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v Metric Spaces
Let X be a non-empty set and ¡ denotes the set of real numbers. A function
d : X ´ X ® ¡ is said to be metric if it satisfies the following axioms " x, y, z Î X .
[M1] d ( x, y ) ³ 0 i.e. d is finite and non-negative real valued function.
[M2] d ( x, y ) = 0 if and only if x = y.
[M3] d ( x, y ) = d ( y, x) (Symmetric property)
[M4] d ( x, z ) £ d ( x, y ) + d ( y, z ) (Triangular inequality)
The pair (X, d ) is then called metric space.
d is also called distance function and d(x, y) is the distance from x to y.
Note: If (X, d) be a metric space then X is called underlying set.
v Examples:
i) Let X be a non-empty set. Then d : X ´ X ® ¡ defined by
ì1 if x ¹ y
d ( x, y ) = í
î0 if x = y
is a metric on X and is called trivial metric or discrete metric.
ii) Let ¡ be the set of real number. Then d : ¡ ´ ¡ ® ¡ defined by
d ( x, y ) = x - y is a metric on ¡ .
The space ( ¡, d ) is called real line and d is called usual metric on ¡ .
iii) Let X be a non-empty set and d : X ´ X ® ¡ be a metric on X. Then d ¢ : X ´ X ® ¡
defined by d ¢( x, y ) = min (1, d ( x, y ) ) is also a metric on X.
Proof:
[M1] Since d is a metric so d ( x, y ) ³ 0
as d ¢( x, y ) is either 1 or d ( x, y ) so d ¢( x, y ) ³ 0 .
[M2] If x = y then d ( x, y ) = 0 and then d ¢( x, y ) which is min (1, d ( x, y ) ) will be
zero.
Conversely, suppose that d ¢( x, y ) = 0 Þ min (1, d ( x, y ) ) = 0
Þ d ( x, y ) = 0 Þ x = y as d is metric.
[M3] d ¢( x, y ) = min (1, d ( x, y ) ) = min (1, d ( y, x) ) = d ¢( y, x) Q d ( x, y ) = d ( y , x )
[M4] We have d ¢( x, z ) = min (1, d ( x, z ) )
Þ d ¢( x, z ) £ 1 or d ¢( x, z ) £ d ( x, z )
We wish to prove d ¢( x, z ) £ d ¢( x, y ) + d ¢( y, z )
now if d ( x, z ) ³ 1 , d ( x, y ) ³ 1 and d ( y, z ) ³ 1
then d ¢( x, z ) = 1 , d ¢( x, y ) = 1 and d ¢( y, z ) = 1
and d ¢( x, y ) + d ¢( y, z ) = 1 + 1 = 2
2 Metric Spaces

therefore Þ d ¢( x, z ) £ d ¢( x, y ) + d ¢( y, z )
Now if d ( x, z ) < 1 , d ( x, y ) < 1 and d ( y, z ) < 1
Then d ¢( x, z ) = d ( x, z ) , d ¢( x, y ) = d ( x, y ) and d ¢( y, z ) = d ( y, z )
As d is metric therefore d ( x, z ) £ d ( x, y ) + d ( y, z )
Þ d ¢( x, z ) £ d ¢( x, y ) + d ¢( y , z )
Q.E.D

iv) Let d : X ´ X ® ¡ be a metric space. Then d ¢ : X ´ X ® ¡ defined by

d ( x, y )
d ¢( x, y ) = is also a metric.
1 + d ( x, y )
Proof.
d ( x, y )
[M1] Since d ( x, y ) ³ 0 therefore = d ¢( x, y ) ³ 0
1 + d ( x, y )
d ( x, y )
[M2] Let d ¢( x, y ) = 0 Þ = 0 Þ d ( x, y ) = 0 Þ x = y
1 + d ( x, y )
Now conversely suppose x = y then d ( x, y ) = 0 .
d ( x, y ) 0
Then d ¢( x, y ) = = =0
1 + d ( x, y ) 1 + 0
d ( x, y ) d ( y, x)
[M3] d ¢( x, y ) = = = d ¢ ( y, x )
1 + d ( x, y ) 1 + d ( y , x )
[M4] Since d is metric therefore d ( x, z ) £ d ( x, y ) + d ( y, z )
a b
Now by using inequality a < b Þ < .
1+ a 1+ b
d ( x, z ) d ( x, y ) + d ( y , z )
We get £
1 + d ( x, z ) 1 + d ( x, y ) + d ( y , z )
d ( x, y ) d ( y, z )
Þ d ¢( x, z ) £ +
1 + d ( x, y ) + d ( y , z ) 1 + d ( x, y ) + d ( y , z )
d ( x, y ) d ( y, z )
Þ d ¢( x, z ) £ +
1 + d ( x, y ) 1 + d ( y , z )
Þ d ¢( x, z ) £ d ¢( x, y ) + d ¢( y , z )
Q.E.D
v) The space C[a, b] is a metric space and the metric d is defined by
d ( x, y ) = max x(t ) - y (t )
tÎJ
where J = [a, b] and x, y are continuous real valued function defined on [a, b].
Proof.
[M1] Since x(t ) - y (t ) ³ 0 therefore d ( x, y ) ³ 0 .
[M2] Let d ( x, y ) = 0 Þ x(t ) - y (t ) = 0 Þ x(t ) = y (t )
Conversely suppose x = y
Then d ( x, y ) = max x(t ) - y (t ) = max x(t ) - x(t ) = 0
tÎJ tÎJ

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 Metric Spaces 3

[M3] d ( x, y ) = max x(t ) - y (t ) = max y (t ) - x(t ) = d ( y, x)

tÎJ tÎJ

[M4] d ( x, z ) = max x(t ) - z (t ) = max x(t ) - y (t ) + y (t ) - z (t )

tÎJ tÎJ

£ max x(t ) - y (t ) + max y (t ) - z (t )

tÎJ tÎJ
= d ( x, y ) + d ( y , z )
Q.E.D
vi) d : ¡ ´ ¡ ® ¡ is a metric, where ¡ is the set of real number and d defined by
d ( x, y ) = x- y

vii) Let x = ( x1 , y1 ) , y = ( x2 , y2 ) we define

d ( x, y ) = ( x1 - x2 )2 + ( y1 - y2 ) 2 is a metric on ¡
and called Euclidean metric on ¡ 2 or usual metric on ¡ 2 .

