N A N U P P E R S T O R Y , O V E R L O O K I N G

A S T R E E T , M A R K E T , C O U R T O R A N Y O T H E R O P E N

S P A C E

TOPES A L S O C A L L E D A S “ S T U P A S ” ; W E R E M O U N D S ( H E N C E ,

T H E T E R M “ S T U P A S ” ) E R E C T E D T O C O M M E M O R A T E

S O M E S A C R E D S P O T A N D T O C O N T A I N S A C R E D

R E L I C S

MINARETS T Y P E O F T O W E R T Y P I C A L L Y B U I L T I N T O O R

A D J A C E N T T O M O S Q U E S A N D A R E G E N E R A L L Y U S E D

B Y M U S L I M S F O R P R A Y I N G .

P U N K A H A L A R G E C L O T H F A N O N A F R A M E S U S P E N D E D F R O M

T H E C E I L I N G , M O V E D B A C K W A R D A N D F O R W A R D B Y

P U L L I N G O N A C O R D .

R A I L S W E R E O F T E N U S E D A S E N C L O S U R E S T O T H E T O P E S .

S I K H A R A P Y R A M I D A L O R C U R V I L I N E A R T O W E R - L I K E U P P E R

S T R U C T U R E O F A H I N D U T E M P L E

V I H A R A S ( O R M O N A S T E R I E S ) A R E R E S I D E N T I A L Q U A R T E R S O F A B U D D H I S T

M O N A S T E R Y , O R B Y E X T E N S I O N A M O N A S T E R Y I N

G E N E R A L

V I M A N A “ T O W E R E D S A N C T U A R Y ” O F T H E H I N D U T E M P L E

Y A L I I S A M Y T H I C A L C R E A T U R E S E E N I N M A N Y S O U T H

I N D I A N T E M P L E S , O F T E N S C U L P T E D O N T O T H E

P I L L A R S
 PART II:

PAKISTANI ARCHITECTURE
 INTRODUCTION

PAKISTANI ARCHITECTURE REFERS TO THE VARIOUS STRUCTURES BUILT DURING DIFFERENT TIME
PERIODS IN WHAT IS NOW PAKISTAN.

WITH THE BEGINNING OF THE INDUS CIVILIZATION AROUND THE MIDDLE OF THE 3RD MILLENNIUM BC,
FOR THE FIRST TIME IN THE AREA WHICH ENCOMPASSES TODAY’S PAKISTAN AN ADVANCED URBAN
CULTURE DEVELOPED WITH LARGE STRUCTURAL FACILITIES, SOME OF WHICH SURVIVE TO THIS DAY.
THIS WAS FOLLOWED BY THE GANDHARA STYLE OF BUDDHIST ARCHITECTURE THAT BORROWED
ELEMENTS FROM ANCIENT GREECE. THESE REMNANTS ARE VISIBLE IN THE GANDHARA CAPITAL OF
TAXILA.

NOTABLE CHARACTERISTICS:
PAKISTAN’S ANCIENT ARCHITECTURE IS DOMINATED BY TOMBS AND RELIGIOUS SHRINES
ARCHITECTURE ARE MOSTLY DECORATED WITH GEOMETRIC PATTERNS COVERING THE FLOORS,
WALLS AND SURROUNDING THE DOORWAYS
NATION’S MOSQUES ARE THE MOST IMPORTANT EXAMPLES OF ARCHITECTURE IN PAKISTAN

INFLUENCES IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF ARCHITECTURE

I. GEOGRAPHICAL

PAKISTAN IS AT 881 913 SQ. KM AND IS THE 33RD LARGEST

COUNTRY BY AREA. IT IS BORDERED BY INDIA TO THE EAST,
AFGHANISTAN TO THE NORTHWEST AND IRAN TO THE WEST
WHILE CHINA BORDERS THE COUNTRY IN THE NORTHEAST.

THE COUNTRY IS A PROFOUND BLEND OF LANDSCAPE

VARYING FROM PLAINS, DESERTS, FORESTS, AND PLATEAUS
RANGING FROM THE COASTAL AREAS OF THE ARABIAN SEA IN
THE SOUTH TO THE MOUNTAINS OF HIMALAYAS IN THE NORTH.

