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Firearms Identification and Investigation Ballistics
Firearms Identification and Investigation Ballistics
Firearms Identification and Investigation Ballistics
INTRODUCTION
Ballistics (gr. ba'llein, "throw") is the science that deals with the motion, behavior, and effects
of projectiles, especially bullets, gravity bombs, rockets, or the like; the science or art of
designing and hurling projectiles so as to achieve a desired performance. A ballistic body is a
body which is free to move, behave, and be modified in appearance, contour, or texture by
ambient conditions, substances, or forces, as by the pressure of gases in a gun, by rifling in a
barrel, by gravity, by temperature, or by air particles.
Firearm ballistics information is used in forensic science. Separately from ballistics information,
firearm and tool mark examinations involve analyzing firearm, ammunition, and tool mark
evidence in order to establish whether a certain firearm or tool was used in the commission of
a crime.
1. Internal ballistics, the study of the processes originally accelerating the projectile, for
example the passage of a bullet through the barrel of a rifle;
2. Transition ballistics, the study of the projectile's behavior when it leaves the barrel and
the pressure behind the projectile is equalized.
3. External ballistics, the study of the passage of the projectile through space or the air;
and
4. Terminal ballistics, the study of the interaction of a projectile with its target, whether
that be flesh (for a hunting bullet), steel (for an anti-tank round), or even furnace slag (for an
industrial slag disruptor).
“Ballista” is a gigantic bow or catapult which was used to hurl large objects such as stones at a
particular distance to deter animals or enemy forces.
Today, the word Ballistics is frequently used synonymously in the press and in the Police
Parlance to Firearms Identification.
BALLISTICS
Technically speaking, it refers to the "science of fire¬arms identification which involves the
scientific examination of ballistics exhibits such as: fired bullets; fired shells; firearms; and allied
matters, used in crime.
Legally speaking, ballistics is the microscopic examination of fired cartridge cases and bullets
together with the recording and presentation by means of photography of what is revealed by
the microscope.
BALLISTICS THEORY
Ballistics is the scientific study of the propulsion and motion of projectiles such as bullets,
artillery shells, rockets and guided missiles. Also includes the study of the destructive action of
such projectiles.
The drag of a projectile moving head on is now usually divided into three parts:
INTERIOR BALLISTICS
It is the study of motion of projectiles within the gun barrel. The time during which the
projectile is influenced by Interior Ballistics is very short. From the release of the firing pin to
the moment the sound of the shot can be heard as it leaves the muzzle occupies only about
0.01 seconds, in a modern rifle.
Interior ballistics deals with the temperature, volume, and pressure of the gases resulting from
combustion of the propellant charge in the gun; it also deals with the work performed by the
expansion of these gases on the gun, its carriage, and the projectile. Some of the critical
elements involved in the study of interior ballistics are the relationship of the weight of charge
to the weight of projectile; the length of bore; the optimum size, shape, and density of the
propellant grains for different guns; and the related problems of maximum and minimum
muzzle pressures.
The British engineer Benjamin Robins conducted many experiments in interior ballistics. His
findings justly entitle him to be called the father of modern gunnery.
Late in the 18th century the Anglo-American physicist Benjamin Thompson made the first
attempt to measure the pressure generated by gunpowder. The account of his experiments was
the most important contribution to interior ballistics that had been made up to that time.
About 1760 French ballisticians determined the relationship of muzzle velocity to length of
barrel by measuring the velocity of a musket ball and cutting off a portion of the barrel before
taking the velocity of the next shot. By using the results of these experiments and advances in
chemistry and thermodynamics, ballisticians developed formulas showing the relationship
between muzzle velocity and weight and shape of projectile; weight, type, and grain size of
powder charge; pressure and temperature in the barrel; and the size of the powder chamber
and the length of the barrel.
EXTERIOR BALLISTICS
Exterior Ballistics deals with the motion of projectiles from the time they leave the muzzle of
the firearm to the time they hit the target. The flight of most bullet or projectile does not
exceed 30 seconds at maximum range, which for almost any firearms is obtained at an
elevation of about 33.
In exterior ballistics, elements such as shape, caliber, weight, initial velocities, rotation, air
resistance, and gravity help determine the path of a projectile from the time it leaves the gun
until it reaches the target.
Until the middle of the 16th century it was believed that bullets move in straight lines from the
gun to the target and that shells fired from mortars describe a path made up of two straight
lines joined by an arc of a circle. The Italian mathematician Niccolò Tartaglia, in a published
work on gunnery, claimed that no part of the path of a projectile could be a straight line and
that the greater the velocity of the projectile the flatter its path. Tartaglia invented the gunner's
quadrant used to determine elevation of the muzzle of a gun. He is and Italian scientist who a
book in which he said that the trajectory of a bullet was really a continuous curve. He directed
some firing tests to determine this angle, and discovered that it was near 45 degrees and he
noted that the trajectory was continuously curve.
Galileo proved that in a vacuum a projectile describes a parabolic arc. The description of the
law of gravitation by the British scientist Sir Isaac Newton made plain the cause of the
curvilinear motion of projectiles. By the use of calculus he determined the momentum
transferred from the projectile to the particles of air at rest; this method of calculating air drag
has been superseded by the use of tables prepared from experimental firings.
Two methods have been used to determine the velocity of a projectile after it leaves the gun.
One method measures the momentum of the projectile; the other measures the time required
for the projectile to travel a given distance. The first method is the older, and in the past, when
guns and projectiles were small, velocities low, and ranges short, the results were sufficiently
accurate for most practical purposes. The ballistic pendulum and gun pendulum were used to
measure projectile momentum, but these devices have been supplanted by cheaper and more
accurate machines working on the principles of the second method.
The ballistic pendulum was developed about 1743 by Robins, who was the first to undertake a
systematic series of experiments to determine the velocity of projectiles. The principle of the
ballistic pendulum, as well as of the gun pendulum, which was developed by Thompson, is the
transfer of momentum from a projectile with a small mass and a high velocity to a large mass
with a resultant low velocity.
The ballistic pendulum consisted of a massive plate of iron to which was bolted a block of wood
to receive the impact of the projectile; the pendulum was suspended freely from a horizontal
axis. The block, when struck by the projectile, recoiled through a certain arc that was easily
measured. Knowing the arc of recoil and the masses of the projectile and the pendulum, the
velocity of the projectile could be determined by calculation. The ballistic pendulum was able to
withstand the impact of musket balls only; however, by determining the relations that should
exist between the caliber, length of barrel, and charge of power, Robins substantially advanced
the science of gunnery.
By the second method, the velocity of a projectile is determined by measuring the time
required for it to travel a known length of its path. Numerous machines have been devised for
this purpose; in 1840 the British physicist Sir Charles Wheatstone suggested the use of
electricity for measuring small intervals of time. This suggestion led to the development of the
chronograph, a device for recording, by electrical means, the time required for a projectile to
pass between two screens of fine wire.
The formulas and tables for the exterior ballistics of each new type of gun or cannon are more
or less empirical and must be tested by actual experiment before the aiming devices can be
accurately calibrated.
Further, exterior (external) ballistics refers to the attributes and movements of the bullet after
it has left the gun muzzle. It includes:
1. Muzzle blast - the noise created at the muzzle point of the gun due to the sudden
escape of the expanding gas coming in contact with the air in the surrounding atmos¬phere at
the muzzle point.
2. Muzzle energy - energy generated at the muzzle point.
3. Trajectory - the actual curved path of the bullet during its flight from the gun muzzle to
the target. The following are the kinds of trajectory: straight horizontal line - parabola-like
flight - vertical drop
4. Range - the straight distance between the muzzle point and the target.
a. Accurate (effective) range - the distance within the shooter has control of his shots,
meaning he can place his shots at the desired spots.
b. Maximum range - the farthest distance that a projec¬tile can be propelled from a
firearm.
* While the range at which the ordinary pistol and revolver are supposed to be effective in only
50-70 yards, all of them can send their bullets much further than that and are capable of
inflicting fatal wounds at distances up to one mile, depending on the caliber and gunpowder
content.
Long barrel rifle – up to 3,000 yards accurate range and its hinge muzzle velocity of 1000-4000
ft./sec.
* Bullets from rifled weapons spin at 2000-3000 revolutions per second, but over the first few
yards of trajectory – distance varies with the weapon – their flight is slightly unstable; the end
of the projectile wobbles before it picks up a smooth flight path. This phenomenon is called
“TAILWAG”, and is of considerable important in evaluating gunshot wounds. A bullet with
“tailwag” does not strike its target clearly.
1. Accuracy Range – The maximum distance at which a particular gun and cartridges will
consistently place all shots in the standard target for that distance.
2. Accurate Range – The distance within which the shooter has control of his shots.
3. Back Curve - This is that portion of the bullets trajectory that drops below the critical
zone beyond the point blank range. Past this point the trajectory begins to drop off very rapidly
with range and the point of impact becomes very difficult to estimate.
4. Ballistic Coefficient – The means that the bullet may lose its speed very rapidly during its
flight the air. This is a number that relates to the effect of air drag on the bullet's flight and
which can be used to later predict a bullet's trajectory under different circumstances through
what are called "drag tables."
5. Bullet Energy – the power possessed by a moving bullet, or in other words, its ability to
keep going when it meets an obstacle and to do work on the obstacle is immense importance,
for obviously the more power a bullet has an the harder it is to stop the more effective it can be
as a weapon
6. Bullet Trajectory - This is the bullet's path as it travels down range. It is parabolic in
shape and because the line of the bore is below the line of sight at the muzzle and angled
upward, the bullet's path crosses the line of sight at two locations.
7. Critical Zone - This is the area of the bullet's path where it neither rises nor falls greater
than the dimension specified. Most shooters set this as ± 3" to 4" from the line of sight,
although other dimensions are sometimes used. The measurement is usually based on one-half
of the vital zone of the usual target. Typical vital zones diameters are often given as: 3" to 4" for
small game, and 6" to 8" for big game and anti-personnel use.
8. Drift - is the curve taken by the bullet while in flight. A right hand rifling curves to the
right while that of the left and rifling curves to the left.
9. Effective Range- The maximum distance at which a bullet may reasonably be expected
to travel accurately and kill a particular type of live targe
10. Extreme Range – The greatest distance the bullet will travel when the cartridge is fired.
11. Flat Trajectory - A comparative term used to indicate very little curvature in the flight in
the bullet from muzzle to point of impact. When the velocity is high, comparatively flat
trajectory.
12. Gallery Range - The indoor target range. National rifle association of America, gallery
rules required stance from firing point to target of 50 feet or 75 feet for.22 rim fire riffle; 50 feet
or 60 feet for .22rim-fire pistols. On properly constructed indoor ranges, firing may be
conducted with center fire pistol and revolvers at ranges of 25 yards and 50 yards. Such
installation are generally referred to as “indoor range” the term “gallery” being applied usually
only to the short range .22 caliber installation.
13. Gallery Range - The indoor target range. National rifle association of America, gallery
rules required stance from firing point to target of 50 feet or 75 feet for.22 rim fire riffle; 50 feet
or 60 feet for .22rim-fire pistols. On properly constructed indoor ranges, firing may be
conducted with center fire pistol and revolvers at ranges of 25 yards and 50 yards. Such
installation are generally referred to as “indoor range” the term “gallery” being applied usually
only to the short range .22 caliber installation.
14. Initial Point - The range at which the bullet's trajectory first crosses the line of sight. This
is normally occurs at a range of about 25 yards.
15. Instrument Velocity - the velocity of a projectile measured by the scientific instrument
called chronograph, at a specified point on its trajectory. Always lower than the muzzle velocity.
16. Key-hole Shot – the tumbling of the bullet in its flight and hitting the target sideways as
a result of not spinning on its axis.
