AUDIO

POETICS
LITERARY MEANING
IN VOICE AS
EXPLICATURE

Joseph K. Thiong’o
Kimingichi Wabende
Wanjiku M. Kabira

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© 2021 Joseph Thiong’o, Kimingichi Wabende, and Wanjiku M. Kabira. All rights reserved except for quotations of
fully acknowledged short passages for the purpose of criticism, review, or research. No part of this publication may
be reproduced, stored in any retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or means but for purposes of citation
without prior written permission from the authors.

Citation: Audio Poetics: Literary Meaning in Voice as Explicature. Joseph Thiong’o, Kimingichi Wabende, and
Wanjiku M. Kabira. University of Nairobi, 2021.

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Table of Contents
SONGS ......................................................................................................................................................... 1

ABSTRACT.................................................................................................................................................. 2

CHAPTER ONE ........................................................................................................................................... 3

1.0 Introduction ............................................................................................................................................. 3

1.1 Background History of Bongo Music ..................................................................................................... 4

Artists Biography at a Glance................................................................................................................. 8

1.2 Statement of Problem .............................................................................................................................. 9

1.3 Objectives of the Study ........................................................................................................................... 9

1.4 Hypothesis............................................................................................................................................. 10

1.5 Research Questions ............................................................................................................................... 10

1.6 Justification ........................................................................................................................................... 10

1.7 Scope and Limitations........................................................................................................................... 12

1.9 Literature Review.................................................................................................................................. 12

1.11 Theoretical Framework ....................................................................................................................... 31

1.12 Relevance Theory ............................................................................................................................... 32

Conceptual framework ................................................................................................................................ 36

CHAPTER TWO ........................................................................................................................................ 37

Research Methodology ............................................................................................................................... 37

1.16 Sampling Method ................................................................................................................................ 38

CHAPTER THREE .................................................................................................................................... 53

Meaning Encompassed In Stylistic Choices at the Lexical Level .............................................................. 53

2.1 Summary of the Main Message in the Main Songs that formed the basis of the Research .................. 54

2.1.1 Pii Pii.................................................................................................................................................. 54

2.1.2 Rita ..................................................................................................................................................... 55

2.1.3 Nikifa Kesho ...................................................................................................................................... 56

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CHAPTER FOUR....................................................................................................................................... 80

Data Analysis .............................................................................................................................................. 80

Results ......................................................................................................................................................... 80

A Critical Review of Interview with the Sound Technicians / Music Producer Haroub Msingala ............ 82

3.2 Critical Review of Interview Responses from a few Literature Students of Dar-Es-
Salaam University 95

3.2.1 First respondent .................................................................................................................................. 95

3.2.2 Second Speaker/Respondent ............................................................................................................ 102

3.2.3 Third Speaker ................................................................................................................................... 106

3.3.0 Critical Review of Responses to the Research Questions from Literature Students of Dar Es Salaam
University answers to the Questionnaires ................................................................................................. 107

3.3.1 Question One ................................................................................................................................... 109

3.3.2 Question Two ................................................................................................................................... 113

3.3.3 Question Three ................................................................................................................................. 116

3.3.4 Question Four................................................................................................................................... 123

3.3.5 Question Five ................................................................................................................................... 128

3.3.6 Question Six ..................................................................................................................................... 131

3.3.7 Question Seven ................................................................................................................................ 136

CHAPTER FIVE ...................................................................................................................................... 140

Summary of the Key Findings Conclusions and Recommendations ........................................................ 140

Major Factors That Determine the Meaning Listeners Infer from The Voice of the Artist. ..................... 141

The Artist and the Nature of One's Voice ................................................................................................. 142

Message of the Song ................................................................................................................................. 145

The Target Audience a Singer aims at Addressing ................................................................................... 147

Culture ...................................................................................................................................................... 158

The Subsumed Character in a Song .......................................................................................................... 163

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Ideologies .................................................................................................................................................. 165

Other Results and Observations ................................................................................................................ 174

Observations and Discussions................................................................................................................... 174

Observation on Interdisciplinary Nature of the Research ......................................................................... 175

Observation on Methods and Methodology .............................................................................................. 176

Challenges Faced During Data Collection and Interpretation .................................................................. 176

Observations on Methodology .................................................................................................................. 176

Solution Adopted in Data Analysis and Interpretation ............................................................................. 178

Interviewees .............................................................................................................................................. 180

Challenges Faced During Data Analysis Stage......................................................................................... 180

Research Equipment ................................................................................................................................. 182

Explanations of How These Potential Explanations and Findings Can Be Tested ................................... 183

Conclusion ................................................................................................................................................ 193

Recommendation ...................................................................................................................................... 195

WORKS CITED ....................................................................................................................................... 200

Discography .............................................................................................................................................. 207

APPENDIX 1 ............................................................................................................................................ 211

INVERVIEW RESEARCHER THIONG’O JOSEPH AND HAROUB MSINGALA BONGO FLAVA

MUSIC PRODUCER AND DISCO JOCKEY ......................................................................................... 211

APPENDIX 2 ............................................................................................................................................ 226

GROUP INTERVIEW OF STUDENTS AND LECTURERS IN DAR ES SALAAM UNIVERSITY .. 226

INTERVIEW CARRIED OUT ON 16 MAY 2016 .................................................................................. 226

APPENDIX 3 ............................................................................................................................................ 234

QUESTIONNAIRE .................................................................................................................................. 234

APPENDIX 4 ............................................................................................................................................ 260

INTERVIEW PHOTOS ............................................................................................................................ 260

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APPENDIX 5 ............................................................................................................................................ 261

DATA VERIFICATION QUESTIONNAIRE ......................................................................................... 261

APPENDIX 6 ............................................................................................................................................ 273

SONGS TRANSCRIPTIONS ................................................................................................................... 273

APPENDIX 7 ............................................................................................................................................ 276

LINKS TO THE AUDIO VISUAL SITES OF THE SONGS .................................................................. 276

APPENDIX 8 ............................................................................................................................................ 277

SONIC EXPERIENCE: A Guide To Everyday Sounds Edited By Jean –Francois And Torgue Henry,
Translated By Andra Mccartney And David Paquette, Mcgill-Queen’s University Press, London. ........ 277

APPENDIX 9 ............................................................................................................................................ 292

Contribution of this Research to Existing Research Methodology and Criticism of Meaning implied in
Audio Texts 292

9.1 Key Observations on Pitch of a Song and the Effect it has on Meaning Based on the effect the
melody / tune of a song has with reference to the Voice of the Artist ...................................................... 292

9.5 Stylistic Features Expressed in Lexical Choices in Bongo Flava Bear Literary Meaning Which Is
Implied in the Use of Figures of Speech ................................................................................................... 295

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Acknowledgment
This work was possible following the guidance and supervision, encouragement, and support of
my PhD Supervisors Dr. Kimingichi Wabende, Prof. Wanjiku M. Kabira, and Prof Helga
Schroeder, to whom I am and will forever be very grateful.

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SONGS

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ABSTRACT

This research endeavored to explore literary meaning encompassed in songs as a sub-genre of

literature. In this endeavor, the research sought to examine selected Bongo Flava songs. The choice
of the songs was based on the assumption that Bongo Flava artists use language stylistically when
writing the songs and in the style of singing. The objectives of the research were to explore literary
meaning encompassed in the stylistic use of Language at the lexical level and in the manner of
singing. The design of the study was fieldwork-based research, the mode of the inquiry being the
use of interviews and questionnaires. Data was drawn from a population of over 200 participants.
This constituted, literature students and theatre and performance students, music students, music
producers, sound technicians, and fans of Bongo Flava songs. The population was sampled from
The University of Nairobi, Dar-Es-Salaam University, Kenyatta University, and Egerton
University. Data was gathered in response to the stylistic use of language both in the lexical choices
and voice of the artist. The collected data were presented in descriptive, codes, and interpretative
formats after full transcription to reveal how literary scholars infer implied meaning in the song's
lexical choices and the voice of the artist. This was envisioned to provide a simple method that can
be used to critique literary meaning, which listeners discern "through the ear" as a result of listening
to the audio song. This was because there appeared to be an aesthetic manner of words rendition
that the artists employ to present several layers of meaning during the performance, some of which
could be construed as explicit or implied. The research was governed by Relevance theory in the
examination of how artists and listeners infer explicitly and implied meaning from the song text
and an artist's style of singing. Focusing on stylistic features employed in the song's lexical choices
and the oral performance as evidenced in the voice techniques of the artist helped in underpinning
the different features literary scholars operationalize when inferring meaning from a song. The
results of the research indicated that Literature scholars identify with ease styles in the lexical
choices in songs but face difficulty in identifying stylistic features encompassed in the voice of the
artist and in critiquing the relevance of these oral stylistic techniques to the meaning implied in a
song. It is this gap in the field of literary criticism that this research has endeavored to fill. This
followed the observation that the largest percentage of the respondents only use adjectives to
describe the emotions the song creates. The research revealed that the emotions a song elicits in
the listener are sonic features that result from the listening experience one employs, based on
cultural experience and oral aesthetic linguistic competence that inform the inference-making
process. The research as a result recommends the need to include criticism of voice in the
Literature studies curriculum to equip learners with critical skills that can be employed to critique
meaning encompassed in oral texts, in theatre and performance, film criticism, and performed oral
literature genres such as songs and oral poetry.

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 CHAPTER ONE
Background Studies

1.0 Introduction

Basing the onset of the research on Wasamba’s 2013 observation that:

How do we deal with oral genres in a world where new technologies have become available
to more and more people? (Merolla Daniela vii qtd in Wasamba, 2013). Oral genres in
Africa are alive and dynamic. Technology too, is not at a standstill. It is changing rapidly
and altering the way verbal art is composed, performed, documented and conveyed to a
wider audience. For various reasons, Africa is lagging behind in multimedia research and
documentation of oral genres. The lack of proportionate presence of African oral genres in
the global digital map is caused by, among other factors, the slow pace of adoption of
multimedia research and documentation (Wasamba 2013).

This research takes advantage of the current advancement in music production, and song
performance technology to explore Literary meaning that results from the styles the Bongo Flava
artists employ when writing and performing their songs. The key focus of the research is to
interrogate and explore how the meaning (Bongo Flava musicians) as oral artists imply in their
manner of singing can be critiqued from a Literary perspective. The research examines styles at
the lyrical level and styles encompassed in the voice of the artist which the singer appropriates as
oral performance techniques. The research focuses on selected Bongo Flava songs by Marlaw and
Diamond Platnumz. The research operates on the premise that one, the selected Bongo Flava
artists use language artistically in their songs, which consequently enriches the meaning listeners
infer from the songs. Two, the selected artists in addition appropriate singing techniques that
function to pass nuanced meanings. This results from how the singer intones their words and
enunciates lines in a song. The voice of the artist in this context the research hypothesizes,
functions as implicatures thereby suggesting meaning which the listeners identify with as a result
of their cultural background. The research thus operates on the hypothesis that the selected Bongo
Flava artistes employ Oral Literary, Performance, and Linguistic contexts, to bring new meanings
to the song. This arguably enriches the literary meaning discernible in the songs that are studied in
this research. The voices in a song the research argues function to imply meanings that can be
construed to be poetic when examined in the context of the nuances informing the linguistic

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mannerisms of the cultural-linguistic practices of a given language and its respective sound
aesthetic practices. The research thus endeavors to examine the role styles at lyrical and voice level
play in a song to inform interpretations that literary scholars bring into the song interpretation from
a stylistic perspective.

This is because criticism of voice as the research endeavor could lead to insights in criticism of
literary meaning encompassed in the voice of the artist as well as analysis of oral poetry, theatre
performance, and film criticism. This research, therefore, analyses elements of voice as the
performance that yield implied meaning in oral texts. The research focuses on songs of Diamond
Platnumz and Marlaw (both Tanzanian musicians) because of the literary nature and stylistic
salience that informs voice appropriation, and sound production that characterizes the quality of
composition, as well as the rendition of most of their songs. This is evidenced in the phonological
features that define the voice quality in the oral performances of the songs, the audio features that
accompany the lyrical message, and the audio styles as aesthetic discourses.

1.1 Background History of Bongo Music

The beginning of Tanzanian hip-hop along with a genre known as Bongo Flavor (also Bongo
Flava, or Fleva, according to the Swahili spelling), can be traced back as early as the 1990s
(Suriano, 2006:1). This music, characterized by the use of Swahili lyrics (with a few English and
slang words) is also referred to as the “music of the new generation” (muziki wa kizazi kipya).
Bongo Flava and Hip-Hop are not only music genres but also cultural expressions necessary to
understand a substantial part of contemporary Tanzanian youths (Suriano: 1). Bongo Flava
articulates Youths' attitudes, lifestyles, needs, aspirations in addition to a divergence of concerns
depending on historical moments, socio-economic conditions (qtd in Suriano 1-2).

These shifting social narratives, surrounding Bongo Flava and hip-hop are indicative of a
new moment in cultural production. It is a site where excess signifiers produce narratives
of subjugation, festivity, and drunken fantasy mixed. What is most interesting is how these
new narratives can explain the transformation of Tanzanian culture during the millennial
moment under neo-liberalism. Bongo Flava/hip-hop has been a site of political subjugation
and opposition, a route towards economic prosperity and intense competition, and a
mediation of local and global cultural values. These contradictions are reflective of a

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 cultural doubling: musical expression as representative of an imagined national culture and
musical expression as representative of a transforming capitalist economic culture
(Michael: 3).

The early meaning of the term “Bongo Flavour” was “hip-hop” (that is, a foreign genre) with a
local, Tanzanian flavour (Nganyagwa 2005). Always carrying lyrics in Swahili, with a few slang
and English terms, Bongo Flavour encompasses many genres which partly originated in other
countries, such as rap and R&B (for the US), zouk (from Antilles), dancehall, and raga (from
Jamaica). These foreign influences are combined with local rhythms and tastes, and the result is
Bongo Flavour, a new, very commercial genre, characterized by the sound of a keyboard. Suriano
continues and obverses that: “this genre is continuously changing and the issue of which styles
Bongo Flavour includes is still an unresolved debate in Tanzania. Many Tanzanian 'pure' hip-hop
artists argue that Tanzanian hip-hop is no longer part of the Bongo Flavour genre. “In its early
inception, Bongo Flava copied Western Rap music. The first artistes rhymed in English. These
were children from rich families in Tanzania. Saleh Jaber released the first rap album in Swahili,
“King of Swahili rap”, in 1991 (Suriano 4). Saleh Jaber is one of the pioneer Hip Hop artists in
Tanzania. He was born in Dar Es Salaam at a time when the growing interest in western music
was taking root among the youths in Dar Es Salaam. Besides aping Western artists such as Vannila
Ice who is popularly known for the song “Ice Ice Baby”, Jaber introduced Swahili rap music.
Arguably as a way of domesticating western music in the local language.

Around this time, (1991) there were other artists such as Juma Nature, Mr. II, and groups such as
Kwanza Unit and X Plastaz. Although many of these artists were trying to appropriate Western
English Rap Music, Tanzania hosted a Hip Hop competition in 1991, known as "Yo Rap Bonanza".
During this competition, many of the artists who participated were performing Western Hip Hop
Music. However, unlike the other artists, Saleh Ajabry performed his song in Swahili but he
appropriated Vanilla Ice's melody of the song Ice Ice Baby. He won the competition. It is from this
appropriation that it can be said Bongo Flava may have sprung as a result of hip-hop artists trying
to adopt western music and fit Swahili words to western-oriented melodies.

With time the experiment with Western music and local Swalihi language slowly evolved by
adopting Taraab music on the one hand and western melody on the other. Consequently, a
hybridization of Taraab and Western music led to the emergence of Bongo Flava. Within the

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appropriation, Bongo Flava adopted the classical poetic features of Taraab music but raised the
tempo to fit Western music genres. Retention of the poetic nature of Taraab music on the one hand
and the appropriation of Western music tempo led to what grew to be known as Bongo Flava. In
1999, Bongo Music evolved into fully-fledged Kiswahili and artists started to concentrate on more
serious lyrics unlike before. The young singers not only commented on social issues adapted to
Kiswahili's poetry mashairi in the composition of the songs. It is alleged that it received the
greatest media coverage compared to other genres such as the taarab (sung Swahili poetry), and
‘traditional’ music and dances (ngoma). These artists took advantage of the media to popularize
the music genre which not only served as a form of entertainment but also became a source of
income. Bongo Flavour and hip-hop allow the articulation of contemporary youth identities
(Suriano: 7). The youth artists took advantage of "New techniques of music diffusion mean that
even youths from urban slums can use quite cheap recording technologies to express themselves”
(Suriano: 8) It is observed that “Bongo Flavour and hip-hop artists do not play any musical
instrument (live performance--MINE]). Rather, producers record their voices to a pre-recorded
backing track.” (Suriano: 8) Suriano acknowledges that Lyrics generally express contemporary
local problems, such as unemployment and poverty, as well as hopes and expectations about family
life. Other songs provide a commentary on love and sexual relations in the era of HIV & AIDS.

Research studies and most publications on Bongo Flava, however, have tended to focus on the
message conveyed in the song's lyrics for example themes such as love, heartbreak, politics, to
mention a few. This research has however not encountered any similar research on Bongo Flava
that focused on analyzing the literary meaning encompassed and implied in the voice of the artist
on the one hand and literary criticism implied in the melody and lyrics of Bongo Flava songs on
the other hand. Diamond Platnumz and Marlaw appropriate Bongo Flava music to comment on
life experiences that affect Tanzanian society. Most importantly, they package their music in poetic
forms both the lyrics and melody. The research thus examines the role of voice as an audio text
play to inform, create, imply and thereby define the literary meaning that can be envisaged in
songs. This research focuses on the songs of Diamond Platnumz and Marlaw.

Although there are very many young Tanzanian artists singing Bongo Flava songs today, it can be
argued that Diamond Platnumz and Marlaw’s songs bear unique characteristics that are bear
literary value as a result of using language stylistically. This is because they garnish their songs

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with a variety of styles both in Oral performance techniques and in their lyrics. Consequently, their
songs are not only very symbolic from an artistic perspective but in addition address sensitive
issues in the society that especially affects the common people. Themes such as poverty, racism,
love that affect most people in the country thus are not only reflections of the real-life of most
people in Tanzania but also reveal the coping mechanism most people adopt as they go about their
daily lives. Apart from the explicit message, the subsumed characters, persona, and the implied
audiences their songs in retrospect reveal motifs that can be said to characterize the thoughts of
most Tanzanian youths. It is from this spectacle that this research seeks to investigate how
thematic concerns and artistic use of language in their songs can reveal implied meanings on the
one hand and critical perspectives about life and societies in East Africa on the other hand.

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Artists Biography at a Glance

NAME: Diamond Platnumz official name - Naseeb Abdul Juma Issack.

ORIGIN: He is a Tanzanian from Kigoma District.
EDUCATION: Tandale West Primary School (1996-2002)
DISTRICT: Kigoma Tanzania
RELIGION: Moslem
MUSIC CAREER: 2006 –To date
DATE OF BIRTH: October 2, 1989
CHILDREN: Latifah Dangote, Naseeb Junior, Prince Nillan, Dylan Abdul Naseeb
PROFESSION: Singer, songwriter, composer, and dancer
VOICE: Tenor 3
MUSIC GENRE: Bongo Flava Artist.
MUSIC ALBUM: A Boy from Tandale, Best Songs of Tanzania 2017
AWARDS: MTV Europe Music Award for Best African Act among many other awards.
STUDIO: Wasafi Records
WEBSITE: www.diamondplatnumz.com
OTHER ACHIEVEMENTS: Wasafi TV na Radio yake launched in February 2018.
CHARITY: December 2019 finances the construction of a mosque at Kigoma.

NAME: Marlaw official name - Lawrence Marima Madole

ORIGIN: Tanzania
Marlaw official name - Lawrence Marima Madole
COUNTRY: Tanzanian
SONGS: “Bembeleza'' “Rita” “Pii Pii” among others.
YEAR OF BIRTH: 1984
SINGING CAREER: It is reported that Marlaw developed an interest in singing early in life and
would sing in church and started writing songs and performing in Secondary School.

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1.2 Statement of Problem
Although most Bongo Flava songs employ language artistically, at lexical, and, at the vocal level,
as evidenced in most songs, this begs the question of the role this plays in conflating layers of
meaning which the artist conveys and which the listeners can infer when listening to a song.
Additionally, this begs the question of how these meanings can be investigated from a literary
perspective. The stylistic use of figures of speech and the infusion of oral nuances in how the artist
enunciates words during oral performance for instance thus beg the question of the importance this
can have in the passing of implied meaning which the artist conveys by the appropriation of artistic
choices of singing. There is need therefore for investigation of the literary significance this brings
to bear in the creation of meaning in songs. This is because as it appears in the case of Bongo Flava
songs, there could be an intentional usage of stylistic choices at lexical level and oral nuances that
can bear significance in Swahili culture and, which could arguably be traced from Swahili classical
poetry traditionally known as (tenzi) verse. This arguably enriches the literary significance
encompassed in Bongo Flava songs. It can thus be surmised that artists' appropriation of stylistic
choices at the stylistic level are not only for aesthetic purposes but also could lead to the
construction of implied meanings in songs. The investigation of the thematic concerns Bongo
Flava artists therefore articulate can thus unveil ideological practices which are in operation as
evidenced in the relevance the singer and the listeners can infer in Bongo Flava songs. There is a
need therefore to investigate the meaning implied in the artistic choices singers employ in order to
account for the functions this contributes to the articulation of thematic concerns which the artists
address in the songs.

1.3 Objectives of the Study

To analyze

1. To examine the meaning that results from stylistic features at lexical level.
2. To examine the meaning implied in the oral nuances in the voice of the artist.
3. To examine thematic concerns that result from how listeners infer meaning in songs.

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1.4 Hypothesis

1. Stylistic features employed in songs at lexical level encompass meaning that can be
investigated from a stylistic criticism perspective.
2. The styles of singing shape implied meaning which an audience can infer in a song.
3. The inferential process through which listeners infer meaning in songs operates within
particular thematic premises.

1.5 Research Questions

i. Does the stylistic use of language at lexical level bear literary significance?
ii. Does the stylistic manner in which the artist uses their voice while singing contribute to
the meaning listeners infer from the song's oral performance?
iii. Do the manner of inference in Bongo Flava songs engender thematic concerns?

1.6 Justification

The research is justified on the basis that it contributes to the existing knowledge in criticism of
songs as a genre of literature. In addition, the research paves the way to criticism of sound in,
theatre and performance, performed poetry, and film criticism. This proposition can be arrived at,
after examining how previous studies on stylistics in songs can be enriched by examining the
meanings implied in the voice techniques which artists employ in oral performance to convey
implied meaning. The research endeavoures to provide a criticism procedure that could be
employed to critique literary meanings encompassed in the voice of an artist. This can be examined
by analyzing how listeners infer meaning in songs. The research offers a concrete process through
which the literary meanings encompassed in audio texts in songs could be analyzed--as literary
texts—to enrich the implied meanings one a song encompasses. The research was inspired by a
question from a literature student during oral literature fieldwork, who ask, "What do we call that
thing in a song that affects someone's emotions?"

Application of the research, in addition, would be essential since it could provide approaches in
which criticism of sound in, film, theatre, and performing arts can be extended to interrogate
meanings permeated in audio text in songs, film, and theatre performance. The findings of the

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research can be employed to advance the analysis of utterances in songs. Future researches in
literature could benefit from the research, by adopting the method employed in the research to
explicate literary meaning implied in audio texts for instance in film criticism. This can aid in the
explication of meaning subsumed in audio texts. Investigation of interpretations (associated with
the appreciation of popular music) could consequently, bring to bear the effects the appropriations
of voice form cognitive frames through which song appreciation as acts of practicing thinking
define aesthetics frames on which meaning in voice could be advanced on the one hand. On the
other hand, the research accounts for these practices as the very means and processes through
which meaning subsumed in sound in popular songs can be brought to bear. The research focuses
on the songs of Diamond Platnumz because they are poetic in their implied message. This is,
however, not to assume that other Bongo Flava Artists' songs are not rich in their artistic choices
but the frequency with which the two selected artists' appropriate styles is outstanding compared
to other Bongo Flava artists. Notably, the consistency with which this is evidenced in their songs
is also outstanding. Although there are many other Bongo Flava musicians, the songs of the two
artists are therefore adequate in representations of almost major thematic concerns that other
Bongo Flava artists articulate in their songs. Such themes and implied meanings are inherent in
the melodic structure of their songs as well as in the stylistic use of language which they employ
when writing their lyrics. The research focuses on the voice of the artists to bring to bear literary
meaning that is discernible in the songs. Voice production techniques are examined to show how
these shape meanings permeated in the voice of the artist because of this influence interpretation
of meaning in a song. This necessitates the examination of how the song melodic structures
informed implied meaning discernible in the songs. Arguably, appropriation of oral nuances and
implied meanings may not only be found in Diamond Platnumz songs since it is a common practice
of Swahili Poetry. However, the explicit manner in which the artist's appropriate voice conflate
meaning makes his songs worth studying because they can be examined with the least effort
especially when it comes to examining how Literature students discern meaning in oral texts. The
researcher thus settled on the artist because the messages in his songs are easily accessible not only
to the researcher but also to undergraduate students. This is because the researcher seeks to
interview undergraduate students as the main respondents during data collection. After all, the
study aims to contribute to the already existing knowledge in songs as a sub-genre of literature.
The researcher thinks that most literature students at the undergraduate level, as well as music

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students, would not have a lot of difficulties discussing songs of Diamond Platnumz because they
have simple straightforward lyrics as well as very simple melodies. The artistic expressions that
define how the artist appropriates style at the lyrical level and in his manner of singing can however
be said to conflate layers of meanings.