II. GEOLOGICAL

PAKISTAN HAS IMMENSE RESERVES OF A NUMBER OF

MINERALS AND NATURAL RESOURCES THAT INCLUDE COAL,
GOLD, COPPER, BAUXITE, MINERAL SALT, CHROMITE, IRON ORE,
AND MANY OTHERS. PAKISTAN ALSO MINES A VARIETY OF
PRECIOUS AND SEMI-PRECIOUS MINERALS INCLUDING RUBY,
TOPAZ, AND EMERALD.

III. CLIMATE

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PAKISTAN LIES ABOVE THE TROPIC OF CANCER AND ITS CLIMATE VARIES FROM TROPICAL TO
TEMPERATE WHILE ARID CONDITIONS EXISTS IN THE COASTAL SOUTH. IT ALSO HAS FOUR SEASONS:
COOL, DRY WINTER (DECEMBER-FEBRUARY), HOT, DRY SPRING (MARCH-MAY), SUMMER RAINY
SEASONS/SW.MONSOON (JUNE-SEPTEMBER), AND RETREATING MONSOON FROM OCTOBER-NOVEMBER
IV. RELIGION

ISLAM IS THE STATE RELIGION OF PAKISTAN. 95% OF THE POPULATION IS MUSLIM. THE
MINORITY COMMUNITY INCLUDES HINDUS, CHRISTIANS, PARSIS, KALASH, SIKHS, BUDDHISTS
AND JEWS. THE CONSTITUTION GUARANTEES EQUAL RIGHTS TO MUSLIMS AND NON MUSLIMS.

THE COUNTRY HAS A STRONG AND RICH “SUFI” CULTURAL HERITAGE. THE SUFI THOUGHT
EMBODIES RELIGION, VALUES, LITERATURE, EDUCATION, AND MYSTICISM THAT HAS CREATED
AN ENDURING IMPACT ON THE PRESENCE OF ISLAM IN SOUTH ASIA TODAY. TODAY, THERE
ARE THOUSANDS OF SUFI SHRINES AND MAUSOLEUMS, WHICH DOT THE LANDSCAPE OF
PAKISTAN

PERIODS OF DEVELOPMENT
THERE ARE FOUR RECOGNIZED PERIODS IN PAKISTANI ARCHITECTURE: PRE-ISLAMIC, ISLAMIC,
COLONIAL, AND POST-COLONIAL.

I. PRE-ISLAMIC

A. INDUS VALLEY CIVILIZATION - MIDDLE OF 3RD MILLENIUM BCE

WITH THE BEGINNING OF THE INDUS CIVILIZATION
AROUND THE MIDDLE OF THE 3RD MILLENNIUM BCE, AN
ADVANCED URBAN CULTURE DEVELOPED FOR THE FIRST
TIME IN THE REGION, WITH LARGE BUILDINGS, SOME OF
WHICH SURVIVE TO THIS DAY.

ARCHAEOLOGISTS EXCAVATED NUMEROUS ANCIENT

CITIES, AMONG THEM ARE MOHENJO DARO, HARRAPPA
AND KOT DIJI. THEY HAVE A UNIFORM, APPROPRIATE
STRUCTURE WITH BROAD ROADS AS WELL AS WELL
THOUGHT OUT SANITARY AND DRAINAGE FACILITIES.
THEY ARE AMONG THE PRE-ISLAMIC SETTLEMENTS THAT
ARE NOW TOURIST ATTRACTIONS. INDUS VALLEY

THE INDUS CIVILIZATION DEVELOPED ITS USE OF BRICK CONSTRUCTION FOR PUBLIC BUILDING (BATH
HOUSES, WORKSHOPS). WOOD AND LOAM WAS ALSO SERVED AS CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS

B. BUDDHISM AND HINDU - BEFORE 1000 A.D.

WITH THE RISE OF BUDDHISM, OUTSTANDING
ARCHITECTURAL MONUMENTS WERE AGAIN
DEVELOPED, WHICH HAVE LASTED INTO THE PRESENT.
THE BUILDING FORMS IN THIS ERA ARE PRINCIPALLY
TEMPLES, TOMBS AND HINDU RELIGIOUS SCHOOLS. THE
HIGH POINT OF THIS ERA WAS REACHED WITH THE
CULMINATION OF THE GANDHARA ARCHITECTURE.