viii) d : ¡ ´ ¡ ® ¡ is not a metric, where ¡ is the set of real number and d defined by
d ( x, y ) = ( x - y ) 2
Proof.
[M1] Square is always positive therefore ( x - y ) 2 = d ( x, y ) ³ 0
[M2] Let d ( x, y ) = 0 Þ ( x - y ) 2 = 0 Þ x - y = 0 Þ x = y
Conversely suppose that x = y
then d ( x, y ) = ( x - y )2 = ( x - x)2 = 0
[M3] d ( x, y ) = ( x - y ) 2 = ( y - x) 2 = d ( y, x)
[M4] Suppose that triangular inequality holds in d. then for any x, y, z Î ¡
d ( x, z ) £ d ( x - y ) + d ( y , z )
Þ ( x - z )2 £ ( x - y ) 2 + ( y - z ) 2
Since x, y, z Î ¡ therefore consider x = 0, y = 1 and z = 2 .
Þ (0 - 2)2 £ (0 - 1)2 + (1 - 2) 2
Þ 4 £1+1 Þ 4£2
which is not true so triangular inequality does not hold and d is not metric.
ix) Let x = ( x1 , x2 ) , y = ( y1 , y2 ) Î ¡ 2 . We define
d ( x, y ) = x1 - y1 + x2 - y2
is a metric on ¡ 2 , called Taxi-Cab metric on ¡ 2 .
x) Let ¡ n be the set of all real n-tuples. For
x = ( x1 , x2 ,..., xn ) and y = ( y1 , y2 ,..., yn ) in ¡ n
we define d ( x, y ) = ( x1 - y1 ) 2 + ( x2 - y2 ) 2 + ... + ( xn - yn )2
then d is metric on ¡ n , called Euclidean metric on ¡ n or usual metric on ¡ n .
xi) The space l ¥ . As points we take bounded sequence
x = ( x1 , x2 ,...) , also written as x = ( xi ) , of complex numbers such that

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4 Metric Spaces

xi £ Cx " i = 1, 2,3,...
where C x is fixed real number. The metric is defined as
d ( x, y ) = sup xi - yi where y = ( yi )
iΥ

xii) The space l p , p ³ 1 is a real number, we take as member of l p , all sequence

¥ p

x = (x j ) of complex number such that åx j < ¥.

j =1
1
æ ¥
pö p
The metric is defined by d ( x, y ) = ç å x j - h j ÷
è j =1 ø
¥ p

Where y = (h j ) such that åh j <¥

j =1

Proof.
1
æ pö
¥ p
[M1] Since x j - h j ³ 0 therefore ç å x j - h j ÷ = d ( x, y ) ³ 0 .
è j =1 ø
[M2] If x = y then
1 1 1
æ ¥ p öp æ ¥ p öp æ ¥ pö
p
d ( x, y ) = ç å x j - h j ÷ = ç å x j - x j ÷ == ç å 0 ÷ = 0
è j =1 ø è j =1 ø è j =1 ø

Conversely, if d ( x, y ) = 0
1
æ ¥
pö
Þ ç å x j - h j ÷ = 0 Þ x j - h j = 0 Þ (x j ) = (h j ) Þ x = y
p

è j =1 ø
1 1
æ ¥
pö pæ ¥
pö p
[M3] d ( x, y ) = ç å x j - h j ÷ = ç å h j - x j ÷ = d ( y, x )
è j =1 ø è j =1 ø
¥ p

[M4] Let z = (z j ) , such that åz j <¥

j =1
1
æ ¥
pö p
then d ( x, z ) = ç å x j - z j ÷
è j =1 ø
1
æ ¥
pö p
= ç å x j -h j +hj - z j ÷
è j =1 ø
*
Using Minkowski’s Inequality
1 1
æ¥
pö p æ pö
¥ p
£ ç å x j -h j ÷ + ç å h j - z j ÷
è j =1 ø è j =1 ø
= d ( x, y ) + d ( y , z )
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 Metric Spaces 5

Q.E.D

v Pseudometric
Let X be a non-empty set. A function d : X ´ X ® ¡ is called pseudometric
if and only if
i) d ( x, x) = 0 for all x Î X .
ii) d ( x, y ) = d ( y, x) for all x, y Î X .
iii) d ( x, z ) £ d ( x, y ) + d ( y, z ) for all x, y, z Î X .
OR
A pseudometric satisfies all axioms of a metric except d ( x, y ) = 0
may not imply x = y but x = y implies d ( x, y ) = 0 .

Example
Let x, y Î ¡ 2 and x = ( x1 , x2 ) , y = ( y1 , y2 )
Then d ( x, y ) = x1 - y1 is a pseudometric on ¡ 2 .
Let x = (2,3) and y = (2,5)
Then d ( x, y ) = 2 - 2 = 0 but x ¹ y
Note: Every metric is a pseudometric, but pseudometric is not metric.
* Minkowski’s Inequality
If xi = (x1 , x 2 ,..., x n ) and hi = (h1 ,h2 ,...,hn ) are in ¡ n and p > 1 , then
1 1 1
æ ¥ p
öp æ ¥ p
ö æ
p ¥ p
ö p

çç å xi + hi ÷÷ £ çç å xi ÷÷ + çç å hi ÷÷
è i =1 ø è i =1 ø è i =1 ø

v Distance between sets

Let ( X , d ) be a metric space and A, B Ì X . The distance between A and B denoted
by d ( A, B) is defined as d ( A, B) = inf {d (a, b) | a Î A, b Î B}
If A = { x} is a singleton subset of X, then d ( A, B) is written as d ( x, B ) and is called
distance of point x from the set B.

v Theorem
Let ( X , d ) be a metric space. Then for any x, y Î X
d ( x, A) - d ( y, A) £ d ( x, y )
Proof.
Let z Î A then d ( x, z ) £ d ( x, y ) + d ( y, z )
then d ( x, A) = inf d ( x, z ) £ d ( x, y ) + inf d ( y, z )
zÎA zÎA
= d ( x, y ) + d ( y, A)
Þ d ( x, A) - d ( y, A) £ d ( x, y ) × × × × × × × ×× × × × (i)
Next

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6 Metric Spaces

d ( y, A) = inf d ( y, z ) £ d ( y, x) + inf d ( x, z )
zÎ A zÎA
= d ( y, x) + d ( x, A)
Þ - d ( x, A) + d ( y, A) £ d ( y, x)
Þ - ( d ( x, A) - d ( y, A) ) £ d ( x, y ) × × × × × × × ×× × × × × × (ii ) Q d ( x, y ) = d ( y , x )
Combining equation (i) and (ii)
d ( x, A) - d ( y, A) £ d ( x, y ) Q.E.D

v Diameter of a set
Let ( X , d ) be a metric space and A Ì X , we define diameter of A denoted by
d ( A) = sup d (a, b)
a , bÎ A
Note: For an empty set j , following convention are adopted
(i) d (j ) = - ¥ , some authors take d (j ) also as 0.
(ii) d ( p,j ) = ¥ i.e distance of a point p from empty set is ¥ .
(iii) d ( A, j ) = ¥ , where A is any non-empty set.

v Bounded Set
Let ( X , d ) be a metric space and A Ì X , we say A is bounded if diameter of A is
finite i.e. d ( A) < ¥ .

v Theorem
The union of two bounded set is bounded.
Proof.
Let ( X , d ) be a metric space and A, B Ì X be bounded. We wish to prove A È B
is bounded.
Let x, y Î A È B
If x, y Î A then since A is bounded therefore d ( x, y ) < ¥
and hence d ( A È B ) = sup d ( x, y ) < ¥ then A È B is bounded.
x , y Î AÈ B

Similarity if x, y Î B then A È B is bounded.