The research in addition focuses on the songs of Marlaw because they are not only narratological
in nature but also because he draws his messages from real-life situations. His songs, therefore,
are appropriate for this study because they are a reflection of the Tanzanian society. The research
seeks to examine how the voice of the artist, melodies infuse in the songs affect and influence the
messages conveyed in the songs.

1.7 Scope and Limitations

The research focuses on the songs of two Tanzanian Bongo Flava artistes. Namely Diamond
Platnumz and Marlaw. Bongo Flava as a music genre practiced in Tanzania has an audience in
East Africa as well as in other parts of the world where Kiswahili is spoken. The literary aspects
that define appropriation of stylistic choices at lexical level as well as voice as a stylistic feature--
as an element of the form in the songs--of the two artists greatly informs the choice of the artists
who are purposively sampled. Thus far, Diamond Platnumz has sung over seventy songs while
Marlaw has sung over thirty songs. The research focuses on the analysis of the stylistic choices at
lexical level, in addition to oral performance singing techniques as styles. This encompasses
analysis of stylistic features at lexical level and the voice of the artist. This is intended to
underscore how the meaning audiences attach to a song based on the manner of rendition,
harmonies, and intonation features inform the inferences listeners make out while listening to a
song. The research, thus, focuses on song composition and writing techniques, and voice
production techniques the technicians apply while mixing editing, and mastering the songs.

1.9 Literature Review

This section reviews existing literature on songs as oral-literary texts. The literature reviewed here
provides a basis through which the voice in the songs can be examined to bring to bear literary
meaning embodied in songs as literary texts and as oral performances. The reviewed literature
focuses on the literature on song as presented in oral literature text, popular songs, sound
technology, poetic forms of digital technology, and digital technology. This is because different

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scholars and professionals in these areas have written on the role songs play in each of these
contexts. Reviewing the literature in these areas aids in contextualizing the research based on the
already existing literature in these fields.
This is important in seeing the relationship the research has with the already existing literature on
songs. In addition, this helps in identifying existing gaps that the research can fill about the
objectives of the research. As the section shows oral literature studies on songs tend to focus on
the analysis of message (word) that is transcribed in print text and the lexical meaning conveyed
through the message after the song transcription. Although there is already existing literature on
the role styles play in songs upon transcription, to pass meaning, the role of the voice of the artist
as a stylized form of expression, capable of conveying implied meaning in a song play to enrich
the verbal message need further research as this section shows. The literature reviewed here comes
to the observation that the (tune) melody of an artist’s voice in song contributes to the implied
meanings discernible in a song as evidenced in the voice of the artist. It is on this basis that the
research endeavoures to examine implied meaning in the song's transcribed text and the voice of
the artist in the selected songs by Diamond Platnumz and Marlaw.

As Miall observes, “the sound of poetry is often held to be expressive” (Miall, 2001: 56). In this
analysis, the sounds /i/ or /p/ sounds are examined if they connote smallness or brightness? Does
/g/ connote heaviness, and /u/ darkness? This is the hypothesis of phonetic symbolism, the proposal
that specific phonemes encode innate meaning, whether visual, spatial, or kinaesthetic (Miall,
2001: 56). Based on this argument by Miall, this research argues that the meaning of the voice of
the artist in a song can be examined in the same context as phono texts. The most familiar form of
sound meaning is onomatopoeic, in this context. This is the imitation of a natural sound by a word
form: for example, “the words hiss, miaow, or crack each appears to embody phoneme clusters
that sound similar to the event they name” (Miall, 2001: 56). Bredin as Miall notes suggests that
“onomatopoeia is not a trivial and incidental phenomenon of usage, but answers to a deep-seated
need that lies at the heart of the linguistic consciousness (qtd. in Miall, 56). Based on Miall’s
arguments and assertions it is thus probable that examining meaning at the audio level based on
the voice of an artist can open up vistas through which implied meanings invoice of the artists—
in songs—can be explored.

13
In a related argument, Stanley Fish in the essay on stylistics objects to any form of stylistics arising
from “the desire for an instant and automatic interpretive procedure based on an inventory of fixed
relationships between observable data and meanings” (Fish, 1980: 70-71) (qtd. in Miall, 56). Fish
does not, however, deny the existence of formal properties, he argues that we come to them within
a framework of meaning already in place: “[M]eanings are not extracted but made and made not
by encoded forms but by interpretive strategies that call forms into being” (qtd. in Miall, 56).
Arguably, it is the listening experience, therefore, that the listener brings to a song or a listening
experience that determines the meaning one can infer from songs. It is on this basis that this
research expounds on this observation to account for how listeners infer implied meaning in songs.
In addition, the research discusses such listening and inferential meanings to show their relevance
in literary criticism. This is because, as Newman observes "Hearers do make consistent judgments
about phonetic meanings under several conditions” (Newman, 1933), (qtd. in Miall, 56). Analysis
of several literary texts show arrays of phonetic features that appear to be consistent with their tone
(Fornagy, 1961) (qtd. in Miall, 56). There lacks, however, an integrative framework in which to
relate such findings; such a perspective is required to examine to what extent systematic sound
differences occur in literary texts, and, if so, whether readers are sensitive to them (Miall, 2001:
56-57). It is this acknowledgment of a gap in how such meanings are inferred through the ear as
Miall observes that this research seeks to contribute to the existing knowledge. This is because it
is an old fact that listeners can make out meaning in aura texts but the procedure through which
such meaning can be of literary relevance in songs is what this research endeavors to examine.

In addition, in different research carried out by (Tarte, 1982), nonsense words were paired with
tones of different pitches and judged using semantic differential scales (qtd. in Miall, 58). In both
studies, a high level of consistency was found in subjects' judgments. They suggest that the sound
frequency of vowels is the critical factor in judgments of phonetic symbolism (qtd. in Miall, 58).
On this proposition, this research borrows this suggestion to argue that tone, stress, intonations, in
the voice of an artist in a song operate within structural linguistic rules of a language to express
meaning. The voice of the artist in a song in this context can be examined to unravel the role it
plays in meaning creation as implicatures. In this context, the research probes the literary meaning
inherent in the melody in Bongo Flava Songs. The manner of word articulation and enunciations
is hereby suggested to convey meaning as a result of alignments of the voice of the artist to

14
linguistic structures of a particular Language. Arguably this doesn't happen in a vacuum. This is
because such oral performances can be said to bear meaning that is informed and that is entrenched
in a given peoples' culture.

As Kabira and Mutahi observe, “Songs in Gikuyu community play different functions. Their
categories reveal the philosophy and aesthetics that is subsumed in Gikuyu song” (Kabira and
Mutahi, 1993:20). As it is observed in this case, there is a role aesthetics in songs can be said to
play in the signification of meaning. It is on this same notion that this research expounds on the
literary relevance that can be discerned from the appropriation and usage of styles in Bongo Flava
songs to see how such appropriations function to suggest meaning may it be explicit or implied. It
is on this observation therefore that this research may wish to argue that the voice of the artist,
compositional techniques and the timbre variations of the artiste's voice reveals significant
meaning that is poetic, which is subsumed in a song's melody. Poetic aspects in the songs and the
role melodic devices play can thus reveal Gikuyu wisdom and philosophies discernible in Gikuyu
traditional songs. “Song is one component the oral artist (Wanjira) avidly exploits to make her
narratives captivating and complete” (Kabira and Waita, 2010: 51). As an oral artist, the nature of
the role the voice of the artist plays to influence how the audience interprets messages inherent in
the narratives calls us to examine features of the voice of an artist and to account for the role they
play in shaping meaning during an oral narrative session.

In a similar study, Chesaina observes that “Irony plays an important role to convey implied
meanings in songs in (Chesaina, 1997). The irony in the message arguably this research argues
may not only rely on the styles but also the manner defining the verbal expression. The role sound
plays to necessitate meaning in songs could thus be examined by analyzing how audiences
interpret meaning in audio (aural texts). This can be achieved by analysis of contexts in which
meaning in the audio texts is premised. The song is perhaps the most powerful genre of oral
literature because of its versatility and communicability…. It is distinguished from the oral
narrative not only by its mode of performance and use of verse but also by its extensive use of
imagery and symbolic language (Chesaina, 1997: 14-15). The aspect of symbolism in this context
can be extended to include the symbolic meaning conveyed in audio texts as a result of the sound
texture of the melody in question which (Miall, 2001:57) referrers to as the phenomenon of
phonetic symbolism. This observation can be extended to the role sound play in a song. Oral

15
nuances play a role to bring certain meanings to bear in the song as a result of how sound is
appropriated. Voice impacts on meaning in oral texts especially in African languages as a result of
their tonal features. Audio features in musical accompaniments play a role in the necessitation of
meaning in African songs.

The most obvious reason for giving serious attention to the popular arts is their sheer
undeniable assertive presence as social facts arguably mean they exist freely in almost
every facet of society. They loudly proclaim their importance in the lives of large numbers
of African people. They are everywhere. They flourish without encouragement or
recognition from official cultural bodies, and sometimes in defiance of them. People too
poor to contemplate spending money on luxuries do spend it on popular arts, sustaining
them and constantly infusing them with new life (Barber, 1987:1).

The power of song in Africa as Barber observes does not only rely on the message the lyrics convey
but also the effect that results from the impact the song melody has on audiences. This as a result
is the basis of this research. The research provides an understanding of how musical sounds in
songs impact literary meaning in Bongo Flava.

Similarly, as Kieti observes, among the Kamba, imagery, and allusions portray social critique ideas
in songs (Kieti, 1989:6). Agreeing with this observation, this research wishes to expand Kieti’s
argument and argues that there exists a close relationship between the stylistic use of language to
convey the messages in a song as social criticism and the accompanying oral nuances which can
be said to metonymically suggest social criticism of the society in question. Artists in this regard,
this research argues, appropriate embellished language for the aesthetic purpose such as
entertainment on the one hand, and on the other hand to conceal the intended meaning by use of
euphemism.
Euphemism in this context is a practice of aesthetics intended to defamiliarize meaning for
proverbial purposes.

Discerning the meaning that is subsumed in a song’s however, this research argues, calls for an
examination of the process through which listeners discern implied meaning when listening to a
song. It is on this premise therefore that this research endeavors to interview literature students,

16
music students, theatre and performance students, and music producers to analyze their responses
on how they tend to infer meaning in songs texts and audio. These responses can aid in
underscoring how listeners with a literary background infer meaning in the lyrics and melody of
the artist's voice. Consequently, the findings of such research can aid in showing how listeners
infer meaning in audio texts. These observations in addition can be used to expand the current
criticism procedures of songs as literary texts by providing means through which implied meaning
in audio form in songs can be critiqued from a literary perspective. Kieti’s take in this context is
important as far as this research is concerned because it paves the way into the possible contexts
within which this research contextualizes meaning in songs as oral aesthetic discourses that bear
Literary relevance.

Consequently, analysis of how Literature students attach meaning in audio texts can aid in
underscoring the process(ses) through which the audio features can be examined to underpin the
meaning they suggest in a song. However, as Tsur points out on the question of if sounds of a word
convey meaning, “an extensive literature is devoted to the topic, although much of it is ad hoc,
arbitrary, or skeptical” (qtd. in Miall 56). This observation can thus be surmised to reaffirm that
there still exists gap(s) in defining how the meaning perceived through the ear can be brought to
bear from a literary perspective. It is on this observation therefore that this research defines its
validity, on the understanding that it can make a significant contribution in the already existing
literature on song criticism the research in this context examines the melody in the voice of the
artist as a responsive tool that functions in songs to convey implied meaning.

This research, therefore, seeks to operationalize the argument that songs bear literary meaning and
in addition make the proposition that probably, the meaning listeners discern in a song operate
within that culture, cultural-linguistic, and aesthetic sensibilities. In this regard, members of a
given society use oral nuances implied in their spoken language to constitute meaning, which they
can all infer as a result of their shared knowledge of what a given manner of expression means in
a given context. The written word, however, this research argues cannot convey the meaning that
is lost in transcription. I, therefore, agree with Kabira on the observation that “The written word
cannot convey the vivid and varied scenes and atmosphere which is often evoked by the spoken
word and enactments, especially when the performing artist is a skilled one” (Kabira, 1983: v). it

17
is on this observation that this research thus seeks to interrogate how such meaning, which is
conveyed via the voice of the artist can be critiqued.

The concept of skill referred to in this case encompasses an artist’s acumen to employ one’s voice
aesthetically to imply meaning in the minds of the audiences by one’s ability to employ a variety
of voice oral aesthetic features. Modern music production techniques operate on similar principles
to accentuate meanings that are permeated in audio texts. This can be evidenced in the shaping of
graphic equalizers for instance, which is done to ensure that the voice brings out the expected
message. This applies not only in song production but also in radio broadcasting where the sound
technicians use graphic equalizers to refine the voice quality of a broadcaster to disambiguate the
meaning listeners are likely to infer as they listen to the voice of a broadcaster. This research,
therefore, agrees with Kabira on the observation that, "Critics of oral literature should study the
development of the art and the ever-changing role of the artist about his society in the same way
as literary critics study the growth of other genres, such as drama, poetry, and the novel” (Kabira,
1983:1). It is hereby thus argued that this observation can be realized by examining the studio
techniques which sound technicians operationalize during song production to shape meanings
plausible in song's audio text, and by interviewing sound technicians to underscore the process
through which they create implied meaning in songs, which listeners infer in the voice of the artist.

In related work, Kipury (1983) Oral Literature of the Maasai observes that in the Maasai
community, songs performed during rituals are also composed spontaneously as the occasion
demands. Kipuri goes ahead and observes that “songs and poetry embody a people’s philosophy,
beliefs, values and sometimes, their historical development.” Agreeing with Kipuri in these
observations, this research agrees that the philosophical essence discernible in songs is thus
embodied in the song’s melodic structure. This is because such impromptu performances do not
happen in a vacuum but instead operationalize a people's cultural episteme and cultural
sensibilities. There is therefore certainly a close relationship that ties manner of performance with
the ensuing themes that define performance. It is on this observation therefore that this research
can beg the question of the implicatures in Bongo Flava songs as literary artifices. This research,
therefore, seeks to address aspects of voice that artists appropriate to convey the meaning that can

18
be construed to bear literary value. Such meaning the research argues bears aural aesthetics and
audio structural features, which are the very key in passing the intended meaning.

However, how implied meaning can be critiqued defines the gap this research seeks to fill. This is
because different thematic concerns could inform shifts in an artist's voice and the entire song's
melodic structure. There is thus a relationship that exists between the message in a song and its
melodic structure. Thus it can be argued, applies not only in songs but in almost all forms of
utterances and oral genres. This research thus agrees with Ben Amos in the Observation that,
“Folklore genres define communication systems, each with its internal logical consistency, each
based upon distinct social-historical experiences and cognitive categories.” (Amos, 1976). The
literary value in such communications is thus what this research seeks to interrogate by drawing
data from the selected Bongo Flava songs.

Additionally, as Finnegan observes, “Song is the most common form of poetry in Sub-Saharan
Africa. Songs appear in an almost unlimited number of contexts” (Finnegan, 1970: 242). Arguably,
this is a fact because of all genres of literature song defines almost every aspect of a peoples' life
and daily activities as compared to other literary genres. The aesthetic value and the implied
meanings in songs can thus not be wished away or be reduced to the explicit meaning, which is
underscored when a song is transcribed. The manner of singing in this regard can be said to bear
serious undertones in terms of the meaning artists imply in their voices and which the listeners can
infer by drawing from the wealth that defines and characterize a peoples' oral cultural expressions
not only as artistic forms but in addition as semantic frames through which meaning is permeated
from the artist to the listeners.

The songs in this context are sung orally and in most cases in accompaniment of musical
instruments. The meaning the voice of the artist causes calls for examination as expressive audio
texts. While Finnegan classifies the songs into various categories or oral poetry, these categories
of oral poetic genres embody varying sound structures within which the message in the song is
conveyed. The audiences in this case not only respond to the lyrics but also the sound melody
during song interpretation. Studies on how fans interpret sound in a song—as a carrier of implied
literary meanings—however, so far have not been brought to bear. This is what this research
endeavoures to do.

19
With this in mind, this research concurs with Mahugu in the observation that “Investigation into
the Agikuyu Songs of Independence reveals that artist use language to convey double meaning
aimed at passing coded messages in songs” (Mahugu, 1990). The literary nature of meaning
conveyed in the song's lyrics, for this reason, relies to a given extent on audio nuances to convey
the implied meaning. However, the audio aesthetic features in songs which arguably contribute to
the constitution of multiple levels of meaning through which the songs explicit and implied
meanings can be discerned so far defines a lacuna because although Mahugu makes this salient
observation, her study on Mau Mau songs does not provide a window through which the voice of
the artist in songs can be accounted for in terms of the role it plays in the creation of double
meanings. This research agrees with Mahugu but in addition, would like to conceive the meanings
implied in the voice of the artist beyond the double voices. This is because it is probable that the
meanings conveyed, in this case, are multiple not necessarily twin as Mahugu looks at it.

This research, therefore, begs the question, what features in the voice of the artist does the artist
appropriate to necessitate the varying levels of meaning discernible in an artist's voice. To what
extent does the manner of arrangement influence the meaning construable in a song? Voice in this
context operates within a cognitive structural frame that both the artists and the audiences
operationalize during the process of implying and inferring meaning in songs. An analysis of
techniques informing the manner of voice placement on the one hand, and an examination of how
listeners infer implied meanings, on the other hand, can help explain how certain voice audio
features influence the meaning the voice insinuates. Listeners are often not able to infer such
nuanced meanings as they listen to a song. The voice of the artist and the sound of musical
instruments, in this context, operate within linguistic frames which as forms of techniques function
to cause the implied meaning the audio quality suggests.

In similar research on songs, Muleka observes that "The performer of Abakhayo oral poetry often
applies certain poetic elements, and every element used bears its special significance” (Muleka,
2007: 95). “The oral artist selects and uses words and expressions that call for special
interpretation… He/she weaves the language around symbolism, imagery, and allusions drawn
from people's immediate experience” (Muleka, 2007: 95). This research agrees with this
observation by Muleka and it is on this same proposition that this research seeks to interrogate the
role stylistic features play in Bongo Flava. I addition, this research expands the same proposition
20
to argue that the voice of the artist operates within aesthetic frames to insinuate meaning. In this
context, the role aesthetic features in the voice of the artist plays to effect implied meaning in
songs. In addition, this research argues that the effect this has on the audience, as a result of
aesthetic features in the voice of the singer informs how the voice function to convey literary
meaning from a cultural aesthetic dimension. This in addition operates within cognitive and
communicative frames of a given peoples’ oral literature within which the artist and the audiences
identify with nuanced meanings in a song. The research, therefore, examines voice as
communicative agents whose manner of appropriation functions to code meaning. This is because
sound features bear literary relevance. As Muleka underscores for instance, “audio features
idiophones and interjections seem to be lacking but after a close look, one realizes that they make
a lot of sense in the poem” (Muleka, 2007: 100). This research, therefore, contributes to line with
Muleka’s study by examining possible meanings encompassed in Bongo Flava, which results from
the use of stylistic features.

Turning to drama, theatre and performance, this research agrees with Kimingichi on the
observation that, “Dramatization of performances in the current stage vis a vis the traditional
narration that took place by the fireside is a culmination of many factors brought into play; these
include: playwright/script, performer, space, audience, director, and makeup, sound and lighting
(Kimingichi, 2014: 95). This research, in addition, emphasizes that sound in theatre and
performance plays a significant role in the creation of meaning. This results from a variety of oral
voice features which an artist may appropriate to insinuate the expected meaning. How oral artists
vary their voices during the performance, for instance, from a drama, poetic, song, and
performance perspective reveal that certain audio dynamics necessitate the creation of meaning
that rely on voice techniques an artiste employs during the performance. As Kimingichi observes,
“Context and its relevance to meaning creation as a social function enhance the meanings in
performance” (Kimingichi, 2014: 72). This research, therefore, agrees with Kimingichi since
meaning cannot be divorced from the ensuing context. The same applies to how an artist intones
the words, lines, and phrases when singing, to enunciate the expected meaning. It is in this context
that this research examines how thematic concerns influence the tonal variations which an artist
employs when singing to make a particular meaning manifest. Arguably, the message in a song
influences how the artist intones the words when singing to create the expected mood and feelings,
one expects the audience to bring the listening experience. This can be said to be a communicative
21
technique employed to disambiguate meaning. With this in mind, this research explores the role
different voice features play in a song to signify meaning on the one hand, and on the other hand,
how listeners engage such features in the process of listening to a song to infer meaning. This is in
the view that such audio features encompassed in the voice of an artist can be examined to account
for the effect they play to signify meaning in Bongo Flava.

Advancing this proposition, therefore, this research is of the view that voice in performed arts may
be conceived to be metaphorical. As Vansina observes,
All art is metaphor and form. Verbal arts such as poetry, songs, sayings, proverbs, and tales
conform to this rule. They express the experience of contemporary situations or events,
morals to be drawn from such occurrences or situations, to express emotions associated
with them (Vansina, 1985:11).

The metaphorical nature of voice in performed arts in this account, it is hereby argued, operates
within cultural practices of orality, and oral aesthetics as cultural practices. The artist and the
listeners in this regard can imply and infer meaning permeated in oral performed texts based on
their shared knowledge. This view is in agreement with Lakoff’s view that “the locus of metaphor
is thought, not the language, metaphor is a major and indispensable part of our ordinary,
conventional way of conceptualizing the world, and everyday behavior reflects the metaphorical
understanding of experience” (Lakoff, 1992). How listeners conceive implied meanings when
listening to songs consequently, operates within cognitive frames as encyclopedic entries. In this
regard, the song evokes particular thoughts and feelings, which the listener thereby associates with
the message in the song one is listening to. The messages encompassed in the voice of the artist as
themes in this view can be examined to underpin the meaning of the voice of the artist and the
style of singing infuses in a song. Tone, intonations, stress markers, to mention a few functions to
insinuate the implied meaning. A cursory look at Bongo Flava songs the research notes can be said
to bear metaphorical meanings that remain subsumed in the song melodic structure, of the voice
of the artist as well as in the stylistic features that an artist uses to express one’s message
artistically. This is what this research expects to interrogate as a begging of the question. This
attempt is in line with Kariuki Gakuo’s concerns as shown below because Bongo Flava is one of
the genres of popular songs, which can fit in Kariuki’s observation.

22
“Popular songs-as a sub-genre of songs-has not been studied exhaustively, and researched on”
(Gakuo, 1994:129). This research agrees with Gakuo on the observation that thus far although
researches on the literary meanings implied in the lyrics of popular songs have been carried out,
on the one hand, there is still a gap when it comes to the examination of thematic concerns
permeated via the voice of the artist. Although it may be argued that these concerns may engender
musicology, when it comes to the methodology which can be used to examine implied meanings
invoice of the artist and the melody of a song, this research opines that this assumption does not
necessarily follow. This is because the issue of method can be viewed from a disciplinary
perspective, and hence the argument that although there seems to be a musicological method
through which implied meanings in the melody and the voice of an artist can be explored, such a
method from a literary perspective could be lacking, or needs to be underpinned because literary
scholars who have no musicological background infer implied meanings in the voice of an artist
when listening to a song and can identify with implied meaning based on their ability to appreciate
oral contextual information that is permeated through tone, intonation, and oral nuances. The
procedure of criticism which literature scholars apply either consciously or unconsciously needs
to be interrogated by way of interviewing literature scholars and using a questionnaire for instance
so that the information that would emerge from such data can be used to underpin the process
which can be employed to critique literary meaning discernible in songs, which is brought to bear
as a result of how one listens to a song and infer implied meanings which the artist imply with
one's tonal voice.