THE GANDHARA ARCHITECTURE COMBINES LOCAL

CHARACTERISTICS WITH ELEMENTS DERIVED FROM
BOTH INDIAN AND WESTERN PRECEDENTS. THE MAJOR TAKHT-I-BAHI
ARCHEOLOGICAL SOURCES FOR THE ARCHITECTURE

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AND SCULPTURE OF GANDHARA ARE THE REMAINS OF RELIGIOUS ESTABLISHMENTS SUCH AS STUPAS
AND MONASTERIES.

A PARTICULARLY BEAUTIFUL EXAMPLE OF BUDDHIST ARCHITECTURE IS THE RUINS OF THE BUDDHIST

MONASTERY TAKHT-I-BAHI IN THE NORTHWEST PROVINCE.
 PERIODS OF DEVELOPMENT
II. ISLAMIC (MUGHAL PERIOD) - 1526 - 1759 A. D

THE ARRIVAL OF ISLAM IN TODAY’S PAKISTAN – FIRST IN SINDH – DURING THE 8TH CENTURY AD
MEANT A SUDDEN END OF BUDDHIST ARCHITECTURE. HOWEVER, A SMOOTH TRANSITION TO
PREDOMINANTLY PICTURELESS ISLAMIC ARCHITECTURE OCCURRED. THE WAY EARLY MOSQUES
WERE BUILT WITH DECORATIONS ORIENTED THEM STRONGLY TO THE ARAB STYLE. THE MUGHAL ERA
DESIGN ELEMENTS OF ISLAMIC-PERSIAN ARCHITECTURE WERE FUSED WITH AND OFTEN PRODUCED
PLAYFUL FORMS OF THE HINDUSTANI ART.

THE EARLIEST EXAMPLE OF A MOSQUE FROM THE

DAYS OF INFANCY OF ISLAM IN SOUTH ASIA IS THE
MIHRAB LOSE MOSQUE OF BANBHORE, FROM THE
YEAR 727, THE FIRST MUSLIM PLACE OF WORSHIP IN
SOUTH ASIA.

THE MOST IMPORTANT OF THE FEW COMPLETELY

DISCOVERED BUILDINGS OF PERSIAN STYLE IS THE
TOMB OF THE SHAH RUKN-I-ALAM (BUILT 1320 TO
1324) IN MULTAN. AT THE START OF THE 16TH CENTURY,
THE INDO-ISLAMIC ARCHITECTURE WAS AT THE HEIGHT
OF ITS BOOM.
TOMB OF THE SHAH RUKN-I-ALAM

III. COLONIAL PERIOD (BRITISH COLONIAL ARCHITECTURE) - 1849 TO 1947 A. D

IN THE BRITISH COLONIAL AGE, PREDOMINANTLY

REPRESENTATIVE BUILDINGS OF THE INDO-EUROPEAN STYLE
DEVELOPED, FROM A MIXTURE OF EUROPEAN AND INDO-
ISLAMIC COMPONENTS. AMONGST THE MORE PROMINENT
WORKS ARE MOHATTA PALACE AND FRERE HALL IN
KARACHI.

THE BUILDING FORMS IN THIS PERIOD ARE PRINCIPALLY

EDUCATIONAL, PUBLIC AND INDUSTRIAL BUILDINGS,
MOHATTA PALACE
GARDENS, CHURCHES, CATHEDRALS AND HOUSES.

IV. POST-COLONIAL PERIOD (BRITISH COLONIAL ARCHITECTURE) - 1948 A.D. TO PRESENT

AFTER INDEPENDENCE, PAKISTAN STROVE TO EXPRESS ITS

NEWLY FOUND NATIONAL IDENTITY THROUGH
ARCHITECTURE. THIS REFLECTS ITSELF PARTICULARLY IN
MODERN STRUCTURES LIKE THE FAISAL MOSQUE IN
ISLAMABAD.