Now if x Î A and y Î B then
d ( x, y ) £ d ( x, a) + d (a, b) + d (b, y ) where a Î A, b Î B .
Since d ( x, a), d (a, b) and d (b, y ) are finite
Therefore d ( x, y ) < ¥ i.e A È B is bounded. Q.E.D

v Open Ball
Let ( X , d ) be a metric space. An open ball in ( X , d ) is denoted by
B( x0 ; r ) = { x Î X | d ( x0 , x) < r}
x0 is called centre of the ball and r is called radius of ball and r ³ 0 .

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 Metric Spaces 7

v Closed Ball
The set B( x0 ; r ) = { x Î X | d ( x0 , x) £ r} is called closed ball in ( X , d ) .

v Sphere
The set S ( x0 ; r ) = { x Î X | d ( x0 , x) = r} is called sphere in ( X , d ) .

v Examples
Consider the set of real numbers with usual metric d = x - y " x, y Î ¡
then B( xo ; r ) = { x Î ¡ | d ( xo , x) < r}
i.e. B( xo ; r ) = { x Î ¡ : x - xo < r}
i.e. x0 - r < x < x + r = ( x0 - r , x0 + r )
i.e. open ball is the real line with usual metric is an open interval.
And B( xo ; r ) = { x Î ¡ : x - x0 £ r}
i.e. x0 - r £ x £ x0 + r = [ x0 - r , x0 + r ]
i.e. closed ball in a real line is a closed interval.
And S ( xo ; r ) = { x Î ¡ : x - x0 = r} = { x0 - r , x0 + r}
i.e. two point x0 - r and x0 + r only.

v Open Set
Let ( X , d ) be a metric space and set G is called open in X if for every x Î G , there
exists an open ball B( x ; r ) Ì G .

v Theorem
An open ball in metric space X is open.
Proof.
Let B( x0 ; r ) be an open ball in ( X , d ) .
Let y Î B ( x0 ; r ) then d ( x0 , y ) = r1 < r
Let r2 < r - r1 , then B( y ; r2 ) Ì B ( x0 ; r )
Hence B( x0 ; r ) is an open set.
Alternative:
Let B( x0 ; r ) be an open ball in ( X , d ) .
Let x Î B( x0 ; r ) then d ( x0 , x) = r1 < r
Take r2 = r - r1 and consider the open ball B ( x ; r2 )
we show that B( x ; r2 ) Ì B ( x ; r ) .
For this let y Î B ( x ; r2 ) then d ( x, y ) < r2
and d ( x0 , y ) £ d ( x0 , x) + d ( x, y )
< r1 + r2 = r
hence y Î B ( x0 ; r ) so that B( x; r2 ) Ì B ( x0 ; r ) . Thus B( x0 ; r ) is an open.
Q.E.D

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8 Metric Spaces

Note: Let ( X , d ) be a metric space then

i) X and j are open sets.
ii) Union of any number of open sets is open.
iii) Intersection of a finite number of open sets is open.

v Limit point of a set

Let ( X , d ) be a metric space and A Ì X , then x Î X is called a limit point or
accumulation point of A if for every open ball B( x ; r ) with centre x,
B( x ; r ) Ç { A - {x}} ¹ j .
i.e. every open ball contain a point of A other than x.

v Closed Set
A subset A of metric space X is closed if it contains every limit point of itself.
The set of all limit points of A is called the derived set of A and denoted by A¢ .

v Theorem
A subset A of a metric space is closed if and only if its complement Ac is open.
Proof.
Suppose A is closed, we prove Ac is open.
Let x Î Ac then x Ï A .
Þ x is not a limit point of A.
then by definition of a limit point there exists an open ball B( x ; r ) such that
B( x ; r ) Ç A = j .
This implies B( x ; r ) Ì Ac . Since x is an arbitrary point of Ac . So Ac is open.
Conversely, assume that Ac is an open then we prove A is closed.
i.e. A contain all of its limit points.
Let x be an accumulation point of A. and suppose x Î Ac .
then there exists an open ball B( x ; r ) Ì Ac Þ B ( x ; r ) Ç A = j .
This shows that x is not a limit point of A. this is a contradiction to our assumption.
Hence x Î A . Accordingly A is closed.
The proof is complete.

v Theorem
A closed ball is a closed set.
Proof.
c
Let B( x ; r ) be a closed ball. We prove B ( x ; r ) = C (say) is an open ball.
Let y Î C then d ( x, y ) > r .
Let r1 = d ( x, y ) then r1 > r . And take r2 = r1 - r
æ r ö æ r ö
Consider the open ball B ç y ; 2 ÷ we prove B ç y ; 2 ÷ Ì C .
è 2ø è 2ø

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 Metric Spaces 9

æ r ö r
For this let z Î B ç y ; 2 ÷ then d ( z, y ) < 2
è 2ø 2
By the triangular inequality
d ( x, y ) £ d ( x, z ) + d ( z , y )
Þ d ( x, y ) £ d ( z , x ) + d ( z , y ) Q d ( y, z ) = d ( z , y )
Þ d ( z , x ) ³ d ( x, y ) - d ( z , y )
r 2r - r 2r - r + r r +r
Þ d ( z, x) > r1 - 2 = 1 2 = 1 1 = 1 Q r2 = r1 - r
2 2 2 2
r+r
Þ d ( z, x) > =r Q r1 - r = r2 > 0 \ r1 > r
2
Þ z Ï B ( x ; r ) This shows that z Î C
æ r ö
Þ Bç y; 2 ÷ Ì C
è 2ø
Hence C is an open set and consequently B( x ; r ) is closed. Q.E.D

v Theorem
Let ( X , d ) be a metric space and A Ì X . If x Î X is a limit point of A. then every
open ball B( x ; r ) with centre x contain an infinite numbers of point of A.
Proof.
Suppose B( x ; r ) contain only a finite number of points of A.
Let a1 , a2 ,..., an be those points.
and let d ( x, ai ) = ri where i = 1,2,..., n .
also consider r ¢ = min(r1 , r2 ,..., rn )
Then the open ball B( x ; r ¢) contain no point of A other than x. then x is not limit point of
A. This is a contradiction therefore B( x; r ) must contain infinite numbers of point of A.