Additionally, as Gakuo observes in criticism of Joseph Kamaru’s songs, “Joseph Kamaru’s songs
depict a society estranged from its culture and traditions, a society wallowing in materialism and
individualism, social vices rise to the exploitation, oppression, and dehumanization of man”
(Gakuo, 1994:129). The role stylistic features play to inform the creation of these meanings, at the
lyrical and audio level in Kamaru’s songs to lead to this interpretation would beg the question if
the melody in the songs influences the meaning Gakuo is alluding to. This research, therefore,
borrows this concept from Gakuo’s to interrogate the message conveyed in the song lyrics, which
is suggested in the voice of the artist as well as in the lyrics. It is thus hereby surmised, the implied
meanings a song in this case can elicit to a given extent depends on the nuances suggested in a
song's melodic structure as well as in the stylistic use of language. This may inform how listeners
interpret meaning in a song as a result of the meaning the song conveys in the message as well as
23
in the melody. Listening to Kamaru’s songs based on Gakuo’s observation reveals a palpability of
meaning that remains subsumed in the sounding of the melody which arguably remains
unexamined. This research, therefore, endevours explore similar propositions in Bongo Flava to
underpin meaning which listeners infer as a result of the stylistic appropriation of Language at
message and voice level.

In related research on popular songs, as Kiura observes, "Newton Kariuki exploits satire in songs,
to interrogate social follies, wickedness and exposes them to ridicule” (Kiura, 2006: 25). “To
achieve this, the artist employs tone to express satire” (Kiura, 2006: 25). Based on this observation,
it is thus clear that artists may use stylistic features in songs to achieve one purpose or another. It
may thus be permissible to examine the role such similar stylistic devices play in Bongo Flava.

Equally important, in this regard is the acknowledgment that literary concepts that inform aesthetic
criticism of meaning implied in a song’s audio text could thus lead to additional ways through
which meaning encompassed in songs can be examined from a literary perspective. Application of
tone to express satire as Kiura notes may call into question the various features of audio discourse
that give rise to a given interpretation of tone. This research thus makes use of questionnaires and
interviews to interrogate various aspects of audio features that give the tone and voice of the artist
the potential to pass meaning. Interpretation of meaning encompassed in voice texts can be
surmised operates within a backdrop of social-cultural audio sensibilities but which the audience
may not always consciously be aware of. It is such social-cultural knowledge that listeners rely
upon when inferring implied meanings when listening to a song.

Interpretation of the implied meaning, for this reason, is a product of a thought process, which
operates within a structure that governs the attribution of meaning based on features discernible in
a sound. The research thus investigates features in the voice of the artist, which are in operation in
a melody and which affects and influences the effect a song bears as evidenced in the comments
audiences make regarding the meaning they can infer from a song as they attribute meaning to
audio features in the voice of an artist.

As Rosenberg observes, “Song is one of the most widely communicated forms of verbal art on the
continent. Popular songs are dynamic and widespread, and permeate the lives of people throughout
Eastern Africa” (Rosenberg 2008:99). In this analysis Rosenberg questions if songs are merely

24
superficial entertainments for their immediate audiences or if they operate on deeper aesthetic and
intellectual levels for the songwriters and audience members in their respective communities
(Rosenberg 2008:99)? In addition, he goes ahead and probes if songs convey information that may
be key to understanding the people who produce these lyrical traditions. It is on this similar
grounds therefore that this research expects to contribute by interrogating the role style plays at
the lyrical and audio level to permeate meaning that may result from the deeper aesthetics
Rosenberg alludes to.

Most importantly, this observation thus warrants the necessity of this research since it seems there
exists a relationship between the message in a song's lyrics and how the artists and sound
technicians appropriate sound in most East African songs during song production and
performance. The melody in the voice in this case it appears operates for instance, within an
aesthetic milieu to signify aspects of meaning that can be said to be subsumed in the philosophical
spirit that governs voice in songs as a form of cultural expressions which are appropriated to
articulate particular thematic concerns. The meaning a song conveys in its audio form, therefore,
and which is lost upon transcription can be examined by underpinning sound features in a song
that fans react to when they listen to a song. Examination of practices of listening within which
music fans operate and the relevance they draw from a song, in this case, can help underpin the
meaning attributed to different sonic features in music genres.

Besides voice and lyrics as key aspects of songs, responding to the current development in music
dissemination and archival technologies, Mungai observes that “a key argument is that visual
recording is a critical aspect of ongoing transformative cultural innovation in which the VCD form
has come to impact significantly on popular musician’s ability to influence viewers' self/other
perceptions. Popular music could thus be seen as an arena for the struggle to establish new centers
of individual perception(s)” (Mungai, 2008:101). The ability to influence viewers and to shape
new sensibilities of self and the other to an extent can be said relies on melody and images. The
impact popular music images have on fans, therefore, can be evidenced in the prevailing codes of
dressing, manner of speech, and performance which fans imitate from popular artists. The impact
audio aesthetic features in songs can thus have as evidenced in Bongo Flava however, has not been
examined despite the ostensibly rich poetic Swahili tradition that informs modes of song
composition which most Bongo Flava artists employ. In addition to the rich Swahili tradition

25
within which Bongo Flava song composition techniques are grounded, the fusion of modern digital
technology in the melody in Bongo Flava may not have been researched fully to underpin the effect
of voice and singing techniques can have in necessitating the creation of meaning.

As evidenced in the videos of most popular songs, the mode of dressing for most popular artists
currently indicates a blending of both African and western dressing styles. This crossbreed in
cladding is also reflected in the songs instrumentation, manner of performance, thematic concerns,
and thus this portrays popular music as a complex discourse that emerges as a result of the
interaction of different cultures that leads to the hybridization of artistic components that make up
the popular music as a literary discourse (Kuria and Kiambi, 2006: 93). The oral text is thus
becoming transformed as the society becomes transformed by information and communication
technology. This affects the way the Oral text is stored, transmitted, studied, and consumed (Kuria
and Kiambi, 2006:95). However, according to Mwangi, Hip-hop music appears at pains to define
itself as different from the Western art forms with which it is hastily associated by instantiating
localized forms and creating a different locution (Mwangi, 2004:5). Such pains as Mwangi
observes could be resulting from the dire need to localize western hip-hop music in local forms.
Bongo Flava resulted from such experimentation of blending local dialects with western musical
forms. Consequently, thematic concerns encompassed in the genre as a result of this blending can
purportedly lead to the emergence of previously unexplored themes articulated in these songs as
ideological practices. This research is therefore relevant based on the extent to which it can lead
to criticism of implied meaning invoice of the artist as a new vista from a literary criticism
perspective. This is because as the literature reviewed in this section shows there could be some
congruence between what each of these scholars' purport and the music in the songs they are all
alluding to from a thematic perspective. Although as it appears none so far has addressed the role
of the voice in insinuating meaning in songs, this may not be taken to mean that such possibility
doesn't exist.

Notably, the role popular music production technology in East Africa plays in the creation of
meaning can aid in the examination of literary meaning in oral texts. This is because modern
computer technology on sound production avails the literary critic skills and equipment which can
be exploited in an endeavor to examine fine sound details which have a significant impact on the
meaning songs have on audiences. As Thiong’o observes, “The sound of musical instruments in

26
songs of John De Mathew reflects and emphasizes the mood conveyed in the verbal text”
(Thiong’o, 2009: 123). Advancing on this assertion, this research argues that in addition to
articulating the message expressed in verbal messages, the voice of the artist creates the mood,
listeners associate with the message in a song.

In this regard, the meaning that results from the voice of the artist can be examined as dramatic
techniques to bring to bear the implied meanings that listeners construe from the application of
oral performance techniques evidenced in the voice of the artist. Technology in this context can
aid the modern artist not only to diversify and enhance criticism of themes and styles found in
Popular Songs on the one hand but the other hand, it can provide the critic with tools that can be
employed to critique meaning encompassed in the voice of the artist besides the messages in a
song. In the process, technology endows the artists with additional creativity which song producers
and sound technicians exploit to create or disambiguate the intended meaning as communicative
ostensions by refining the voice of an artist during song production. Consequently, this impacts
meanings both at audio and lyrical levels. This research, therefore, endeavoures to critique the
meaning implied in the voice texts of songs by examining how audio features in songs contribute
to the literal meaning.

A critique of the impact the listening process has on audiences based on the manner of performance
can lead to the underpinning of aesthetic ideologies within which the artist and the target audiences
operate. This can be based on the responses and comments the listeners make about a given song
in response to the voice of the artist. Notably, previous studies on songs may have not accounted
for such meaning, and indeed why this study is currently based on existing literature on songs
because it addresses the role of voice in songs to enrich literary criticism of songs by interrogating
the meaning of the voice, melody and performance techniques creates in a song.

Such meaning, however, expressed in the transcribed text can be enriched by analyzing the audio
song particularly because listeners respond to songs by listening to their audio forms. Most
importantly, as Rosenberg observes, "Popular culture is understood as a site for struggle, a place
for the negotiation of races, gender, nation, and other identities and the play of power” (qtd in
Rosenberg 101). This research agrees with Rosenberg on this assertion and as a result, examines
the probable themes that emanate from song performance as cultural practices. As Rosenberg

27
observes, for instance, there is a need therefore to account for thematic concerns such as race,
gender, nation, identities that the Bongo Flava artists could be articulated in their songs. This view
is cognizant of the fact that artists compose songs that serve as social commentaries, in addition to
political themes as well as gender relations as it may be evidenced in love songs in Bongo. This
view thus concurs with Ntarangwi on the observation that, “Cultural traditions within Hip-Hop
help in understanding its role as a platform to discuss and construct African Identity” (Ntarangwi,
2009: 40). The literary criticism this research addresses is thus cognizant of Rosenberg and
Ntarangwi’s postulation and therefore addresses the dilemma Mikali raises as to whether or “if the
essence of the local popular music lies in the sound or in the lyrics.” (qtd in Nyairo, 176) in the
extension of Mikali’s concerns, this research analyses literary meaning permeated in the voice to
underpin how voice practices can lead to the creation of poetic forms which thus far have not been
examined in songs.

Furthermore, as Ong observes, “all sound, and especially oral utterance, which comes from inside
living organisms, is dynamic” (Ong, 1982:32). In emphasis of Ong's assertion, Wasamba observes
that "The dynamic process that informs sound production is expressive in nature. The oral genres
in Africa are alive, dynamic and responsive to developments in information technology”
(Wasamba 2014:2). Most importantly, it is these concerns that define the basis of this research.
This is because the role of digital technology in song production in this view defines ways of
constituting meaning on the one hand, and may on the other hand presage new ways of not only
practicing oral Literature but also can inspire new ways in which meaning in songs can be
critiqued. Notably, the oral literary practices informing sound production in this context, not only
gives way to the creation of new songs and the emergence of new song genres as in the case of
Bongo Flava but also define new ideological practices which are however permeated in society by
the appropriation of the performance space as music, song, and dance performances. It is thus
important to interrogate the meanings and the discourses that characterize popular music as cultural
practices operating within a given ideology. As Kac observes, “Poetry is a profound engagement
with language” (Kac, 2007:10). The same can be said of Bongo Flava. In addition, Kac goes on to
observe that “practices in media poetics transforms technology into an instrument of the
imagination” (Kac, 2007:10). As a result, it can be surmised that the practice transcends poetry
and poetic practices to envisage previously unforeseen meanings, which can be conceived by
examining the contexts informing the purposeful processes that characterize song production,
28
editing, mixing, and performance. It is this frame of mind therefore that defines this research. This
is because Bongo Flava is a good example of how digital texts produce new contexts within which
literary meaning can be read in songs. This results in the genre's ability to insinuate implied
meaning as a result of how the music appropriate Swahili contexts that define and characterize
discourse, tone, and expressions of the Subaltern. Consequently, as Memmott observes, “The
ability to cause thinking is an essential part of digital poetics and rhetoric, and it is here that literary
hypermedia finds its greatest potential” (Memmott, 2006: 303). Indeed, the extent to which digital
poetics in song enunciate and imitate how the target audience identify with the message in songs
can be said to tie performance to the context and reality that informs the creation of Bongo Flava
songs this is because almost all of them are based on a real-life situation. This makes the songs a
vital tool for critiquing society based on what and how the Bongo Flava artists reflect the society
in their songs.

In particular, as Augoyard notes, “people working in sonic effects for film know this very well;
they select useful sounds for the effect on the audience rather than for a realistic reference to the
recorded scene” (Augoyard, 2005:23). As a result, sound in this context serves as an aspect of form
to influence the interpretation of meaning not only in film but also arguably in songs. In film
criticism, for instance, the term mise-en-scene is a traditional theatre term used to illustrate the
performative effects on viewers experiencing video installation works (Yuji, 2009:6). Spinelli on
the same account observes that "Modernist experiments in audio poetry that involved recording
and editing technology constitute a critical mass onto which it is possible to graft a new digital
poetics. Hardly is it radical today to observe that poetry is inseparable from how it is produced and
distributed or transmitted” (Spinelli 2006, 100). Similarly, as Kofi observes, “Music resembles
myth, animates religious ritual, and facilitates movement and dance. It is an agent in music drama
and plays a catalytic if not constitution other forms of visual narrative.” (Kofi, 2009: 15). It is
within this frame of mind that this research seeks to explicate voice as a referent in Bongo Flava,
wherein this context voice can be perceived as a metaphor that serves as images of the reality that
inspired the composition.

This is because as Sieburth observes, “Linguistic use of overtones in language functions to define
literary meaning in poetry” (Sieburth, 2009:69). As earlier noted, phonological features in the
voice of the artist can be viewed from this context. However, so far commentaries on songs from

29
a music perspective have been limited to the description of a piece of music without necessarily
explicating the metaphorical significance implied in the voice. As Barthes observes, however, "it
would be necessary to look at more or less the whole of music criticism,” (Barthes, 1977: 180). As
Machin argues, “A song or soundtrack might be described through adjectives such as ‘romantic’,
‘aggressive’ or ‘soulful’. But these terms point more to the effect of the music rather than to exactly
what it is in the music that communicates these meanings” (Machin 2015:1). In addition, Machin
observes that "As analyst’s vague terms are not satisfactory since they do not address meanings
that are created that can be drawn out by more systematic analysis (1). Analysis of music and
sound can reveal forms and structures that may be missed by the casual listener (1)." It is in this
view thus that this research engages the listeners to discern how singing styles are likely to provoke
the meaning listeners to construe in the voice of the artist.

In conclusion, the results of this research may pave the way towards a greater appreciation of
localized forms of popular music as literary discourses this is because, the emerging sound in
popular songs, as a poetic discursive practice begs the question of redefinition of east African
popular songs as poetic and literary artistic works. Particularly, popular music practices appear to
presage artistic episteme as evidenced in the different popular music genres. However, there does
not exist a literary canon based on established theoretical epistemologies that define a canon that
can aid in the explication of literary and linguistic meanings envisaged in East Africa popular
songs. Different popular music genres emerge as a result, of varying ways in which they
appropriate sound technology. Some of these include, Kapuka, Genge, Gipuka, Bongo Flava, and
Luganda. Syncretism therefore can be said to reign characteristic of African popular art, its most
central and positive stylistic imperative. This research thus concurs with Barber that

If what is referred to as popular arts escapes the conventional canons of both indigenous-
traditional and European forms, it is not to enter, in some unimaginable way, a wholly
different aesthetic universe, but rather to operate in a kind of no-mans-land between the
two, selecting and combining elements from each for their purposes (Barber, 1987: 12).

It is thus hereby argued that literary foundations in which East African traditional songs are
founded, inform and inspire popular song composition practices on the one hand, while on the
other hand, current global music production practices seemingly, destabilize the traditional ways

30
in which the musicians and sound technicians appropriate voices during song production. The
latter creates an epistemological dilemma for the popular music critic because the sound aesthetic
practices evidenced in popular songs operate in ways that have not been so far studied from a
literary perspective. This is because, thus far, criticism practices of meaning encompassed in songs
chiefly focus on the message, not the meaning implied in the voice of the artists. The research
observes that the current methods of sound appropriation in song production are oriented by oral
literature aesthetic practices and this thus influences the meaning discernible in songs. However,
the practices of sound aesthetics which technicians operationalize have not been studied from a
literary context. Popular artists, however, address pertinent gender concerns in the songs but so far
it is not clear if listeners react to popular musical sound the same way, or their responses to music
are affected or influenced by gender, age, race, culture, social class, to mention but a few factors
that could influence song composition, performance, and interpretation. Notably, it is thus
important to engage respondents of both genders, in the examination of the possible meanings the
voice of the artist elicits in the listeners.

1.11 Theoretical Framework

The research applies Relevance Theory to guide the research. Utterances and almost all manner of
voice usage are expressive in nature. Voice modulation and manner of words enunciation can
suggest to the listener a variety of meanings that the speaker does not state verbatim with the
spoken word. The oral expressivity in this context is contextual, symbolic, and metaphorical. Such
metaphors, however, implied in the voice are dependent on the listener's ability to contextualize
the words of the speaker by drawing from the cultural wealth that defines the purposes that warrant
a given manner of expression. How an artist intones words in this context can be construed to bear
implied meaning which listeners can listen to as a result of how one construes the intended
meaning. Speakers in this context for instance can express; joy, excitement, romance, happiness,
irony, sarcasm, bitterness, anger, discontentment to list but a few communicative ostensions
without necessarily stating these verbatim--as evidenced in the meaning a listener can infer from
a speaker's voice. It is in this regard therefore that this research employs relevance theory to
examine the meaning the two artists express in their oral expressive techniques as evidenced in
their respective styles of singing.

31
As Schroeder explains below, the textual message that is expressed verbatim in relevance theory
is referred to as inferential communication. The implied nuance is suggested in the manner of
expression which the speaker expects the listener to infer based on the manner of expression, for
instance, the tone that may disambiguate a polite request from a command in a statement such as—
shut that door—vs shut that door! —based on tone and manner of utterance is referred to as
ostensive communication. Context, manner of utterance, the relationship between the speaker and
the listener, culture, and the knowledge shared between the listener and the speaker all determine
the meaning (cognitive effects) permeated between the singer and the listener as in the case of this
research.

1.12 Relevance Theory

As Schroeder succinctly expounds on the theory:
Relevance Theory (qtd in Schroeder, expounded in Sperber & Wilson [1995] and Wilson &
Sperber [2004]) is a cognitive-pragmatic model for interpreting and understanding utterances. The
model proposes that understanding and comprehension are directed and channeled by the innate
principle of relevance. This principle works like a filter in the mind of communicators so that only
the information that is selected by that principle leads to understanding. The relevance filter is
guided by the mental context of the communicators. Relevance is a psychological mechanism that
works based on cost and benefit in the mind of communicators. What this means exactly is
explained in the section below.

1.13 The Communicators’ Mental Context

The idea of context is essential for the theory. Sperber & Wilson (qtd in Schroeder, 1995: 15)
define it as follows: “Context is a psychological construct, a subset of the hearer's assumptions
about the world.” Context is thus some kind of encyclopedia about the world which contains the
values and norms of a society, personal belief systems, and cultural norms; in short, it is all the
knowledge that the communicators will have stored in their minds at the time they enter a
conversation (qtd in Schroeder, see also Blakemore, 1992: 16-22), and (qtd in Schroeder, Gutt,
2000: 27) for more on this notion). The next sub-section talks about how the notion of context is
related to the principle of Relevance, the cognitive effects, and processing effort.

32
The Principle of Relevance for Communication

The principle of relevance has been defined in two ways. Firstly, it covers the cognitive part of
communication:

Cognitive Principle of Relevance

Human cognition tends to be geared to the maximization of relevance. (qtd in Schroeder, Wilson
& Sperber 2004: 610). Underlying the principle as defined here are two components: an
informative component and an intentional one. The informative component communicates the
content of the message while the intentional one transmits the intention of the speaker. The
information process between two interlocutors works as follows: the message transmitted by the
speaker is monitored against the context of the hearer. The mind of the hearer starts to work and
look into the encyclopedic entries, the socio-cultural norms, and the knowledge of the world. This
means that the mind searches all the mental representations for understanding. The technical term
for the mind-searching devices is cognitive effects. In relevance-theoretical terms, the informative
component is called “inferential communication” and the intentional component is “ostensive
communication”. The latter consists of the verbal and non-verbal cues that a speaker builds into
his or her message so that the hearer understands the content and the intention of the speaker’s
message.

Cognitive effects try to integrate the content of the information represented by the utterance into
the existing mental representations of the hearer. If the message meets some shared context, i.e.
some older knowledge, then the understanding is high, which means that the message has reached
relevance for the hearer. Consequently, the information is integrated into his mental lexicon.
However, if there is no shared background knowledge between the speaker and the hearer, then
little or no understanding takes place. As a result, the new information is either rejected or
misinterpreted, but not stored in the mind of the speaker. Or it is only preserved as misunderstood
or distorted information.

33
 PRODUCTION

MENTAL EPRESENTATION

CULTURAL ASSUPMTION

CULTURE

The processing of information between the speaker and the hearer also works on a cost-benefit
basis. That is, while searching for optimal relevance, the mind tries to be as economical as possible.
The greater the effort the mind makes to invest, the fewer are the cognitive effects that are found,
and the less relevant is the message. However, if the processing requires little effort because there
are many shared assumptions between the interlocutors, the message will contain a great number
of cognitive effects and thus have much relevance. The processing effort is a device of the mind
which helps to understand utterances.

As Schroeder and Kihara note for instance, "the humorous effect of mchongoano is achieved after
the hearer has recognized the intended insult of the joke that is created through the incongruity of
events and situations” (Schroeder and Kihara, 2012:1). As Schroeder and Kihara, notes, the
comprehension procedure follows the following steps:

(a) Constructing an appropriate hypothesis about explicit content via decoding,

disambiguation, reference resolution, and other pragmatic enrichment processes.
(b) Constructing an appropriate hypothesis about the intended contextual assumptions.
(c) Construct an appropriate hypothesis about the intended contextual implications.
(Schroeder and Kihara, 2012:66. [Wilson & Sperber 2004: 615]).

This research agrees with Schroeder that “The processing of information between the speaker and
the hearer also works on a cost-benefit basis. That is, while searching for optimal relevance, the

34
mind tries to be as economical as possible” (Schroeder, 2012:45). In the context of this research
notably, carrying out interviews and using questionnaires can aid in underpinning the explicit and
implicit message permeated in Bongo Flava songs based on how artists appropriate the voice
during performance.

35
 Conceptual framework

As shown in the framework below, the arrow indicates the process through which a listener processes the meaning one infers in a song
during the listening process. Upon hearing the artist's voice and the message one is articulating, as argued in Relevance theory, these are
the stages through which a listener's mind attaches meaning to the message in the song.

Resulting Meaning
Voice as Filtering process meaning encompassed in Relevance Based on
Cognitive
of the meaning stylistic use of the knowledge that
informative Effect. I.e. the based on:
implied in the meaning the words that defines the cultural
text voice of the artist emerge as a meanings the artist
listener
Artist’s based on cultural attaches to the Lexical result of how and the audiences
Voice / Language Audience context voice of the message and the listener can decode and
Tune & artist and the make inferences encode in the song
message in the
Message Sonic Effect based on cultural
lyrics based on
Filtering process present in contexts
the manner of
of the meaning expression. the voice of determining the
implied in the Meaning manner of
the artist encompassed in
lexical message expression and
based on cultural stylistic use of word articulation.
Voice as
context the voice as
ostensive
(Audio
communication
Aesthetic
Texts) is
Evidenced in
the effects the
song has on the
listener. e.g.
phonotanie,
Anamnesis.