17. Maximum Point Blank Range - This is the farthest distance at which the bullet's path
stays within the critical zone. In other words the maximum range at which you don't have to
adjust your point of aim to hit the target's vital zone. Unless there is some over riding reason to
the contrary shots should not generally be attempted much past this distance. In the words of
the Guru, "It is unethical to attempt to take game beyond 300 meters." If you do, you should
write yourself a letter explaining why it was necessary to do so. An approximate rule of thumb
says that the maximum point blank range is approximately your zero range plus 40 yards.
18. Maximum Range – the farthest distance that a projectile can be propelled from a
firearm.
19. Maximum Ordinate - This is the maximum height of the projectile's path above the line
of sight for a given point of impact and occurs somewhat past the halfway point to the zero
range and it is determined by your zeroing range.
20. Mid-range Trajectory - This is the height of the bullets path above the line of sight at half
way to the zero range. It does not occur at the same range as the maximum ordinate height
which can be greater.
21. Minute of Angle (MOA) - A "minute" of angle is 1/60 of a degree which for all practical
purposes equates to 1 inch per 100 yards of range. Thus 1 MOA at 100 yards is 1 inch and at
300 yards it is 3 inches. The term is commonly used to express the accuracy potential of a
firearm.
22. Point Blank Range – Popularly used to indicate the distance the bullet will travel before
it drops enough to require sight adjustment. A short fired so closed to the target that no
sighting is necessary for effective aiming.
23. Ricochet – The bouncing off or deflection of a bullet from its original trajectory (normal
path) after striking a resistant surface.
24. Shocking Power – the power of the bullet that results in the instantaneous death of the
victim.
25. Stopping Power – the power of the bullet that put the victim out of action instantly. So it
should be understood that stopping power is not necessarily the same thing as killing power.
However, stopping power depends very largely on the location of the sot.
26. Target – an object at which the firearm is aimed and discharged.
27. True Drop – the actual distance the bullet falls during the time of flight to the target.
This is not the same as what we speak of when we discuss drop in the ordinary sense, which is
more properly termed effective or apparent drop
28. Zero Range - This is the farthest distance at which the line of sight and the bullet's path
intersect.
TERMINAL BALLISTICS
It is the study dealing with the effect of the impact of the bullet on the target. Penetration of
the bullet is of prime interest. Penetration is important also in determining safety requirements
for target backstops. They are important to both sportsman and military.
Terminal ballistics also deals with the destructive actions and effects that occur at the end of
the projectile's flight as an integral and un-de¬formed body. The flight may end in one of two
ways:
SHOTS BALLISTICS - deals with the attributes and properties of shots and pellets.
CHOKE - When the diameter of a barrel of a shotgun is the same throughout the bore, it is
called true cylinder.
The bore of the gun is sometimes constricted near the muzzle end. That is, the diameter near
the muzzle end is slightly smaller than the diameter of the bore of the rest of the barrel. The
barrel is said to be choked.
Full – if reduced by one mm; half if reduced by one-half mm; quarter if reduced by ¼ mm; and
improved cylinder if reduced by about 1/10 mm.
The amount of spread in the shot is controlled by the choke. If a barrel will put 70 percent of its
shot charge in a 30-inch (76-centimeter) circle at 40 yards (37 meters), it is called full choke.
Modified choke will deliver about 60 percent; improved cylinder about 50 percent. A full choke
12-gauge gun will kill ducks that are about 60 to 65 yards (55 to 59 meters) away.
Chilled Shot – shotgun pellets made from lead especially hardened by the addition of a slight
amt. of antimony.
Gunshot Wound (GSW). It is an open wound produced by the penetration of bullet slug within
the tissues of the body. The bullet which was pro¬pelled from the gun as well as the flame from
the heated expanded gases in short range fire is the one that produces injury.
1. Contact – gun muzzle pressed against, or within an inch or two, of the body.
2. Close discharge – 6 inches to 2 ft.
3. Distance Discharge – over 2 ft. or 3 ft.
1. Muzzle Pattern – indicates contact wound and are often observed in suicide cases. The
whole charge (projectile, wads, if any, smoke, unburnt or semi-burnt powder particles and hot
gases) enter into the target. No burning, blackening and tattooing are observed. Instead, they
are observed inside the hole through careful examination. The edges are found ragged (torn in
star shape) and the wound is like an exit wound.
2. Scorching – caused by the flame or hot gases not by the hot projectiles as is commonly
believed. It is also known as burning or charring.
3. Blackening – caused by the deposition of smoke particles by all types of powders at
close ranges. Being light particles, they soon lose their velocity and get deposited on any
material available in the path.
4. Tattooing (a.k.a. peppering) – caused by the embedding of unburnt and semi-burnt
powder particles into the surface of the target. These particles are slightly heavier than the
smoke particles. They retain motion to somewhat longer intervals and consequently cause
tattooing to a distance of about one and a-half times blackening range.
1. Pink Coloration – caused by absorbed carbon monoxide in the skin and flesh.
2. Dirt Ring – deposited by some projectile (which carry greases on them) around the
wound. Existence of this indicates the entrance side of a firearm injury & does not indicate
range.
3. Contusion – caused by the impact of the projectile (reddish dark to bluish black - varies
somewhat with the age of the injury). It takes the form of a belt around the wound. It is of
uniform in thickness.
4. Foreign Materials – Their presence not only permits the identification of the firearms
injury but they also permit a fairly reliable guess of firearm.
Factors influencing entrance and exit gunshot wounds
1. Kind of weapon - The higher power the weapon is the more destructive to the tissues of
the body.
2. Caliber of the weapon - The higher the caliber of the wounding bullet, the greater will
be the size of the wound of entrance, hence, greater destruction to the tissues.
3. Shape and composition of the missile - The conical shape free end of the bullet slug has
more penetrating power but less tissue destruction, while bullet slug with hemispherical free
end had less penetrating but more destruction to the tissues.
* Some bullets were made to be deformed upon heating the target like the hallow point,
dum-dum and soft point bullet. Bullets made of hard metals like the magnum 44 and the
armor-piercing bullet are not usually deformed upon hitting the target. Other bullets and the
fragments may cause further injury to the body. The tracer bullet is in flame during its flight to
the air and may caused burn upon hitting the body and this bullet is also used in targeting the
low flying airplane.
4. Range of fire - the injury is not only due to the missile but also due to the pressure of
the heated expanded gases, flame and articles of gunpowder. However, in long range fire, the
characteristic effect of the bullet alone will produce the injury.
5. Direction of fire - A right angle approach of the bullet to the body will produce a round
shape wound of entrance in short distance fire, while in acute angle of approach the bullet will
produce an oval shape wound of entrance with contusion collar widest on the side of the acute
angle of approach and a tendency for the bullet to deflect to another direction upon hitting the
target.
6. Part of the body involved - When the bullet hit the soft tissues of the body; the bullet
penetrates and usually without any change in direction, however upon hitting the bones and
other hard body structures the bullet may fracture the bones causing further injury or may
deflect to another direction.
Description of the wound of entrance is based on the distance of the body from the fired gun
1. Contact fire. This is burst due to the explosion of the powder which produces the
heated and expanded gases. There is burning of the tissues because it is within the flame zone;
singeing of the hair; and particles of gunpowder in and around the wound of entrance; skin is
separated from the underlying tissues in the affected area and the blasted tissues are cherry
red in color because of the presence of carbon monoxide; pressure of the bullet will caused
caving-in or excavation of tissues and the contusion collar is seen around the wound of
entrance. The size of the wound is rather small.
2. Near contact up to six inches distance. There is bursting of tissues, burning and
blackening of the skin as in contact fire but the particles of gunpowder are present inside as
well as around the wound of entrance. The shape of the wound maybe lacerated or slit-like
and the size is larger than the diameter of the missile. The excavation of tissues due to the
pressure of the penetrating bullet slug but it can be severe as in contact fire.
3. Distance above six inches up to 24 inches. The size of the wound gradually
approximates the size of the missile. The farther the target, the lesser the burning or
blackening of tissues, gun powder tattooing, singeing of the hair and excavation of tissues and
lesser until they disappear beyond the 24 inches distance.
Differential points
Take note:
Shotgun Wound - It is an open wound produced by the penetration of pellets or shots within
the tissues of the body. In shotgun fire, the pellets penetrate and usually lodged inside the
body and a tendency for a wider dispersion of pellets at a certain distance except in contact and
near contact fires.
1. Contact fire - irregular with bursting of the affected tissues due to explosion of the
heated and expanded with accompanying flame causing burning of the skin and the tissues.
There is singeing of the hair; presence of wads and particles of gunpowder inside the wound of
entrance.
2. Near shot up to six inches distance. There is marked laceration of the skin and
destruction of tissues due to the pressure of explosion. The burning on the surface of the skin
and particles of gunpowder are present inside and around the wound of entrance. There is
singeing of the hair as well as pieces of wads inside and outside the wound of entrance.
3. Distance about one yard. The pellets penetrate the tissues as one mass making the
wound with irregular edge of the wound of entrance. There will also be blackening of tissues
with slight burn¬ing, singeing of the hair or gunpowder tattooing.
4. Distance about two to three yards. The wound of entrance has a big central hole with
ragged edges and a few stray wounds of entrance around the central hole. At this distance,
there will be no more blackening or burn¬ing of the skin, gunpowder tattooing, singeing of the
hair and pieces of wads or near the wound of entrance.
5. Distance of four yards. A small group of pellets may penetrate the tissues producing a
central core, although plenty of pellets in a wider dispersion may produced separate wound of
entrance. The pellets dispersed about one and a half the distance in yards in non-choked barrel
while in full-choked bore the disper¬sion is one half less but there is a wider dispersion in short
barrel shotgun.
1. Hemorrhage – Bleeding. It is the loss of blood from the ruptured vessel secondary to
trauma or existing pathology.
2. Direct mechanical injury - This is the direct damage to the tissues
3. Shock - It is disturbance of the balance of fluid in the body characterized by fall in blood
pressure, decreases blood flow or blood volume in the body.
4. Infection. It is the appearance, growth and multiplication of the micro-organism in the
living tissues.
5. Embolism. It is the clogging of the blood vessel by foreign bodies such as air or bits of
fats or septic embolus causing blocking to the blood flow to the distal tissues supplied by the
blood.
Take Note:
SIR SYDNEY SMITH – founder of the Medico-Legal Faculty at Cairo University and later Regis
Professor of Forensic Medicine at Edinburgh, was one of the leading exponents in studying
entrance and exit wounds, powder burns and powder “tattooing” on human skin and other
medical phenomena associated with gun fire.
1857 – Monsieur Noiles. He published a thesis titled ‘Les Plaies Feu Courtes’. His thesis
dealt with the subject of wounds made by small firearms.
1889 – Mr. A. Lacassogne of Lyon, France. He published a paper tided “La Deformation
Des Balles de Revolver” (Deformation of Revolver Bullets) in Volume 5. Archives de
l’Antropologie Criminelle et Des Sciences Penales.
1748 - Henry Shrapnel. He invented the shrapnel, which disperse its load of case shot
whit a small bursting charge, increasing the effective range of case.
Anomynous author. Published a thesis an article entitled “Entrance Wounds and
Powder Markings”.
Mr. Louis B. Wilson. He published an article entitle “Dispersion of Bullet Energy in
Relation to Wound Effects”.
P. Chavigny and E. Gelma. They authored an article entitled “Fissures of the Skull by
Revolver Bullets at short-range”.
J. Howard Mathews. Chairman of the Department of Chemistry at the University of
Wisconsin. In this first criminal case, he was involved on the metallographic analysis of bomb
parts used to kill an individual.