v Closure of a Set
Let ( X , d ) be a metric space and M Ì X . Then closure of M is denoted by
M = M È M ¢ where M ¢ is the set of all limit points of M. It is the smallest closed
superset of M.

v Dense Set
Let (X, d) be a metric space the a set M Ì X is called dense in X if M = X .

v Countable Set
A set A is countable if it is finite or there exists a function f : A ® ¥ which is one-
one and onto, where ¥ is the set of natural numbers.
e.g. ¥, ¤ and ¢ are countable sets . The set of real numbers, the set of irrational
numbers and any interval are not countable sets.

v Separable Space
A space X is said to be separable if it contains a countable dense subsets.
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10 Metric Spaces

e.g. the real line ¡ is separable since it contain the set ¤ of rational numbers, which is
dense is ¡ .

v Theorem
Let (X, d) be a metric space, A Ì X is dense if and only if A has non-empty
intersection with any open subset of X.
Proof.
Assume that A is dense in X. then A = X .
Suppose there is an open set G Ì X such that A Ç G = j .
Then if x Î G then A Ç ( G - {x}) = j
which show that x is not a limit point of A.
This implies x Ï A but x Î X Þ A ¹ X
This is a contradiction.
Consequently A Ç G ¹ j for any open G Ì X .
Conversely suppose that A Ç G ¹ j for any open G Ì X .
We prove A = X , for this let x Î X .
If x Î A then x Î A È A¢ = A then X = A .
If x Ï A then let {Gi } be the family of all the open subset of X such that x Î Gi for every i.
Then by hypothesis A Ç Gi ¹ j for any i. i.e Gi contain point of A other then x.
This implies that x is an accumulation point of A. i.e. x Î A¢
Accordingly x Î A È A¢ = A and X = A .
The proof is complete.

v Neighbourhood of a Point
Let (X, d) be a metric space and x0 Î X and a subset N Ì X is called a
neighbourhood of x0 if there exists an open ball B( x0 ; e ) with centre x0 such that
B( x0 ; e ) Ì N .
Shortly “neighbourhood ” is written as “nhood ”.

v Interior Point
Let (X, d) be a metric space and A Ì X , a point x0 Î X is called an interior point of
A if there is an open ball B( x0 ; r ) with centre x0 such that B( x0 ; r ) Ì A .
The set of all interior points of A is called interior of A and is denoted by int(A) or Ao .
It is the largest open set contain in A. i.e. Ao Ì A .

v Continuity
A function f : ( X , d ) ® (Y , d ¢ ) is called continuous at a point x0 Î X if for any
e > 0 there is a d > 0 such that d ¢ ( f ( x), f ( x0 ) ) < e for all x satisfying d ( x, x0 ) < d .
Alternative:
f : X ® Y is continuous at x0 Î X if for any e > 0 , there is a d > 0 such that
x Î B( x0 ;d ) Þ f ( x) Î B ( f ( x0 ); e ) .
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 Metric Spaces 11

v Theorem
f :( X , d ) ® (Y , d ¢) is continuous at x0 Î X if and only if f -1 (G ) is open is X.
wherever G is open in Y.
Note : Before proving this theorem note that if f : X ® Y , f -1 : Y ® X and A Ì X ,
B Ì Y then f -1 f ( A) É A and f f -1 ( B ) Ì B
Proof.
Assume that f : X ® Y is continuous and G Ì Y is open. We will prove f -1 (G ) is
open in X.
Let x Î f -1 (G ) Þ f ( x) Î f f -1 (G ) Ì G
When G is open, there is an open ball B ( f ( x); e ) Ì G .
Since f : X ® Y is continuous, therefore for e > 0 there is a d > 0 such that
y Î B ( x ;d ) Þ f ( y ) Î B ( f ( x); e ) Ì G then y Î f -1 f (G ) Ì f -1 (G )
Since y is an arbitrary point of B( x ;d ) Ì f -1 (G ) . Also x was arbitrary, this show that
f -1 (G ) is open in X.
Conversely, for any G Ì Y we prove f : X ® Y is continuous.
For this let x Î X and e > 0 be given. Now f ( x) Î Y and let B ( f ( x); e ) be an open ball
in Y. then by hypothesis f -1 ( B ( f ( x); e ) ) is open in X and x Î f -1 ( B ( f ( x); e ) )
As y Î B ( x ;d ) Ì f -1 ( B ( f ( x); e ) )
Þ f ( y ) Î f f -1 ( B ( f ( x); e ) ) Ì B ( f ( x); e ) i.e. f ( y ) Î B ( f ( x); e )
Consequently f : X ® Y is continuous.
The proof is complete.

v Convergence of Sequence:
Let ( xn ) = ( x1 , x2 ,...) be a sequence in a metric space ( X , d ) , we say ( xn ) converges
to x Î X if lim d ( xn , x) = 0 .
n®¥
We write lim xn = x or simply xn ® x as n ® ¥ .
n®¥
Alternatively, we say xn ® x if for every e > 0 there is an n0 Î ¥ , such that
" n > n0 , d ( xn , x) < e .

v Theorem
If ( xn ) is converges then limit of ( xn ) is unique.
Proof.
Suppose xn ® a and xn ® b ,
Then 0 £ d (a, b) £ d (a, xn ) + d ( xn , b) ® 0 + 0 as n ® ¥ Þ d ( a, b) = 0 Þ a = b
Hence the limit is unique. 8
Alternative
Suppose that a sequence ( xn ) converges to two distinct limits a and b.
and d (a, b) = r > 0
Since xn ® a , given any e > 0 , there is a natural number n1 depending on e
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12 Metric Spaces

such that
e
d ( xn , a) < whenever n > n1
2
Also xn ® b , given any e > 0 , there is a natural number n2 depending on e
such that
e
d ( xn , b) < whenever n > n2
2
Take n0 = max(n1 , n2 ) then
e e
d ( xn , a) < and d ( xn , b) < whenever n > n0
2 2
Since e is arbitrary, take e = r then
r = d (a, b) £ d (a, xn ) + d ( xn , b)
r r e
< + =r Q d (a, xn ) = d ( xn , a) <
2 2 2
Which is a contradiction, Hence a = b i.e. limit is unique.

v Theorem
i) A convergent sequence is bounded.
ii) If xn ® x and yn ® y then d ( xn , yn ) ® d ( x, y ) .
Proof.
(i) Suppose xn ® x , therefore for any e > 0 there is n0 Î ¥ such that
" n > n0 , d ( xn , x) < e
Let a = max {d ( x1 , x), d ( x2 , x),............, d ( xn , x)} and k = max {e , a}
Then by using triangular inequality for arbitrary xi , x j Î ( xn )
0 £ d ( xi , x j ) £ d ( xi , x) + d ( x, x j )
£ k + k = 2k
Hence ( xn ) is bounded.
(ii) By using triangular inequality
d ( xn , yn ) £ d ( xn , x ) + d ( x, y ) + d ( y, yn )
Þ d ( xn , yn ) - d ( x, y ) £ d ( xn , x ) + d ( y, yn ) ® 0 + 0 as n ® ¥ ...........(i )
Next d ( x, y ) £ d ( x, xn ) + d ( xn , yn ) + d ( yn , y )
Þ d ( x, y ) - d ( xn , yn ) £ d ( x, xn ) + d ( yn , y ) ® 0 + 0 as n ® ¥ ..........(ii )
From (i) and (ii)
d ( xn , yn ) - d ( x, y ) ® 0 as n ® ¥
Hence
lim d ( xn , yn ) = d ( x, y ) Q.E.D
n®¥

v Cauchy Sequence
A sequence ( xn ) in a metric space ( X , d ) is called Cauchy if any e > 0 there is a
n0 Î ¥ such that " m, n > n0 , d ( xm , xn ) < e .