IN ADDITION, BUILDINGS OF MONUMENTAL IMPORTANCE

SUCH AS THE MINAR-E-PAKISTAN IN LAHORE OR THE
MAUSOLEUM ESTABLISHED WITH WHITE MARBLE KNOWN
AS MAZAR-E-QUAID FOR THE FOUNDER OF THE STATE.
FAISAL MOSQUE IN ISLAMABAD

19
THE NATIONAL MONUMENT IN ISLAMABAD IS ONE OF THE LATEST EXAMPLES OF INTEGRATING
CULTURE, INDEPENDENCE AND MODERN ARCHITECTURE.
 ARCHITECTURAL CHARACTER
A. PLAN

THE ESSENTIAL REQUIREMENT OF A MOSQUE (ARABIC, MESGID = PLACE FOR PROSTRATION) IS AN

UNROOFED INCLOSURE APPROXIMATING A PARALLELOGRAM ON PLAN, WITH CENTRAL FOUNTAIN
FOR ABLUTION, AS ENJOINED BY THE KORAN. THIS OCCUPIES A POSITION SIMILAR TO THAT IN THE
ATRIUM OF THE CHRISTIAN BASILICAN CHURCH. AROUND THIS OPEN SPACE WERE PLACED
COLONNADES, FOR PROTECTION FROM THE SUN. HOWEVER, THE PLAN VARIES IN EACH MOSQUES
SINCE THEY SHOULD ALL FACE THE MECCA.

B. WALLS

WALLS WERE CONSTRUCTED OF LOCAL MATERIALS,

AND ORNAMENTED WITH MINUTE SURFACE
DECORATION, EITHER IN PLASTER, PRECIOUS STONES, OR
GLAZED TILES. THEY SEEM SPECIALLY TREATED FOR THE
PRIVACY OF THE INMATES, THE WINDOWS, OFTEN WITH
BALCONIES, BEING FITTED WITH ELABORATELY DESIGNED
LATTICE.. A TYPE OF BOLD CRESTING OFTEN CROWNED
THE WALLS INSTEAD OF A CORNICE. THE WALLS WERE
MOSTLY DEPICTING MOSAIC AND GEOMETRICAL SAMPLES

C. OPENINGS
WINDOWS WERE USUALLY SMALL, BEING REGULATED TO
SOME EXTENT BY THE SOUTHERN CLIMATE IN WHICH
SARACENIC WORK WAS MOSTLY CARRIED OUT. THEY
WERE OFTEN GROUPED TOGETHER AND OCCASIONALLY
HAD THEIR ENTIRE SURFACE FITTED WITH ELABORATE
TRACERY WORK OF MARBLE AND PLASTER, SCHEMED
INTO GEOMETRICAL PATTERNS THE SMALL OPEN SPACES
BEING OF COLORED GLASS

D. ROOFS
THE DOME IS A SPECIAL FEATURE, OCCURRING IN THE
PRINCIPAL MOSQUES AND TOMBS. THEY ARE SOMETIMES
BUILT OF BRICK IN HORIZONTAL COURSES, PLASTERED
INSIDE AND OUT. OTHERS OF A LATER PERIOD ARE OF
STONE, ALSO OF HORIZONTAL COURSES, AND WITH
GEOMETRICAL PATTERNS WORKED ON THE EXTERNAL
SURFACE

E. ORNAMENT

THIS WAS CHIEFLY SURFACE ORNAMENT, BOUNDED BY

FLAT PLANES, AND REGULATED, AS FAR AS MOTIF WAS
CONCERNED, IN SHORT, THEY WERE MOSTLY MOSAIC OR
GEOMETRIC PATTERNS BY THE RULES OF THE KORAN,
WHICH PROHIBITED THE COPYING OF NATURAL OBJECTS.

20
 THE BALTIT FORT

THE BALTIT FORT IS A WOOD-AND-STONE STRUCTURE WITH MUD

PLASTER. IT IS A THREE STORY BUILDING, WITH GRANARIES AND
SOME STORES IN THE BASEMENT ON A GLACIER MORAINE HILL
WITH MAN-MADE NARROW TERRACES FOR THE STABILITY OF ITS
ANCIENT FOUNDATIONS.

