Ankit pratap singh Assignment 2 Roll no -04

QUES 1:- Explain Parametric representation and Non-parametric

representation of curves in detail.

ANS:- Parametric form

A parametric curve is one whose defining equations are in terms of

a simple, common independent variable known as parametric
variable.

In the parametric form, the representation is done by a set of

functions. A curve may be represented by

x = x (u)

y = y (u)

z = z (u)

where x, y, z are co-ordinates of the points on the curve which are

functions of some parameter u and the parametric variable is
constrained in the interval. For example, a point (x, y) is located at
an angle θ from +X axis on a circle with centre at (0, 0) and radius
= 1 can be described in parametric form as:

x = Cos θ

y = Sin θ

where θ is the parameter. Surfaces are described similarly for

which x, y and z are functions two independent parameters u and
v. Parametric design is very popular in computer aided design for a
variety of reasons, which are listed below:

• Separation of variables
• Each variable is treated alike
• More degrees of freedom/control
• Parametric equations can be transformed directly
• Infinite slopes can be handled without computational
breakdown
• Easy to express as vectors
• Amenable to plotting and digitizing
• Inherently bounded

Nonparametric form

For a nonparametric curve, the coordinates y and z of a point on

the curve are expressed

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as two separate functions of the third coordinate x as the

independent variable.

P= [x y z]T =[x f(x) g(x)]T nonparametric explicit form

F(x,y,z)=0

G(x,y,x)=0 nonparametric implicit form

There are three problems with describing curves using nonparametric

equations:

• If the slope of a curve at a point is vertical or near vertical,

its value becomes infinity or very large.
• Shapes of most engineering objects are intrinsically
independent of any coordinate system.
• If the curve is to be displayed as a series of point or straight-
line segments, the computations involved could be extensive.
• In parametric form, each point on a curve is expressed as a
function of a parameter u.

The parametric equation for a three-dimensional curve in space takes

the following vector form:

P(u)=[x y z]T = [x(u) y(u) z(u)]T , umin ≤ u ≤ umax

Ques 2:- Describe types of wire frame entities in brief.

Ans:- In wire frame modeling the object is represented by its edges.

In the initial stages of CAD, wire frame models were in 2-D.
Subsequently 3-D wire frame modeling software was introduced.
The wire frame model of a box is shown in Fig. 6.2 (a). The object
appears as if it is made out of thin wires. Fig. 6.2(b), 6.2(c) and
6.2(d) show three objects which can have the same wire frame
model of the box. Thus in the case of complex parts wire frame
models can be confusing. Some clarity can be obtained through
hidden line elimination. Though this type of modeling may not
provide unambiguous understanding of the object, this has been
the method traditionally used in the 2-D representation of the
object, where orthographic views like plan, elevation, end view etc
are used to describe the object graphically.

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Fig. Ambiguity in Wire Frame Modeling

A comparison between 2-D and 3-D models is given below:

2 - D Models 3-D Wire Frame Models

Ends (vertices) of lines are
representedby their X and Y
coordinates
Curved edges are represented
by circles, ellipses, splines etc.
Additional views and sectional
views are necessary to
represent a complex object
with clarity.
3-D image reconstruction is
tedious.
Uses only one global coordinate
system
Ends of lines are represented by
their X, Y and Z coordinates.
Curved surfaces are
represented by suitably spaced
generators. Hidden line or
hidden surface elimination is a
must to interpret complex
components correctly
2-D views as well as various
pictorial views can be
generated easily.
May require the use of several
user coordinate systems to
create features on different
faces of the component.

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Ques 3:- Explain Hermit Cubic spline in detail.

Ans:- Hermite cubic curve is also known as parametric cubic curve,

and cubic spline. This curve is used to interpolate given data
points that result in a synthetic curve, but not a free form, unlike
the Bezier and B-spline curves, The most commonly used cubic
spline is a three-dimensional planar curve (not twisted). The curve
is defined by two data points that lie at the beginning and at the
end of the curve, along with the slopes at these points. It is
represented by a cubic polynomial. When two end points and their
slopes define a curve, the curve is called a Hermite cubic curve.
Several cubic splines can be joined together by imposing the slope
continuity at the common points. In design applications, cubic
splines are not as popular as the Bezier and B-spline curves. There
are two reasons for this:
The curve cannot be modified locally, i.e. when a data point is
moved, the entire curve is affected, resulting in a global control,
as shown in the figure.
The order of the curve is always constant (cubic), regardless of the
number of data points. Increase in the number of data points
increases shape flexibility, however, this requires more data
points, creating mote splines, which are joined together (only two
data points and slopes are utilized for each spline).