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 Metric Spaces 13

v Theorem
A convergent sequence in a metric space ( X , d ) is Cauchy.
Proof.
Let xn ® x Î X , therefore any e > 0 there is n0 Î ¥ such that
e e
" m, n > n0 , d ( xn , x) < and d ( xm , x) < .
2 2
Then by using triangular inequality
d ( xm , xn ) £ d ( xm , x ) + d ( x, xn )
£ d ( xm , x ) + d ( xn , x ) Q d ( x, y ) = d ( y , x )
e e
< + =e
2 2
Thus every convergent sequence in a metric space is Cauchy.

v Example
Let ( xn ) be a sequence in the discrete space ( X , d ) . If ( xn ) be a Cauchy sequence, then
for e = 12 , there is a natural number n0 depending on e such that
d ( xm , xn ) < 12 " m, n ³ n0
Since in discrete space d is either 0 or 1 therefore d ( xm , xn ) = 0 Þ xm = xn = x (say)
Thus a Cauchy sequence in ( X , d ) become constant after a finite number of terms,
i.e. ( xn ) = ( x1, x2 ,..., xn , x, x, x,...)
0

v Subsequence
Let (a1 , a2 , a3 ,...) be a sequence ( X , d ) and let (i1 , i2 , i3 ,...) be a sequence of
positive integers such that i1 < i2 < i3 < ... then ( a , a , a ,...) is called subsequence of
i1 i2 i3

( an : n Î ¥ ) .
v Theorem
(i) Let ( xn ) be a Cauchy sequence in ( X , d ) , then ( xn ) converges to a point x Î X if
( )
and only if ( xn ) has a convergent subsequence xnk which converges to x Î X .
( )
(ii) If ( xn ) converges to x Î X , then every subsequence xnk also converges to x Î X .
Proof.
(i) Suppose xn ® x Î X then ( xn ) itself is a subsequence which converges to x Î X .
( )
Conversely, assume that xnk is a subsequence of ( xn ) which converges to x.
e
Then for any e > 0 there is n0 Î ¥ such that " nk > n0 , d xnk , x < ( ) 2
.
Further more ( xn ) is Cauchy sequence
e
Then for the e > 0 there is n1 Î ¥ such that " m, n > n1 , d ( xm , xn ) <
.
2
Suppose n2 = max(n0 , n1 ) then by using the triangular inequality we have
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14 Metric Spaces

( ) (
d ( xn , x ) £ d xn , xnk + d xnk , x )
e e
< + =e " nk , n > n2
2 2

This show that xn ® x .

(ii) xn ® x implies for any e > 0 $ n0 Î ¥ such that d ( xn , x ) < e
(
Then in particular d xnk , x < e ) " nk > n0
Hence xnk ® x Î X .

v Example
Let X = ( 0,1) then ( xn ) = ( x1 , x2 , x3 ,...) = ( 1 2 , 1 3 , 1 4 ,...) is a sequence in X.
Then xn ® 0 but 0 is not a point of X.

v Theorem
Let ( X , d ) be a metric space and M Ì X .
(i) Then x Î M if and only if there is a sequence ( xn ) in M such that xn ® x .
(ii) If for any sequence ( xn ) in M, xn ® x Þ x Î M , then M is closed.
Proof.
(i) Suppose x Î M = M È M ¢
If x Î M , then there is a sequence ( x, x, x,...) in M which converges to x.
If x Ï M , then x Î M ¢ i.e. x is an accumulation point of M, therefore each n Î ¥ the
æ 1ö
open ball B ç x ; ÷ contain infinite number of point of M.
è nø
æ 1ö
We choose xn Î M from each B ç x ; ÷
è nø
1
Then we obtain a sequence ( xn ) of points of M and since ® 0 as n ® ¥ .
n
Then xn ® x as n ® ¥ .
Conversely, suppose ( xn ) such that xn ® x .
We prove x Î M
If x Î M then x Î M . Q M = M È M¢
If x Ï M , then every neighbourhood of x contain infinite number of terms of ( xn ) .
Then x is a limit point of M i.e. x Î M ¢
Hence x Î M = M È M ¢ .
(ii) If ( xn ) is in M and xn ® x , then x Î M then by hypothesis M = M , then M is
closed.

v Complete Space
A metric space ( X , d ) is called complete if every Cauchy sequence in X converges
to a point of X.
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 Metric Spaces 15

v Subspace
Let ( X , d ) be a metric space and Y Ì X then Y is called subspace if Y is itself a
metric space under the metric d.

v Theorem
A subspace of a complete metric space ( X , d ) is complete if and only if Y is closed
in X.
Proof.
Assume that Y is complete we prove Y is closed.
Let x Î Y then there is a sequence ( xn ) in Y such that xn ® x .
Since convergent sequence is a Cauchy and Y is complete then xn ® x Î Y .
Since x was arbitrary point of Y Þ Y ÌY

Therefore Y = Y QY Ì Y
Consequently Y is closed.
Conversely, suppose Y is closed and ( xn ) is a Cauchy sequence. Then ( xn ) is Cauchy in
X and since X is complete so xn ® x Î X .
Also x Î Y and Y Ì X .
Since Y is closed i.e. Y = Y therefore x Î Y .
Hence Y is complete. 8

v Nested Sequence:
A sequence sets A1 , A2 , A3 ,... is called nested if A1 É A2 É A3 É ...

v Theorem (Cantor’s Intersection Theorem)

A metric space ( X , d ) is complete if and only if every nested sequence of non-
empty closed subset of X, whose diameter tends to zero, has a non-empty intersection.
Proof.
Suppose ( X , d ) is complete and let A1 É A2 É A3 É ... be a nested sequence of
closed subsets of X.
Since Ai is non-empty we choose a point an from each An . And then we will prove
(a1 , a2 , a3 ,...) is Cauchy in X.
( )
Let e > 0 be given, since lim d ( An ) = 0 then there is n0 Î ¥ such that d An0 < 0
n®¥
Then for m, n > n0 , d (am , an ) < e .
This shows that (an ) is Cauchy in X.
Since X is complete so an ® p Î X (say)
We prove p Î I An ,
n

Suppose the contrary that p Ï I An then $ a k Î ¥ such that p Ï Ak .

n
Since Ak is closed, d ( p, Ak ) = d > 0 .

