Origin/History of fossil fuels

Fuel is a material that provides useful energy. Fuels are used to heat and cool buildings, cook
food, power engines, and produce electricity. Some fuels occur naturally and others are artificially
created. Such natural fuels as coal, petroleum, and natural gas are obtained from underground deposits
that were formed millions of years ago from the remains of plants and animals. These fuels, which are
called fossil fuels, account for about 90 per cent of the energy people use today.

Synthetic fuels can be made from fossil fuels, certain types of rock and sand, and biomass.
Biomass is the name given to such replaceable organic matter as wood, rubbish, and animal manure that
can be used to produce energy. Some kinds of fuels are made from chemicals.

Most fuels release energy by burning with oxygen in the air. But some-especially chemical fuels
used in rockets-need special oxidizers in order to burn. Oxidizers are compounds that contain oxygen.
Nuclear fuels do not burn but release vast amounts of energy through the fission (splitting) or fusion
(joining together) of atoms.

Coal is used chiefly to produce electricity. It is burned to create heat to turn water into steam.
The steam is then used to rotate turbines (see Turbine). The turbines in turn rotate dynamos (machines
that generate electricity. Some coal is made into coke, a charcoal like solid that is an essential raw
material in the production of iron and steel. Coal is also used to heat buildings and to provide energy for
industrial machinery.

There are four forms of coal: (1) lignite, or brown coal, (2) subbituminous coal, (3) bituminous
coal, and (4) anthracite, Bituminous coal is the most plentiful and important coal used by industry. It
contains more carbon and produces more heat than either lignite or subbituminous coal. It is also the
coal best suited to making coke. Anthracite is the least plentiful and hardest coal. It contains more
carbon and produces more heat than other coals. But it is difficult to ignite and burns slowly.

FOSSIL FUELS

Fossil fuels can be divided into three classes: solid, liquid, and gaseous. To these as energy
sources should be added water and nuclear power. The actual and comparative costs of different energy
supplies very in different parts of the country. Solar and wind sources are as yet too trivial to report
statistically Worldwide, coal is the important and growing fuel used for power purposes, but there…
GASEOUS FUELS

Gas is burned as a source of heat in domestic installations and also in industry, especially where
it is obtained as a by-product. Blast-furnace gas resulting from the smelting of iron is an outstanding
example of a by-product gas employed for heating the blast stoves, with the remainder burned under
boilers or for heating coke ovens. Fuel gases are discussed in Chap. 6, where a tabulation is given of Btu
values and other properties.

The long-term gas potential for the United States is shown in Table 4.10.
The reserves of U.S. oil and gas are not inexhaustible. The cost involved in finding, developing,
and supplying the quantity of oil needed through 1985 will probably increase sharply over the
intervening years. It is well recognized that there is not an endless supply of so-called low-cost oil.
Increased crude oil-producing capacity will be more costly, since much of the producing capacity will
come from offshore and arctic regions involving higher costs of exploration, production, transportation,
and meeting stringent environmental standards.

COMBUSTION

Most modern industrial plants burn coal either on mechanically operated grates and stokers or
in the pulverized form. These present-day procedures allow the ratio of air to fuel to be properly
controlled, thus ensuring efficient combustion and reducing heat losses through stack and ash. When
fuel oil is burned, it is frequently necessary to provide heaters to lower the viscosity of the oil sufficiently
for proper burner operation. The flue-gas analysis is valuable in con trolling combustion, since the
proportions of CO₂, CO, and O2 in the flue gas will indicate in complete combustion or excess air.