FORENSIC BALLISTICS
It is the study of Firearm Investigation and Identification of firearms by means of ammunition
fired through them. This is the real branch of the science which the police use as their guide in
field investigations. This includes the following:
1. Field Investigations - conducted by the first officers on the case in the field when they
investigate a case or cases wherein firearms have been used. This is a routine job of the
investigating officers, and this involves recognition, collection, marking, preservation, and
transmittal of ballistics exhibits like fired bullets, fired shells, firearms and allied matters.
2. Technical examinations of the ballistics exhibits - This is the job performed by the
firearms examiners in the laboratory. It involves marking of the evidence firearms, test firings
of evidence firearms to obtain test bullets and test shells for comparative purposes,
photomicrography under the bullet comparison microscope, preparation of comparative charts,
and the making of reports on the findings and observations of the firearms examiners.
3. Legal proceedings - Court Trials - wherein the ballistics report of the firearm examiner
and the ballistics exhibits are presented during the trial of the case in a court of justice.
Take Note:
FORUM – It is a Latin word from which forensic was derived, meaning a marketplace, where
people gather for "public disputation" or "public discussion". Thus, the title "Forensic Ballistics"
aptly describes the subject under consideration - the science of investigation and identification
of firearms and ammunitions used in crimes. The terms "Ballistics", Forensic Ballistics" and
"Firearms Identification", have come to mean one and the same thing in the minds of the
public, and they can be used interchangeably.
1835 - Henry Goddard. In one of his case in England, where a homemaker was shot and
killed, he was able to identify the mold mark – the mold is used to manufacture lead balls from
molten leads – on the field projectile. He was the bullet, which could be traced back to the
mold. He also examined the paper patch – the paper patch provides the seal between the ball
gunpowder firearms – was able to identify it as having been torn from a newspaper that was
found on the room of the guilty servant.
Paul Jesrich. He took photomicrographs of two bullets to compare, and subsequently
individualize them through the minute differences.
1905 - Mr. Kockel. He published an article entitled “The Expert Examination of Fired
Bullets”.
1912 - Professor V. Baltahazard. He devised a series of procedures to identify fired
bullets to the firearms from which they were fired. He studied the firearms by taking an
elaborate series of photographs of test fired bullet from the firearms as well as evidence bullet.
He also applied these same specilalized photographic techniques to the examination and
identification of cartridge casings using firing pin, breech face, ejection and extractor marks.
1913 - Professor Balthazard. Published the first article individualizing bullet markings.
1922 - Mr. C. Williams. He wrote an article entitle “Fingerprints on Bullets” which
appeared in Outdoor Life magazine.
1920 - R.E. Herrick. He published an article entitled “Ballistics Jurisprudence”.
November 1924 – Dr Sydney Smith. He wrote an article concerning the details of the
investigating that appeared in the British Medical Journal in January 1926. He relates that he
believes that scientific examination of firearms and projectiles in Great Britain had its beginning
as a result of the publication of his report on the case.
1920 - COL CALVIN H. GODDARD (M.D., U.S. ARMY) pioneered the introduction of this
science in Criminology courses in the different universities.
1947 - Col Goddard came to the Philippines when Gen. Castaneda was ambushed
together with his aid, Col Salgado in Kamias, Quezon City, both died.
1924 – Captain Edward C. ‘Ned’ Crossman. A well-known shooter and sports writer,
examined firearms evidence for the Los Angeles County Sheriff in April 1925, in New York City,
New York (USA), THE Bureau of Forensic Ballistics was established by C.E. Waite, Major (later
Colonel) Calvin H. Goddard, Philip O. Gravelle and John H. Fisher.
1934 - Major Sir Gerald Burrard. He wrote a book entitled “The Identification of
Firearms and Forensic Ballistics”, which discussed many early cases that occurred throughout
the British Empire.
1935 Major Julian S. Hatcher. He wrote and published; “Textbook of Firearms
Investigation, Identification and Evidence” together with the “Textbook of Pistols and
Revolvers.”
1944 – John E. Davis. He joined the Police Department in Oakland, California
establishing its first criminology laboratory.
Derechter and Mage. They wrote an article entitled “Communication on the
Identification of Fired Bullets and Shells”.
Arthur Lucas. He published an article entitled “The Examination of Firearms and
Projectiles in Forensic Cases”.
Jack D. Gunther & Professor Charles O. Gunther. They published the entitled “The
Identification of Firearms”, which provided additional information about the principles of
firearms identification with approximately one-half of the book discussing in great detail the
Sacco-Vanzetti case to include reprinting large portions of the actual court transcript. They also
discussed the need for the science of firearm identification to utilize the scientific methodology.
1958 – John E. Davis. An eminent criminals and Director of the Oakland Police
Department (CA) Criminalistics Section (Crime Lab) wrote a book titled “An Introduction to Tool
Marks, Firearms and the Striagraph”. In his book, Davis provided excellent information about
the examination and identification of firearms and tool mark evidence.
1996 – Tom A. Warlow. He published a text on firearms identification titled “Firearms,
the Law and Forensic Ballistics”. Warlow has written a useful text that contains excellent
information for firearm and toolmark examiners.
1997 – Brian J. Heard. He published a text on firearms identification titled “Handbook of
Firearms and Ballistics Examining and Interpreting Forensic Evidence”.
FIREARMS
A firearm is a weapon that fires either single or multiple projectiles propelled at high velocity by
the gases produced through rapid, confined burning of a propellant. This process of rapid
burning is technically known as deflagration. In older firearms, this propellant was typically
black powder, but modern firearms use smokeless powder or other propellants.
The term gun is often used as a synonym for firearm, but in specialist use has a restricted sense
—referring only to an artillery piece with a relatively high muzzle velocity and a relatively flat
trajectory, such as a field gun, a tank gun, an anti-tank gun, or a gun used in the delivery of
naval gunfire.
Firearms are sometimes referred to as small arms. Small arms are weapons which can be
carried by a single individual, with a barrel bore of up to approximately 0.50 inch (12.7 mm).
Small arms are aimed visually at their targets by hand using optical sights. The range of
accuracy for small arms is generally limited to about one mile (1600 m), usually considerably
less, although the current record for a successful Sniper attack is slightly more than 1 1/2 miles.
Firearms or Arm (legal – Sec. 877 of the RAC and Sec. 290 of NIRC) – includes rifles,
muskets, carbines, shotguns, pistols, revolvers and all other weapons from which a bullet, a
ball, a shot, a shell or missiles may be discharged by means of gunpowder or other explosives.
The term also includes air rifles, except that are in small in caliber and usually used as toys. The
barrel of any firearm is considered a complete firearm for purposes of Section 877 of the
Revised Administrative Code.
Take Note:
Rifle – long rifle bored firearm designed to hit targets at a greater or longer distance,
with spiral grooves to fire only a single shot.
Musket – long smooth bored firearm that is designed to prepare a single shot.
Shotgun – long smooth bored firearm having a barrel of 25-30 inches long and designed
to shot birds in flight; long smooth bored firearm and breech loading designed to fire a number
of lead pellets or shot in one charge.
Carbine – s short barrel rifle, having a barrel not longer than 22 inches and it is designed
to fire a single shot through a rifled-bore, either semi-automatic or full automatic, for every
press of the trigger.
.22 – minimum caliber - .19 - .18 – if only used as toys, could not be considered as
firearm.
barrel of any firearm - Possession of any part of a firearm is considered a violation of
illegal possession of firearm (SCRA Dec. 11, 1992).
Firearm is any weapon that uses gunpowder to fire a bullet or shell. Generally, the term is used
for light firearms, such as rifles, shotguns, and pistols. They are often called small arms. Heavier
firearms are generally referred to as artillery.
Mechanism
1. Barrel – It is a long tube. It may be smooth, as in a shotgun, or with spiral grooves on the
inner surface, as in a rifle.
2. Chamber - It is a widened hole at the breech (rear) end of the barrel. It holds the
cartridge (explosive charge).
3. Breech mechanism - The breech mechanism closes the rear end of the barrel, holding
the cartridge in the chamber.
4. Every up-to-date firearm has some way by which the breech can be opened for loading
and locked for safety in firing. Artillery uses screw plugs or breechblocks. Machine guns, rifles,
and other small arms usually have a metal cylinder, or bolt, that is locked when the gun is fired,
and drawn back to eject (force out) the empty cartridge case and to reload.
5. Firing mechanism - The firing mechanism may be electric, as in some large artillery
pieces. In small arms, a spring drives a pointed firing pin through the breech bolt against a
sensitive primer in the cartridge. The firing pin is cocked (drawn back) against a hook called the
sear. When the trigger is pulled, the sear releases the firing pin, which in turn leaps forward to
strike the primer. A jet of flame from the primer ignites the rest of the powder, forming a gas.
This explosive gas propels the bullet from the barrel.
HANDGUN/SHORT ARMS
1. Pistol – a handgun that is magazine feed. It is said that pistols were invented in the
Italian town “PISTOIA.” Hence, the name pistol – arrived in Britain about 1515 as German
import.
2. Revolver – A handgun with a corresponding cylinder that revolves before the barrel
which consist of different chambers.
ORIGINS OF FIREARMS
* Most reference books credit Roger Bacon, English monk and scientist, with the invention of
gunpowder in 1248, and Berthold Schwartz, with the application of gun powder to the
propelling of a missile in the early 1300’s. This powder was that we now call “black powder”.
1118 – Moors used artillery against Zaragoza. Early manuscripts tell o fseveral Moorish
campaign in which artillery was used all dating prior to Bacon and Scwartz.
1245 – Gen. Batu, the Tartar leader used artillery in Liegnitz when he defeated the
Poles, Hungarians and Russians.
* It is also often stated that gunpowder was first invented by Chinese were aware of
gunpowder and its use as a propellant long before its advantage became recognized in Europe.
It may also assume the Arabs with their advance knowledge of chemistry at that time.
1247 – one of the earliest recorded uses of firearms in warfare was that o fan attack on
Seville, Spain.
1346 – Cannons used by King Edward III of England at Crecy
1453 – Mohammed II of Turkey in his famous conquest of Constantinople.
1500 AD - French Artist LEONARDO DA VINCE as can be gleaned in his sketch of steam
powered cannon to his primitive wheel lock firearm.
* First firearms were inefficient, large and heavy and were not capable of being carried by an
individual soldier hence; the development of cannons preceded that of small arm weapons by
almost 50 years.
> STONES > CLUBS > KNIVES > SPEARS AND DARTS > SLINGSHOTS TO HURL OBJECTS > BOWS
AND ARROWS > CROSS-BOWS >GUNS > MISSILES
Col. Calvin H. Goddard, Md., OS, U.S. Army – Father of Modern Ballistics
Horace Smith – Founded the great firm Smith & Wesson and pioneered the making of
breech-loading riffles.
Daniel B. Wesson – An associate or partners of Smith in revolver making.
John M. Browning – Wizard of modern firearms and pioneered the breech loading single
shot riffle.
John T. Thompson – Pioneered the making of Thompson Sub-machine gun.
David “Carbine” Williams – maker of first known carbine.
Alexander John Forsyth – Father of the percussion ignition.
Elisha King Root – Designed machinery of making Colt firearms.
Eliphalet Remington – one of the first riffle makers.
John Mahlon Marlin – founder of Marlin Firearms Company.
James Wolfe Ripley – Stimulated the development of the Model 1855 riffled-musket.
Samuel Colt (1814-1862) - of Hartford, Connecticut, produced the first practical revolver
bringing it to what most gunsmiths would agree was its perfect form in the Colt Army 1873
model, which became famous for its .45 caliber.
Other manufacturers followed Colt’s lead: Remington and Smith and Wesson in the US.,
Adams and Scott-Webley in BRITAIN, Star, Luger, Browning and Beretta on the CONTINENT,
until revolvers were in used in every part of the world.