36
 CHAPTER TWO
Research Methodology
Introduction

The previous chapter reviewed relevant Literature on songs as an Oral Literature sub-genre and in
addition, it has given a background review of Bongo Flava songs. In addition, the chapter reviewed
the theory, the research uses in the explication of collected data. Notably, the chapter has tried in
establishing the gap this research seeks to fill by contributing to the existing knowledge on how
stylistic features in song inform, define and characterize multiple layers within which implied
meaning can be discerned. This chapter discusses in detail, the steps the research employs in the
collection of data and examination of meaning that result from Stylistic appreciation of meaning
expressed in lyrical choices and voice of the artist. The research operationalizes criticism
procedures which literature scholars appear to employ when inferring meaning from the lyrics of
a song and voice of the artist, as one listens to a song. Notably, the research operates on the premise
that there is a critical procedure that literature students employ whether consciously or
unconsciously to infer implied meaning when listening to songs.

Purposive sampling is hereby employed in the selection of the two artists. The research chiefly
critiques three songs namely; “Pii Pii”, “Rita” by Marlaw and “Nikifa Kesho” by Diamond
Platnumz; to avoid unnecessary duplication and overlay of details. This is following the
observation that out of Marlaw’s ten songs and the forty songs by Diamond Platnumz; collected
all these songs addressed the themes such as Love, Poverty, death, Marriage, and Relationship
between couples, filial and parental love. The three songs are thus decided upon on the observation
that their analysis can reflect the major concerns articulated in most of the other songs. However,
to buttress the analysis and to crosscheck the observations underscored in the three songs, the
research reviews a few of the other songs though not in details where applicable.

This is influenced by the research objectives and hypothesis. This is because the researcher had
observed that the two artists use language artistically both at lyrical and oral performance levels.
The research thus begged the question of the literary relevance this can have on the relevance of
the implied meaning which the artists expect to convey on the one hand, and on the other hand
which becomes manifest in the songs as literary discourses. To examine the literary meaning
implied in the artistic use of language, the research employs relevance theory to examine how

37
stylistic use of language influence the meaning listeners infer from a song, as a result of the artistic
manner in which the artist uses language. This is important because it aids in examining the
meaning the artists convey as a result of how they use figures of speech such as repetition,
metaphors, metonymy, to mention a few. It is hereby argued that this usage of language artistically
bears literary value. This sets the basis of chapter three, which examines the literary meaning that
is encompassed in the choices of words the artist appropriate when writing the song.

Upon identification and discussion of the relevance of artistic features the artists employ when
writing the song, chapter two lays the foundation of the proceeding chapters where the research
seeks to examine the relevance of artistic features which the artists employ in their oral (audio)
voice. In chapter four the research examines the relevance of the aural, audio features encompassed
in the voice of the artist and their relevance in conveying implied meanings which the artists expect
the listeners to infer based on their wealth of cultural linguistics, as a resource through which
members of a given culture exploit to conflate meaning in oral speeches. It is thus the intention of
the research to examine the value of orally expressed texts in Bongo Flava songs since it is
surmised that this is one of the avenues through which the artists convey implied meaning. The
research thus seeks to examine the resultant meanings that possibly emerge from how the artists
use oral nuances in their voices and for what purpose.

The Relevance of the Methodology Employed in This Research

The research methodology employed is relevant because while it aids in contributing to the
existing knowledge by examining how listeners infer meaning from song's artistic features, in
addition, it can help future researchers to apply similar methods applied in this research to critique
literary meaning encompassed in the voice of the artist. Arguably, a rarely explored area of
criticism in Literature. Analyzing the meaning listeners hear through the ear and which could bear
Literary relevance. This in addition can therefore aid in criticism of meaning implied in
performance as evidenced in the voice of the artist from a literary perspective as well as in film
criticism, since the sound and background voices in a film contribute to the meaning the audiences
infer from what they are watching.

1.16 Sampling Method

38
The research applies purposive sampling in the selection of Diamond Platnumz and Marlaw. This
is because as evidenced on a cursory look at their songs, the two artists employ language artistically
at lyrical and voice level to ostensibly convey explicit and implied meaning in their songs. The
researcher had initially sampled ten songs of Marlaw based on the effective application of sound
techniques employed in the songs to build on the poetic, dramatic, and narratological aspects that
define his songs. The researcher later narrowed it down to three songs to avoid duplication of
information. This was because the researcher noticed after transcribing several songs that in all the
collected songs the artists employed similar styles and therefore there was an emerging motif of
purpose and intention that could inform employment of artistic choices in Bongo Flava songs.

The research afterward focused on two main songs by Marlaw and one song by Diamond
Platnumz. The last three songs that the research focused on bore stylistic features that were also
common in almost all the other songs and in addition, encompassed the stylistic features that could
form a defining basis on the role of artistic uses of language in Bongo Flava, and in addition, the
artistic use of voice bear the audio images which the research seeks to examine in order to underpin
the role oral features in the voice of an artist play to convey implied meaning. The songs are thus
examined in order to account for the role sound features play in the songs to create dramatic effects
and implied literary meanings. The research had firstly sampled thirty-six songs of Diamond
Platnumz. The choices of songs are arrived at as a result of the poetic effect that informs their
composition at the lyrical and audio levels. This is evidenced in the artistic features in the songs
and the voice of the artist. It is opined that sound production techniques are employed to enrich
the literary meaning discernible in the songs. The choice of the songs in addition is arrived at
because of the prominence of the respective features which define the focus of the research where
the researcher chose songs that bear outstanding features with respect to the research objectives.
The songs were chosen thus bear standing features that can aid in the examination, analysis, and
verification of the different variables under analysis which each objective focused on.

Data Collection Methods

The research uses interviews, and questionnaires to collect data that can inform how Bongo Flava
music fans infer meaning from the songs. Interviews as a method of data collection in this regard
can aid in underpinning the meaning respondents attach to the message in a song as well as the

39
voice of the artist. The method is appropriate in this context since it gives the respondent allowance
to express oneself fully on the one hand. Although the method is appropriate in this context,
sometimes the interviewees can digress and veer away from the topic. Questionnaires are thus
employed on the other hand in order to aid the respondents to focus chiefly on the objectives and
hypothesis of the research.

Besides, criticism of artistic features employed in the lyrics, and observations of studio procedures
employed during song production, the research carries out individual and group interviews with
song producers of the two artistes and sound technicians in order to underpin how various technical
procedures employed in songs inform at post-production level inform the final quality of the
sounds which listeners identify with when listening to a song. The research seeks explanations
from the studio technicians on the implicatures implied in the effects various sound production
techniques bring into a song. The responses from sound technicians consequently, inform the
premise within which a sound technician works on a given sound variable to create the intended
meaning, which the researcher analyses to account for how the various sound production
techniques inform literary meaning discernible in songs.

The research, in addition, interviews selected fans of Bongo Flava. The research samples
University students pursuing English and Literature, Theatre and Performing Arts, and Kiswahili
who are in their final year. The academic background in the area of study, level, expressive ability
of one's ideas, are factors that informed the choice of students for the research interviews. The
research picks students with linguistic competence and repertoire that aids one to express oneself
in the academic setup that defines the basis of this research. The researcher, in addition, purposes
to interview Bongo Flava sound technicians / sound engineer's students of Literature from Dar Es
Salaam University who have a cultural background of Bongo Flava music and Swahili Cultural
tradition. This group aims to examine the methods Bongo Flava music fans who have a Swahili
cultural background and a literature foundation employ to infer implied meaning in Bongo Flava
songs.

The researcher, in addition, looks forward to interviewing Theater and Performing arts from the
University of Nairobi. This group aims to examine how students grounded in Theatre and
Performance may infer implied meaning as they listen to the audio songs as they play back. It is

40
surmised that from the act of listening to the process of attaching meaning to an audio song, the
relevance listeners attach to a song can bear a literary significance. The researcher, in addition,
looks forward to carrying out a classroom discussion with a class of Oral Literature students from
the University of Nairobi. This group discussion aims to establish how students of Oral Literature
critique meaning implied in songs as a literary genre to underpin how their criticism practice can
aid the research in underscoring meaning implied in the voice of the artist from a perspective that
audience sensitive since this is intended to be a research in Literature as an academic discipline.

This in addition may aid in conceptualizing how future literature studies can enrich the meaning
expressed in the lyrical texts with the meaning artists imply using the voice. In addition, the
researcher interviews a class of students pursuing bachelor in Music from Kenyatta University.
This group aims to examine whether there are musicological basic foundations that literature—as
a discipline—can appropriate to enrich criticism of meaning implied in the voice of the artist. This
it is assumed would augment the meaning Oral Literature students attach to the artistic use of
language hence enriching the wealth of literary criticism that can be generated from analysis of
songs at lyrical and audio levels. Finally, the research finding is tested using fourth-year English
and Literature students. The purpose of this group is to crosscheck and verify the findings of the
research.

In addition, the responses of music fans are to guide in cross-checking if the assumptions sound
technicians operationalize during song production and the interpretation music fans apply when
listening to songs define a communicative code that could thus be underpinned. As postulated in
Relevance Theory, this can help in underpinning the role different voice production techniques
played to constitute literary meaning in songs. Interviewing the students, in addition, thus serves
to verify the hypothesis, analysis, and findings of the research. The researcher will play to the
students' song samples that bear the different voice effects to assist the students to identify the
variables they consider when underpinning meaning in songs when they listen to a song. Once the
students have mastered the textures of the voice features, the researcher will ask them to make
their responses with regard to how the voice features influenced their interpretation of surface and
implied meanings in the songs.

41
In summary, therefore, the research looks forward to sampling students from four main
Universities, the University of Nairobi, Kenyatta University, Egerton University, and the
University of Dar-es-salaam. This is because Kenyatta University has a rich foundation in literary
culture and performing arts which is beneficial to the research on the understanding that the
students selected are familiar with sound features common in theatre and performance. Students
pursuing Literature, theatre, and performance from the University of Nairobi are selected because
it is easier for them to understand the research questions and thereby provide reliable responses as
a result of the experience they've had in their school of theatre and performing arts. Students
pursuing bachelors in Kiswahili literature at the University of Dar-es-salaam the research assumes
are reliable in the examination of the audio nuances in the songs and thus help understand how the
audio and oral literature context of Swahili Culture and tradition in Tanzania inform meaning
creation in the songs.

Sorting and Organization of Collected Data

The research employs Saldaña’s description of a code, category, and theme in this context. After
the identification of key ideas as codes, the research organizes the emerging ideas as categories.
These are major similarities that characterize the similarities between the responses the
respondents attach to the meaning they discern from the songs. Upon examination of the various
responses different respondents attach to the song as descriptions, the research establishes the most
common explanations different respondents attach to the song texts, these similar explanations
form the codes. Consequently, the research classifies the emerging codes based on their relevance
to the objectives of the research. The research, afterward expounds on the meaning the respondents
attach to various categories. Consequently, this is examined as themes based on the relevance the
respondents attach to the song text and voice of the artist as evidenced in the explanations they
give during data collection as their responses to the meaning they infer from the song. This is based
on the significance the respondents attach to the data, this research identifies these explanations as
themes. A theme in this context is understood as the central meaning the listeners attach to a song
text. According to DeSantis, and Ugarriza, “A theme is an abstract entity that brings meaning and
identity to a recurrent experience and its variant manifestations. As such, a theme captures and
unifies the nature or basis of the experience into a meaningful whole.” (DeSantis, and Ugarriza,
2000:362). A theme in this context brings meaning and identity to a recurrent pattern and its
42
various manifestation and themes develop from the patterns. Sorting and Organization of Collected
Data follow the following steps in summary:

Data Classification and identification of categories Themes

43
Data Analysis and Criticism Procedure
Although Relevance Theory uses the two concepts inferential communication and ostensive
communication to refer to the lexical meaning and intended meaning respectively, the two
concepts can be conceived as codes. In this context, a code can be understood as something capable
of signifying a particular meaning based on the significance the receiver/interpreter of the code
attaches to a given concept. The message in the text of the song, and the manner of articulation in
this regard bear significance, which results from the Oral nuances, a listener can attach to a given
lexical message based on the manner of rendition, articulation, expression, or enunciation. This
research accordingly adopts Saldaña’s explanation of the term code and uses it in the underpinning
of underlying significance which listeners can attach to an utterance based on the lexical meaning
or manner of expression one can infer from a song's text or manner of enunciation. This is because
the concept of a form in this regard helps the researcher in this regard to classify the meanings
interviewees attach to the songs based on the research question. From a relevance theory
perspective, adoption of the meaning implied in texts as codes in this context helps the research in
moving from general to specific. The song in this regard in a text, the process through which
listener's attach meaning, in this case, moves from the general message conveyed in the song to
specific meaning and significance which the listener infers by applying contextual information and
cultural knowledge, which one appropriates to deduce the implied meaning in the song.

The research applies data coding methods for qualitative researchers prescribed by Saldaña (2013).
As Sal observes, “A code in qualitative inquiry is most often a word or short phrase that symboli-
cally assigns a summative, salient, essence-capturing, and/or evocative attribute for a portion of
language-based or visual data (Saldaña, 2013:3)." This approach was important in this research
since it aided in underscoring salient meaning that could be deciphered from the text of the song
as well from the voice of the artist based on context. This was important because the researcher
could filter the main concerns that seem to inform, and characterize the meaning the respondents
infer from the songs based on their shared values, which determine the encyclopedic entries one
(listeners) appropriates when making meaning out of the voice of the artists in Bongo Fava songs.
The manner of utterance in this case bear implied meaning which the artist conveys to the listeners
as voiced concerns. The manner of intoning words in this context, or enunciations in this regard,
is premised to carry the artist's expectation share with the listener a particular meaning that comes

44
about as a result of the style of singing one employs. Consequently, from the emotions, mood,
attitude, the voice of the artist elicits in the listeners one can underpin thematic concerns that are
encompassed in the voice of the artist. The manner of singing in this context appropriates cultural
sensibilities that define how members of a given culture identify with the themes the artist
articulates in this case. Underscoring of mood for instance that may result from a manner of
singing, in this case, can function as a pointer of a salient theme which the speaker is attaching to
the ensuing situation. An utterance such as “shut that door!” cannot be reduced to the mere
description as shouting or an exclamation but in addition, can be deduced to suggest discourses of
power practice between the speaker and the person one is addressing. The manner of utterance
thus in this regard can be construed as a theme, based on the premise that it preempts in this case
the possibility of relationships between subjects.

Upon identification of the manner of utterance as a code, therefore, the research examines the
meanings that can ensue as a result of the experiences listeners bring to the listening experiences
based on their shared cultural knowledge of the cultural knowledge which they share with the
artist. The research then examines such themes to uncover the possible meanings that could be
leading to the purpose as to why the artist appears to be addressing such themes as evidenced in
the meaning the interviewees attach to the messages in the selected songs. The research has in this
regard gained from DeSantis, and Ugarriza’s explanation of a theme as; “A theme is an abstract
entity that brings meaning and identity to a recurrent experience and its variant manifestations. As
such, a theme captures and unifies the nature or basis of the experience into a meaningful whole.”
(DeSantis, and Ugarriza, 2000:362). Based on the objectives of the research, therefore, this
approach is important in aiding the research to bring to bear meanings which are conveyed in
Bongo Flava and which remain masked by the surface of the songs melody which serves the
entertainment value besides the serious message that remains encompassed in the song as
evidenced in the message and manner of utterance.

While paying attention to the relevance listeners attach to the message in the songs, based on the
lexical meaning and manner of singing, most importantly will be the exploration of why are such
meanings relevant from the respondent’s perspectives. To do this successfully, the research is
guided by Emerson et al. (2011) in their advice on a probable number of questions that one can

45
consider during the coding of field notes in the following order the purpose of the research not to
withstand (qtd in Saldaña, 2013, 21-22) these are: What are people doing? What are they trying
to accomplish? How, exactly, do they do this? What specific means and/or strategies do they use?
How do members talk about, characterize, and understand what is going on? What assumptions
are they making? What do I see going on here? What did I learn from these notes? Why did I
include them? (qtd in Saldaña, 2013: 21-22).

Such questions are important in guiding the interrogation of the relevance respondents attach to
the songs. In the context of this research and theoretical framework, the research, in addition,
appropriates Lofland et al.’s features such as; Cognitive aspects or meanings (e.g., ideologies,
rules, self-concepts, identities); Emotional aspects or feelings (e.g., sympathy); Hierarchical
aspects or inequalities (e.g., racial inequality, battered women, high school cliques). (qtd in
Saldaña, 2013, 15). In addition, as Saldana advice:
If you are working with multiple participants in a study, it may help to code one
participant’s data first, then progress to the second participant’s data. You might find that
the second data set will influence and affect your recoding of the first participant’s data,
and the consequent coding of the remaining participants’ data. (qtd in Saldaña, 2013, 22)

The research makes use of this method since the data deals with several respondents in their
responses to the various research questions. Finally, on coding, the research adopts Saldaña’s guide
in precoding procedure since this aids in underscoring salient features that characterize the
relevance of the information the respondents give as reactions to the research questions. As
Saldaña observes, “Descriptive, narrative passages of field notes are logged in regular
font.”Quotations, things are spoken by participants, are logged in bold font." OC: Observer’s
Comments, such as the researcher’s subjective impressions or analytic jottings, are set in italics.
(Saldaña, 2013: 20). In this view, the research brings to the reader's attention immediate
observations which the researcher makes with regard to the responses of each participant. This is
because in Saldaña's words “Coding is not a precise science; it is primarily an interpretive act.”
(Saldaña, 2013:4).

46
Coding

According to Saldaña “A code in qualitative inquiry is most often a word or short phrase that
symbolically assigns a summative, salient, essence-capturing, and/or evocative attribute for a
portion of language-based or visual data (Saldaña, 2013:4).” However, as Saldaña observes,
“Coding is not a precise science; it is primarily an interpretive act.” (Saldaña, 2013:4)

Application of Types of Coding

This research employs the following types of data coding as explained by Saldaña. Descriptive
coding- use of narratives based on data. Summarizes the data using sentences, (helps to maintain
the meaning a speaker intended). In Vivo coding – use of single words to identify themes in the
data, words, and short phrases from respondent's language. Emotion Coding – use of descriptive
emotion words from the respondents or researcher and their inferences (Saldaña, 2013:59).

Steps Employed in Data Analysis and Interpretation

The research employs the following method and procedure in data analysis and interpretation;
identification of codes from data, linking data to indication, from the indication to all the data
relating to that indication, seeking patterns in the data, underscoring emerging patterns as motifs,
and finally, observing emerging patterns as cognitive effects, i.e. meaning listeners attach to the
message of the song of the voice of the artist based on context. Patterns/trends are links that reveal
something significant about the research question. The patterns assist in the development of
themes. Themes in this context are the theoretical constructs supported by the data. This leads to
the identification of the themes. The themes reflect the significance of a pattern within the data in
relation to the research question. Therefore, data is coded for themes. To move from Code to
theme, categorize data to help in narrowing down and identification of the motifs. Codes in this
context can be descriptors of a data segment that assigns meaning. A code in this context is a
descriptor of a data segment that assigns meaning. The researcher can then identify CODE then
underscore the theme resulting from a given code then examine the relevance of the themes based
on the research question. Categorization of codes to examine emerging categories can be done as
shown below. In this case, a theme captures and combines the nature or basis of experience into a
meaningful whole.

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Overview of the Method

Method of Examining Meaning Listeners Attach to the Text— (Cognitive Effect)

The research employs the following procedure; identification of stylistic features in songs,
examination of the purpose of usage using relevance theory, a critique of the significance of the
style based on the relevance the respondents attach to the style under examination, drawing
evidence from the collected data as the revelation of the expectations of the artist and the
audiences, and finally, making deductions and conclusion based on respondent's responses.

This involves an examination of the process through which audio texts / oral texts create meaning
in the listeners' mind, which the listeners infer as a result of applying given encyclopedic entries
(cultural linguistic experiences that bear particular meanings). The voice in this context is
examined as triggering emotions and consequential emotions, which lead to the effect the voice
has on the listener thereby creating the significance one attaches to the audio text. Triggering
emotions in this case caused the feelings a speaker responds to and consequential emotions that
define products of the feelings (audience) are mentioned as responses to how they react to the
triggers.

Analysis
This involves uncovering patterns in data and consequently, the interpretation process involves
uncovering meaning and or multiple meanings the listeners infer from data based on the inferences
that characterize the relevance they attach to the lexical meaning and manner of expression—as
an artist's ability to convey one's intentions as evidenced in the communicative ostensions such as
tone and mood that define how one uses their voice when singing particular lines and phrases of
the song. In this context, the manner of utterance/rendition as a performance technique is
contextualized in the cultural manner in which the artist, as well as the audiences, identify with
nuances in oral expressions as implicatures.

Criticism Procedure
The criticism procedure involves the following steps; one, providing evidence of multiple
meanings present in data by identifying the relevant themes that support the purported meaning.
Two, interrogation of the song that comes out after the studio production as a reflection of the ideal
song that was in the artist's mind which can never be 100% emergence of the song in the mind.

48
Three, examination of the song therefore as a cultural product that reflects the multiple meanings
that reflect the shared experiences between the artist and the target audiences. Four, the meaning
that results are examined by questioning the meaning and value the audiences and the artist
ascribes to a song test the hypothesis. Five, the researcher observes the following emerging
meaning from data collection, the hypothesis may change appropriately as data may demand. This
may result from making findings that are different from the initial objectives and hypothesis. In
this case, the research may or may not yield different results from the expectations of the
researcher.

The research operationalized the observation that expressive choices informing the style of singing
in songs follow intended ostensive communication practices which the artiste intends to favor in
one's choice of expression style as a practice of disambiguation. Every form of expression, in this
case, is a response to some unstated premise, situation and responds to the situation by
particularizing assumptions and presuppositions which the singer is aware will inform the
interpretation of meaning which the listeners will arrive at as a result of the inferences they will
draw based on the semantic associations they make in relation to their understanding of what
particular expressive choices stands for when employed within a given context. The choice of
lyrics and manner of expression revealed a condition which the singer is likely to be reacting to,
or towards. It thus reveals authorial judgment(s) to conditions that influence the artist's life's
conditions. The choice of expression is thus a form of framing meaning and ways of constituting
meaning in return. The analysis procedure employed thus involves interrogating the questions;
why is the singer expressing the intended message the way it is being expressed? How the
application of voice production techniques enhances the intended meaning? The research, in
addition, examines the phonological features of voice in order to explain how the audio features
enhanced by technology contribute to implied meanings conveyed in the songs. It functions to
achieve implied meaning. The same way human beings vary their voices when talking in order to
shape how the message one communicates is interpreted, is the same way the melody of a song
shapes the message embodied in the lyrics. People vary their voices when talking depending on
the context. It is in the same way that a song adapts and appropriates different sound patterns to
define semantic contexts within which meaning in a song is constituted. Manner of expression,
which relies on how one uses their voice, may reveal characters of sound which convey meanings.

49
These meanings exist as a result of how sound is appropriated. The research examines the different
manners in which the music production process shapes the voice of the artist and sound of musical
instruments in order to give it a definitive character that is capable of communicating meaning.

Application of Relevance Theory in the Analysis of Literary Meanings Discernible in Sound in Songs

The research employs the following procedure in the application of theoretical framework after
data coding and classification of collected data. Explication of possible underlying relevance in
forming inferences listeners make from the message and voice of the artist. This is based on the
role of context, culture, the production process in constituting the cognitive effects (meaning—
listeners attach to the text) following the listening experience one brings to the song as—
encyclopedic entries.

Method

The research employs the following steps in critiquing explicit and implied meaning in the song's
texts and the voice of the artist; firstly, identification of the message expressed in the song's lexical
texts. Secondly, identification of particular oral nuances that are intended to influence a given
interpretation based on the inference listener would attach to a given manner of expression.
Thirdly, an analysis of how these nuances influence possible meanings which listeners derive from
the manner of expression as implicatures. Fourthly, a criticism of the inferential meaning based on
the evidence respondent will attach to a given expression. The research at this level underpins the
exact words the respondents use to explain the relevance one attaches to the message in the song.

Summary of Data Analysis Procedure

In summary, the research employs the following procedure in the analysis of the data. Firstly,
coding data is followed by establishing categories, thirdly, classifying categories, fourthly,
establishing themes emerging from each category, fifthly, underscoring and discussing possible
meaning that results from the identified themes. Finally, the research makes final findings and
conclusions. Lastly, this is followed by making recommendations based on the finding and
conclusions of the research.

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Possible Research Problem
Lack of cooperation on the part of the sound technicians is a likely limitation the research can face
since the sound technicians the research target to interview can refuse or become adamant to freely
part with information with regard to the production techniques they employ during song
production. To mitigate this, the researcher will create a working relationship with the producers
to build their confidence and trust that the research is an academic endeavor that may not harm
their work or the music industry in any way. In addition, the researcher has identified a neutral
sound engineer who will be consulted to shed light on the responses from the sound technicians in
case there is need to seek further clarification on responses after data collection. In addition, the
researcher will ground himself on the basics of the processes involved in song production. This is
vital for data analysis and verification.