ORIGIN

There have been many theories the sigle of petrolines, some m vegetable or animal background
and others a close relationship to cal and certain of these emphasize any organic matter of mather
backgrendred spiseurs produ that any There seems to be general apresent that petroleum in marine
deposits in an environment deficient in oxygen and with the malidified into rocks, limestones,
dolomites, shales, and sandstones. The contention of th matter may not have been high in the original
deposition, but perund places most favorable to its retention, such as trata or against sealed faults in the
sediment datote in domes portenten by en m in the sediments. Bronks points out, referring th that the
proteins and soluble carbohydrates are undoubtedly quickly detrayed in the me esses of decay or
bacterial action. Fatty os are relatively restante betalatty oils (or acids) are probably the chief source
material from which pemim han barn, tergade”

EXPLORATION

At one time drilling for petroleum hit-min affair, and in mach samma bout 1 out of 300 wildcat
wells struck oil. However, by employing skilled geologists with udied the origin and occurrence of
petroleum, as well as geophysicists who are expert in the ery delicate instruments to determine
something about the geological conditions under the earth' urface, the drilling of wells has become so
vastly improved that, in 1962. 1 out of well or gas. The geologist early recognized that petroleum occurs
in oil poods caught in the anticip ds of sedimentary rocks. The success of the oil geologist has been due
to the complain of eat deal of experience and data. This includes the study of cores from all types of
wells and the curate observation of surface indication, coupled with newer geophysical explicesine amer
any of which have been developed and perfected by the scientific staffs of a companies. The iller, guided
by the geologist, now drills holes deeper than 4 mi and reaches gas wi…

With the use of very sensitive instruments, geophysicists can determine the end of nce of domes
and deposits at considerable distances in the earth. The top of the arch of an ancho dome has, by virtue
of compression, greater specific gravity than the surrounding rocks, as shown.
MANUFACTURE AND REFINING OF AVIATION FUELS
 FUELS AND THEIR PROPERTIES

Hydrocarbon Compound - broadly classified into two types, namely straight chain and ring (Fig. 44),
based on the arrangement of the carbon atoms.

Straight chain hydrocarbons are widely used as fuels. These can be classified into three types as
paraffins, olefins and diolefins (or dienes) depending upon the bond between the carbon atoms. As
shown in Fig. 4.4, paraffins have a C-C single bond olefins have a C = C double bond and diolefins have a
C = C triple bond. Ethylene (CH) is the first member of the olefin family and acetylene (C₂H₂) is the first
member of the diolefin family. Paraffins contain the maximum possible number of H atoms for each C
atom on account of the C-I single bond, and are said to be saturated. Olefins and diolefins, on the other
hand are unsaturated hydrocarbons. Since double and triple bonds have higher energy than single
bonds, olefins and diolefins have higher calorific value than paraffins. Furthermore, as the ratio of
carbon to hydrogen atoms is higher than that of paraffins, combustion of olefins and diolefins produces
more soot.

Commercial aircraft use Jet A or Jet A-1 fuel. Both these fuels are kerosene based and are very
similar except that Jet A has a freezing point of -40°C. while Jet A-1 has a freezing point of 47°C. Fuels
intended for use in military applications need to satisfy more stringent requirements. A blend of
kerosene and naptha with additives is known as Jet B fuel. Depending on the additives, this is further
categorized into JP2, JP3 and JP4, JP4 has both paraffinic and aromatic content. JPS has higher flash
point. JP6 and IP7 have higher thermal stability. JPS has the highest heat release per unit mass, whereas,
IP9 has the highest heat release per unit volume and is a blend of three hydrocarbons. JP10 is a single
chemical compound exo-tetrahydrodicyclopentadiene, C10H16.
4.6.1 Combustion aspects of fuels

Laminar flame speed in a fuel can be thought of as the speed with which a flame front will travel
through a quiescent mixture of reactants. Conversely, if the reactant mixture were moving with the
laminar flame speed, then the flame front would be stationary. The latter perspective is relevant in
aircraft propulsion since the fuel and air flow continuously through combustion chamber. Hence, if the
speed of the fuel air mixture is high when compared with the laminar flame speed, the flame is blown
out. On the other hand, if the speed of the fuel air mixture is too low, then the flame tries to flash back
and is extinguished. The laminar flame speed is proportional to the square root of the thermal diffusivity
(among other properties) of the reactant mixture. The thermal diffusivity and hence the laminar flame
speed decreases with increasing molecular weight of the fuel. Once the number of carbon atoms in the
fuel increases beyond 6, the laminar flame speed asymptotes to about 40 cm/s.