Henry Derringer – He gave his name to a whole class of firearms (Riffles and pistols)
John C. Garand – Designed and invented the semi-automatic US Riffle, Cal. .30 MI
Oliver F. Winchester – one of the earliest riffles and pistol makers.
John Dreyse (1841) - Invented a breech-loading infantry rifle, the so called needle gun
because of its long sharp firing pin.
Maj. Cavalli of Sardina (1845) - He develop a serviceable breech loading artillery rifle.
Carl Walther (1866) - Develop a reliable small caliber automatic Pistol.
Paul Withelm Mauser (1871) - Produced parts of the rifle which had been adopted by
the German government.
Sergei Mossin (1891) - Designed the Russian Service rifle.
Kijiro Nambu (1904) - An army gun designer whose design was first produced by the
Kayoba factory.
Charles Dorchester & George Sullivan (1950) - Formed the Armalite business.
1313 – Gunpowder as a Propellant. The age of gunpowder began with its first use as a
propellant for a projectile. Such use has been recorded as early as 1313.
1350 – Small Arms. Gunpowder was first used only in cannons. It was in the middle of the 14th
century that portable hand firearms were introduced. These guns were ignited by a hand-held
hot wire or lighted match.
1498 – Riflings. The first reference to riffled barrels appeared. Although it’s important as an aid
to accuracy was recognized by some, it was a year after before riffling was generally used.
1575 – Cartridge. Paper cartridge combining both powder and ball were developed. This
greatly speeded loading and reduced the hazards of carrying loose powder.
1807 – Percussion System. The discovery of Forsyth in 1807 that certain compounds detonated
by a blast would be used to ignite the charge in a firearm, for the basis for all later percussion
and cartridge to come into general use.
1845 - Rimfire Cartridge. In France, Flobert developed a “bullet breech cap” which was in reality
the first rim fire cartridge.
1858 – Center fire Cartridge. The Morse cartridge o f1858 marked the beginning of the rapid
development of the center fire cartridge.
1884 – Automatic machine-gun. Hiram Maxim built the first fully automatic gun, utilizing the
recoil of the piece of load and fire the next charge.
1885 – Smokeless Powder. In France, Vieille developed the first satisfactory smokeless powder,
a new propellant which not only lacked the smoke characteristic of black powder, but also more
powerful.
Generally, the principles involved in all firearms action are the same. When the firearm
is cocked and ready to fire, a pull on the trigger will cause the firing pin of the hammer to hit
the percussion cap of the cartridge in the firing chamber which is aligned with the rear portion
of the barrel. The hit by the firing pin on the percussion cap will cause generation of a sufficient
heat capable of igniting the primer.
The primer will in turn ignite the gunpowder or propellant which will cause evolution of gases
under pressure and temperature. The marked expansion of the gases will force the projectile
forward with certain velocity.
Owing to presence of the rifling at the inner wall of the bore, the barrel offers some degree of
resistance to the projectile. In as much as the riffling is arranged in a spiral manner, the
projectile will produce a spinning movement as it comes out in the muzzle.
Together with the bullet passing out of the barrel are high pressure heated gases, unburned
powder grains with flame and smoke.
During explosion, there is a backward kick of the firearm which in automatic firearm cause the
cocking and the cartridge cause thrown out by the ejector. The backward movement is called
recoil of the firearm.
RIFLING
Rifling refers to spiral grooves that have been formed into the barrel of a firearm. It is the
means by which a firearm imparts a spin to a projectile to gyroscopically stabilize it to improve
accuracy. Most rifling is created by either cutting with a machine tool, pressed by a tool called a
"button" or forged into the barrel over a "mandrel". The grooves are the spaces that are cut
out, and the resulting ridges are called 'lands'. These lands and grooves can vary in number,
depth, shape, direction of twist ('right' or 'left'), and 'twist rate' (turns per unit of barrel length).
The spin imparted by rifling significantly improves the stability of the projectile, improving both
range and accuracy.
It consists of the number of the helical grooves cut on the surface of the bore, it includes the
lands and grooves are running parallel with one another concentrically.
* Sporting Rifle
As a bullet is fired from a rifle, grooves in the interior of the barrel cause it to spin. The spinning
motion stabilizes the bullet and increases its distance and accuracy. This illustration shows a
modern hunting rifle and highlights its main components.
Take Note:
Recent developments - The grooves most commonly used in modern rifling have fairly sharp
edges. More recently, polygonal rifling has become popular, as it seems to produce better
accuracy due to the fact that it does not damage the bullet as badly as conventional rifling.
Polygonal barrels also tend to have longer service lives because the reduction of the sharp
edges of the land reduces flame erosion. Higher velocities may be generated due to a reduction
of friction and an improvement of the gas seal between the bullet and barrel. A disadvantage of
polygonal rifling is that if simple lead bullets are used, lead from the bullet tends to accumulate
in the barrel (called leading) resulting in a dirty barrel, poor accuracy, and if the leading
becomes severe, excessive chamber pressure which could cause a barrel or locking failure.
Polygonal rifling is currently seen on most pistols from GLOCK and Kahr Arms.
The caliber of the firearm is the diameter of the bore of the barrel measured from land
to land in rifled firearm. It is expressed in inches or fraction of an inch by the American and
English manufacturers and millimeters or in centimeters there by manufacturers in Continental
Europe.
THE RIFLE
The rifle, invented about 1500, had spiral grooves in the barrel that made it more accurate than
any previous firearm. Smokeless powder was developed in the 1800's. Breechloading systems
replaced dangerous muzzle loading. Many improvements since have resulted in high-powered
firearms.
Rifle is a gun with spiral grooves in its long barrel that spin the bullet as it is shot. Rifles are
usually held against the shoulder when firing. Soldiers use rifles in battle. People also use rifles
to hunt game and to compete in shooting matches.
How a rifle works. A rifle is ready to be fired when a cartridge has been fed into the firing
chamber. Then the rifle is aimed and the trigger squeezed. The rifle's hammer or firing pin
strikes the rear end of the cartridge and ignites the primer. The primer in turn ignites the
propellant powder in the cartridge. The powder burns rapidly, creating pressure that drives the
bullet down the barrel.
The rifling in the barrel makes the bullet spin. Without spin, a bullet would not stay pointed
forward in flight, but would tumble over and over. The spinning motion increases the accuracy
of a bullet.
Kinds of Rifles
There are three kinds of repeating rifles with hand-operated actions-bolt-action, lever-action,
and slide-action. These rifles have magazines (cartridge holders) that feed cartridges into the
firing chamber.
The action on two other kinds of rifles-automatic and semiautomatic-is operated by forces
caused by the burning of the propellant powder in the firing chamber.
1. Bolt-action rifles have an action that resembles a bolt used to lock a door. When the bolt
on the rifle is pulled back, the used cartridge is thrown out and the hammer is cocked. When
the bolt is moved forward, it pushes a new cartridge into the firing chamber.
2. Lever-action rifles are loaded by moving a lever under the breech down and back up.
The down movement throws out the used cartridge and cocks the hammer. The up movement
inserts a new cartridge into the firing chamber.
3. Slide-action rifles, also called pump-action rifles, are loaded with a back-and-forth
movement of a rod and handle beneath the front part of the barrel. When the handle is pulled
back, the breech opens and the used cartridge is thrown out. A live cartridge is inserted when
the handle is pushed forward.
Automatic and semiautomatic rifles are used mainly by soldiers and police officers. When a rifle
is fired, gas is formed by the burning powder in the firing chamber. The expanding gas drives
the bullet out of the barrel. In most modern automatic and semiautomatic rifles, some of this
gas operates the action. When a cartridge is fired, a fresh cartridge is moved out of the
magazine into the firing chamber, and the firing mechanism is cocked.
The M16A2 is the automatic rifle used by the U.S. armed forces. It weighs 8.9 pounds (4
kilograms) when loaded with a 30-cartridge magazine. The M16A2 can fire one shot at a time,
or three shots in a single burst. It uses a 5.56-millimeter cartridge.
Rifle cartridges are enclosed in a casing (metal covering) made of brass or steel. Cartridges vary
in size according to the caliber of the rifle. The names of some cartridges include the year the
cartridge was put into use. The .30-06 is a .30-caliber cartridge chosen for use by the U.S. Army
in 1906. The classification of some cartridges includes the caliber and velocity (speed) of the
bullet. The bullet from a .250-3000 cartridge has a velocity of 3,000 feet (910 meters) per
second.
Take Note:
Modern rifles developed from the crude, muzzle-loading firearms of the 1400's. Rifling of
barrels was invented in Europe about 1500. Smooth-bore firearms (weapons without rifling)
could not be depended on to hit targets more than 100 steps away.
The jaeger rifle of central and northern Europe was the first accurate rifle. It was developed
about 1665. German immigrants brought jaegers to Pennsylvania in the early 1700's and gave
them new features, including longer barrels. The Pennsylvania-made Kentucky rifle developed
from the jaeger. Some Kentucky rifles were used in the Revolutionary War in America (1775-
1783).
Rifles used round bullets until the 1850's, when more accurate Minie bullets became popular.
Minie bullets had hollow bases and pointed tips and were used in the U.S. Civil War (1861-
1865). Improvements of the late 1800's included repeating rifles, smokeless explosive powder,
and jacketed bullets, which have a tough metal cover over a lead or steel core.
THE HANDGUN:
Handgun is a firearm that can be operated with one hand. Other types of guns, such as rifles
and machine guns, require the use of both hands, a tripod (three-legged stand), or a shooting
rest.
Parts of a handgun (the frame, the grip, the barrel, the sights, and the action)
The frame is the main body of the gun that connects the other parts. The grip is the handle of
the gun, and the barrel is the metal tube through which the bullet is fired. The lands and rifling
(grooves) are alternating raised surfaces and channels inside the barrel. They cause the bullet to
spin and thus make it travel in a direct path.
The shooter uses the sights to line up the handgun with the target. Some sights can be
adjusted to help aim the gun more easily. All handguns made for target shooting have
adjustable sights.
The action includes the main working parts of the handgun. It consists of such parts as the
trigger, the hammer, and the cartridge chamber. The type of action determines how the
handgun is loaded and fired. The action of every handgun includes a safety, a mechanism that
prevents the gun from being fired unintentionally. The safety ensures that the gun fires when
the shooter squeezes the trigger, but not, for example, when the gun is dropped to the ground.
Types of handguns - There are five main types of handguns:
1. single-action revolvers,
2. double-action revolvers,
3. single-action semiautomatic pistols,
4. double-action semiautomatic pistols, and
5. single-shot pistols.
Revolvers carry ammunition in chambers in a rotating cylinder. Most pistols are loaded with a
magazine containing the ammunition. The magazine is a metal holder inserted in the gun's butt
(thicker end).
Single-action revolvers typically hold six cartridges. An arm near the hammer rotates the
cylinder one-sixth of a turn when the hammer is cocked. This movement puts a cartridge into
line with the barrel and the firing pin (part that strikes the primer to fire the cartridge). After
cocking the hammer, the shooter pulls the trigger. The hammer unlocks and falls, exploding the
cartridge. The Colt single-action Army revolver, first produced in the 1870's, is the most famous
firearm of this type.
Double-action revolvers, like single-action revolvers, typically hold six cartridges. But, unlike
single-action revolvers, double-action revolvers do not require the user to manually cock the
hammer before firing. Instead, the gun is fired by only pulling the trigger. When the trigger is
pulled, a lock that holds the cylinder in place is released, revolving the cylinder and cocking the
hammer. When the next chamber is lined up with the barrel, the cylinder locking bolt is raised
into the locking notch, securing the cylinder. The hammer then falls and fires the cartridge. The
cycle is repeated for the next shot.
The main advantage of the double-action revolver over the single-action revolver is that it can
be fired rapidly. The Smith & Wesson military and police revolver is one of the most popular
double-action revolvers. This firearm was introduced in 1905.