Ethical Considerations

This research adheres to the guidelines on ethical considerations of research. This is ensured on
the understanding that all the data and information to be collected in this study will be reported as
freely and honestly as possible. The researcher has sought a permit before going to the field for
data collection. In addition, the research ensures that all respondents will be treated with dignity
and respect during and after the research. In cases where privacy and confidentiality of information
are required, the researcher avers to treat the respondents as such. Moreover, the researcher
endeavoures to do a full transcription of collected data to report the collected data as honestly as
possible. It is hereby observed that other than for the purposes of the Ph.D. research study, there
is no ulterior motive to be met by this research. Additionally, the researcher will acknowledge
through in-text citations or in the references as required works of other scholars as honestly as
possible, to avoid plagiarism. This is finally fieldwork-based research.

The next chapter examines possible meanings that could emerge from the application of styles in
Bongo Flava songs. It is hereby premised that although artists may use language artistically to
embellish the song for entertainment purposes, such stylistic use of language can consequently
bear a significant impact on the constitution of implied meanings which comes about as a result of
the application of styles such as figures of speech. As the next chapter thus shows, the application
of styles in Bongo Flava songs bears literary meaning which results from an artist's endeavour to

51
conflate meaning. The Bongo Flava artists in this case as the chapter shows employ language
artistically when writing the lyrics of their songs. It can thus be premised that this employment of
artistic devices contributes to the ability of a song to convey multiple layers of meaning because
the songwriting techniques in Bongo Flava hinge on a very rich culture of Swahili poetic tradition
popularly known as Tenzi.

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 CHAPTER THREE

Meaning Encompassed In Stylistic Choices at the Lexical Level

This chapter examines literary meaning encompassed in the stylistic use of language based on the
choices of words the artists use in the songs "Pii Pii", "Rita" by Marlaw, and the song "Nikita
Kesho" by Diamond Platnumz. The chapter examines literary meanings that result from how the
artist use language artistically at a lyrical level, in order to craft the message one wants to convey.
It is in this context surmised that the two artists use embellished language for a variety of reasons.
As the chapter shows such include entertainment, to elicit emotions, to conflate meanings, to
mention a few. This chapter is important because it embeds the research to the known and already
existing and accepted stylistic criticism practices employed in literary studies and appreciation of
texts. In addition, the findings of the chapter serve as a stepping stone through which the research
establishes connections and relationships between the literary meaning conveyed in stylistic use
of language on the one hand and stylistic choices implied in the voice of the artist discussed in the
next chapters. Moreover, this chapter, therefore, helps in bringing out the implied meanings which
Bongo Flava artists conflate and suggest in how they appropriate language artistically. This is
because despite Bongo Flava being too figurative in nature, highly stylistic, and poetic—what may
be construed as mere artistic use of language for embellishment purposes, as the chapter shows,
this artistic use of language, not only serve an entertainment value but in addition, function to
convey very serious meanings, themes and messages which the artist veil in one's ostensible use
of figures of speech. The surface meaning that bears entertainment value as the chapter shows
functions as a masking technique. This is because it defamiliarizes the serious meaning implied in
the songs as the criticism of these features reveal in this chapter The act of Defamiliarization in
this context is itself a practice of literary style and a euphemism style of expression intended to
convey sensitive meanings in a slightly mild way for the sake of the sensitivity of the audience
based on the cognitive and emotional effect unveiled language could have on the consequential
effects, on the audiences, as the chapter shows. The chapter finally defines an entry point into the
next chapter which explores explicit and implied meaning in the voice of the artist. As it will be
seen, the next chapters built on the stylistic appreciation discussed in this chapter in order to
explore the literary meaning encompassed in the voice of the artist.

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2.1 Summary of the Main Message in the Main Songs that formed the basis of the Research

This section discusses, in brief, the main message addressed in each of the three songs. This is
important because one, it aids in clarifying the main thematic concerns each of the songs addresses.
In addition, it helps n setting the basis within which the artists employ language artistically.
Arguably, as the chapter shows, this is important since it helps in showing the relationship between
the message in the song and how language is employed artistically to enrich the implied meaning
that results from the application of a variety of styles. In all the songs collected, it was observed
that the two artists majorly address themes such as Love, Death, Relationships, Poverty, and
mostly the many challenges young people contend with day to day in Tanzania. As the chapter
shows, styles employed in these songs bear a direct relationship to the main message the artist
addresses. It is important from a literary perspective, therefore, to investigate the literary relevance
artistic use of language in Bongo Flava songs plays in conflating meaning which is however
implied in the song, because of the value and relevance this has on songs appreciation practices
not only as mere artifices but also as means through which a given class of people in society voice
their concerns and in addition reveal ideological practices that define their society.

2.1.1 Pii Pii

"Pii pii" is a love song. The title of the song is derived from the hooting of cars. The persona is
complaining that it is long since he has been at home. He has been away from home for a long
time and since his arrival of which he has already informed his lever that he is on the way, he finds
traffic on his way. The song is an expression of the impatience with which he is not able to wait
for the traffic to ease. As a result, he says that he will drive on the wrong side of the road even if
he will be accused he is ready to defend his action. Arguably, this can be treated as hyperbole
which is meant or intended to show the listener the great love he has for his lover and his great
desire to get home. As evidenced in other songs by Marlaw, the motif of love defines the major
concerns that define his messages. This was observed in the song Rita, Sorry Sana, Busu la Pinky
(Pink Kiss), Mbayuwayu to mention a few. As towards the end of the song Rita, where the artist
says that the song is a true story. Marlaw base his songs on real-life experiences. It is therefore
important to examine how the appropriation of stylistic choices function in Bongo Flava, not only

54
to embellish the language but in addition to pass implied meaning that defines the reality of many
Tanzanians.

2.1.2 Rita

The song "Rita" is a social commentary and a depiction of racial animosity between Africans and
Asians in Tanzania. This is seen as enmity that grows as a result of conflicts that result from the
desire to integrate and the need to retain racial purity on the other hand. The conflict in the song
revolves around love where the persona (who is an African) mourns the lover Rita who dies in
mysterious circumstances after visiting her Asian family. It can thus be seen that the motif of love
could be said to be a major issue the young men in Tanzania contend with and which often than
not leads to unforeseen tragedies. "Rita" can, therefore, be said to be a dirge. In this song, the
persona addresses his diseased lover Rita and therefore it can be said to be an elegy. The persona
complains that the antagonism that bedeviled their relationship as a result of their racial difference.
While the persona is a Tanzanian, Rita is Asian. As a result, her family members happen to dislike
the Persona and have attempted to shoot him twice without success.

Finally, they chase Rita away from their home upon the realization that she is pregnant. She goes
and lives with the persona and later she gives birth. Her siblings call her and request her to go
home. It is upon arrival that she persona calls only to learn that her brothers are stopping her from
returning to his home. She complains about the phone and says "if you knew, I could not have
come alone" Finally, she boars a bus to return to her lover's home and the bus conductor confirms
to the persona that she is on her way. Unfortunately, while the persona is waiting for her at the bus
terminus, the bus arrives only for the conductor to discover that she has died while at the seat. The
persona takes the child and results in taking alcohol as he mourns her death. The song can thus be
said to be a tragedy since a love story has ended on a sad note. The circumstances surrounding the
cause of Rita's death, are however not expounded in the song, nor what followed after. This
surprise ending leaves the listener guessing what may have caused the death, e.g. was it suicide or
food poisoning? We shall never live to know. Towards the end of the song, Marlaw says, "True
story" this is to inform the listener not to treat the song as a mere fiction arguably to emphasize to
the listener to tie the unfolding in the song with the reality that may be defining the relationship
between Africans and Asians which maybe go unreported. On this disclosure, the song "Rita"

55
serves to unwrap the racial antagonism between Africans and Asians in Tanzania. The theme of
love, pain, loss, attempted assassination, and death thus emerges as serious concerns through which
the artist invites the Tanzanian community to reexamine the social relationship between races. The
song in this context serves as a rhetorical question, which leaves the listener and the entire
Tanzanian community pondering the issues the artist addresses because the song does not provide
a solution or a response. The persona however recounts that after Rita's death, he has resulted in
taking alcohol. This can be envisaged as frustrations and anguish that bedevil members of society
as they contend with the hard reality that characterizes their everyday life. Such can be construed
as venting one's frustrations as a result of facing situations that are beyond one's power or one's
control on the one hand, on the other hand, the persona, and Rita as characters in the song can be
construed as metaphors, reflecting victimizations which most people in Tanzania face as a result
of their races. Such racial evils as it emerges in the song can be said to rob the affected characters
of the freedom to self-determination. As it will be seen in the next chapter, the complaint tone and
mood in the artist's voice thus is an articulation of the painful reality on the one hand and a
beseeching for racial unity and transcendence on the other hand.

2.1.3 Nikifa Kesho

"Nikifa Kesho" is a song about death. In this song, the persona expresses his worry as to whether
his music fans and close friends will mourn him the day he'll die. Arguably, this invites the listener
to question the theme of love, versus hypocrisy among friends. In addition, the artist fuses in the
theme of love by mentioning to the mother whom he is supposedly addressing in one of the sections
of the songs. He tells the mother (a subsumed addressee in the song) that upon his death no one
should tell the mother that the persona fathered her child. This is because those he sought for
relationships rejected him for one reason or another. As evidenced in almost all other songs by
Diamond Platnumz such as; Nataka Kulewa (I want to get drunk, Lala Salama (sleep well) the
theme of love defines a major concern that defines his songs.

The song "Nikifa Kesho" – (If I die tomorrow) can be said to be a dirge. This is because the persona
is engaged in introspection on what will happen the day he'll die. He questions and worries in
what appears as a monologue where his friends will morn him when he dies. He is worried as to

56
whether people will continue listening to his songs. In addition, he expresses his helplessness that
upon his death he will not have anything of his own neither will he be able to control anything.

He takes the opportunity to tell the mother that upon his death, the mother should know that he has
not sired a child with anyone, so there should be no person who should ever presume or cheat the
mother that she has her child. He complains bitterly that upon his death he does not have anyone
to be buried with, to mean he is yet married and in addition express his pain that these he could
have married refused. And that those he could have sired with refused and said they will spoil their
youthful beauty by giving birth. Towards the end of the song, he expresses his sadness that they
broke his heart when they rejected his marriage proposal and lastly he worries and wonders who
will encourage the mother not to cry the day he'll die. He is sad that upon his deaths even his
mother will not be there for him.

Stylistic Criticism of Meaning Encompassed in Appropriation of Styles at Lexical Level

The three songs "pii pii," "Rita" and "Nikifa Kesho" incidentally all start with interjections. These
are; Ahh ahh eiy eiy (eiy eiy), ooh, and Aaai respectively. The use of the utterances as oral
techniques function to capture the listener's attention. From an oral literary perspective, the effect
this has on listeners of coaxing. One's attention as a result of the manner of utterance can be said
to serve as onomatopoeia. This is because these interjections imitate the emotions that characterize
how the persona appears to identify with the respective theme of each song as it unfolds. In this
regard, these oral devices can be said to function as foregrounding devices whereupon they attract
the listener and in addition prepare one psychologically and emotionally for the ensuing theme.
This is because the three utterances invoke in the reader the respective mood the artist wants the
listener to adopt as one listens to the song.

In the song "Pii Pii" this has a mood of excitement only for the song to unfold into a love song. In
the song, "Rita" and the song "Nikifa Kesho" this has a sad effect, which arguably prepares the
listener for the dirgeic message in the two songs. The onomatopoeic effect in this context can be
said to serve a function as a foreshadowing since it psychologically prepares the listener for the
respective mood that characterize each of the song as the song unfolds. These observations are
arrived at as a result of the immediate effect these techniques have on the listener based on a
cultural foregrounding of expected interpretation based on their daily day-to-day language usage.

57
As a performance technique, the device in this case, in addition, functions to set induction and the
respective mood that defines the situation the person is going through or experiencing. If thus
psychologically sets the scene in the mind of the listener. The artists in this regard can be said to
operationalize their cultural-linguistic reservoir in their expectations of the listening experiences
the listeners will attach to this manner of expression. Ostensibly, the filtration of the expected
message, as well as the implied meaning, becomes and defines the verisimilitude and
psychological state within which the artists and the listeners treat the ensuing meanings conveyed
in the songs. The resultant meanings in this context can be construed as the cognitive effects the
songs are expected to have on the audiences as a result of manner and style of utterance.

Although this can be said to be a performance technique intended to contextualize the song within
the mood and attitude most people would associate with the message in each song that is, love and
excitement, and sadness respectively, one can on the other hand beg the question why or what may
have been the artist's intentions and expectations in employing the device. Arguably if the artist
used this device because of their knowledge of the emotional effect this can have on the emotions
and controlling the mood of the listener the performance in this regard can be construed as an act
of power practice and the oral performance technique as a tool, method or means through which
the artist can control how audiences identify with the message in a song.

On the assumption that there are several people (listeners) who will unconsciously get swayed to
the mood set by the device, one can thus argue that the artist and manner of performance although
may be expressions of self and therefore representations of subjectivities, on the one hand, such
practices, on the other hand, it can be argued operationalize ideological practices of a given class
of people which ostensibly could be part of the target audience the two artists are addressing,
targeting and therefore symbolically representing in this context. Such subjectivities in this context
bear relevance based on the understanding that they define the artists' and their targeted audiences'
way of interpreting a facet of their everyday life. One can also ask why the two artists opted to
start their songs with the interjections. Is it a style of expression in Bongo culture? Or is it just a
coincidence? Should it be that it is an artistic expression common with Bongo Flava artists, and
their fans, then the onomatopoeia in this regard can serve as a discourse marker defining social
discourses and hence an artistic text defining peoples, identity? In this case, one would question,
why, "the appeal to pity?" On the understanding that in all the three songs the persona is expressing

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situations of helplessness, it can be argued that the appeal to pity is an act that manifests through
the song by intention or accident and it seems to reveal the helplessness which those represented
by the artist, and those who identify with the expression in this manner and their respective way
of reacting to situations.

In addition, the onomatopoeia in this context can be said to function as a reflection of the coping
mechanism which the persona and those who go through similar situations use the song and the
performance space as a site through which they reflect their reality, themselves, and their manner
of coping and articulating situations. The onomatopoeia in this regard is not only a sign for defining
self and manner of expressions but in addition can be linked to the underlying conditions that
inform, define and influence such expressions. The utterances in this regard can unveil the power
structure in society within which the powerless users of such expression voice their status in
society by using emotive lexical choices, such as onomatopoeia in this context. The appropriations
of onomatopoeia in this context serve to reveal the social call and arguably identity of a given class
as evidenced in their manner of expression to draw attention.

Consequently, these expressions as signs of helplessness can thus be said to be motifs of the
powerless in society and their negotiation techniques as they beg for society to listen to their
challenges and problems in life. This inference can be based not only on the lexical choice but also
on the manner of utterance as evidenced in the ensuing undertones as the next chapter will show.
This is because the voice and the nuances of pity which are implied in the manner of utterance
have a similar filtration effect on the listener thus creating the image of pain and suffering. The
enactment of the implied pain in this context can hence be read as metaphors of pain and suffering
on the one hand and the act of their enunciation as an invitation where the persona wants to engage
the society in a discourse of some of the challenges that affect members of the society whom he
represents. The appropriation of onomatopoeia in this context, therefore, qualifies not only as an
enactment of voice to represent the sound that defines an occurrence or an experience but also
qualifies as a cinematographic device through which the artist draws the listeners' attention by
lying voice and performance to color thematic experiences of the persona in the listeners' mind.

The two artists, in addition, appropriate catenations in their manner of words usage and utterance.
Catenation refers to the oral technique of enjoining words while speaking into a single continuous

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without pausing. Marlaw employs this device in the song “pii pii” in the manner he sings the
following lines.

Ninataka niwahi kufika

Nija inajam sasa wapi nitapita
Nimekaa karibia saa sita
Sasa kukaa nimechoka ooh baby
Sijamwona long time now,

When examined in the context of the message and the effect it has on the listeners, the device
functions to draw the listener's attention towards the persona's impatience. It serves in addition, to
make the persona's desire to get home quickly appear real in the minds of the listeners with the
least effort. As a performance technique, therefore, the style helps the listener to visualize the
urgency with which the persona is yearning to get home to his lover since he has been away since
last month. The device in this regard serves for dramatic effect and consequently creates it sense
of entertainment as the listener empathizes with the persona. However, the dramatic effect not to
withstand, the enactment of urgency simulated in this context on the flipside serves to reveal the
hastiness and the emotional manner in which the youth and probably young in the society react to
situations. Although there is an aspect of entertainment, the theme of love and longing, romance
and longing to be with one's lover, on the one hand, such enactment of speech and manner of
utterance reflects the argumentations one has with oneself since this is a monologue. The
catenation in this monologue can thus be said to reveal the weaknesses of thought and reason that
define how most young men in Tanzania react to the situation. This can be construed on the other
hand as a revelation of an aspect of narcissism since it is all self-centered on the persona's reaction
to his goals and expectations.

Catenation in this regard, reflect not only a style of expression but in addition, a propensity of the
weakness of thoughts and logical reason as one contends with situations that may call for one to
be patient, give way to others or even be cordial and accommodative in how one articulates one's
desires against those of others. This can be underscored on the premise that such manner of
expression defines an argumentation practice since the persona is reacting to a given situation that
calls for his self-justification. Ultimately, manner of speech as style in this regard not only serves

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as a dramatic technique for entertainment and rhetorical value but on other hand unveils
negotiation techniques—as practices of the self—which members of the class represented by the
persona engage as they go about their life. The monologue in this regard is an artistic expression
intended to inform the listener what is going on in the persona's mind. We may thus beg the
question of the impatience with which the persona is having with oneself as he expresses his inner
desire to get home to his lover.

Moreover, the hurrying and impatience in this context can be surmised to reflect the haste and
impatience which characterize the speed at which the youth or the young make members of the
society would want things to happen in life. The mention of traffic jams and the manner of word
articulation in this regard serves to draw the mise-en-scene that defines the situation the persona
is experiencing. Although it is not mentioned in the song as to whether other drivers are also
impatient, the device, in this case, begs the question as to whether this is real, how members of
society ought to treat and react to situations that call for one's patience. It can, however, be argued
that the artist in this regard is making fun of youthful follies where lack of patience is portrayed
negatively since it can lead to one's weak judgment. This can lead to one's suffering as seen later
in the song where the artist says he doesn't care, he's driving on the wrong side of the load, and
should this lead to a case he doesn't care. The speed and haste in the manner of speech in this
context can be said to signify and symbolize the haste with which the young at times respond to
the situation and on the other hand, would want things to happen in life. Arguably, the application
of the style as a speech practice can be said to reflect the pride and arrogance with which the youth
may use to address situations that call for a better and more mature approach to the social matter.

Although the catenations in the song can superficially be meant to show how the persona is in love
and hence how he is missing to get home to his lover, it doesn't necessarily follow that one must
treat moments of one's undertakings in life with haste and arrogance that leads one to break the
law. The artist in this context doesn't make concessions nor apologies for the usage of the style
until the song comes to the end. Arguably, this can be said to reflect the unapologetic and arrogance
with which the youth employ the same attitude in how they react to situations. Diamond Platnumz
uses the same device when singing the lines, Ni swali ngumu sana, it’s a difficult question. Lakini
nauliza sababu ipo siku itafika, but I am asking because a day will come.

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However, unlike Marlaw in the song "Pii Pii" the use of catenation, in this case, can be said to be
employed for argumentation purposes. In this case, the co-joining of words serves as the act of
justifying why he is asking what will happen when he dies. In this case, the lines and manner of
articulation can be said to function to mirror the self-introspection process through which the artist
not only engage with the text and the message in the song but also his ability to provide justify his
argument based on how other people are likely to react to the message of the song. Arguably death
is a contentious topic which most people prefer not to engage in especially when it comes to facing
the fact that one will die one day. The application of the device in this context reveals how language
usage in Bongo Flava may be appropriated to picture internal dialogues the persona, as well as the
expected audience, engage as they reflect prevailing realities of their lives where death is a silenced
reality which the artist, as well as the intended audience, reflect on at one time or the other. The
device in this context can be said to unveil rhetorical questions which characterize one's inner
thoughts as one contemplates what will happen upon one's death. The listeners, in this regard, are
expected to empathize with the persona. But putting themselves in the persona's position, the
device achieves its intended cognitive effect because helps in eliciting the mood and emotions the
artist is expecting the listeners to bring to the song as they contemplate the message the singer is
addressing.

It can, therefore, be argued that catenation as an oral technique functions to augment subjective
positions within which the speaker or an artist wished to defend one argument and stand a point
regarding an ensuing message or the theme of a song. Consequently, it can be said to be an attempt
to win the listeners to consider the artist's perspective or standpoint on a given topic. Therefore,
the device can be said to be self-serving and in this context an act of preempting the speaker's or
singer's ability to contend with the fact that there is a possibility that the listeners are likely to hold
a different view with regards to the issue one is addressing and how one appears to be addressing
the prevailing concerns. If for instance, the artist uses this device in fear or cognizant of the fact
that there's a possibility of the listeners to hold a different view or interpretation of issues from that
of the artist, the use of the device, in this case, can be said to operationalize discourse of power
relations between the artist and the expected audiences, and hence the possibility of competing
perspectives on given thematic concerns and how different members of the society would react to
them. Thus it can therefore be observed that catenation in song and oral performances are a

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technique employed when an artist is advocating for a contentious position, with regard to on issue
and in addition that the technique is used as a rhetorical technique for justification, on a contentious
issue, or position which the artist holds as a hypothetical proposition of a given possible situation.
Moreover, the device can be underpinned as a rhetorical technique both artists employ to win the
listener's reasoning to justify the position the artist is favoring in this context. Arguably, this can
be construed as an argumentation process that is intended to conceal the so what? Question. This
is because in both songs the artists appropriate the device in order to influence the relevance the
listener will ostensibly attach to the song. Thus the artist expects the listener to justify the position
the persona in both songs is holding. So far, it can be noted that stylistic devices in these songs
function to; lessen the formality that would have otherwise characterized official language, this,
however, is not an only euphemism but in addition, can be construed as a litote, which in addition,
modulates the effect of formal discourse in favour of conversational discourse with the subsumed
addressee of the persona.

Besides the styles mentioned above, Marlaw and Diamond Platnumz, employ code-switching in
their songs in addition to other devices as we shall see below. Code-switching refers to the
introduction of a statement or word that is in a different language from the language one has been
using in a piece of communication. This is evidenced in the song "Pii Pii" by Marlaw and the song
"Nikifa Kesho" by Diamond Platnumz. In the song "Pii Pii" this is evidence in the use of the words.
"Oh baby, longtime now" In the song "Nikifa Kesho" this is evidenced in the line…. "nani atambia
mama asi cry" (who will tell my mother not to cry?). Based on the context of usage, and as
evidenced in the ensuing message, code-switching as a style is used in the two songs to lessen the
weight of their meaning if the artist expressed the same words in Kiswahili. Arguably, on the
understanding that the target audience uses Kiswahili as their native language, the following
expressions:

Oh baby – mpenzi wangu

Longtime now - muda mrefu sasa
asicry – asilie

Swahili speakers will agree that the English version lessens the serious meaning expressed in these
phrases when uttered in their first language. Vernacular in this regard would have had a very

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emphatic effect on how the listeners would have inferred the message implied in each of the above
statements. In this regard, it can thus be argued that the use of code-switching in Swahili Bongo
Flava songs functions as a euphemism. In this case, it reduces the semantic effect of the implied
meaning and hence makes the meaningless sensitive. It is thus a form of understating and hence
can then be said to have a litotic effect on the message. The shift of code from Swahili to English,
in addition, can therefore be said to have an aesthetic function and whose purpose is to entertain
the listener. Although the artist is in the two songs are addressing serious topics, the switch of
language from Kiswahili to English can thus be said to be a performance, songwriting, and
composing technique employed to infuse the entertainment value in a song. This is because it
reduces the formality that characterizes the main language.