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16 Metric Spaces

æ dö æ dö
Consider the open ball B ç p ; ÷ then Ak and B ç p ; ÷ are disjoint
è 2ø è 2ø
æ dö
Now ak , ak +1 , ak + 2 ,... all belong to Ak then all these points do not belong to B ç p ; ÷
è 2ø
This is a contradiction as p is the limit point of ( an ) .
Hence p Î I An .
n
Conversely, assume that every nested sequence of closed subset of X has a non-empty
intersection. Let ( xn ) be Cauchy in X, where ( xn ) = ( x1 , x2 , x3 ,...)
Consider the sets
A1 = { x1 , x2 , x3 ,...}
A2 = { x2 , x3 , x4 ,...}
…………………
…………………
…………………
Ak = { xn : n ³ k}
Then we have A1 É A2 É A3 É ...
We prove lim d ( An ) = 0
n®¥
Since ( xn ) is Cauchy, therefore $ n0 Î ¥ such that
" m, n > n0 , d ( xm , xn ) < e , i.e. lim d ( An ) = 0 .
n®¥

( )
Now d An = d ( An ) then lim d ( An ) = lim d ( An ) = 0
n®¥ n®¥

Also A1 É A2 É A3 É ...
Then by hypothesis IA
n
n ¹ j . Let p Î I An
n
We prove xn ® p Î X
Since lim d ( An ) = 0 therefore $ k0 Î ¥ such that d Ak0 < e
n®¥
( )
Then for n > k0 , xn , p Î An Þ d ( xn , p ) < e " n > k0
This proves that xn ® p Î X .
The proof is complete.

v Complete Space (Examples)

(i) The discrete space is complete.
Since in discrete space a Cauchy sequence becomes constant after finite terms
i.e. ( xn ) is Cauchy in discrete space if it is of the form
( x1 , x2 , x3 ,..., xn = b, b, b,...)

(ii) The set ¢ = {0, ±1, ± 2,...} of integers with usual metric is complete.

(iii) The set of rational numbers with usual metric is not complete.
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 Metric Spaces 17

Q (1.1,1.41,1.412,...) is a Cauchy sequence of rational numbers but its limit is 2,

which is not rational.

(iv) The space of irrational number with usual metric is not complete.
We take ( -1,1) , ( - 1 2 , 1 2 ) , ( - 13 , 13 ) ,..., ( - 1 n , 1 n )
We choose one irrational number from each interval and these irrational tends to zero as
we goes toward infinity, as zero is a rational so space of irrational is not complete.

v Theorem
The real line is complete.
Proof.
Let ( xn ) be any Cauchy sequence of real numbers.
We first prove that ( xn ) is bounded.
Let e = 1 > 0 then $ n0 Î ¥ such that " m, n ³ n0 , d ( xm , xn ) = xm - xn < 1
In particular for n ³ n0 we have
xn0 - xn £ 1 Þ xn0 - 1 £ xn £ xn0 + 1

{ } {
Let a = max x1 , x2 ,..., xn0 + 1 and b = min x1 , x2 ,..., xn0 - 1 }
then b £ xn £ a " n .
this shows that ( xn ) is bounded with b as lower bound and a as upper bound.
Secondly we prove ( xn ) has convergent subsequence ( xni ) .
If the range of the sequence is { xn } = { x1 , x2 , x3 ,...} is finite, then one of the term is the
sequence say b will repeat infinitely i.e. b, b ,b ,……….
Then (b, b, b,...) is a convergent subsequence which converges to b.
If the range is infinite then by the Bolzano Weirestrass theorem, the bounded infinite set
{ xn } has a limit point, say b.
Then each of the open interval S1 = (b - 1, b + 1) , S2 = ( b - 1 2 , b + 1 2 ) ,
S2 = ( b - 13 , b + 13 ) , … has an infinite numbers of points of the set { xn } .
i.e. there are infinite numbers of terms of the sequence ( xn ) in every open interval Sn .
We choose a point xi1 from S1 , then we choose a point xi2 from S2 such that i1 < i2
i.e. the terms xi2 comes after xi1 in the original sequence ( xn ) . Then we choose a term xi3
such that i2 < i3 , continuing in this manner we obtain a subsequence
( x ) = ( x , x , x ,K) .
in i1 i2 i3

It is always possible to choose a term because every interval contain an infinite numbers
of terms of the sequence ( xn ) .
Since b - 1n ® b and b + 1n ® b as n ® ¥ . Hence we have convergent subsequence
( x ) whose limit is
in b.
Lastly we prove that xn ® b Î ¡ .
Since ( xn ) is a Cauchy therefore for any e > 0 there is n0 Î ¥ such that

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18 Metric Spaces

e
" m, n > n0 xm - xn <
2
Also since xin ® b there is a natural number im such that im > n0
Then " m, n, im > n0
d ( xn , b ) = xn - b = xn - xim + xim - b
e e
£ xn - xim + xim - b < + =e
2 2
Hence xn ® b Î ¡ and the proof is complete.

v Theorem
The Euclidean space ¡ n is complete.
Proof.
Let ( xm ) be any Cauchy sequence in ¡ n .
Then for any e > 0 , there is n0 Î ¥ such that " m, r > n0
1
æ æ ( m ) ( r ) ö2 ö 2
d ( xm , xr ) = ç å ç x j - x j ÷ ÷ < e ..............(i)
ç è ø ÷ø
è
æ (m) ö æ (m) (m) (m) (m)
ö æ (r ) ö æ (r ) (r ) (r ) (r )
ö
where xm = ç x j ÷ = ç x1 , x 2 , x3 ,K, x n ÷ and xr = ç x j ÷ = ç x1 , x 2 , x3 ,K, x n ÷
è ø è ø è ø è ø
Squaring both sided of (i) we obtain
2
æ (m) (r ) ö
å çè x j - x j ÷ø < e 2
(m) (r )
Þ xj-xj <e " j = 1, 2,3,K, n

æ ( m ) ö æ (1) (2) (3) ö

This implies ç x j ÷ = ç x j , x j , x j ,K ÷ is a Cauchy sequence of real numbers for every
è ø è ø
j = 1, 2,3,K, n .
(m)
Since ¡ is complete therefore x j ® x j Î ¡ (say)
Using these n limits we define
x = (x j ) = (x1 , x 2 , x 3 ,K, x n ) then clearly x Î ¡ n .
We prove xm ® x
In (i) as r ® ¥ , d ( xm , x ) < e " m > n0 which show that xm ® x Î ¡ n
And the proof is complete.