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Ques 4:- Explain Bezier curves with its characteristics in detail.

Ans:- Bezier curves, developed by P.Bezier at Ranault Automobile

Company and P. de Casteljau at Citreon, France are used for curve
and surface design of automobile panels. A Bezier curve is blended
at the joints and is completely defined by four consecutive points
(X0, Y0), (X1,y1), (X2,Y2), (X3,Y3). The curve passes only through the
first and fourth point. The two intermediate points are used to
define the slope of the curve at the end points. If X0, X1, X2 and X3
are the X- co-ordinates of the control points, it is assumed that :

• The curve passes through the end points X0 and X3

• The slope at the points are:

X’(0) = 3(X1 – X0)

X’(1) = 3(X3– X2)

Using these properties, the coefficients of Bezier curve for x term can
be expressed as :

The cubic polynomial x(t) in the Bezier form can be expressed as :

The advantages of Bezier curve over cubic spline is that the

direction of the curve at the joints can be defined and changed
simply by specifying the position of the second and third data
points. Changing a control point not only affects the shape of the
curve near the control point but has an influence throughout the
curve. This lack of local control is a major weakness of Bezier
curve. Fig. shows Bezier cubic segments for two sets of values of
X.

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Fig. Bezier Curve

The Bezier cubic segment discussed above is a special case of the

more general Bezier polynomial curve segment

where u ∈ [0,1]

With blending functions: Bi,n (u) = C(n,i) ui (1 – u)n-i

where n is the binomial coefficient

𝑛!
C (n, i ) = (n-1)!
𝑖!
and p(u) are the control points and there are n+1 of them defining
the vertices of the characteristic polygon.

Ques 5:- Describe constructive solid geometry & Boundary

representation.

Ans:- Constructive Solid Geometry (CSG)

In a CSG model, physical objects are created by combining basic

elementary shapes known as primitives like blocks, cylinders,
cones, pyramids and spheres. The Boolean operations like union (∪),
difference (–) and intersection ∩ are used to carry out this task.
For example, let us assume that we are using two primitives, a
block and a cylinder which are located in space as shown in Fig.

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Fig. CSG Operation

A “union” operation (A ∪ B) will combine the two to convert

them into a new solid.(Fig. (c)) The difference operation (A – B) will
create a block with a hole (Fig. (D)). An intersection operation (A ∩
B) will yield the portion common to the two primitives. (Fig. (E))

Boundary Representation

Boundary representation is built on the concept that a physical

object is enclosed by a set of faces which themselves are closed
and orientable surfaces. Fig. 6.6 shows a B-rep model of an object.
In this model, face is bounded by edges and each edge is bounded
by vertices. The entities which constitute a B-rep model are:

Geometric entities Topological entities

Point Vertex

Curve, line Edge

Surface Face

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A solid model is a 3-D representation of an object. It is an accurate

geometric description which includes not only the external
surfaces of part, but also the part’s internal structure. A solid
model allows the designer to determine information like the
object’s mass properties, interferences, and internal cross sections.

Solid models differ from wire frame and surface models in

the kind of geometric information they provide. Wire frame models
only show the edge geometry of an object. They say nothing about
what is inside an object. Surface models provide surface
information, but they too lack information about an object’s
internal structure. Solid models provide complete geometric
descriptions of objects.

Engineers use solid models in different ways at different

stages of the design process. They can modify a design as they
develop it. Since computer-based solid models are a lot easier to
change and manipulate than the physical mock-ups or prototypes,
more design iterations and modifications can be easily carried out
as a part of the design process. Using solid modeling techniques a
design engineer can modify a design several times while optimizing
geometry. This means that designers can produce more finished

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designs in less time than by using traditional design methods or 2-

D CAD drafting tools.

Solid models can be used for quick and reliable design

analysis. Solid models apart from geometric information provide
important data such as volume, mass, mass properties and centre
of gravity. The designer can also export models created to other
applications for finite element analysis (FEA), rapid prototyping
and other special engineering applications.

Finally designers can generate detailed production

drawings directly from the solid model. This capability increases
design productivity considerably. Another important feature of
solid modeling is associativity. Detailed drawings are linked to
solid model through the associativity feature. This is a powerful
function - as an engineer modifies a design, the drawings get
updated automatically. In bidirectional associativity, any
modifications made to geometry in the drawing are reflected in
the model. In more advanced design and manufacturing
environments, solid models are used for rapid prototyping and
automated manufacturing applications.