Single-action semiautomatic pistols are fired by first pulling back a device called a slide to cock
the hammer or the firing pin, which is sometimes called a striker mechanism. When the slide is
released, it moves forward and feeds a round from the clip into the cartridge chamber. When
the shooter pulls the trigger, the hammer falls or the striker mechanism is released, impacting
the primer and exploding the gunpowder in the cartridge. The explosion causes the slide to
move backward. This recoil automatically ejects the empty cartridge and recocks the gun. When
the slide moves forward again, it reloads the chamber. The most famous single-action
semiautomatic is the Colt .45 automatic pistol. It served as the standard sidearm of the U.S.
armed forces from 1911 until 1985.
Double-action semiautomatic pistols operate somewhat like double-action revolvers. When the
trigger is pulled, the hammer goes through the firing cycle and fires the cartridge. After the
initial shot, the pistol begins to operate like a single-action semiautomatic pistol. The recoil of
the first shot forces out the empty cartridge case, cocks the hammer, and inserts a new
cartridge from the clip into the cartridge chamber. Double-action semiautomatics are widely
used by sports enthusiasts and police officers. In 1985, the 9-millimeter Beretta, a double-
action semiautomatic pistol, became the standard sidearm of the U.S. armed forces. Other
popular models include the Smith & Wesson Model 39 and the Walther PPK.
Take Note:
The first gun operated with one hand was the matchlock gun, which appeared in the 1400's. It
was fired by attaching a burning cord or match to an S-shaped holder called a serpentine. In the
early 1500's, the wheel-lock gun was invented. Its metal wheel struck a spark when it revolved
against a piece of pyrite. With the wheel lock, soldiers no longer had to carry flames to ignite
the gunpowder.
During the mid-1500's, snaphance pistols, which were easier to operate than the wheel lock,
came into widespread use. In the 1600's and 1700's, many kinds of gunlocks were developed,
including the flintlock.
In 1807, Alexander Forsyth, a Scottish inventor, introduced the percussion system. Percussion-
system pistols were loaded from the muzzle, with a sliding can of priming powder on the
breech. Small handguns called derringers are descended from percussion-system pistols, but
are breech loaded. They are named for Henry Deringer, Jr., a U.S. pistol maker of the 1800's.
Rapid-fire handguns - One of the first practical revolvers was the Colt Paterson, patented in
England in 1835 by Samuel Colt, a U.S. inventor. In 1857, the U.S. inventors Horace Smith and
Daniel Wesson began producing revolvers that used cartridges.
The Borchardt, the first self-loading semiautomatic pistol, appeared in 1893. It had an eight-
cartridge clip placed in the hollow of the grip. George Luger, an Austrian-born inventor,
improved the Borchardt in the early 1900's. In 1897, John M. Browning, a U.S. inventor,
patented an automatic pistol that became the basis for later automatics, including the Colt .45.
1. Machine gun is an automatic weapon that can fire from 400 to 1,600 rounds of
ammunition each minute. Machine gun barrels range in size from .22 caliber to 20 millimeters.
Ammunition is fed into the gun from a cloth or metal belt, or from a cartridge holder called a
magazine. Because machine guns fire so rapidly, they must be cooled by air. Machine guns are
heavy weapons and are usually mounted on a support.
Operation: In all machine guns, extremely high gas pressure provides the operating energy for
the firing cycle. The cycle begins when the propellant charge in the cartridge case burns. This
combustion creates the gas pressure that is used in the blowback, gas, and recoil operating
systems. All three systems fire the projectile through the bore of the barrel, eject the cartridge
case, place a new cartridge in the firing chamber, and ready the mechanism to repeat the cycle.
In the blowback system, the operating energy comes from the cartridge case as the case is
forced to the rear by the gas pressure. The case moves against the bolt (a device that opens and
closes the bore), driving the bolt backward against a spring. The case is ejected, and the
compressed spring drives the bolt forward. As the bolt moves forward, it cocks the firing
mechanism, picks up a new cartridge, carries it into the chamber, and the cycle begins again.
In the gas system, the gas pressure drives a piston against the bolt. The bolt is driven to the
rear, providing energy for a cycle like that of the blowback system.
In the recoil system, the bolt locks to the barrel when the gun is fired. These parts remain
locked together as they are forced to the rear by the gas pressure. This movement provides
energy to operate the gun.
2. Ground weapons. The 7.62-millimeter M60 machine gun is a major infantry weapon. It
is air-cooled and gas-operated, and fires about 600 rounds a minute. The M60 replaced the
Browning machine gun, an important weapon in World Wars I and II, and the Korean War.
3. Aircraft weapons. By the close of World War I, several types of machine guns were
mounted on airplanes. These types included the Vickers, Maxim, Hotchkiss, Colt-Martin, and
Lewis. Some machine guns were synchronized to fire in between the blades of propellers.
During World War II, fighters and bombers carried machine guns as armament. They also
carried automatic cannon up to 20 millimeters in size. During the Vietnam War, airplanes and
helicopters called gunships carried machine guns or cannon. Today, most fighter planes and
gunships carry rockets for air-to-air and air-to-ground use. Bombers use machine guns mounted
in groups of two or four in power-driven turrets. The Vulcan 20-millimeter aircraft cannon has
six rotating barrels. It can fire more than a ton of metal and explosives each minute.
4. Anti-aircraft weapons. The .50-caliber Browning machine gun was used as an antiaircraft
weapon during World War II. It was used alone, or in groups of two or four. Large-caliber
automatic cannon that fired explosive shells were also developed as antiaircraft weapons. The
20-millimeter, Swiss-made Oerlikon gun was used on U.S. Navy ships. It was a self-fed, self-
firing cannon that could fire 600 rounds a minute.
Take Note:
A type of machine gun appeared as early as the 1500's. It consisted of several guns bound
together in a bundle or spread out in a row. A device that was fitted to the gun barrels caused
them to fire simultaneously or in series. But little success was achieved until the Civil War, when
many quick-fire guns appeared. Practical, rapid-fire, mechanical guns were used in the Franco-
Prussian War, when soldiers operated them with a crank or lever. The French Montigny
mitrailleuse and the American Gatling were among the more successful of these guns.
In 1883, Hiram Maxim, an American-born inventor, developed the first entirely automatic
machine gun to gain wide acceptance. By the time of World War I, many different types of
machine guns had come into use.
CLASSIFICASTION OF FIREARMS
1. Rifled Bore Firearms - those that contain riflings inside the gun barrel. Riflings refers the
lands and grooves such as the following: Rifle – Pistol - Revolver
2. Smooth Bore Firearms – those that have no riflings inside the gun barrel for the breech
end up to the muzzle of the firearm. Such as the following: Shotguns - Muskets
SHOTGUN – it is smooth bore firearm designed to shoot a number of lead pellets one discharge.
GAUGE – as applied to shotgun indicates that the bore diameter is equal to the diameter of
lead ball weighing in pounds.
1. Military Firearms
a. Pistols d. Shotguns
b. Revolvers e. Machine guns
c. Rifles
2. Pocket and Home Defense Firearms
a. Pistols c. Rifles
b. Revolvers d. Shotguns
3. Target and Outdoorsman known as Sporting
a. Pistols b. Revolvers c. Rifles
The penalty of prision mayor in its minimum period and a fine of thirty thousand pesos
(P30,000.00) shall be imposed in the firearm is classified as high powered firearms which
includes those with bore bigger in diameter than caliber .38 and 9mm such as
caliber .40, .44, .45 and also lesser caliber firearms but considered powerful such as caliber .357
and caliber .22 center fire magnum and other firearms with firing capability of full automatic
and by burst of two (2) or three (3): Provided, however, that no other crime was committed by
the person arrested.
2. Pistol 4. Shotgun
a. barrel assembly a. barrel assembly
b. slide assembly b. magazine assembly
c. frame or receiver c. stock group
H. DETAILED PARTS
1. Revolver 2. Pistol
1. Barrel Assembly a. Barrel Assembly
(1) breech end (1) breech end
(2) muzzle end (2) muzzle end
(3) bore (3) bore
(4) riflings (4) riflings
(5) front sight (5) chamber
(6) make (6) interlocking ribs
(7) barrel lug
(8) barrel link
(9) barrel link pin
(10) barrel lead (leed)
The following parts must be removed first before disassembly of the weapon:
- recoil plug - recoil spring - barrel bushing - recoil spring guide - slide stop pin
J. ADVANTAGES
1. Revolver
2. Automatic pistol
K. DISADVANTAGES
1. Revolver
bulkier to carry
grip or handle is generally not as good as that of pistol
hard to clean after firing
slower to load
harder to replace worn out parts – it’s a factory job
worn out or poorly made weapon is subject to variable accuracy to improper lining up of
cylinder
2. Automatic Pistol
AMMUNITIONS/CARTRIDGES
LEGAL DEFINITION – it maybe found in Chapter VII, Sec. 290 of the National Internal
Revenue Code as well as in Sec. 877 of the Revised Administrative Code. It refers to ammunition
as s “loaded shell” for rifles, muskets, carbines, shotguns, revolvers and pistols from which a
ball, bullet, shot, shell or other missile may be fired by means of gunpowder or other
explosives. The term also includes ammunition for air rifles as mentioned elsewhere in the
Code.
ORIGIN
The term “cartridge” evolved from about the turn of sixteenth century. The earliest
small arms ammunition or cartridge consisted of a pre-measured charge of powder wrapped in
a paper. In Webster’s later edition, a cartridge is defined as “A case capsule, shell or bag of
metal, pasteboard, of the like, containing the explosive charge and in small arms and some
cannon, the projectile to be fired. The term cartridge is derived from the word “charta”, the
Latin word for paper. Later on, it came through the French word “cartouche”, meaning a roll of
paper, which indicates that the original cartridges were not the brass gilding- metal tipped units
which we are familiar with today.
The use of paper-wrapped powder charged greatly speeds the loading of military
weapons, avoided waste of powder from spillage, and provided a uniform charge from shot to
shot. In time, the bullet was either attached faster or more convenient.
Take Note:
“ammunition” means any unfired assembly of cartridge case, powder, primer and
projectile which may be used in a firearm. Today, it refers to a “file of assembled cartridges” in
bulks as in boxes or lots & also used to refer to the supply a person may be carrying with him.
“round” refers to a single cartridge.
shotgun cartridges are commonly referred to as “shell” or “shotshell”
rifle ammunition is referred to as “metallics” or “cartridges”.
When an investigator uses a term “cartridge” he invariably refers to revolver, pistol, or
rifle cartridges.
The layman uses the abovementioned terms indiscriminately, although as general rule
he speaks of “cartridges” when referring to a pistol, revolver, rifle ammunitions and “shells”
when referring to shotguns.
Among the uniformed, the word “bullet” as often misused, as it is commonly used to
apply to any sort of any unfired cartridge. Actually, it is that solid portion of the cartridge which
leaves the muzzle of the gun and does the “striking” or “killing”. The word can properly be used
in connection with pistol, revolver or rifle ammunition but other common designations for the
bullet are “projectile” or “ball” is a relic of old muzzle- loading days when all rifle projectiles
were round lead balls.
PARTS OF A CARTRIDGE (Nomenclature)
1. BULLET – the projectile propelled through the barrel of a firearm by means of expansive
force of gases coming from burning gunpowder.
2. CARTRIDGE CASE – the tubular metallic container for the gunpowder. Sometimes called
”shell” or “casting”.
3. GUNPOWDER – It is the propellant which when ignited by the primer flash is converted
to gas under high pressure and propels the bullet or shot charge through the barrel and on to
the target.
4. PRIMER – the metal cap containing the highly sensitive priming mixture of chemical
compound, which when heat or struck by firing pin would ignite. Such action is called
“percussion.”