The choice of code-switching as a stylistic practice, therefore, can thus be said to prevent the artist's
sensitivity to the message one is addressing by empathizing with the position of the listeners as
they identify with the song. In this context, it can be said to be an act of putting oneself in another
person's position based on the shared cultural values, shared knowledge, and awareness of the
cognitive effect choice of code can have on others. It can thus be concluded that the Bongo Flava
artists are sensitive to culture and adhere to norms that govern lexical choices in their song
composition techniques. The code-switching in this case can be said to be an act of accommodating
others where the artist becomes sensitive to the impact or affect the choice of discourse can have
on the audiences and they listen to the song.

Apart from the above devices, alliteration is another common device that is appropriated in these
songs. This device is evidenced in the song "Pii Pii" in the following line; "Nimeshafika
ameshapika, amekasirika" Although this could be construed as a form of wordplay based on the
ensuring situation in the songs, where in this case it can be said to bear entertainment value, the
device bears emphatic undertones which thus function to emphasize the message in the line. In
this case, the listener is convinced to believe in what the artist is saying. Consequently, the device
aid in shaping the truth in fiction, and the dramatic enactment of the scene is thus vivified in the
mind of the listener. It can thus be said to bear aesthetic and dramatic functions as evidenced in
this song. This is because it colours the playful context of the ensuing message in the line as the
artist observes that:

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 Nimeshafika - I have arrived
Ameshapika, - She has cooked.
Amekasirika - She is angry

The device in this regard is expected to color in the listener’s mind, the picture of impatience with
which the persona’s lover is also longing for his arrival thereby making the listener laugh at the
emotional situation of the persona and his fiancée.

Repetition in addition is a major device appropriated in these songs. The device is prominent in
the song "Pii Pii" and the song "Rita "as evidenced in the number of times the artist repeats the
words "Pii Pii" and the words Oh Rita in each song respectively. Although it is commonly held
that repetition is employed as a device for emphasis, and arguably it appears to have the same
effect in how it has been used in these two songs. Upon interrogation of the purpose of the
emphasis, one can argue that probably the artist wants to convince the audience beyond reasonable
doubts of his position with regard to the ensuring message. In this case, the device aid in defining
the truth in fiction on the one hand while on the other hand it can be said to preempt the artist's
desire to control the mindset of the audience as one thinks about the message the artist is
addressing. In this regard, it can be argued that repetition as a composition technique is a form of
power practice that is intended to convince. The listener, with the least effort. This is because the
listener in this case is likely to buy the artist's standpoint regarding the ensuring theme without
giving any serious attention to the message the artist is presenting. This thus serves to remove
doubts from the listener's mind. Repetition therefore in this case can be said to have a rhetoric
purpose, which is however implied rather than stated in its manner of application in Bongo Flava
songs.

Elegy is another device common in these songs. An elegy is a direct address to a person who is
not present. This device is employed in all three songs but it is most prominent in the song "Rita"
in the following lines respectively.

Ona mikono yangu mitupu - See my bear hands

Imezoea kukushika wee - that has been used to holding you
Hata nyumbani kwangu haupo umepotea - you are not even in my house; you have
disappeared

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 Sikuoni Kwame ooh Rita - I cannot see you Rita
Rita wewe unajua jinsi gani mimi na wewe tulivyo pendana – Rita you the extent
to which we loved each other
Jitoa sadaka kimapenzi ilimradi tusijetengana – sacrificing my life that we may never part
Ilawe unajua ni yako familia – but you know it’s your family
Damu yangu ya Bongo si ya Asia – My African blood is not Asian
Konda akasema si wewe, ila tu ni mwili wako – the conductor said, you are not the
one but it’s your plain body

Most often as evidenced in the song as a dirge, the persona addresses someone who is dead. It can
be argued that any act of decision-making involves an act of power practice. Either by way of
exercising power over another or by yielding to the exercise of power over oneself by another. On
the understanding that the persona is much aware that "Rita" the address is dead, it can be surmised
that an elegy in this context is an act of protesting against death as a reality. The persona is thus
not only addressing the dead but in addition, can be said to be contesting death as a reality that has
befallen the addressee. This on the one hand can be a narrative technique, as evidenced in this case,
which consequently enables the narrator/artist to simulate the reality one wishes to enact or to
represent to the audiences thus performing the firsthand experience of the characters and the
performance space as a site through which the performer simulates a slice of real-life for purpose
of reflections and introspection with the audience.

Consequently, this has a vivifying effect that makes the audiences empathize with the experiences
the character is going through. As a result, an elegy in this regard succeeds in bringing out the pain
and remorse that define dirges, as the persona mourns the deceased. The elegy in this context helps
the audiences to share in the experiences of the character as well as the persona. On the
understanding that the persona is well aware that the address is dead, in addition to serving the
purpose to mock death and protesting against it, it can be argued that an elegy is an opportunity
for celebrating the deceased. This is because the persona invokes the relevance of the dad in their
own life as evidenced in this case. Although it has a diegetic effect, elegy it can thus be concluded
to serve to restore the memory of the dead in the minds of the living by making the dead part of
the living. It is therefore an act of refusing to let go and instead of retaining the relevance of the
dead as if they are still living.

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This device, in addition, is present in the song "Nikifa kesho" as evidenced in the following
lines……oh mama mwanao me sina hata motto moja wakusingiziwa, hivi nikiondoka
wasidanganye hao…As evidenced in these lines, the persona opts to address the mother directly
in this song who is, however, absent in the rest of the song. Although the persona has been
expressing his worry in the previous lines as to what will happen when he dies and of which he
appears to be engaged in a monologue or soliloquy, addressing the mother directly in the lines
above creates a sense of immediacy. It appears to give the persona's words credence and reliability
on the understanding that the lines that follow express his loss, pain, and agony that those with
whom he could have fathered a child rejected him. In this context, an elegy can be said to be
rhetorical practice intended for vividity and as an omniscient narrative technique for preempting
to the listener the private thought that defines the persona's position regarding a given ensuing
issue which the song addresses. In this regard, the audience is convinced to agree with the persona
without questioning or doubting the character's words and their assertions. In this regard, it can be
said to be a power control technique whereupon one (the audience) is invited to believe the artist
without the invitation of doubt. It can therefore be said to be a device employed by the artist so as
to have control of the mind of the audience as far as interpretation and accepting the ensuring
message is concerned. Often than not, the persona in both songs can be seen to apply the device to
articulate the reality the persona is going through. It can thus be argued that the use of elegy
functions to define and make the truth of fiction appear as realistic as possible. Consequently,
aiding the relevance, the listener attaches to the thematic concerns the artist addresses. In this
regard, the device aids the listener in empathizing with the personas in both songs as they lament
the sad situations of death addressed in both songs. Ultimately, this yields the intended cognitive
effect the artist would have expected the song to have on the audiences as they empathize with the
persona.

Although soliloquy is always treated in the pretext that the character, is talking to oneself in a
soliloquy, the character is always wishing to share what is in one's mind with the audience. This
can thus be said to be a technique through which the character preempts one thought to the world.
The device may not be untied, however; from the ensuing message, the character is addressing. In
this case, although it can be argued that the device aids in letting the audience know what is going
on in the character's mind, it can be questioned; why the character wishes to share one's private
thoughts with the audience. Arguably, facing the fact that one will die one day can be a disturbing

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reality arguably occupying the persona’s mind in the case of the song "Nikifa Kesho". It can thus
be argued that it is possible, an internal fear, conflict, or disturbance that one addresses and to
some extent mollifies or nurses by speaking out one's mind. In this regard, the fear and worry of
what will happen to his songs, his fame, himself and his mother appear to define the serious
concerns that appear to disturb the persona in this case. It can thus be surmised that soliloquy as a
technique and as a narrative style serves to share one's internal worries with the rest of the world,
most probably because of the therapeutic effect this act of opening up can have on one's
psychological stability.

Soliloquy in this regard not only serves to preempt the persona's mind but in addition foregrounds
the themes one is addressing. Death, hypocrisy as themes that characterize the persona's doubts
are emphasized in this context as possible questions the artist has been reflecting on regarding how
his music fans, friends, and mother will react and treat his demise. Arguably, if the persona in this
context is airing his concerns as a reflection and reaction to situations he has witnessed in real life,
soliloquy can be said to be a device through which an artist may critique situations that happen in
every reality. The pretense and assumption that one is talking to oneself, in addition, can be
construed as a rhetorical practice that serves the persona with an expressive technique that avoids
using accusatory tone or a pointing finger as the members of the society despite the social evils
one addresses in the song.

Even though soliloquy is a window through which the audience can peer into a character's private
thoughts, it can be presumed, therefore, to represent aspects of a character's subjectivity, and
inability to transcend beyond the inner conflict one is having with oneself. It can thus be said to be
a reflection of that what a character does not have power over and they the act of preempting
oneself is a feat to ease oneself by pouring out one's inner fears to the world not necessarily that
anyone will solve the ensuing internal conflict for the character but as an appeal to pity that the
world may infer the expectations of the character and hence come to their aid in what one could
be implying, as they (audience) empathize with the persona. The audience in this context is likely
to infer that the persona is fearing if he'll be forgotten upon his death and people ultimately reject
or stop playing his songs. Consequently, those who may be affected emotionally may be aroused
by the appeal to pity and in this case continue playing the persona songs.

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Although, it is assumed to be an act through which the audience access the private thoughts and
the private world of a character, a soliloquy as it appears is a process through which the character
gains access to the audience's private mind and hence engage the audience into a psychological
discourse of negotiating meaning and relevance. In so doing the character or the persona gains
access and possibly partial influence of the decision an audience can take upon listening to the
private thoughts of the character. It is thus a skewed way through which the character or persona
can control and influence the audience's mind, thoughts, and decisions. This is because the
character presents the concerns in a rhetorical manner such that one is already implying to the
audience one's wishful thinking. In this case, it can be assumed that the artist is appealing to the
world to continue remembering his now and even after his death. Soliloquy can therefore be said
to bear narcissistic intentions which but remain concealed in the unstated intentions and
expectations that infer its application in artistic discourses. This is because the artist does not tell
the audience why he is indirectly beseeching them to empathize with his situation upon his death.
The device, therefore, is said to be self-serving and its moral good is dependent on the intentions
it is expected to achieve.

Upon close examination, of the writing techniques, both artists employ when writing their songs,
rhyme and partial rhyme as evidenced in their songs is a major device both artists employ probably
for a variety of reasons. This device is found in the song "Nikifa Kesho in the following section….

Na nyimbo zangu kutosokia

Oh vipi wasafi watanililia
Je ndugu marafiki watahudhuria
Hata mamangu nita mkimbia

Although it is popularly assumed that rhyme is employed for musicality in a song or a poem. It
can be surmised from the effect of the rhyme in the above lines that in addition to playing a role
maintaining in a musical effect, rhyme has a foregrounding effect. This is because it makes the
explicit and implied meaning prominent when the musicality has a direct relationship to the theme
of the song. In this case, the Swahili word for cry is lia, the act of crying or mourning is thus
emphasized by the rhyme/ia/ which cognitively creates in the listener's mind, a mournful effect. In
this regard, it can be argued that rhyme plays a significant role in maintaining rhythm on the one

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hand and the other hand by foregrounding the central message in a text. It can therefore be said to
be a foregrounding technique employed in order to emphasize the central concerns. This is based
on the cultural nuances and the semantic associations the artist and the audiences associate with
the effect the rhyme brings to the ensuring message.

This observation can be compared and constructed in the song “Pii Pii” which also has partial
rhyme in the following section.

Na kuomba mpenzi ungoojee (a)

Nimechoka na kuja tulee (b)
Na kuomba mpenzi ungojee (a)
Nimechoka na kuja tulee (b)
Huruma nionee (c)

This is a type of rhyme scheme known as harrisham rhyme. It consists of a babab pattern. In song
composition, it is employed in order to bring out the conflict in a song. As it has been employed
in this case, it can be surmised that the rhyme functions to capture the ensuring misunderstanding
there is between the persona and his lover. He thus uses the rhyme to create to the audience the
state of disagreement that has resulted as a consequence of his overstaying before he gets home.
The love has already prepared the food but she has become impatient until she is hanging up his
call. The persona on the other hand is trying to convince her that he is held up in traffic yet she
seems not to understand.

As a result of vivifying the conflict in the song, emanating from the misunderstanding between the
characters the abab rhyme can be said to have an entertainment value which it brings to the text by
emphasizing the ensuing drama in the mind of the audience. In addition, both artists employ
rhetorical questions for a variety of reasons. This device is employed in the song “Nikifa Kesho”
as evidenced in the following lines.

Ai, oh vipi Ameneke atanililia

Je Wasanii wenzangu wataniimbia
……………………………
Je ndugu rafiki wata hudhuria

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 Au nitakapo kufa sina change

These rhetorical questions get the audience pondering about the serious concerns the persona has
of how people will enact to his death especially those closest to him as well as his music fans.
Arguably this question can be said to have a coercive effect since it puts the addressee on defense
yet one is not given room to respond. Thematically, these questions appear to attack the hypocrisy
that could be veiled in the guise of friendship yet upon his death it happens that those closest to
the persona will not mourn him or even attend his funeral. On the other hand, the questions thus
create a string introspective effect since it calls one to interrogate oneself concerning how one will
react based on one's relationship with the artist.

The effect of the question on the target audience can be said thus to unveil the silences that define
human relations between the speaker and the listener. In this context, the questions can be said to
be a persuasive technique intended to influence the listener to act following the implied request
the persona is suggesting. In this context, the artist and or the persona appears to claim his
entitlement in the lives of others where he appears to assume that the target addressee must mourn
him. Arguably, the device when examined in this context seems to unveil the narcissistic aspect of
the persona character and not necessarily the sign of mourning the dead. This argument can be
evidenced in the proceeding line where the artist asks.

Au nitakapo kufa sina changu

This can be presumed that one of the expectations he wishes to own or to be entitled to upon his
death is that of being mourned by his friend's family members, fellow artists, and his music fans.
Although mourning has a cultural significance in most cultures, the artist appears to be any
concerned with himself in this song and not necessarily the moral good of one's death to others.
This can be supported by his observations that should be died that his mother should know he has
not sired a child with anyone and that those with whom they could have sired children hurt him by
rejecting his proposals. It can thus be argued that although rhetorical questions most often than not
have been examined in the context of the effect and influence they have on the audiences, on the
other hand, they can reveal a lot about the character and expectations of the person who uses them.

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Besides these stylistic devices, the carry-on line is also a common technique in Bongo Flava songs.
A carry-on line is a line where the singer does not complete the message at the end of the line but
instead continues to the next line. This device is evidenced in the song "Nikifa Kesho"

Au litafutika jina langu

Na nyimbo zangu kutosikia

Towards the end of the first line, the being communicated is not complete, because it creates a (so
what?) effect in the mind of the listener which is then completed by what is communicated in the
proceeding line. The carryon line as evidence din this line not only serves to convey complex
thoughts but in addition can serve as a means of defining an argument. This is because it is upon
the idea conveyed in the carryon line that the artist builds the proceeding lines and inquiry as to
whether he will be mourned upon his death. As an argumentation technique, it can thus be argued
as to whether the persona is raising the argument as a reaction or response to some unstated facts
which can be probably informing the intention for coming up with the song. The carry-on line in
this regard can mirror or signal the situation the artist is reacting to. This can be in a real-life
situation or the simulated reality of the song. In either of these cases, the enjambment vivifies the
drama taking place in the song. In addition, it serves as a hook or a cliffhanger because it creates
a desire for the listener to continue paying attention in order to know what will happen next.

The device in addition is evidenced in the song “Pii Pii”

Nimeshakwambia mama nimefika tangu mchana

Anajua nimeshafika, ameshapika, amekasirika
Alipika tangu mchana

In this case, the device functions to vivify the ensuing drama and in addition to defining the conflict
between the involved characters. In so doing, it can be said to have an entertainment value since it
makes the listeners look forward to the resolution as the song unfolds. In this case, the listener is
interested in learning what will happen next. An artist, therefore, can be argued to use the device
to set the conflict in a song or a poem since the device appears to have a rhetorical role in furthering
an argument.

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Further, it can be observed Marlaw uses suspense in his songs as evidenced in the following
sections of the song "Rita". Suspense as a device is employed in the song "Rita" This is evident
after the first line in the proceeding lines;

Sauti inaskika tega makini, hujui nani ina mwita

Chozi lanitoka nitazamapo angani,
Naona sura ya Rita
Ona mikono yangu mitupu
Imezoea kukushika we
Hata nyumbani kwangu haupo
Umepotea sikuoni Kwame ooh Rita

As evidenced in the song “Rita”, the creation of suspense as the song unfolds functions to hook
the listener and to entice one to want to learn what will happen next. As one listens to the above
observations as elucidated by the persona these lines shave a cumulative effect of creating curiosity
as a result of the dramatic tension this creates in the mind of the listener. Consequently, the
suspense creates a psychological effect in the listener's mind where one cooperates with the artist
as he tells the story. In this context, suspense can be said to bear the power to influence others
without coercion. It is thus a form of power practice by delegating the choice to the controlled
subject-since one has the choice to continue listening or not – but at the same time, the artist has
introduced a subject of interest in the mind of the listener by not revealing the whole truth or all
the information to the audience. Owing to the information which the listener is already aware of,
one develops an interest in the topic, and hence without the conscious awareness of how the
manner of presenting the information can affect the listener one continues to pay attention to the
artist. Suspense in this context can be seen to function as a bait that the artist uses to attract and
maintain the audience's attention. On the one hand, it serves as a tool for entertainment because
the audience develops an interest in the unfolding message amidst the desire to know what will
happen. Consequently, it can be said to play semantic effect as a mnemonic device since it triggers
the audience's desire for attention, and hence one can remember the unfolding events due to the
level of concentration after the stay or song is over.

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Marlaw in addition uses suspense in the song "Pii Pii" in stanza one to set the conflict in the song.
Suspense in this case appears to play a central role in the development of thematic concerns in
literary texts. This is because as evidenced in the song "Pii Pii" the artist uses the device to capture
the gender relations between the persona and his lover as the song unfolds. The persona complains
that although he has informed his lover of his arrival, she is impatient with him until she is hanging
up his call. Arguably were it not for the lover hanging up his call the ensuing conflict in the song
could not have existed. The use of suspense in this context serves not only to hook the attention of
the audience but in addition, the persona's intention in attracting and maintaining the audience's
attention is to draw the listener's attention towards the predicament he is facing.

Towards the end of the song. The audience is aware that the conflict the persona is facing is
multifaceted one his desire to get home to his lover. Two the coercive nature of the lover as a force
to reckon with and three from the foreseeability of the traffic which he must contend with.
Suspense is thus a device through which the artist can define the interconnectivity of the events
that define conflict in a text. This is because, upon its usage, the audience is psychologically
influenced to see what will come as a result of what the artist has unveiled. It can thus be said to
be a rhetorical technique intended to create desire and arouse curiosity in the mind of the audience,
hence submitting one's time and concentration to the text.

Apart from these, there is evidence of the usage of Euphemism in the songs of Diamond Platnumz.
This device is employed in the song "Nikifa Kesho" in the following section; kwenda milele
pumzika…mi siku zamu nikiitwa kwa mungu…. Hivi ni kiondoka. Euphemism as a device is used
to express and to articulate a topic or an issue that people treat as sensitive using less direct and
mild language due to the psychological effect the blatant treatment of the issue can have on the
listeners or the audiences. The persona opts for euphemism in the lines above to address the theme
of his death. This is a topic and the psychological impact this can have on his dear ones may have
been the reason why he may have opted to use euphemism instead of explicitly using the words;

When I die and go to rest

………………………………
When it is my turn to die
…………………………..
So when I die respectively.

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Culture and culturally shared values and norms thus can be said to influence artistic choices where
an artist employs euphemism. In this regard, euphemism can be said to be a form of communication
that is dictated by culture and audience sensitivity to the message. This is because ideological
perspectives and reactions of others to one's message can influence acceptability or rejection of a
song based on how the artist portrays the message and hence represent the message, oneself, as
well as the others. The veiled discourse thus is said to be intended to address the theme of the death
without necessarily violating the brittle conscience of the audiences. This is because one addresses
the same sensitive topic without necessarily making the audience become or feel uncomfortable
with the sensitivity the topic one addresses invites. On this premise, the humans are kind as
evidenced in Bongo music, and therefore in Bongo culture are shy and if not fearful when it comes
to matters of addressing death as a topic. Arguably, because may spell one's ultimate end despite
one's desire to cling to life. Probably because this opens the very same reality about one's death
which is a topic or a reality few like being reminded of.

In addition to these devices, personification as a technique is employed in the song "Nikifa Kesho"
This is a stylistic technique where a non-human thing, animal, or concept is given human character
traits. This is evidenced in the song "Nikifa Kesho" in the following line;

Lakini nauliza sababu ipo siku itafika

……………………………………..

In this context, a day is given the ability to be able to arrive, as if of its own volition. This has a
dramatic effect on the eventuality of the occurrence of the demise of the persona. This functions
to vivify the personified event, in this context it gives eminence to the actual day when he will die.
The personification of the coming of this day makes the death of the persona appear as if it is a
character endowed with power and the will to determine oneself. This serves to dramatize death
like some event that was waited for and finally has arrived. Consequently, the persona can be said
to employ the device to express his helplessness upon the arrival of his death. This as a result
inviting the audiences, his music fans, and his loved ones to mourn his departure. Death in this
context is recognized as an occurrence which the victim has no control over hence eliciting pity
from those who are left behind.

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There is in addition employment of wordplay as evidenced in the song "Pii Pii" This is a stylistic
device where an artist plays with different meanings of a word or words that sound the same but
have different meanings. This is evidenced in the song "Pii Pii" as evidenced in the following lines.
………………………………………..
Ameshafika, ameshafika, amekasirika
…………………………………………

Arguably the persona can be said to employ the pun to poke fun at his lover's anger. This is because
the traffic jam is way unforeseen but upon informing the lady that he is held in traffic she becomes
impatient, gets tired of waiting until she results in hanging up his call. Although the device can be
said to be employed in order to create some entertainment in the song, where the audiences enjoy
the unique aesthetic effect that results from the words, in this context, it can be said that it serves
to portray gender relations and attitude of the male persona and the lover at the same time. The
device can be said to point out the boyish character of the make persona and this is evidenced in
the proceedings ling where he says he will drive on the wrong side of the road, and he doesn't care
about breaking the law even if he is arrested.

On the other hand, the statement that she has cooked "ameshafika" is an acknowledgment of the
kind-hearted nature of the lady as well as an appreciation of her role as a woman, where it is
presumed that she has cooked for him not as an obligation but as an appreciation of his coming.
However, he takes too long before arriving and she gets annoyed. The annoyance of the lady as
portrayed in this case can be construed as a gender exercise of women's freedom and liberation
where the lady is presented as one who is free to express herself and acknowledge her emotions
by hanging upon him. This exercise of power and authority over the make persona is arguably
what is leading to his request in one of the proceeding lines; "Huruma nionee" have mercy on me.
This act of pleading when read against the implied meaning suggested in the pun can thus be said
to preempt the paradigm shift from the traditional gender oppression of women to gender equality
where the lady is presented as equal to the make persona. It is as a result of this that the persona
employs the pun as a light way of reflecting on the lady's anger since she is not any less as a person
because she is a woman.

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Metonymy in addition is another device evidenced in the song "Rita". This is a device where an
author or an artist mentions or refers to a part of something but refers to the whole. This is evidence
in the song "Rita" in these words.

…………………………………...
Damu yangu ya Bongo si ya Asia
……………………………………

The persona uses the word blood to say –my Bongo Blood is not Asian- to refer to his race. The
word blood in this context refers to his race as an African as contrasted to Rita who is of Asian
descent. It is therefore a light way of addressing the theme of racism without necessarily hurting
the addressee or the conscience of the listeners who would find the blatant expression to bear racist
undertones. The application of metonymy in this regard can be said to have a veiling effect like
euphemism where it is thus applied to make sensitive topics appear less sensitive as evidenced in
this song. Culturally, euphemism and metonymy can thus be said to be employed for social
decorum. Stylistic choice in songs in this context can thus be dictated by culture and not necessarily
the narcissistic and subjectivity of the artist. This is in cognizance of the message one is addressing.