The salient features of the solid modeling approach to design

are discussed in the following sections.

Ques 6:- Describe feature operation with suitable sketch

Ans:- FEATURE-BASED DESIGN The most fundamental aspect in

creating a solid model is the concept of feature-based design. In
typical 2-D CAD applications, a designer draws a part by adding
basic geometric elements such as lines, arcs, circles and splines.
Then dimensions are added. In solid modeling a 3-D design is
created by starting a base feature and then adding other features,
one at a time, until the accurate and complete representation of
the part’s geometry is achieved.

A feature is a basic building block that describes the

design, like a keyway on a shaft. Each feature indicates how to
add material (like a rib) or remove a portion of material (like a cut
or a hole). Features adjust automatically to changes in the design
thereby allowing the capture of design intent. This also saves time
when design changes are made. Because features have the ability
to intelligently reference other features, the changes made will
navigate through design, updating the 3-D model in all affected

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areas. Figure shows a ribbed structure. It consists of feature like

ribs and holes.

Fig. A Ribbed Structure

Similarly, if a flanged part shown in Fig. (A) is to be created, the

one approach is to sketch the cross section as shown in Fig. (B)
and then revolve through 360°.

Fig. Flanged Part

In typical solid modeling software the designer can create a

feature in two basic ways. One is to sketch a section of the shape

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to be added and then extrude, revolve, or sweep it to create the

shape. These are called sketched features.

Another type of feature is the pick-and-place feature. Here

the designer simply performs an engineering operation such as
placing a hole, chamfering or rounding a set of edges, or shelling
out the modal.

An important component of every feature is its dimensions.

Dimensions are the variables that one changes in order to make
the design update automatically. When a dimension is changed the
solid modeling software recalculates the geometry.

Design of a part always begins with a base feature. This is a

basic shape, such as a block or a cylinder that approximates the
shape of the part one wants to design. Then by adding familiar
design features like protrusions, cuts, ribs, keyways, rounds, holes,
and others the geometry of a part is created.

This process represents true design. Unlike many CAD

applications in which designing means drawing a picture of the
part, working with the feature-based solid modeling method is
more like sculpting designs from solid material.

Features/available in typical solid modeling software are:

Extrude Revolve Thin

Blend Slot Cut

Protrusion Shaft Round

Hole Flange Rib

Chamfer Push Dome

Draft Ear Shell

Offset Lip

Pipe Sweep

MODELING TOOLS

When a 3-D model is built the designer describes the features

that make up a part. Parts are put together to make an assembly,
and then documentation is made.

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Sketching

The first step in creating many 3-D features is sketching a 2-D

section. Then by using appropriate instructions the design conveys
the information regarding how far to extend this section in a
space. The third dimension is created this way. For instance, a 30
mm circle extruded 50 mm through space produces a cylinder 30
mm diameter and 50 mm high. The circle is the sketched section of
the cylinder.

Creating Parts

As mentioned earlier solid modeler uses features such as cuts,

protrusions, holes, chamfers, and other basic shapes to build part
geometry. The designer gets the information about the geometry
of a feature (like the size and shape of cuts and protrusions), from
a sketcher window.

As the features are added the geometry of the part is

enhanced. By adding to geometry one feature at a time, parts with
very complex geometry can be created as shown in Fig.

Fig. Part with Complex Geometry

Many tools for modifying geometry, establishing relations

between features, and defining or modifying feature attributes are
provided in solid modeling softwares. Regardless of whether simple

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parts or complex ones are designed, part geometry is created and

modified in the same way.

Building Assemblies

Designs usually consist of several parts. Solid modelers can

put two or more parts together in an assembly. All the tools a
designer needs to build, modify, and verify assemblies are available
in solid modeling softwares.

Fig. Exploded View of an Assembly

Documenting Designs

The final step of designing a part or assembly is

communicating it in a medium other than the computer monitor’s
display. For some operations this means plotting out design
drawings. Solid modelers provide tools to produce finished
drawings complete with geometric tolerancing and text
annotation.

Drawings may not be the final step for everybody. Many

users export designs to other applications for analysis,
manufacturing, and other forms of post-processing. Modeling
software also will incorporate a variety of tools for exporting
designs to other softwares.

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