Note: In the above theorem if we take n = 2 then we see complex plane £ = ¡ 2 is

complete. Moreover the unitary space £ n is complete.

v Theorem
The space l ¥ is complete.
Proof.
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 Metric Spaces 19

Let ( xm ) be any Cauchy sequence in l ¥ .

Then for any e > 0 there is n0 > ¥ such that " m, n > n0
(m) n
d ( xm , xn ) = sup x j - x j < e .......... (i)
j

æ (m) ö æ (m) (m) (m) ö æ (n) ö æ (n) (n) (n) ö

Where xm = ç x j ÷ = ç x1 , x 2 , x3 ,K ÷ and xn = ç x j ÷ = ç x1 , x 2 , x3 ,K ÷
è ø è ø è ø è ø
Then from (i)
(m) (n)
x j - x j < e ..........(ii) " j = 1, 2,3,K and " m, n > n0

æ ( m ) ö æ (1) (2) (3) ö

It means ç x j ÷ = ç x j , x j , x j ,K ÷ is a Cauchy sequence of real or complex numbers for
è ø è ø
every j = 1, 2,3,K
(m)
And since ¡ and £ are complete therefore x j ® x j Î ¡ or £ (say).
Using these infinitely many limits we define x = (x j ) = (x1 , x 2 , x3 ,K) .
We prove x Î l ¥ and xm ® x .
(m)
In (i) as n ® ¥ we obtain x j - x j < e ..........(iii ) " m > n0

We prove x is bounded.
By using the triangular inequality
(m) (m) (m) (m)
x j = x j - x j + x j £ x j - x j + x j < e + km
(m)
Where x j < km as xm is bounded.

Hence (x j ) = x is bounded.
This shows that xn ® x Î l ¥ .
And the proof is complete.

v Theorem
The space C of all convergent sequence of complex number is complete.
Note: It is subspace of l ¥ .
Proof.
First we prove C is closed in l ¥ .
Let x = (x j ) ÎC , then there is a sequence ( xn ) in C such that xn ® x ,
æ (n) ö æ (n) (n) (n) ö
where xn = ç x j ÷ = ç x1 , x 2 , x3 ,K ÷ .
è ø è ø
Then for any e > 0 , there is n0 Î ¥ such that " n ³ n0
(n)
e
d ( xn , x ) = sup x j - x j <
j 3

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20 Metric Spaces

Then in particular for n = n0 and " j = 1,2,3,...........

( n0 )
e
x j -xj <
3
Now xn0 ÎC then xn0 is a convergent sequence therefore $ n1 Î ¥
such that " j , k > n1
e
( n0 ) ( n0 )
x j - xk <
3
Then by using triangular inequality we have
( n0 ) ( n0 ) ( n0 ) ( n0 )
x j - xk = x j - x j + x j - xk + xk - xk
( n0 ) ( n0 ) ( n0 ) ( n0 )
£ x j - x j + x j - xk + xk - xk

e e e
< + + =e " j , k > n1
3 3 3
Hence x is Cauchy in l ¥ and x is convergent
Therefore x ÎC and Þ C = C .
i.e. C is closed in l ¥ and l ¥ is complete.
Since we know that a subspace of complete space is complete if and only if it is closed
in the space.
Consequently C is complete.

v Theorem
The space l p , p ³ 1 is a real number, is complete.
Proof.
Let ( xn ) be any Cauchy sequence in l p .
Then for every e > 0 , there is n0 Î ¥ such that " m, n > n0
1
æ ¥ (m) (n) p
öp
d ( xm , xn ) = ç å x j - x j ÷÷ < e ………….. (i)
ç j =1
è ø
æ (m) ö æ (m) (m) (m) ö
where xm = ç x j ÷ = ç x1 , x 2 , x3 ,K ÷
è ø è ø
(m) (n)
Then from (i) x j - x j < e ……… (ii) " m, n > n0 and for any fixed j.

æ (m) ö
This shows that ç x j ÷ is a Cauchy sequence of numbers for the fixed j.
è ø
(m)
Since ¡ and £ are complete therefore x j ® x j Î ¡ or £ (say) as m ® ¥ .
Using these infinite many limits we define x = (x j ) = (x1 , x 2 , x3 ,K) .
We prove x Î l p and xm ® x as m ® ¥ .
From (i) we have
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 Metric Spaces 21
1
æ k (m) (n) p
öp
çç å x j - x j ÷÷ < e
è j =1 ø
k (m) (n) p
i.e. åx
j =1
j -x j < e p …………. (iii)

Taking as n ® ¥ , we get
k (m) p

åx
j =1
j -x j <ep , k = 1, 2, 3, …….

Now taking k ® ¥ , we obtain

(m) p

åx j -x j < e p ………… (iv) " j = 1,2,3,..........

This shows that ( xm - x ) Î l p

Now l p is a vector space and xm Î l p , x - xm Î l p then xm + ( x - xm ) = x Î l p .
Also from (iv) we see that
( d ( xm , x) ) < e p
p
" m > n0
i.e. d ( xm , x) < e " m > n0
This shows that xm ® x Î l p as x ® ¥ .
And the proof is complete.

v Theorem
The space C[a, b] is complete.
Proof.
Let ( xn ) be a Cauchy sequence in C[a, b].
Therefore for every e > 0 , there is n0 Î ¥ such that " m, n > n0
d ( xm , xn ) = max xm (t ) - xn (t ) < e ………… (i) where J = [ a, b] .
tÎJ
Then for any fix t = t0 Î J
xm (t0 ) - xn (t0 ) < e " m, n > n0
It means ( x1 (t0 ), x2 (t0 ), x3 (t0 ),K) is a Cauchy sequence of real numbers. And since ¡ is
complete therefore xm (t0 ) ® x(t0 ) Î ¡ (say) as m ® ¥ .
In this way for every t Î J , we can associate a unique real number x(t ) with xn (t ) .
This defines a function x(t ) on J.
We prove x(t ) ÎC[a, b] and xm (t ) ® x(t ) as m ® ¥ .
From (i) we see that
xm (t ) - xn (t ) < e for every t Î J and " m, n > n0 .
Letting n ® ¥ , we obtain for all t Î J
xm (t ) - x(t ) < e " m < n0 .
Since the convergence is uniform and the xn ’s are continuous, the limit function x(t ) is
continuous, as it is well known from the calculus.
Then x(t ) is continuous.
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22 Metric Spaces

Hence x(t ) ÎC[a, b] , also xm (t ) - x(t ) < e as m ® ¥

Therefore xm (t ) ® x(t ) ÎC[a, b] .
The proof is complete.