Chapter Summary

This chapter has examined literary meaning encompassed in the stylistic use of lexical choices in
the songs "pii pii", "Rita" by Marlaw, and the song "Nikita Kesho" by Diamond Platnumz. The
chapter aimed at tying the research to the current and already existing literary criticism and
appreciation practices practiced in literature. This is important because it ties the research to known
and already accepted literary critiquing styles in Literature as a discipline. The chapter has focused
on the three songs following the observation that out of Marlaw’s ten songs and the forty songs by
Diamond Platnumz collected all these songs addressed the themes such as Love, Poverty, death,
Marriage, and Relationship between couples, filial and parental love. The three songs were thus
decided upon on the observation that their analysis can reflect the major concerns articulated in
most of the other songs. Besides reflecting the major concerns addressed in all the other songs,
these themes conspicuously defined the major themes in these three songs. In addition, as
evidenced in the above analysis there is an overt and therefore intentional use of language
stylistically in the composition and writing of the three songs. This chapter, therefore, has

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endeavoures to examine the literary relevance that results from using language stylistically at the
lexical level. The three songs have therefore revealed as seen in this chapter that Bongo Flava
artists employ stylistic features such as; Onomatopoeia, Catenation, Aesthetic effect, Code
Switching, Alliteration, Repetition, Elegy, Soliloquy, Partial Rhyme, Rhetorical Question, Carry
online – Enjambment, Suspense, Euphemism, Personification, Word Play or Pun, and Metonymy
to mention a few as discussed in the chapter not necessarily as a practice of art for art’s sake but
for the significance these devices play in conflating and defamiliarizing meaning.

Finally, the findings of the chapter function as a building block through which the research
establishes connections and relationships between the literary meaning conveyed in stylistic use
of lexical choices on the one hand and stylistic choices implied in the voice of the artist in the
proceeding chapters. This helps in defining the basis of the proceeding chapters. This is because
the proceeding chapters build on the stylistic appreciation discussed in this chapter to explore
literary meaning encompassed in the voice of the artist. As evidenced in this chapter, Bongo Flava
musicians can be thus argued to use stylistic features in their songwriting processes. Consequently,
these devices create multiple layers of meaning which can be deduced upon examination of the
semantic role the devices play with regard to thematic concerns which a song addresses. As
evidence in this chapter, therefore, several factors come to play in the exercise and practice of style
and stylistic choices in Bongo Flava songs. These are; the artist, the message, culture, and the
target audience. These four appear to define key factors which influence the choice, application,
and purpose of stylistic choices in Bongo Flava songs. This is because as the chapter shows there
are stylistic devices an artist employs to justify one's subjective or perspective on given thematic
concerns. There are also stylistic devices an artist employ that is determined by the nature of the
message one is addressing. Stylistic choices in song composition in this regard can be said to be
context and thematic-dependent. The context in this regard can be said to be determined by
message, cultural shared norms, and social values that influence the stylistic choices, based on the
effect and meaning the artist expects to vivify. In the process of adherence to shared values and
cultural norms, as this chapter shows, an artist may unveil either consciously or unconsciously
selfish and subjective intentions which can be construed as narcissistic.

Finally, as the chapter shows, stylistic choices in songs can engender power practice. In this
context, the application of a given style may be influenced by one's desire and expectation

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influenced by one's desire and expectation to influence others. Such influence is characterized by
the action one wants the recipient to take or how one expects the target audience to take upon
receiving the message in the context of a given stylistic choice. Often than not, the likely action
one (audience) is likely to take in light of a given style may involve interpretation of the implied
meaning. In this case, the artist expects the audiences to infer the implied meaning based on the
shared knowledge that defines the listening experiences audiences appropriate in their quest to
understand the concerns of the artist on the one hand. On the other hand, the application of artistic
choices and styles which an artist may employ is cognizant and dependent on an artist's awareness
of the cultural experiences potential listeners will appropriate in their effort of inferring implied
and explicit meanings from a song. Stylistic choices, therefore, operationalize a simulacrum or
interconnectivity of shared values which constitute and define the cooperative norms that tie the
artist, the message, the audience, and their ensuing culture into a single web of semantic
underpinnings which are inextricably bound by the moral good of all and desire or endeavor to
ameliorate the perspectives and fate of individuals subjects towards an upward transcendence that
is intended to serve the common good for better mutual coexistence of all the involved as members
of one big family that are defined by their shared cultural norms and values. The next chapter
examines stylistic features encompassed in the voice of the artist.

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 CHAPTER FOUR
Data Analysis
Results

The previous chapter examined literary meaning encompassed in stylistic choices at the lexical
level. This chapter examines literary meaning encompassed in the voice of the artist as evidenced
in the inferences different listeners attach to the songs. The chapter is a critique of the responses
different respondents made during data collection. The chapter in addition offers critical responses
to the interviews, and questionnaires, answers which the respondents gave in response to the
research questions. These responses were intended to elicit reactions on how different listeners of
Bongo Flava infer meaning from songs during the listening process. The chapter is thus chiefly a
critique of the feedback the respondents gave in response to the interviews and questionnaires.

The research interviewed and used questionnaires to collect the views of two Bongo Flava sound
technicians/sound engineers. One of the two doubles up as a dick jokey. Interviewing the sound
technicians and sound engineers was important in aiding the research identify how the process of
song production in the studio influence and inform infusion of implied meanings that listeners
arguably infer from the voice of the artist. This interview and questionnaire were informed by the
most conspicuous oral nuances that define the voice of the artist in most Bongo Flava songs. The
researcher in this context was reasoning that there must be a lot that goes on in the studio to inform
the meaning discernible in the voice of an artist. Notably, thirteen students of Literature from the
Literature department of Dar Es Salaam University who had a cultural background of Bongo Flava
music and Swahili Cultural tradition were also interviewed and filled the research questionnaires.
The data collected from the literature students of Dar Es Salaam University who had a cultural
background in Bongo Flava music was useful in underscoring how Swahili culture and oral
literature inform the interpretation of the meaning Literature students infer from the voice of the
artist. This group aimed to examine the methods Bongo Flava music fans who have a Swahili
cultural background and a literature foundation employ to infer implied meaning is encompassed
and implied in the voice of the artist in Bongo Flava songs.

The researcher in addition interviewed fifteen members of Theater and Performing arts from the
University of Nairobi. This group aimed to examine how university students grounded in Theatre
and Performance infer implied meaning as they listen to the audio songs as they play back. It was

80
surmised that from the act of listening to the process of attaching meaning to an audio song, there
must be a method that listeners employ and which can be used to examine implied meaning in
songs as audio texts. The researcher, in addition, carried out a four hours' discussion with a second-
year class of about sixty students of Oral Literature at the University of Nairobi. This group
discussion aimed to establish how Oral Literature students who lack a Swahili Cultural
Background infer meaning in Bongo Flava songs. This aided in conceptualizing how Oral
Literature students infer meaning from the song text as well as from the voice of the artist.

The research was of the view that such knowledge can aid future studies and thereby, bridge the
meaning expressed in the lyrical texts with the meaning artists imply using the voice. In addition,
the researcher interviewed a class of thirty students pursuing a Bachelors's in Music from Kenyatta
University. This group aimed to examine whether there are musicological basic foundations, terms,
and concepts that literature as a discipline can appropriate to enrich criticism of meaning implied
in the voice of the artist. This it was assumed can augment the meaning Oral Literature students
attach to the artistic use of language hence enriching the wealth of literary criticism that can be
generated from analysis of songs at lyrical and audio levels. In addition, the research collected
views of a group of theatre and performance students from the University of Nairobi regarding
how sound techniques employed during song production are likely to inform the meaning theatre
and performance students can infer from the audio text of a song. Finally, the research finding was
tested using a class of eight fourth-year English and Literature students. The purpose of this group
was to crosscheck and verify the findings of the research.

As Robert E. Stake (1995) observes, however, "Good research is not about good methods as much
as it is about good thinking" (qtd in Saldana, 2013, 187). The chapter in the light of this observation
examines the responses and implied meanings the respondents attach to the voice of the artist when
listening to a song. In so doing the researcher adopts Saldaña's techniques of highlighting and
marking salient information as follows: "Descriptive, narrative passages of field notes are logged
in regular font.”Quotations, things are spoken by participants, are logged in bold font." OC:
Observer's Comments, such as the researcher's subjective impressions or analytic jottings, are set
in italics. (Saldaña, 2013: 20). Notably, this technique is appropriate in this research because it
helps in disambiguating field notes from respondents' comments as well as the researcher's
comments on a respondent's answers. This technique is hereby thus favored because it helps the

81
researcher to comment on the data as the researcher interrogates the responses of each respondent.
Consequently, this technique helps the researcher as well as the readers of this thesis to notice the
unfolding process through which the process of data analysis leads to the finding of the research
in the next chapter. In the proceeding sections we take a critical review of the views of the sound
technician this will be followed by a critical analysis of the group interview of the Literature
students of Dar Es Salaam University followed by a critical review of the feedback each of the
students made concerning the questionnaire.

In this chapter, therefore,

· the descriptive narratives of the field notes will be in regular font. Which the

· quotations of the respondents will be in bold, and

· the Observations made by the researcher in italics.

· Major motifs / key features on CAPS

A Critical Review of Interview with the Sound Technicians / Music Producer Haroub
Msingala

In this section, the researcher examines the interview responses Bongo Flava sound technician,
music producer, and dick jokey by the name Haroub Msingala gave in response to how the song-
making process operationalizes cultural, and linguistic factors as evidenced below. The full
transcription of the interview is attached under APPENDIX 1: As Valerie Janesick (2011)
observes, "in addition to systematic analysis, "the qualitative researcher should expect to uncover
some information through informed hunches, intuition, and serendipitous occurrences that, in turn,
will lead to a richer and more powerful explanation of the setting, context, and participants in any
given study" (qtd in Saldana, 2013, 41). With this view in mind, this research critiques the
following responses to the interview questions and thereafter critiques the responses to the
questionnaires to discern how Bongo Music makers on the one hand and consumers as cultural
practitioners on the other hand reason with the music as a cultural artifact capable of conveying
implied meaning. Notably, as Lindof and Taylor (2011) observe that analytic ventures are a "blend
of strategic mindfulness and unexpected discovery" (qtd in Saldana, 2013, 188). The researcher

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will towards the end of the chapter underscore observations and emerging facts from the data
as motifs that are identified in the responses of the interviewees. This is what will have helped the
research underscore any emerging patterns in relation to the objectives and hypothesis of the
research. As earlier observed, the descriptive narratives of the field notes in regular font, while the
quotations of the respondents will be in bold, and the observations made by the researcher in
italics.

The researcher noticed that according to the Bongo Music producers, the term beat in the field of
music production is loosely employed to refer to the melody of musical instruments in a song that
accompanies the voice of the Artist. The beat in this context the researcher noticed is a term that
is employed to express meaning in a song which is expressed as ostensive communication. In
response as to whether there is a relationship between the message in a song and the voice of the
artist, i.e. (relationship between the words in a song and the voice) that is how the artist sings
particular words the interviewee noted that that "some don't match, some match." In addition,
the interviewee observed that he doesn't know what the problem is as to why some artists' voices
match the message in a song and why the voice of the Artist in some songs doesn't match.

He acknowledges the possibility of a problem i.e. why the voice and the message in some songs
don't match. He acknowledged that he doesn't know what the issue is. There is hence the possibility
of the existence of a knowledge gap. This knowledge could inform factors that determine the
relationship between the voice and the message in a song.

The researcher noticed that the interviewee thought that the music production process involves
contextualizing the music based on the timbre of the artist's voice "how one sounds" This the
researcher thought that it can be construed as the role culture plays in informing manner of
expression and therefore the role of culture in shaping voice as cultural nuance. This was
evidenced in the following comment, "based on the voice and how an Artist sounds the
producer advises the Artist on what to do." The advice can be inferred as expression and
performance techniques that can help the Artists voice bring out the intended meaning. The
interview acknowledged that the melody that is made to accompany the lyrics is based on the
voice of the artist. The music producers, therefore, identify with the personality in a person's voice
and hence character and characterization that emerges in the character of one's voice. They can

83
be argued /construed as the persona (inscribed/subsumed) in one's voice. The interviewee in
addition observed the choice of genre depends on the artist. In addition, the tempo of the songs,
he adds depends on the Artist but the producer can advise based on the lyrics.

This is an acknowledgment that Artistic choices are Author centered and hence can be said to be
determined by the Artist based on the lyrics. The Advice the producers give can thus be construed
to be dependent on thematic concerns, according to the lyrics. There could thus be some
correspondence between the message in a song and an artist's manner of expression. Such a
relationship could define aspects of the shared knowledge that define the cognitive environment
within which the song operates based on the foreseeable premises the artists expect the listener to
operationalize as one infers the expected message.

Responding to a question on how the message and theme of a song may influence or fail to
influence the type of beat (Melody) a producer comes up with when an artist goes to the studio,
the interviewee observed that a music producer may not necessarily compel an artist on the themes
one can compose songs on, e.g. politics, love but based on the message one has written, and the
speed at which one wants to sing, e.g. fast or slow, but may only offer suggestions concerning the
message one has written. Based on the lyrics an artist has written, therefore, the producer can
advise the artist on the suitability of the tempo.

The context of the advice the producer is talking about in this case can be inferred to mean how
the producer thinks of the best and most probable pace at which the tempo can convey the intended
message. This can thus be said to be audience-centered, as he later observed. The manner of
singing therefore and the concerns the song addresses as evidenced in the style of enunciation and
expression can be said to be centered on; PERFORMANCE, CULTURE, ARTIST, and the
AUDIENCE. This is because these are likely to be the factors that can determine how an artist
may package one's MESSAGE and the accompanying MELODY as INFERENTIAL
COMMUNICATION. The song in this case can be construed as a Cultural discourse whereby the
manner of singing can be understood as the application of nuanced technique intended to convey
the intended meaning by invoking certain cultural contextual communicative ostensions. The
NUANCES in the voice can thus be thought of as cultural expressions. This begs the question, how
can this be studied and how can the literary meanings implied in an artist's voice be brought to

84
bear. Correct enunciation can in this case help bring out the meaning in a song. Besides tempo,
the interviewee observed that the lyrics and the message an artist has written can influence the
tempo which may be suitable for a song.

Offering further elaboration on the suitability of a melody that would accompany a given message,
the interviewee acknowledged that "music is about the feelings." This he explained as the
emotional attachment one (listeners) attach to the message. The observation is that there is some
type of message where one (artist) doesn't need to be fast because one wants the audience to
LISTEN not to DANCE. The intention and expectations of the artist on the one hand and the
expectations of the audience, on the other hand, are brought to bear. The style of singing can thus
be thought of as an ENACTMENT of particular EMOTIONS (and hence an instance of
dramatization using the voice) which is intended to convey the meaning associated with the lyrics.
Voice in this case can be thought of as a modality, from a grammatical context. This, however,
begs the question of whether the manner of enunciation can be examined as style in literature and
literary appreciation of song as an oral literary genre. The intentional manner of choosing/opting
for one style of expressing the intended meaning and not any other can be construed as an act of
DISAMBIGUATION in semantics and hence this can be said to be culture-oriented and message
specific.

He, in addition, acknowledged that THEMATIC CONCERNS, determine the nuances to be

worked upon during voice production. He implies that expectations are dependent on the audience,
society tends to relate to the ensuing theme. The Relevance one attaches to a song is contextual
and cultural oriented. He acknowledged the role of MESSAGE in determining how people respond
to music. The message, in this case, determines the Tempo among other composition techniques
whereupon there is music that listeners sit and listen to while there is music that attracts the
listeners to respond by DANCING. The composition techniques he observed depend on the
ARTIST and how one wants the audience to respond to one's music. I.e. one may tell the producer.
"I want this type of music". In this case, the nature of the message determines the choice of
BEAT i.e. the MELODY structure. The producer first listens to the song to get an idea of how it
flows. Depending on the MESSAGE and the THEME of the song he acknowledged that one can't
just come up with any BEAT. Giving an example, of a DIRGE, he observed that "one cannot
do/create a Dance beat (Boom boom boom) but instead this would call for a SLOW melody

85
that sustains the words to bring out the emotions of the supposed melody so that people can
listen and FEEL IT." This is an acknowledgment of the role thematic concerns play in
determining the PERFORMANCE, COMPOSITION, and WRITING especially depending on the
EXPECTED effect the song should have on the AUDIENCES.

He acknowledged the role of CONTEXT, MESSAGE, and AUDIENCE in determining the

relationship between meaning, thematic concerns, performance Techniques, and composition
practices arguably as CULTURAL PRACTICES. He, however, took a tentative stand on the
question as to whether during the production stage techniques such as EQ, volume, affect meaning
in a song. Invitation of the relative situation, in this case, can be because all songs are not the
same and therefore the product features may vary the effect they have on the audience, from song
to song. "That depends" were his words. Although he had acknowledged earlier the possibility
of the relationship between MESSAGE and the accompanying melody, the tentatively this time
can be a hint that this depends on specific features in a song.

The argument "what are the prevailing conditions that can lead to production techniques to have
these effects on an audience and vice versa?" can thence be advanced. For instance, how does the
EQ, instance, affect MEANING in a song? Although sound Technicians apply these features during
song production, does it then follow that they can explain and underpin the effect these features
have on meaning? The researchers' take us that although people can easily apply these features
even on an ordinary radio, few can apply these features it doesn't necessarily follow that they are
in a position to explain the meaning that results from the production techniques. This augment can
be evidenced by the long pause he took before responding to this question. Consequently, this
leads to the question so what?

Giving on the example of how people shake their heads as they respond to music, He
acknowledged and reiterated that to match the SOUND OF THE ARTIST, and THE BEAT i.e.
the voice of the artist and the accompanying melody, and THE MEANING, the artist should sing
(ENURUCIATE) a song with accordance to the expected effect (meaning) the song is supposed
to have on the listeners. This can be inferred or deduced as an acknowledgment of the role
CONTEXT, MESSAGE, AUDIENCES, ARTIST, QUALITY of ARTIST VOICE as TEXT and
EXPECTATIONS play in shaping composition and performance techniques. Giving an example

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of how people wake up, some prepare to go to work, others to school, and others to the farm, he
observed that a song should "REPRESENT THE REAL SITUATION." Arguably this
observation can be inferred to mean the LISTENING EXPERIENCE members of a given culture
tend to associate with the quality of a song. In this case, this can be inferred as the role CULTURE
play in determining the composition and writing techniques on one hand and inferential meaning
(as thematic concerns on the other hand. The voice of the artist, in this case, can be examined as
a reflection of SOCIAL REALITY and CULTURAL ACTIVITIES that define a people's way of life.
Arguably the role ORAL nuances play in shaping implied meaning (based on the theme of a song)
can be interrogated to bring to bear the role voice can play in shaping the meaning of songs.

While listening to the voice of the artist when he tells one "Go ahead and sing" he acknowledged
that the voice of the artist is key in determining the song voice production process. He observed
that in this case, THE TEMPO of the song is a major factor based on the THEME of the song. In
addition, the TONE, the MESSAGE, and the TIMBRE influence the melody accompaniment
which accompanies the voice. RHYTHM, in addition, is another factor that determines how the
melody is created. Using the sound ta ta, ta ta, ta ta, he demonstrated how rhythm influences the
flow of the melody.

The voice of the Artist and the manner of singing can in his context be thought of as an enactment
of drama based on the CHARACTER the voice simulates in the mind of the AUDIENCE. The
music-making process in this case can be thought of as a cultural process of enacting shared
values which the listeners can identify with as reflected in the voice of the artist. These can thus
be said to be the SHARED VALUES, thematic texts and experiences the music producers
appropriate in the attempt to answer the accompanying melody brings out the feeling and meaning
signified by the TONE, TEMPO, RHYTHM, & MESSAGE. The Oral nuances implied in the voice
of an artist in this case can convey the meaning which can be inferred as a result of the cultural
experience and knowledge one employs when listening to a song. This is the communication this
research referred to as ostensive communication. The CHARACTER as thematic text which the
voice of an artist suggests can be interrogated as evidenced in one's STYLE OF SINGING and
TIMBRE i.e. texture of one's voice.

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The interviewees thus acknowledge what the researcher observed as the major and minor factors
that determine the meaning that can result from the nature of an artist's voice and style of singing.
The major factors include ARTIST VOICE, MELODY (TUNE), THEMATIC CONCERNS
(MESSAGE) CULTURES, CHARACTERS, and TONE, TEMPO & RHYTHM. Ostensive
communication (OST) implied on one's natural voice and the character that is simulated in the
voice is dependent on culture and cultural ostensions which define the shared knowledge between
the Artist and the audience. The interviewee thus acknowledged that how one sings- as a system-
leads to the definition of the rhythm the producers adopt when making the best. The process of
making inferences of the meaning implied in the voice is dependent on the culture and prevailing
context within which both the Artist and the Audience define relevance drawn from the song.

When making the soundtrack (beat) the interviewee observed that this start with a demo. That is a
simple (trial version) or (draft). They then take the demo throughout the intended feelings that
characterize the message addressee in the lyrics. They do this by seeking positive criticism and
feedback from purposively sampled members of society. This may encompass potential fans,
children, old people, and club DJs. Using the analogy of cleaning a dirty shirt, he explained that
the Demo is then cleaned to a finished product based on the comments and the effect it had on the
people. The demo he said is just a frame which is then finished in the context of the lyrics. He
observed that part of the finishing involves balancing to ensure everything is in unison with the
voice of the artist to achieve the intended expression and aural impression. The lyrics (message)
thus determine how the voices of the instruments are contextualized and balanced. This can be
with reference to the explicit and implied meaning suggested by the lexical choices. The sounds of
the musical instruments are thus employed to complement and to qualify the expected
interpretations listeners are expected to bring to the listening experiences based on the message
conveyed in the lyrics.

The interviewee, in addition, acknowledged the role of editing and production processes to answer
the sound (voice) that meets the context of the song message. He also observed that the same work
you clean the beat; you must also clean the voice of the artist. This was deduced to mean a process
of editing, and balancing the voice for the best expression. This involves a process of
contextualizing the voice to ensure it ENUNCIATES the expected nuances that bring out the
intended MEANING. The control of the voice far best expression as the interviewee observed

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involves TWISTING THE VOICE A LITTLE arguably this is a process of tweaking the Tone,
High pitch, the low frequencies, and regulating the intonations. THE RESEARCHER
UNDERPINNED THIS AS AN ACT OF PRACTICING SEMANTICS WITH THE INTENTION OF
DISAMBIGUATION to tailor the voice of the artist towards the expected oral nuances/meaning.
This is a process of enacting performance where in addition the process of applying and
controlling the Equalizers, shapes the mood implied in the song. This can be read as MODALITY
in linguistics while from an oral literature perspective can be seen as a process of definition of
CHARACTER, which is implied in the voice of the artist. At the same time as evidenced in the
character that emerges, this can be sited as a process of DEFINING SOCIAL IDENTITY based
on the type and class of characters the artist simulates, enunciates, or enacts. The fate that befalls
the characters as evidenced in the song message and manner of representation, the researcher
observed can be contextualized as a process of practicing IDEOLOGY. This was because the
process of balancing and tweaking the voice is formed by how most people would expect a voice
of that texture to express and articulate the message in the song. The song production process can
thus be seen to be informed and to be characterized by CULTURAL DISCOURSES.

Moreover, the interviewee reiterated that the most important thing while mixing is to ensure the
song retains the reflection of the intended reality. This includes the reality of how the artist's voice
"sounds" that is how it depicts the intended message the author addresses in the song. When
editing the song, the sound technician, as the interviewee observed. "…you don't need to do and
lose the reality" Lose in this context can be inferred as the explicit and implied THEMATIC
ESSENCE that defines how the ARTIST and the target AUDIENCE tend to identify with the
message in the song. REALITY can stand for the SHARED KNOWLEDGE that characterizes the
EXPECTATIONS of the Artists and the Audiences which is implied in the song as inferential
communication. The context of the REALITY can thus be taken to mean that MUSIC is ARTIST
and CULTURE SPECIFIC. Depending on how one sounds, the interview observed that "…we
can do little tricks of people they can hear but not losing the message"

This can thus be inferred to mean that the voice in a song is message-centered (TEXT) oriented.
This relationship between the voice and thematic concerns/significance in the message. The sound
technicians who should not lose reality in this context (AS CULTURAL) can be cited as actors who
perform to meet the expectations of the target audience, and how the many can identify with the

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message the song addresses. The voice editing process as envisaged in the usage of the word trick
can imply and signify the STYLE in the voice as artistic devices. They therefore can be said to bear
literary relevance. The voice of the artist in this regard can be said to involve certain experiences,
in the mind of the listeners based on the message. The voice is thus a SONIC TEXT that can
ARTICULATE, HIGHLIGHT, IMPLY, SUGGEST, imply, IMPLIED thematic concerns. The
message implied in the voice can be examined by interrogating how the artist's voice reflects the
ensuring cultural themes, which the song addresses. The voice of the Artist as an agency can thus
be observed as the practice of identity.