1. Revolver cartridges
2. Pistol cartridges
3. Rifle cartridges
4. Shotgun cartridges
1. PIN FIRE CARTRIDGE – the first cartridge of a self –exploding type which enjoyed any
real general use was the type called the “pin fire” commonly attributed to Monsier Le Facheux
of Paris, around 1896. Pin-fire cartridges were made for all types was small arms in appearance
to a modern shotgun shell wherein it had a head of the cartridge and a percussion fixed by a
wad or metal cup. The percussion had a pin resting on its detonating compound. The end
protruding of the e pin is hit by a hammer coming down vertically from the side of the cartridge
instead of penetrating horizontally from its fear. This type of cartridge is no longer used.
2. CENTER FIRE – priming powder is located at the center.
3. RINGFIRE CARTRIDGE – A type of cartridge used only on sabotage cases. The chattel
cartridges of Steyr advance combat rifle and Steyr anti-material squad machine gun. This is a
special type of cartridge wherein the priming mixture is placed in a circular hollow ring about
1/3 of the base of the cartridge.
4. RIM FIRE CARTRIDGE – The simplest form of modern cartridge is the “rim-fire cartridge”.
The name “rim-fire” is derived from the fact that this type can be fired only if the cartridge is
struck by the hammer of firing pin on the rim of he case. In this type, the priming mixture is
contained or located in a cavity inside and around the rim of the cartridge which is a very
sensitive area. If a rim fire cartridge is struck anywhere in the sensitive area, the priming
substance is crushed between the front and rear of the case rim. This denotes or ignites the
priming mixture, causing a flash of flame.
Rim-fire cartridges may be identified by the smooth base of the cartridge case, which may or
may not have a head stamps are merely letters or design found on the base of the cases that
identifies the manufacturer. These rim-fire cartridges are generally found in caliber .22s. They
can be fired in either caliber .22 pistols, caliber 22. revolvers and caliber .22 rifles. Rim-fire
cartridges can be further classified into:
The abovementioned different classes of small arms cartridges are generally encountered by
the Police in the field of firearms investigation in our jurisdiction. These are commonly used by
criminals because they are used in firearms that are easy to carry, conceal, fire and dispose of.
ARTILLERY AMMUNITION
Artillery includes rocket launchers and such mounted guns as howitzers, mortars, antiaircraft
guns, and naval guns. Most types of field and naval artillery ammunition are called shells. A
single shell, like a single cartridge, is known as a round. Field artillery projectiles range in size
from 50 to 240 millimeters and can weigh over 200 pounds (90 kilograms). Most artillery shells
taper to the rear, a shape that gives them greater range. Some have streamlined ogives (nose
shields). Others, known as base-burner shells, have a small amount of propellant burning in the
tail during flight. This reduces drag (air resistance).
Some shells are high explosives, which detonate on impact and damage or destroy the target.
Detonating the shell's explosive filler shatters the shell into thousands of fragments. High
explosives include TNT; RDX, also known as cyclonite or hexogen; composition B, a mixture of
RDX and TNT; PETN; and pentolite, a combination of PETN and TNT. Other shells contain mines
or small shells that can be expelled at intervals over a specified area or during a certain period
of time.
Still other shells are filled with a non-explosive substance, such as a chemical that is poisonous
or that produces smoke or fire. Illuminating, or star, shells light up the battlefield or seascape. A
shell with a chaff warhead expels strips of aluminum, which produce images on a radar screen
similar to those caused by aircraft. Such images confuse radar operators and thus help protect
aircraft from enemy attack.
ARTILLERY-VEHICLE AMMUNITION
Armored-vehicle ammunition consists of projectiles fired by guns mounted on tanks and other
armored vehicles. They have diameters from 20 to 125 millimeters.
A common armored-vehicle penetrator is a projectile with a nose cap of tungsten or another
heavy metal. The cap helps the projectile penetrate opposing vehicles. A high explosive
projectile is a hollow-charge warhead. This warhead is hollow in the front and has an explosive
charge in the back. Its explosion converts a copper cone in the warhead to a molten, high-speed
jet. The jet penetrates the target. Another armored vehicle projectile is a long dart made of
tungsten or depleted uranium (uranium with most of its radioactivity removed). The dart
travels on a device called a sabot, which breaks away after the dart leaves the gun's barrel.
This is used by law enforcement officials to subdue rioters without causing serious injury. Most
of this ammunition consists of hard rubber bullets. Another type is made of soft rubber rings
that look like doughnuts and may contain tear gas. These rings cause less damage than do the
rubber bullets.
Shotgun is a shoulder gun that fires a cartridge that contains a powder charge and a load of
metal pellets, called shot. The shot spreads over a wide area. This makes it easier to hit a
moving target with a shotgun than with the single bullet from a rifle or a pistol. The shotgun is
chiefly a hunting gun.
Kinds of Shots:
Shotgun cartridges consist of a plastic or paper tube with a brass or steel case at one end. They
contain lead or steel shot instead of bullets.
The caliber of a shotgun is measured by bore, or gauge. The weight of the lead shot required to
fit the muzzle of the gun is the standard of measurement for the bore. If a bullet weighing 1/12
pound (38 grams) fits the bore, the shotgun is called a 12-bore, or a 12-gauge, gun. Popular
gauges are 10, 12, 16, 20, 28, and .410.
Some shotguns are named by caliber, as for example, the one that is called .410 gauge shotguns
which actually means .41 caliber. A 12-gauge shotgun has a caliber of .729 inch.
The first shotgun, developed in 1537, was loaded with small shot instead of one round ball. In
1831, Augustus Demondion patented a cartridge that held small shot. Modern shotguns are
single barrels, double barrels, or single barrels with automatic repeating magazines that hold
several cartridges. Repeating shotguns are popular in the United States with hunters as well as
with many law enforcement officers.
SHOT WADS. At a distance of 5-8 yards or more from the place of firing in the approximate
direction of fire, one can sometimes find wads.
CARTRIDGE LIFE
The life of well made metallic small arms ammunitions perhaps 10 years on the average. Some
last 5-6 years, however, ammunitions may lose some of its strength in 5 or 6 years. Some may
last 25 years or more depending on the conditions storage. Damp, and warm climates are
worst.
In order to prevent the entrance of oil or moisture, it is common practice to varnish the mouth
of the case before the insertion of the bullet and to put a ring of waterproofing around the joint
between the primer and the primer pocket.
CARTRIDGE CASES/SHELL
It is a tubular metallic or non-metallic container which holds together the bullet, gunpowder
and primer.
It is the portion of the cartridge that is automatically ejected from the automatic firearm during
firing and this remains at the scene of the crime. This is firearm evidence that can help trace a
particular firearm from which it was fired.
The function of cartridge case is basically the same whether it is fired in revolvers, pistols, rifles,
shotguns, or machine guns. These include:
1. It holds the bullet, gunpowder and primer assembled into one unit.
2. It serves as a waterproof container for the gunpowder.
3. It prevents the escape of the gases to the rear as the sidewalls of the cartridge case are
forced against the walls of the chamber by the pressure. It serves as a “gas seal” at the breech
end of the barrel.
1. RIM – the projecting rims of rimmed and semi-rimmed cases serve the purpose of
limiting the forward travel of cartridges into their chambers and thus also limit the clearance, if
any between the head and the supporting.
2. PRIMER POCKET – performs three functions:
a.) holding primers securely in certain position;
b.) providing a means to prevent the escape of gas to the rear of the cartridge;
c.) providing a primer support for primer anvils, without which the latter could not be
fired.
3. VENTS ORFLASH HOLES –the “vent” or “flash holes” is the hole in the web or bottom of
the primer pocket through which the primer “flash” provides ignition to the powder charge. It
is the “opening” or “canal” that connects the priming mixture with the gunpowder.
4. THE HEAD AND BODY – the “head” and “body” constitute the “cork” that plugs the
breech of the barrel against the escape of the gas.
5. NECK – applied to that part of the cartridge case that is occupied by the bullet to
prevent the bullet from being push back or loosened.
6. CANNELURES – shell cannelures are the serrated grooves that are sometimes found
rolled into the neck and body of cases at the location of the cases of the bullet to prevent the
bullet from being pushed back or loosened.
7. CRIMP – is that part of the mouth of a case that is turned in upon the bullet. It works
two ways a) it aids in holding the bullet in place; b) it offers resistance to the movement of the
bullet out of the neck which affects the burning of gunpowder.
8. BASE - the bottom portion of the case which holds: a)the primer which contains the
priming mixture; b) the shell head which contains the head stamp, caliber, and year of
manufacture.
9. SHOULDER –that portion which supports the neck.
10. EXTRACTING GROOVE – the circular groove near the base of the case or shell designed
for the automatic withdrawal of the case after each firing.
1. Straight – all rimmed shell and most centerfire revolver cartridges. Ex. Cal. 38 special
2. Tapered – very rare but being used in so-called “magnum jet” Cal. .22.
3. Bottleneck – ex. 5.56mm cartridge cases
4. Belted – ex. .30 magnum
Take Note:
Annealing – is the process of making cartridge case by heating a brass to become very
soft and ductile and very weak: when it is drawn or otherwise worked, it becomes hard, strong
and elastic.
Belted Cartridge – A cartridge, which has a raised belt before the extractor groove. The
cartridge seats on this belt, most “Magnum” cartridge case. Also called a European type primer.
Blank Cartridge – Is a cartridge consisting of the case with its primer, powder charge and
a wad to train the powder.
Blank Cartridge Pistol – A firearm without opening in the muzzle, the gas may escape
through the hole in the top of the frame.
Center Pin – serve us a locking device for the cylinder.
Drawing – a machine operation in manufacturing cartridge cases. Is the process of
making case by punching discs from a sheet of brass and then making these discs out into tubes
closed to one end.
Guard Cartridge – one loaded with buckshot or a reduced charge ball.
Rolled Crimp – One in which the mouth of the cartridge case is turned inward into a
cannelure on the bullet all around its circumference to retain the bullet at the proper seating
depth.
Round – One single complete cartridge.
Ruptured Case – Any cartridge case, which has been split in firing so that the gas has
escape.
Short Cartridge – a metallic cartridge loaded with a small shot.
Signal Cartridge – one containing vari-colored luminous balls of the “roman candle”
variety.
BULLETS (Projectiles)
Bullet is also knows as PROJECTILE – is a metallic or non-metallic body usually referred to as a
bullet that is completely dependent upon an outside force for its power.
Under this definition, the term may also include projectiles propelled from shotguns
although strictly speaking these projectiles designed for shotguns are called “shot”, “slug” or
pellets. In a layman’s viewpoint, a projectile fired from a firearms is called slug, although what
be actually meant is a “bullet”.
The term “bullet” originated from the French word “boulette”, a small ball. In common
Police parlance, a bullet may be called “slug” which is a colloquial term.
1. Lead Bullets – those which are made of lead or alloy of this metal such as lead, tin and
antimony.
2. Jacketed Bullets – those with a core of lead alloy covered a jacket of harder metal such
as guiding metal and copper zinc.
1. keep the bullet intact and from not breaking up when it strike the target.
2. prevent damage while in the weapon
3. control expansion
Take Note:
copper plated steel maybe used instead of gilding metal for the jacket of caliber .45 -
jacket of metal patch made of cupro nickel or gilding metal.
If jscket bullets are used in revolvers, the gun barrel will be loosened or destroyed.
1. Pointed bullet
2. Round Nose bullet
3. Wad Cutter bullet
4. Semi-Wad Cutter bullet
5. Hollow Point bullet
6. Boat Tailed bullet
* Another improvement in bullets was the boat-tail in which the name became .30 M1. The
“M” stands for Mark but some contend stands for MODIFICATION.
1. Ball Bullets – have a soft cores and are used against personnel.
2. Armor Piercing Bullet – have hardened steel cores and are fired against vehicles,
weapons and armored targets in general.