v Theorem
If ( X , d1 ) and (Y , d 2 ) are complete then X ´ Y is complete.
Note: The metric d (say) on X ´ Y is defined as d ( x, y ) = max ( d1 (x1 ,x 2 ) , d 2 (h1 ,h2 ) )
where x = (x1 ,h1 ) , y = (x 2 ,h2 ) and x1 ,x 2 Î X , h1 ,h2 Î Y .
Proof.
Let ( xn ) be a Cauchy sequence in X ´ Y .
Then for any e > 0 , there is n0 Î ¥ such that " m, n > n0
æ æ (m) (n) ö æ (m) (n) ö ö
d ( xm , xn ) = max ç d1 ç x , x ÷ , d 2 ç h , h ÷ ÷ < e
è è ø è øø
æ (m) (n)
ö æ (m) (n)
ö
Þ d1 ç x , x ÷ < e and d 2 ç h , h ÷ < e " m, n > n0
è ø è ø
æ ö æ
(m) (1) (2) (3)
ö
This implies ç x ÷ = ç x , x , x ,K ÷ is a Cauchy sequence in X.
è ø è ø
æ ( m ) ö æ (1) (2) (3) ö
and ç h ÷ = ç h , h , h ,K ÷ is a Cauchy sequence in Y.
è ø è ø
(m) (m)
Since X and Y are complete therefore x ® x Î X (say) and h ® h Î Y (say)
Let x = (x , m ) then x Î X ´ Y .
æ æ (m) ö æ (m) ö ö
Also d ( xm , x ) = max ç d1 ç x ,x ÷ , d 2 ç h ,h ÷ ÷ ® 0 as n ® ¥ .
è è ø è øø
Hence xm ® x Î X ´ Y .
This proves completeness of X ´ Y .

v Theorem
f : ( X , d ) ® (Y , d ¢ ) is continuous at x0 Î X if and only if xn ® x implies
f ( xn ) ® f ( x0 ) .
Proof.
Assume that f is continuous at x0 Î X then for given e > 0 there is a d > 0
such that
d ( x, x0 ) < d Þ d ¢ ( f ( x), f ( x0 ) ) < e .
Let xn ® x0 , then for our d > 0 there is n0 Î ¥ such that
d ( xn , x0 ) < d , " n > n0
Then by hypothesis d ¢ ( f ( xn ), f ( x0 ) ) < e , " n > n0
i.e. f ( xn ) ® f ( x0 )
Conversely, assume that xn ® x0 Þ f ( xn ) ® f ( x0 )
We prove f : X ® Y is continuous at x0 Î X , suppose this is false
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 Metric Spaces 23

Then there is an e > 0 such that for every d > 0 there is an x Î X such that
d ( x, x0 ) < d but d ¢ ( f ( x), f ( x0 ) ) ³ e
1
In particular when d = , there is xn Î X such that
n
d ( xn , x0 ) < d but d ( f ( xn ), f ( x0 ) ) ³ e .
This shows that xn ® x0 but f ( xn ) ® f ( x0 ) as n ® ¥ .
This is a contradiction.
Consequently f : X ® Y is continuous at x0 Î X .
The proof is complete.

v Rare (or nowhere dense in X )

Let X be a metric, a subset M Ì X is called rare (or nowhere dense in X ) if M
( )
has no interior point i.e. int M = j .

v Meager ( or of the first category)

Let X be a metric, a subset M Ì X is called meager (or of the first category) if M
can be expressed as a union of countably many rare subset of X.

v Non-meager ( or of the second category)

Let X be a metric, a subset M Ì X is called non-meager (or of the second category)
if it is not meager (of the first category) in X.

v Example:
Consider the set ¤ of rationales as a subset of a real line ¡ . Let q Τ , then {q} = {q}
because ¡ - {q} = ( -¥, q ) È ( q, ¥ ) is open. Clearly {q} contain no open ball. Hence ¤ is
nowhere dense in ¡ as well as in ¤ . Also since ¤ is countable, it is the countable union
of subsets {q} , q Τ . Thus ¤ is of the first category.

v Bair’s Category Theorem

If X ¹ j is complete then it is non-meager in itself.
OR
A complete metric space is of second category.
Proof.
¥
Suppose that X is meager in itself then X = U M k , where each M k is rare in X.
k =1
o
Since M 1 is rare then int( M ) = M = j
i.e. M 1 has non-empty open subset
But X has a non-empty open subset ( i.e. X itself ) then M 1 ¹ X .
c
This implies M 1 = X - M 1 is a non-empty and open.
and an open ball B1 = B ( p1; e1 ) Ì M 1 , where e1 < 1 .
c c
We choose a point p1 Î M 1
2

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24 Metric Spaces

c
Now M 2 is non-empty and open
æ 1 ö
Then $ a point p2 Î M 2 and open ball B2 = B ( p2 ; e 2 ) Î M 2 Ç B ç p1; e1 ÷
c c

è 2 ø
c æ 1 ö
( M 2 has no non-empty open subset then M 2 Ç B ç p1; e1 ÷ is non-empty and open.)
è 2 ø
c æ 1 ö
So we have chosen a point p2 from the set M 2 Ç B ç p1; e1 ÷ and an open ball
è 2 ø
1 1 1
B ( p2 , e 2 ) around it, where e 2 < e1 < × < 2-1 .
2 2 2
Proceeding in this way we obtain a sequence of balls Bk such that
æ 1 ö
Bk +1 Ì B ç pk ; e k ÷ Ì Bk where Bk = B ( pk ; e k ) " k = 1, 2,3,.......
è 2 ø
Then the sequence of centres pk is such that for m > n
1 1
d ( pm , pn ) < e m < m +1 ® 0 as m ® ¥ .
2 2
Hence the sequence ( pk ) is Cauchy.
Since X is complete therefore pk ® p Î X (say) as k ® ¥ .
Also
d ( pm , p ) £ d ( pm , pn ) + d ( pn , p )
1
< e m + d ( pn , p )
2
< e m + d ( pn , p ) ® e m + 0 as n ® ¥ .
(
Q Bm = M 2 Ç B pm-1; 12 e m-1 )
c c
Þ p Î Bm " m i.e. p Î M m " m
c
Þ Bm Ì M m Þ Bm Ç M m = j
Þ pÏ Mm " m Þ pÏ X
This is a contradiction.
Bair’s Theorem is proof.

References: (1) Lectures (2003-04)

Prof. Muhammad Ashfaq
Ex Chairman, Department of Mathematics.
University of Sargodha, Sargodha.
(2) Book
Introductory Functional Analysis with Applications
By Erwin Kreyszig (John Wiley & Sons. Inc., 1989.)

These notes are available online at http://www.mathcity.org in PDF Format.

Last update: July 01, 2011.

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