Flammability is an important characteristic of any fuel. It is basically the ability of a fuel to bum
with a given amount of air at a given pressure and temperature. Contrary to what one might expect, a
fuel does not always burn readily or in a stable manner. Combustion cannot be initiated or sustained if
there is either too much air (lean limit) or too much fuel.

Fig. 45

Flammability limits of a kerosene type of fuel at 1 atm. Adapted from Elements of Gas Turbine
Propulsion by Mattingly.

(Rich limit). The flammability limits of a kerosene type of fuel at 1 atm pressure is shown in Fig.
4.5. For equivalence ratios below 0.5 or above 3. combustion is not at all possible at normal room
temperature. This range is typical of all hydrocarbon fuels. Hydrogen alone can burn over a wider range
of equivalence ratio (0.25-6) even at room temperature and pressure. As shown in Fig. 4.5, under
normal room conditions, kerosene exists as a Squid. As the temperature is increased, it becomes a two-
phase mixture of liquid and vapor (mist). Once the saturation temperature is crossed, the vapor phase is
present. If the temperature is increased further, the vapor can ignite in the presence of air upon
reaching the self-ignition

During actual operation, it may not always be possible to maintain the equivalence new
everywhere in the combustor within this limit. To alleviate this problem equivalence o in small regions
(called flame stabilization regions) Inside the combustor are maintained vibia the allowed range. These
regions are usually low speed recirculation regional in Mich hot combustion products are available and
thus they provide a high temperature source to sustain combustion. Mechanical devices that are usually
used to create these reigns are called flame stabilizers (or more popularly, V-gutters, owing their shape)

Basics of Combustion Thermodynamics

Temperature, provided the equivalence ratio is within the lean and rich limit. If the temperature
is less than the self-ignition temperature, then an ignition source is required. From a perspective of fuel
handling, higher self-ignition temperatures are desirable. Self-ignition temperature of paraffins
decreases with increasing molecular weight, starting with 767 K for propane, 491 K for octane and 478 K
for cetane.

TRANSFORMATION OF HEAT ENERGY

Importance of Proper Fuel Grade

When the FAA issues an Approved Type Certificate (ATC) for an aircraft engine, the minimum allowable
fuel grade is specified, and only this grade fuel may be used.

If fuel having an octane or performance rating lower than that specified is used, there is a real
probability that when the high power required for take is applied, the fuel will detonate and the engine
and aircraft will be destroyed

If the correct grade of fuel is not available, the rule of thumb has been a higher grade of fuel
could be substituted. It is true that' fuel with a higher rating will not cause detonation, but the additional
TEL used to give the fuel its higher rating will foul the spark plugs sooner and can cause valve sticking
Using fuel with too low TEL content, even though the octane rating is high enough, can also cause valve
problems because there is not enough lead to adequately lubricate the valve stems.

There have been a number of aircraft accidents attributed to the inadvertent fueling of a
reciprocating engine airplane with turbine engine fuci. This fuel I cause severe detonation and can
destroy an engine in a very short time. will

If an aircraft has been serviced with turbine fuel and the mistake is discovered before the engine
is run, the fuel should be drained, all lines flushed with gasoline, and the tanks filled with the proper
grade of fuel.

If the engine has already been run with turbine fuel there is danger of damage from detonation,
and the following should be done:

 Drain the affected tanks, lines, and carburetors and flush the system with gasoline.
 Drain the oil and examine all strainers and filters for evidence of engine damage.
 Perform a compression check on all cylinders.
 Inspect the inside of all cylinders with a borescope for indication of damage.
 Fill tanks with the proper grade of fuel.
 Conduct a complete engine run-up check.