3. Tracer Bullets – contains compound usually similar to barium nitrates which is set on fire
when the bullet is projected. The flash of this smoke from this burning permits the flight of the
bullet to be seen.
4. Incendiary Bullets – contains a mixture such as phosphorous or other materials, that can
be set on fire by impact. They are used against target that will burn readily such as aircraft.
5. Explosives Bullets – contains a high charge of high explosive and because of their small
size it is difficult to make a fuse tat will work reliably in small arms ammunition. For this reason
the use of high explosive bullets is usually limited to 20mm and above.
Cartridges used in weapons other than shotguns are measured by caliber (the diameter
of the bullet). Manufacturers and users of ammunition in the United States have traditionally
specified caliber in decimal fractions of an inch. For example, a .30-caliber cartridge has a
diameter of 30/100 inch (7.6 millimeters). However, it is becoming customary to use
millimeters instead. The U.S. armed forces specify caliber in millimeters. Small-arms cartridges
are less than 20 millimeters or .78 caliber.
CONVERSION TABLE
Multiply
1. cm to mm - 10.0
2. mm to inch - 0.03937
3. inch to mm - 25.4
4. meter to yard - 1.094
5. grain to gram - 0.06480
6. gram to grain - 15.43
7. gram to kg - 0.001
Take Note:
GUNPOWDER
Generally, there are two types of powder in small arms. These are:
1. Black Powder (Europeans) – the standard ingredients are: Potassium nitrate 75%,
Sulphur 10% and Charcoal 15%. It’s characteristics are:
a. oldest propellant powder
b. consist of irregular grains and have either a dull or shiny black surface
c. produces grayish smoke and considerable residue is left in the barrel
d. burns with reasonable great rapidity when ignited
a. when ignited, it will burn by itself without aid from the outside air
b. in burning, it gives off large amount of gas
c. a considerable amount of heat is evolved
Characteristics
a. gray green to black in color and grains are similar in size and shape to the single-base
propellants
b. almost all have a perfectly definite shape such as: small squares; discs; flakes; stripes;
pellets; and perforated cylindrical grains
Take Note:
Cordite – A British propellant made by dissolving gun cotton and nitroglycerin and
adding 5% of Vaseline.
Gun Cotton – A very powerful explosive, like nitroglycerin which is a chemical compound
and not a mixture. This is formed by the action of nitric and sulfuric acid on cotton or any other
kind of cellulose.
PRIMER
It is an assembly which ignites the propellant. The primer assembly of center fire cartridges
consists of a brass or guiding-metal cup that contains a primer composition pellet of sensitive
explosive, a paper disc (foil), and a brass anvil.
A blow from the firing pin of a small arms weapon on center of the primer cup
compresses the primer composition violently between the cup and the anvil, thus causing the
composition to explode. The hole or vent in the anvil allows the flame to pass through the
primer vent in the cartridge case, thereby igniting the propellant.
Rimfire ammunition, such as the caliber .22 cartridge does not contain primer assembly;
the primer composition is spun into the rim of the cartridge case and the propellant is in
intimate contact with the composition. In firing, the firing pin strikes the rim of the case and
thus compresses the primer composition and initiates its explosion.
Take Note:
1807 – Alexander John Forsyth conceived the percussion ignition system. He was a Scotch
Presbyterian Minister, chemist and hunter.
1. Boxer primer (one flash hole) – favorite in U.S. invented by Col. Edward Munier Boxer in
1869.
2. Berdan (European Type) – two flash holes or vents invented by Hiram Berdan of New
York in 1850’s.
1. Primer Cap – it is the soft guiding metal which serves as the container of priming
mixture, paper disc and anvil.
2. Priming Mixture – contains a small amount of explosive mixture which is sufficiently
sensitive to result of chemical reaction being set up by the caused by a sudden blow.
3. Paper Discs – this is made of thin shellacked paper disc that protects the priming
mixture that will cause its disintegration. Its two-fold purposes:
a. help hold the priming mixture in place and
b. exclude moisture
4. Anvil – it is made of spring tempered brass place inside the primer and it is on this side
or point which the priming mixture is crushed.
5. Battery Cap – battery cap as applied to shotgun primer serves as the main support for
the whole primer components.
PRIMING COMPOUNDS
1. Corrosive – it has potassium chlorate – IF ignited produces potassium chloride which draws
moisture from the air and this moisture speeds the rusting and corrosion in gun barrels.
CORROSION – chemical wear and tear of the inside of the barrel due to rust formation or
chemical reaction by products of combustion during firing.
EROSION – mechanical wear and tear of the inner surface of the gun barrel due to mechanical
abrasion or sliding friction.
2. Non-corrosive
Mixture 25 yrs. ago:
a. potassium chlorate (initiator & fuel) – 45%
b. antimony (element & fuel) – 23%
c. fulminate of mercury (initiator) – 32%
Germans
fulminate of mercury – 39%; barium nitrate – 41%; antimony sulfide – 9%; picric acid – 5%;
ground glass – 6%
Match Slow – a slow burning fuse or twisted cotton soaked in a solution of saltpeter or
hemp or on matchlock weapons.
Maynard Primer – another form of percussion cap. Explosive pellets were sealed at
proper intervals between two strips of paper. This primer tape was then rolled and inserted in
guns of suitable design. The action of cocking the hammer pulled the primer tape until a primer
pellet lay under the hammer and over the ignition vent into the chamber ready for firing.
Similar forms are used in cap pistols.
It is the study of recovered projectiles to identify the firearms which fired them. It
would be better termed firearms identification. The evidence thus obtained is generally
accepted in criminal Courts trials to establish use or possession of a certain weapon.
Formerly, all that an “expert” could testify in Court concerning a bullet recovered from
the scene of a crime was that it was a certain type and caliber. Thus a caliber .38 bullet could
not have fired in a caliber .45 revolver. Linking a bullet to a specific revolver was not then
possible. About 1920, great advances began to be made in identifying firearms by their fired
bullets and/or cartridge cases, and for the first time, formed criminology courses were offered
by universities to train individuals in the techniques of Forensic Ballistics. Colonel Calvin H.
Goddard was the leader in this effort. The most important tools used was the Comparison
Microscope, a binocular instrument so arranged that two similar objects can be compared in
detail simultaneously, with corresponding surfaces adjacent.
When bullet is fired, it acquires marks or scratches from the bore surfaces. These
marks, from irregularities left by the tool cuts or caused by wear and rust, by reproducible by
firing another bullet through the same barrel. The bullet is evidence and the second bullet can
then be compared for match. The pattern obtain is comparable to a fingerprint, thus making
coincidence of identical patterns from two different guns most unlikely if not impossible. A
composition is that, was yet, there has been no system devised to classify such patterns, as
there is with fingerprints.
When a cartridge is fired it is pressed forcibly against the breechface of the firearm,
there receiving an impression of any tool marks. The firing pin also leaves its marks can be
compared by the microscope, and a fired cartridge case thus be linked to a specific weapon.
The first thing which is of importance for the Firearms Examiner is the understanding of
the construction of a gun barrel and to be sufficiently familiar with the various steps in the
manufacture of firearms which may influence the investigation of the crime. There should
always be sound reason for all markings, scratches or dents visible or firearms evidence and it is
the function of the firearms examiner to determine how and why they were made and also to
interpret their significance both to himself as well as to the Court of Justice.
The process of manufacture starts with a solid steel bar which, when drilled from end to
end makes it is steel pipe. The interior surface at this stage bears numerous scratches resulting
from irregular cutting of the drill and the metal chips which mark the finish. For smooth bore
barrels, after the drilling process the inside of the barrel is made very smooth by a process
known as “lapping”. In barrels intended for rifles the next steps after drilling consists of
“reaming” and drilled hole for its entire length, this removes some of the sears and scratches.
The reamer removes metal from the entire surface because it is slightly larger in diameter than
the drill.
If the barrel is to be rifled it is done with the use of modern tools which automatically
cut the spiral grooves on the inside the barrel and impart to every firearms characteristics
which are peculiar to the barrel. Each manufacturer has its own characteristics designed for the
lands and grooves. It has its individual patterns which determine whether the grooves are
inclined to the left or to the right.
In addition to these peculiarities there are other markings left by the rifling tools which
cuts the grooves that is as the rifling cutter wears small imperfections on its surface are
transmitted to the surface of the barrel and in similar manner the accumulation of metal chips
remove by the cutter will scratch the barrel as it passes along. Even in the button system
imperfection will remain after the lapping and finishing operations are completed. These
microscopic scars will make a series of striations on every bullet which passes through the
barrel. It is the comparison of these bullet striations which is the basis of examination.
1. CLASS CHARACTERISTICS – are those characteristics which are determinable even before the
manufacture of the firearm. It is categorized into the following:
a. Caliber
b. Number of Lands and Grooves
c. Width of Lands and Grooves
d. Twist of riflings
e. Pitch of the rifling
f. Depth of grooves
2. INDIVIDUAL CHARACTERISTICS – are those characteristics which are determinable only after
the manufacture of the firearm. They are characteristics whose existence is beyond the control
of man and which have a random distribution. Their existence in a firearm is brought about by
the tools in their normal operation resulting through wear, tear, abuse, mutilations, corrosion,
erosions and other fortuitous causes. These are the irregularities found on the inner surface of
the barrel and on the breech face of the breechblock of the firearms as a result of the failure of
the tool beyond the control of the manufacturer to make them smooth as a minor.
PRINCIPLES GOVERNING FIREARMS EXAMINATION
1. BULLET IDENTIFICATION
a. No two barrels and microscopically identical as the surface of their bores all posses
individual characteristics markings.
b. When a bullet is fired from a rifled barrel, it becomes engraved by the riflings and this
engraving on a bullet fired from one barrel will be different from that on a similar bullet fire
from another barrel. And conversely,. The engraving on bullet from the same barrel will be the
same.
c. Every barrel leaves its “thumbmark” on every bullet which is fired through it, just as
every breech face leaves its “thumbmark” on the base of the fired cartridge case.
WHAT TO COMPARE?
1. Evidence Bullet
2. Test/Standard Bullet
Before proceeding in the examination of the firearm by means of the fired bullets, first identify
the particular firearm through the class characteristics appearing on the cylindrical surface of
the bullet.
Manufacturers of firearms make certain marks which may distinguish firearms manufactured by
them from that of other manufacturers. Each manufacturer makes specific number of spiral
grooves and direction of the twist of rifling. A bullet recovered at the crime scene or from the
body of the victim may show those marks and on examination, the examiner may
presumptively state from what make of firearm it came from, thus, if one examination or
recovered bullet, it was found out that there are six (6) grooves and the rifling marks are
twisted to the left, then it is possible that it came from a Colt firearm. Smith and Wesson
manufacturer has five (5) lands, five (5) grooves and with right hand twit of rifling. Other class
characteristics varied from one manufacturer to another.
3. SHELL Identification
a. The breechface and the striker of every single firearm leave microscopically
individualities of their own. The firearm leaves its “fingerprint” or “thumbmark” on every
cartridge which is fires.
b. The whole principle of identification is based on the fact that since the breechface of
every weapon must be individually distinct, the cartridge case which it fires is imprinted with
this individuality.
c. The imprints on all cartridges fired from the same weapon are the same and those
cartridges fired from different weapon must always be different.
a. By means of fire bullet you can determine the particular barrel of firearm used.
b. Recovered bullet can tell the type, caliber and make of firearm from which it was fired.
c. Can determine also the condition of the firearm us
FIREARM CARTRIDGE CASE
Before proceeding in the examination, conduct a preliminary examination on the
cartridge case having a visual examination on the condition of such cartridge case. Determine
whether or not it came from a revolver or from an automatic pistol and sub-machine guns.