CONSEQUENTLY, THE STRUCTURE OF BALTIT FORT WAS

INFLUENCED BY THE LADAKHI/TIBETAN ARCHITECTURE, WITH
SOME RESEMBLANCE TO THE POTALA PALACE IN LHASA.
ADDITIONS, RENOVATIONS AND CHANGES TO THE BUILDING WERE
MADE THROUGH THE CENTURIES BY THE LONG LINE OF RULERS OF
THE HUNZA REGION, WHICH WAS ON THE HISTORIC SILK ROUTE.

SAMPLE STRUCTURES
 TOMB OF
SHAH RUKN-E-ALAM

THE TOMB OF SHAH RUKN-E-ALAM IS CONSIDERED TO BE THE

EARLIEST EXAMPLE OF TUGHLUQ ARCHITECTURE, THIS 14TH-
CENTURY TUGHLUG-PERIOD TOMB IS ONE OF THE OUTSTANDING
ARCHITECTURAL TREASURES OF PAKISTAN. CONSERVATION
COMMENCED IN LATE 1971 AND WAS COMPLETED IN SIX YEARS.

THIS PROJECT REQUIRED THE ESTABLISHMENT OF A TRAINING

PROGRAMME FOR PAKISTANI CRAFTSMEN IN THE TRADITIONAL
CRAFTS OF GLAZED MULTAN TILE WORK, WOOD CARVING AND
TERRA COTTA.

SAMPLE STRUCTURES
 PAKISTAN MONUMENT

THE PAKISTAN MONUMENT IS A NATIONAL MONUMENT AND

HERITAGE MUSEUM LOCATED ON THE WESTERN SHAKARPARIAN
HILLS IN ISLAMABAD, PAKISTAN.

THE MONUMENT WAS CONSTRUCTED TO SYMBOLIZE THE UNITY OF

THE PAKISTANI PEOPLE. IT IS DEDICATED TO THE PEOPLE OF
PAKISTAN WHO SACRIFICED THEIR "TODAY" FOR A BETTER
"TOMORROW".

SAMPLE STRUCTURES
 DISTINCT TERMINOLOGIES

CHAUKHANDI STYLE N O T A B L E F O R E L A B O R A T E S A N D S T O N E C A R V I N G S ,

C A R E F U L L Y C A R V E B Y S T O N E M A S O N S I N T O

I N T R I C A T E D E S I G N

GANDHARA ARCHITECTURE C O M B I N E S L O C A L C H A R A C T E R I S T I C S W I T H

E L E M E N T S D E R I V E D F R O M B O T H I N D I A N A N D

W E S T E R N P R E C E D E N T S .

GRECO-BUDDHIST STYLE P E R S I A N A N D G R E E K I N F L U E N C E

HARRAPA AND MOHENJO C I T I E S M A D E O F B A K E D B R I C K S A N D W I N D O W L E S S

DARO H O U S E S

INDO-ISLAMIC STYLE C O M B I N E D I N D I A N A N D I S L A M I C E L E M E N T S

INDO-SARACENIC STYLE F U S I O N O F B R I T I S H A N D I N D O I S L A M I C E L E M E N T S

LOTUS FLOWER S Y M B O L C O M M O N L Y A S S O C I A T E D W I T H H I N D U I S M

MAKLI NECROPOLIS T O M B S F O R R U L E R S , N O B L E M A N A N D S U F I S A I N T S ,

B U I L T B E T W E E N 1 4 T H A N D 1 8 T H C E N T U R Y T H A T

S H O W C A S E S I N D O - I S L A M I C , P E R S I A N A N D H I N D U

A R C H I T E C T U R E

MIHRABLOSE MOSQUE T H E F I R S T M U S L I M P L A C E O F W O R S H I P I N S O U T H

A S I A

MOSAIC A P I C T U R E O R P A T T E R N P R O D U C E D B Y A R R A N G I N G

T O G E T H E R S M A L L C O L O R E D P I E C E S O F H A R D

M A T E R I A L , S U C H A S S T O N E , T I L E , O R G L A S S

SINDH B I R T H P L A C E O F I S L A M I C A R C H I T E C T U R E A F T E R T H E

E N D O F B U D D H I S T A R C H I T E C T U R E D U R I N G T H E 8 T H

C E N T U R Y C E