Examine those markings that are present on the base portion, the breechface marks, firing pin
impression, the location of the extractor and ejector markings. Check also the markings caused
by the chamber of the firearm. The magazine and the ejector port markings must also be taken
into consideration particularly those cartridge cases from gums having full automatic
mechanism.
1. Breechface marks
2. Firing pin impression
3. Ejector mark
4. Extractor mark
5. Chamber mark
1. Impression type – those markings caused by direct pressure contact. (ex. Breechface
mark)
2. Striated mark – those markings caused by sliding contact. (ex. Minute striations on the
cylindrical surface of the bullet)
Take Note:
Abrasion (in the bore) – Scratches caused by using improper cleaning materials, or by
firing ammunition with bullets to which abrasive material was adhering. Normal enlargement of
the bore and wearing away of lands due to the abrasive action of the bullets.
Accidental Characteristics - Those ate characteristics or marks left by some individual
gun that occurred on that particular shot and may or may not reproduced on any other shots.
For example, a grain of send of shaving of steel happened to be in the barrel when a shot was
fired.
Ballistician – Person whose knowledge in firearms identification is accepted by the
courts and other investigation agencies.
Definitive Proof – after the gun is finally completed, it is again fired with a heavy charge
to ensure against accident. This is the definitive proof and guns passing this test are stamped
with still another marked.
Expert - As used in courts includes all witnesses whose opinions are admitted on
grounds of specialized knowledge, training and experience.
Fouling - The accumulated of a deposit within the bore of a firearm caused by solid by-
products remaining after a cartridge of is fired.
Heavy Rusting - Usually called corrosion rather than fouling.
Proof Marks – It is the examination and testing of firearms by a recognized authority
according to certain rules and stamped with a mark to indicate that they are safe for sale and
used by the public.
Provisional Proof – the testing of the rough gun barrels and fired with a heavy charge of
powder to see if they are strong enough to be finished and assembled into gun. This provisional
proof and a certain stamp are placed on barrels so tested.
Secondary Firing Pin Impression – Is a mark on the side of the regular impression usually
found in pistols.
Shaving Marks – a shaving on the ogive portion of the fired bullet due to poor alignment
of the cylinder with the barrel. This shaving is often found in the revolver.
Skid Marks – When the bullet first starts forward without turning, that before the bullet
can begin to turn, it moves forward a small distance and this makes the front of the groove in
the bullet wider than the rear part. This skidding is more pronounced in revolvers.
Slippage Marks – Scratches of the fired bullet due to badly worn rifling or when the
bullet is small or too soft for the velocity used, there is a tendency for it to go straight forward
without turning and it jumps the rifling or slips.
Stripping Marks – scratches on the fired bullet due to worn out barrel.
TECHNIQUES OF EXAMINATION
1. Physical – Evidence bullets, cartridge cases and suspected firearm once submitted by
the requesting party will be physically examined to determine its markings or initials made by
the investigator for identification purposes. If no identifying marks were found the firearms
examiner will, before anything, affix his own identifying markings or initials derived form the
names of the requesting party, victim or suspect in that order of priority. The firearm will also
be physically examine to determine its safety devices seeing to it that there is no cartridge
inserted in the chamber that will cause accidental firing. Likewise, it will be examined of its vital
parts whether or not it is in operating condition and a tag will be attached for distinction.
Bullets of different class characteristics will be segregated from one another especially
the determination of caliber, number of lands and grooves, twist of rifling, etc. to facilitate its
easy final microscopic examination.
Cartridge cases will also be segregated to determine the caliber, type and make of
firearm from which they were fired. Misfired or dud cartridges will also be taken into
consideration. Although they may not have any ballistics probative value, yet, they may give a
clue to the solution of a crime.
2. Test Firing – The firearm is test fired before a bullet recovery box in order to obtain
test bullets and test cartridge cases for comparison with the evidence bullets and cartridge
cases, respectively,. But before firing, the cartridge will be marked at the side of the case and
on the nose portion of the bullet with letter “T” (to represent test) followed by the last two
digits of the serial number of the firearm of the test to be made (eg) T-77-1 to T-77-3 in their
order of firing to distinguish the number 1 test from the number 2 or 3 as the case may be.
3. Microscope Examination – After the recovery of the test bullets and cartridge case,
they will be compared with the evidence cartridge cases under the Bullet Comparison
Microscope to determine whether or not the have the congruency of striations or the same
individual characteristics.
Toady, the most widely and reliable instrument in Firearms Identification is the Bullet
Comparison Microscope. With this instrument, the firearms examiner can make a complete
examination and comparison of the so called Class and Individual characteristics that appears
on the fired bullets and fired cartridge cases.
This instrument consists of two single tubes fitted with a cross arm and comparison
eyepiece, in which the images of two objects held on its two adjustable stages are fused into
one, forming a single image as can be seen on the comparison eyepiece. The microscope tubes
are built as a unit with the comparison eyepiece which has a prism arrangement that brings the
images of the specimen held under the microscopic tubes into a side by side position in the left
and right side of the eyepiece field the eyepiece is threaded for focusing on the dividing line
between the two fields.
Under the microscope the two fired bullets or fired cartridge cases can be examined in a
“juxtaposition” and whatever the observation and findings obtained during the examination
can be photographed for court presentation and also to give the Court a better understanding
and good appreciation of how he came to that conclusion.
Place the two objects on the two adjustable stages under the two microscopic tubes and
peep through the comparison eyepiece. If the objects cannot be seen, adjust the stages
through the rock and pinion mechanism. Once the two objects focused, the next step is to find
the similarities existing between the objects either shifting them vertically or horizontally.
Every examiner, no matter how experienced or expert he may be, has had the
experience of spending many hours in the attempt to get the satisfactory and convincing
matching in cases where there was every reason to believe that the has the gun that fired the
evidence bullet or shell.
Obtain matching as many as possible, because convincing one’s self and convincing the
Court “beyond all reasonable doubt” are two quite different matters. Te expert must always
keep in mind the fact, judges are always keep in mind the fact, judges are always unpredictable:
if some pairs of grooves (or lands) match and others do not, the expert must be prepared to
explain why they do not.
FINDINGS/CONCLUSION
Findings are the bases of conclusion. A conclusion cannot be made without the findings.
A good conclusion is always based on good findings. In comparative examination of the
evidence bullet that are found on the periphery running from the forward shoulder to the base
portion (these are surface of the barrel), are discernible with the test bullet or if they have the
congruency, correspondence or intermarriage, then the evidence bullet and the test bullet
were fired from one and the same firearm. For conclusive of findings, there should be at least
three (3) tests that should be compared. The first is for preliminary, the second is for
confirmation and the third is for conclusion. This is also true for fired cartridge cases. Although
the individual characteristics of the cases may be found at the base portion where breechface,
ejector, extractor markings are found on the sides that are in contact with the inner surface of
the chamber.
Clip or magazine markings may also give discernible markings. Like the ejector or extractor
markings if considered singly may not be a basis for conclusion. These only serve as
corroborative characteristics but certainly lack legal significance. This is so because the case
may have these markings even if they were unloaded from the firearm without firing. As a rule,
the point of the examination and comparison is at the area of the primer proper where
breechface markings together with the firing pin impression are located. Primers are softer
metals and receive more prominent striation than any other portion of the base.
Conclusion is the opinion gathered from the finding. This is the end result of the
examination and should be taken seriously as it involves the life and liberty of the suspect.
When the evidence and the test bullets or cartridge cases have the same individual
characteristics, the competent examiner will conclude that they were fired from one and the
same individual characteristic; the competent examiner will conclude that they were fired from
one and the same suspected firearm. If they have different individual characteristics, certainly,
the evidence bullet or case was not fired from the suspected firearm. Where the evidence has
prominent or minor striations that the three tests, it calls for uncertainty and doubt for a
positive or negative conclusion. Only those evidence bullets or cases that have the same
individual characteristics may be taken of photomicrograph for Court presentation.
1. Analytical or Torsion Balance – Used for determining weights of bullets and shotgun
pellets for possible determination of type, and make of firearm from which it was fired.
2. Bullet Comparison Microscope – This valuable instrument is specially designed to permit
the firearms examiner to determine the similarity and dissimilarity between two fired bullets or
two fired shells, by simultaneously observing their magnified image in a single microscopic field.
3. Bullet Recovery Box – Consist of a wooden box, 12 “x”12”x 96, with a hinged to cover
and with one end open. This long box is filled with ordinary cotton and separated into sections
by cardboard petitions.
4. CP–6 Comparison Projector – An instrument very much similar with the bullet
comparison microscope, where 2 fired bullets or shells can be compared in one setting of the
firearms examiner. Also in one sitting, the evidence fired shell can b4e immediately compared
with the test fired shell with the use of this equipment is absolutely no strain of any kind. No
eye strain because the magnified image appears on a large screen and is observed as a vertical
and comfortable viewing distance. No back strain from stooping over a microscope several
hours a day. No mental strain because comparison of evidence is faster, easier and less
tiresome, thus allowing a more efficient and productive of investigative time in the crime
laboratory with method that can be seen in the screen can be photographed by any kind of
camera.
5. Filan Micrometer Eye Piece - a measuring microscope to read the width of the land and
groove marks and to obtain the pitch of the rifling in turns per inch.
6. Helixometer – Type of instrument used in measuring pitch of rifling firearms. This
instrument is generally used in high advanced ballistic laboratory. It is not very much needed in
a typical police ballistic laboratory. With the use of this instrument it is possible to measure the
angel of twist in a rifle, pistol, or revolver barrel. It is used by the insertion of a telescope
aligned with the axis of the bore. There is an eyepiece and an objective. The scope is mounted
on a routable bearing with graduated discs that permits reading circular measurements, there
is a scale graduated in inches. From the discs we can get the angel of the pitch, this can be
combined with the scale reading to compute how many inches of barrel length would be
needed for one complete turn of the rifling. Comparing this figure with those in tables of
manufacturers’ specifications, we can often identify the making and the model of a weapon
whose other features have been destroyed already.
7. Machine Rest - A machine use for testing the accuracy of a firearm.
8. Caliper – an instrument used for making measurements such as bullet diameter and
bore diameter.
9. Micrometer – similar in use as caliber.
10. Onoscope – a small instrument sometimes used in examining the internal surface of the
gun barrel in determining the irregularities inside the bore of the gun barrel. It has a tiny lamp
at the terminal portion and this is inserted inside the bore for internal examination.
11. Optical Sight – sight containing series of lenses to form an optical system being
contained in one unit. Optical sights do not necessarily have telescopic properties. The optical
system may merely include range indicating, or range estimating devices, plus the necessary
means of adjusting for elevation and wind age.
12. Shadow Graph – Equipment used in firearms identification. It contains a series of
microscopic lenses of different magnification that can be used in examining fired bullet or fired
shells to determine their class characteristics and also for orientation purposes. It greatly differs
from the bullet comparison microscope and stereoscope microscope, that this instrument
contains a large ground glass, 14 inches more or less in diameter, wherein the observation and
comparison of the class characteristics is done by the firearm examiner. Similarly with the bullet
comparison made in the circular ground glass.
13. Stereoscopic Microscope – unlike the bullet comparison microscope does not have any
camera attachment and no photomicrograph can be taken for court presentation. It is generally
used in the preliminary examination of fired bullets and fired shells to determine the relative
distribution of the class characteristics or for so-called orientation purposes. It can be used also
in the close-up examination of tempered serial numbers of firearms. It has two eyepieces and
the lenses and objectives can be manipulated vertically with a series of magnifications. It is one
effective instrument for firearms identification.
14. Taper Gauge – It is used primarily for determining bore diameter of firearms. This
instrument is very useful for giving quick idea as to the caliber of a gun.
15. Telescope Sight – an optical employing the principle of the telescope to enlarge the
image of the target.