With the application of voice using editing tools and techniques such as equalization, the
interviewee observed that the equalization process matters this is because, if the equalization and
other processes are not well done, "perfect" the music will distort. That is pass or express some
unpleasant sounds. Although the concept of distortion as expressed by the interviewee can be taken
to mean unwanted sounds, this can be inferred to mean manner of expression as evidenced on the
effect equalization changes the meaning discernible in audio. The researcher noted that the
application of EQ on voice can significantly affect the voice thus changing or modifying the OST
that a voice is capable of conveying. This research thus established that the equalization process
functions to DISAMBIGUATE the meaning by placing the voice within the context of the message
articulated in the song.

Although many voice production and editing processes are depending on the expected effect the
sound technician wants to create in the voice, the interviewee observed that based on how the
music sounds Tempo (speed) is the most important element. This is because the style-determining
speed of the songs and the melody can affect the message delivered. The researcher observed that
the word style in this case was used to refer to genres. In this case, the researcher noted that the
interviewee knows well what he was explaining but for the lack of the term "genre" in his
vocabulary. Wrong expressions, it was observed can lead to communication of a different
meaning. This can result from poor sound production techniques. As experiments on voice
revealed, the voice equalization process is similar to voice production using the speech organs.
The voice control process and editing techniques, this research observed can define CULTURAL
DISCOURSES, which inform how the technicians can operationalize cultural nuances that are
implied in a song. The researcher, therefore, noted that style of singing has a relationship to the

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message and thematic concerns an artist creates or articulates. Phonation techniques in this case
were observed to define discourses of negotiation. The types of negotiation permeated in oral text,
in addition, were seen to be characterized by; CLASS IDEOLOGIES, SOCIAL IDENTITIES,
GENDER PRACTICES, POWER PRACTICES, and concern for DISAMBIGUATION. The
interviewee emphasized that balancing the voice which is referred to as EQ is very important. He
emphasized; "It's very important!", "very"

Upon experimenting with the voice in the studio, the researcher observed that the EQ process
improves and polishes expression that EQ process improves and polishes expression because it
makes the phonation clear and thus the listeners can get the words articulated clearly. As a result,
the lexical message explicitly expressed becomes vivid. In addition, the researcher noted that EQ
polished (s) the implied meaning expressed in the oral nuances. This one was dependent on the
meaning that became vivid as implicatures. EQ, in this case, can affect the quality of the voice by
making it sound e.g. heavy, light, nasal, and as such the oral nuances infused by correct EQ
become a text whose meaning can be inferred based on the context and cultural experience the
listener employ when inferring implied meaning in the oral text.

The interviewee observed that if one is singing e.g. "Mary I love you" first, one needs to HAVE
A STYLE. And he reemphasized "you need to have a style of singing" Style in this case can be
interpreted as an artist's way of expressing meaning. How one sings can have a bearing on the
meaning one ends up expressing. The Role of Audience in determining how sound technicians
process the sound/voice of an artist. The interviewee reiterated that when editing the voice, the
STYLE OF SINGING is key and that an artist should have a style of singing. Style in this context
can be taken to mean a person's (artist's) unique way of EXPRESSING MEANING. This was
inferred from the interviewee's tone. An artist's STYLE thus becomes one's unique BRAND and
IDENTITY. The uniqueness that defines one's style of singing is not only communicative in nature
but in addition, can be said to be aesthetic in character. For the audiences to understand and
appreciate an artist's styles it must thus operate within particular ideological standpoints and
sensibilities so that the audiences can infer the meaning implied in a given style of singing.

How a style of singing can signify the meaning listeners can be inferred in the very style can thus
be interrogated. The MESSAGE and MANNER OF PRESENTATION are key in this regard. The

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manner, in this case, can be understood as an enactment of meaning where the voice functions as
a vehicle through which the expected meaning and values are passed from the artist to the
Audiences. The interviewee observed, that when singing "you cannot just say "Mary I love you"
He gave an example of a musician and mentioned Barry White saying, "the guy was like not
only singing but talking the voice was very bass but the guy was good"

The description of the voice as BASS in this context revealed that producers can think of how one's
voice sounds based on pitch and Timbre. He then followed the above observed with the comment
that "…so sometimes is like it doesn't matter how you sound" "what matters is the
message…" "And the way the producer is doing things to you" "…mastering your voice so
that the voice and the beat everything should come together"

From this, it can thus be observed that the message determines the audio production techniques.
In this regard, voice and the production process can be read as DISCOURSE MARKERS" on the
one hand. On the other hand, categorization of voice as Bass can be read as style and the
respective stylistic features can thus be examined and the resultant meaning inferred when the
voice is construed as sonic texts. The observation that the voice and the beat are mastered so that
everything should come together can thus suggest that studio techniques can be examined as
cohesive devices. In this context, the voice and the resultant nuances can be examined in terms of
the respective cohesive devices in operation and the resultants meaning that comes about as a
result of the respective aural devices. The cohesive techniques result from the manner of voice
modulation which functions as modality. Listeners in this context can infer meaning implied in the
oval nuances as ORAL MODAL EXPRESSIONS.

The researcher asked the interviewee if he thinks voice production can be taught at the university
and college levels. In response, the respondent said, "yes, it is teachable, but it depends on how
and what people they want." "How" in this regard can mean methodology or pedagogical
practices that can be put in place concerning the expected outcome from such teaching. The
statement "what people they want can be taken to mean "The target Audience," The objectives of
such training would be a major consideration. The expected outcomes of such recommendations,
therefore, e.g. a study on an examination of stylistic features implied in the voice of the artist,
performance, etc. can determine what the interviewee may have suggested.

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It, therefore, emerged that AUDIENCE defines a major consideration during songwriting. This
was in response to the inquiry if the audience plays a part in some of the considerations when
making a song. When writing a song, the interviewee using an analogy of a finger observed that
"when you are sitting down and writing the music "…" let's say like I am talking about ahh,
my finger "…" I have to think wide like ehh, this is a finger, everybody has a finger…"

This can be construed as the role of empathy and hence the role of contextual information that
defines the shared knowledge between the artist and the audience. Such shared knowledge
influences the shared values that determine the message an artist addresses on the one hand and
the possible encyclopedic entries audience can discern while making inferences as one listens to
a song. The interviewee observed that music is about feelings. He emphasized that music deals
with "inner feelings, inside feelings" with regards to feelings one must then make considerations
such as "how can I represent the experience someone has gone through?" So that the message
will be very touching to the listeners. The research observed that what is construed as feelings
when listening to a song involved a process of encyclopedic entries on the part of the listeners this
is because one feels because of associating the music with some experiences. This association
forms the cognitive processes through which listeners infer meaning in songs. On the observation
that "…when you sing about love song or whatever, you have to make sure the message will
be very touching to someone." On this observation, this research observed that this is a process
of contextualizing how other people are likely to relate to the message. The relationship that
defines how the artist and the audiences reflect and interpret a song becomes important in
determining the writing and recitation-rendition processes an artist employs, during rehearsals to
ensure that the song has the expected EFFECT ON THE AUDIENCES.

While THE TARGET AUDIENCE thus becomes prime in determining the songwriting and
rendition process, as evidenced in the description of how one would be sitting "listening and
listening to your music" the researcher observed, has the implication the song has since as the
interviewee acknowledged "what you have to do is that not that just singing and singing
because you have the voice to sing but you don't have the message". MESSAGE in this regard
can be understood as the MEANING expressed in the lexical choices both implied and explicit, on
the one hand, and the other hand, Oral nuances that result from the manner of expressing the
INTENDED MEANING. On the observation that "there's a lot of music you can listen but just can

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feel it… "they don't mean it" The factors that determine performance are thus underscored as a
determining factor that can define authenticity and the POWER TO CONVINCE the listener.
Arguably, this would have to do with the lexical choices as well as with how the message is
expressed. The researcher in this regard underscored this as the communicative ostensions that
influence how a listener can interpret the implied message and meaning in a song. The voice and
manner of performance, in this case, are observed to affect thematic concerns which a listener can
infer in an oral text.

The interviewee observed that a song should have lyrics and a strong message unfortunately for
some artists as the interviewee observed, the way they sound and the message are two different
things. The researcher hence observed that the interviewee was thus suggesting that "the voice
need to imply or bring out the implied meaning expressed in the lyrics" The interviewee's concern
hence about "feelings", was conceived as the place of mood and attitude as the resultant effects a
performance can have on the listeners. The voice according to the interviewee thus needs to IMPLY
or bring out the IMPLIED MEANING. Hence, the role of emotions in oral texts as cultural nuances
boar thematic significance. In this context, phonation practices can be analyzed as performance
and performance techniques. Arguably the implied meanings expressed in oral nuances reflect
CULTURAL IDEOLOGIES, SOCIAL VALUES, and hence their application in a rendition can be
deduced as PRACTICES OF THE SELF, that bear then value on culture and social-cultural
norms. PERFORMANCE and STYLES OF SINGING can thus be construed as PRACTICES OF
SOCIAL IDENTITY, and in addition as gender practices whose values can be underpinned in the
relevance, the listeners infer a song. The VOICE and manner of rendition in this context appear
to concretize the dissemination of the expected meaning suggested or implied in the text message.

The interviewee observed that once the beat is ready, the artist is given to go home and practice.
In this process, it can be surmised that the rehearsal aims to contextualize the voice to suit the
nature of the message. The interviewee observed that the song doesn't just happen but it must be
made to sound like the message. In this regard the song can be conceived in two basic contexts
these are message and the voice was upon the two complements each other. Rehearsals in this case
can be viewed as refining oral nuances that should characterize performances as evidence in the
enunciation process. It can thus be concluded that the voice function as a foil in its aural function
as a stylistic technique. This is because it serves to mirror the concerns of the artist as evidenced

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in the tone, intonation, and mood which the listener uses as encyclopedic entries when inferring
the implied meaning in songs.

3.2 Critical Review of Interview Responses from a few Literature Students of Dar-Es-
Salaam University

This section examines free responses three of the Literature students of Dar Es Salaam made with
regard to the explicit and implied meanings which they listen and infer in Bongo Flava songs. This
was a class of about 40 students. But due to the limitation of time and the fact that the students
were having other classes besides this session, the researcher video recorded the responses of the
three students as the others were filling the questionnaires. Although there are only three students
whose comments are captured in this section, the rest of the class was busy listening to the speaker's
comments. Consequently, those who did not have a chance to say something recorded their views
on the answers to the questionnaires in the section that follows this interview session. This group
of respondents was identified with the help of the department of Literature and particularly the
Chair of Department Dr. Eliah Mwaifuge. Most importantly this session aimed to examine the
hypothesis that Bongo Flava music bears implied literary meaning on the one hand and the other
hand that such meaning can be implied in the voice of the artist. This was in response to the second
objective, research question, and hypothesis of the research.

During the group interview in Dar-Es-Salaam University, the Literature students reported the
following with regards to Bongo Flaura songs the relation between the lyrics and the voice of the
artist. The interview helps in revealing how literary scholars infer meaning in songs as opposed to
musicologists and music producers.

3.2.1 First respondent

Giving an example of a song such as "Nataka Kulewa" (I want to get drunk) the respondent
observed that the tune that is selected has to communicate something about the message and theme
of the song. Not just any tune. It added that the song is about sad issues so the tune also has to
sound sad. He contrasted this with a song such as "Nana" The song "Nana" is about a happy
message and as a result the corresponding tune expresses a mood of joy and happiness. This relates

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were with the message of the song. The same applied to the dancing style where the artist dances
"Nana" in a happy and jovial mood as compared to "Nataka kulewa" The researcher thus observed
that the literature students would easily identify with the concept of MOOD and MANNER OF
PERFORMANCE and the role the type of message plays in a song in determining the tune, and
manner of performance. The message in this context determined the mode of expression (singing)
and performance) The MESSAGE THE TUNE, and MANNER OF PERFORMANCE were
observed to define the manner of composition and performance.

Regarding the role of Digital Sounds in Music production in Bongo Flava, the respondent observed
that there are a lot of issues that have to be in digital sounds. "One of them is the voice effects of
the performer" The researcher observed that in this context, the VOICE EFFECTS can be
conceived as AESTHETIC TEXTS and can thus be analyzed from a stylistic perspective to unveil
the literary significance they encompass. This can be based on the literary relevance audiences
attach to the voice effect. The respondent would however not cite such an example in Diamond
Platnumz songs. He observed that this was because "most often his songs contain the natural
sounds as opposed to some of the instances having a producer matching his feeling with that
of the singer." he observed that "there are certain digital maneuvers that are put in the beat
to communicate something else" This observation was in line with the observation made earlier
in a different interview by the music producer Haroub Msingala.

The respondent thus acknowledges that there is something extra that is communicated by the extra
digital effects applied to the voice. These would form partly what this study, would refer to as
"Phonic texts" which can be said to exist as explicating. The listeners can infer the implied
meanings in such phonic texts based on their contextual application. As the researcher observed
many respondents knew what they were talking about but lacked the adequate vocabulary to
express articulate themselves. The researcher noticed that while the university students articulated
thematic concerns with ease, they lacked adequate sound production vocabulary hence they opted
to use analogies, singing, gestures, tone variation, and facial expressions to explain the message
implied in Bongo Flava Bongo tunes "Communicate something else" this can be insinuation of
nuances and harmonies. The researcher arrives at this observation as a result of experimenting
with different sounds in the study. The music producer in the first interview had hinted at the role
of Tempo, Timbre, and EQ among other features which affect the communicative nuances that can

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be inferred in the voice. The researcher observed, that linguistics and literature students had an
idea of the extra meaning discernible voice but faced a challenge and concretely underpinning the
exact meaning they were able to infer in a voice. The researcher observed that this was multiple
challenges one of developing or having the ability to explain the respective VOICE Effects present
in a voice, two of the lack of ability to Pinpoint the site or source of the respective feature, and
three of ability to have the requisite vocabulary to differentiate voices (hues) shades and how their
different meanings can be explained.

This defined a web of semantic permeation as the relationship that characterizes morality,
performance, culture, members of a given society, and their commonly shared knowledge and
cognitive processes through which they can infer implied meanings in Oral texts. The role of
context and cultural experience was observed to influence a person's ability to infer implied
meanings in oral nuances on one hand and ability to articulate the particular meaning on the other
hand. In this regard, the researcher observed a recurrence of MOTIFS which defined how literary
scholars tended to differentiate and articulate meanings that they inferred invoice of the artist. As
the first respondent observed, "Majani na beat nzito, the beat is having an extra weight Dii
Dii, as opposed to other beat…Majani na beat nzito Boko records na zislow," "you can hear
that kind of beat, the heavy beat, it may be communicating something extra pertaining the
recording studio, and the musicality probably of the music the man is making" "The
producer avoids flags and tries to create sounds that identify them." On this observation, the
researcher noted that one characteristic feature of the voice play is the designation, the researcher
noted that one characteristic feature of the voice play is the designation of identity. This can be
cited in the following observation "we can talk of producers like Emanuota, the song that is
produced by Emanuota is having a particular digital sound that is supposed to be the sound
of the singer and you can hear it, something like, water running," in the tune "there's
something shwaaa that is added, that sound communicates something extra"

The expression of the sound ("shwaaa") is onomatopoeic and idiophonic on the one hand. On the
other hand, the sound functions to define an aspect of the artist's SOCIAL IDENTITY. However,
the interviewee did not explain further to show the use of the sound as an application of a stylistic
feature in literature nor did he interrogate the relevance that would be informing the artistic
choices. However, the observation that "that sound COMMUNICATES SOMETHING extra" was

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an indication that the respondent can detect some extra levels of meaning communicated by
VOICE CONTEXTS. This is what the researcher underpinned as NUANCES. The contextual
information inferred in the nuances calls for one's ability to make inferences based on contextual
information. If by listening to a song, one of the mental responses a listener gets is "the Artist"
person i.e. song by e.g. Manuota, it can then be argued that voice in this context serve to define
identities and social labels that are associated with the meanings listeners attach to a person's
voice based on the values one practices and propagates. This can be surmised as one of the effects
a person's voice has on the outer world. The meanings associated with a person based on their
actions thus form part of their identity and an aspect of how they practice being. Such values are
detected by others based on shared social-cultural values. The researcher thus begged the question
what values can we discern from the voices of the two artists under examination? And what
examples can we cite in their songs as evidence of the observations? And how can this be studied
and, documented how can it be. The Chief Contribution this research sought to make in Literature
as a discipline is to provide a means through which implied meanings in oral texts can be
examined. This can be a contribution to the existing knowledge and research methodologies in
Oral Literature and Theatre and Performance.

As the first speaker notes, "… the producer also plays with his sound especially in relation to
the artist in the sense that …. when it comes to back up vocals you find that there is a message
that is being highlighted." The researcher underscored this as an expression of the role
HARMONIES play not only in a song but also in ordinary oral speech. The speaker however did
not explain further the extra or other messages which he finds highlighted in the backup vocals.
In addition, no other member of the class furthered this observation. Consequently, the researcher
concluded that although the respondents could detect the possibility of extra layers of meaning
permeated in the voice they seemed to lack the capacity to explain how these meanings which they
sense, feel, and hear affect the meaning they find in a song. Arguably, this was because the
appreciation of literary relevance of meaning implied in harmony lines is not common in literary
criticism even though the song is one of the oral literature genres.

The interviewee in addition observed that there is some sort of emphasizing the message when one
person sings the main melody and another person sings the harmony. He added that the harmony,
in addition, adds some extra information that is missing in the main voice. He emphasized that

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"you can also have suggestions of extra meanings in the sounds, someone may be singing the
main voice and then there is an issue of other sounds." This was a key observation in this
research. This is because the researcher was after underpinning how the voice relates to the
message in a song. This is because different people talk in different keys to insinuate the meaning
one expects to convey thus this affects the oral nuances and their respective meaning. These are
instantiated as aural semantic triggers, and their significance depends on the images the voice
triggers in the mind of the listener. Such meaning as the researcher model bear significance based
on the meaning associated with the nuances as oral texts. As the first responded observed, "with
that kind of effect, the sound effect you find that there is some sort of emphasizing the
message, as well as putting some extra information that is missing in the main voice. You can
also have suggestions of extra meanings in the sound, someone may be singing the main song
and then there is an issue of other sounds, which are not the main part of the main song
because they are having the extra type of information." Despite this significant observation,
the researcher noted that the respondents were not able to go into deep details that could underpin
the meaning one infers in oral texts. Although they knew the meaning implied in the oral nuances,
they could not cite audio features present in a voice that are a result of how the artist employs a
variety of singing techniques. This leads to the creation of meaning that can be examined from a
stylistic perspective. Such meaning can be examined under the title: Literary meaning resulting
from phonation techniques in Bongo Flava Song. However, one can interrogate the naming
process of such meaning resulting from oral stylistic techniques. Example: Can such meanings be
named based on the semantic effect they have on an audience or, can this be named based on
speech organs and phonation regions responsible for their creation? Or, can they be named based
on the oral speech technique one applies?

This research opted for the procedure of naming the styles based on their semantic effects. This is
because it is the meaning that results from the voice that was relevant to the objectives of the
research. The speech organs are responsible for the creation of the voice but it is the manner of
production that shapes and differentiates the variety of meanings discernible in a text. The naming
of the stylistic technique can help us describe the manner of voice usage but does not help us
explain the meaning listeners infer in the voice. E.g. saying the artist is singing in C- major. This
doesn't help the literary critic underpin the resultant meaning. The audio effect as a result of the
consequences how it helps the audience to infer implied meaning is however of greater
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significance. I.e. the meaning that results from the manner of enunciation. This process could be
classified using terms and concepts employed to describe the expected effect of voice (sound) in
the film as sonic texts. This research thus resulted to mention of the phonation region and speech
organs for the explanation of how different audio hues (TONE TEXTURES) come about but chiefly
focusing on the meaning listeners associate with a voice as a result of their ability to infer the
meaning based on the expectations of the artist, manner of enunciation. The observation by the
first interviewee "…when it comes to back up vocals, you find, that there is a message that is
being highlighted.", however, the respondent did not name nor describe the message that is
highlighted further. The statement can thus be treated as an indicator that although literary
scholars, can detect the palpability of extra meanings that can be inferred in backup voices and
harmonies, there lacks an adequate method and procedure through which literary criticism of
songs can bring such meanings to bear.

The speaker in addition made the following observation; "…the producer also plays with his
sounds especially in relation to the artist in the sense that there is a song called ahh 'Fok fok,
fak fok' there is the backing of a fok (fox[mine]) as we know that ahh we usually make
repetition in order to create emphasis artistically, and this is one of the cases in African
poetry" As this comment shows, the voice of an artist contributes in the shaping identity
whereupon the reasoning informing a produced reasoning as one edits an artist's voice is based
on the cognitively shared knowledge that have most people would tend to interpret an artist voice,
inform, define and characterize the voice as an artistic discourse that is Audio in nature,
Consequently, voice in this context can be thought of, in the context of the ideological classes, that
define the meaning the artist and the audiences associate with the voice of an artist as a result of
how one articulates the message and thematic concerns which one addresses. The categories of
meaning which can be inferred from a song by different audiences thus can be said to define
aspects of social sensibilities which function to define the SOCIAL IDENTITIES of members of a
given class, of people which the artist represents. Voice in this case, in addition, can be thought of
from a GENDER PERSPECTIVE. This is in the light of how an artist presents members of the
opposite gender in how one talks or sings about them and how one presents oneself in the context
of the opposite gender function to reveal gender relations in society. Example Diamond Platnumz's
Portrayal of women in society as evidenced in the Oral nuances that characterize how he

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addresses the mother in the song "Nikita Kesho." Marlow's presentation of women in the song Rita
and Pii Pii respectively.

As evidenced in the previous interview with the music producer Haroub Msingala, the natural
voice of an artist the message that one chooses to sing about, and the genre of music that one sings
determine how the producer edits the voice and what aesthetic (styles) one can influence into the
voice during song production. As the first speaker in the group interview intimated, the repetition
of Fok Fok, fok, fok can be construed as a poetic device intended for emphasis. Although the
speaker did not expound on what is emphasized in this song by their repetition, the common can
serve as a pointer that literary students think of the messages implied in songs in the context of the
artistic and stylistic features which they have been taught. The same was observed in another
group interview of fourth-year literature students of Egerton University. If literature students can
thus be taught a criticism approach which they can use to critic literacy meaning. Implied in the
voice of the artist; the researcher argues; they will be able to explicate literary meaning implied
in the voice of the artist. The teaching of such a criticism procedure can take a stylistic approach.
This can contribute to the existing teaching of stylistics in literature, and literary studies.

The interviewee also observed that there are many studies some that are very advanced and some
that are in someone's bedroom, like his own studio. The sound equipment used in the production
thus influences the outcome of the voice of an artist. While the use of digital equipment is used to
edit an artist's voice and shape it for maximum semantic effect with regard to the message one is
addressing, other studios opt for analogue machines. Consequently, this affects the outcome of the
quality of one's voice. It can be argued in this context that music recording studies contribute to
shaping an artist's Audio sound identity on the one hand, and the other hand, contribute to the
existing social ideologies and social sensibilities. The texture of a voice that a studio craft for an
artist, thus becomes one's label which the audiences relate to and associate with the messages and
meanings an artist articulates in one's songs. In this case therefore voice as a text becomes not
only a means through which existing ideologies are articulated but in addition premises through
which new ideologies are propagated as evidenced in meanings and thematic concerns which
result from audio aesthetic techniques as PRACTICES OF IDEOLOGY.

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As the respondent observed, the sound effect results from how the sound engineering has been
done. As earlier observed, the researcher noticed that where the respondents happened to know
what one wants to talk about but happens to lack adequate vocabulary, terms, and concepts, the
respondents stimulate a strong or use an analogy to explain meaning implied in voice. This was
evidenced in the comment below where the term EQUALIZATION is what the respondent is
alluding to. "And if the song is heard someone develops an interest in that song because it is
attractive, it is audible, each and everything that has been used in that song is going to be
heard. And there is no collision of instruments and the vocal, there is no collision of
instruments and the vocal, there is also the merging of the fancy called "kunata and beat'
there is also the choice of melody." A good song is the one whose message relates to the
melody which the singer has chosen." As evidenced in the previous interview with the music
producer Haroub Msingala, the concern that the message in a song should relate with the
accompanying melody was a RECURRENT MOTIF. The observation by the first speaker that
"…failure to choose an appropriate tune or melody will result to someone having not appreciated
by fans." Insinuates the role of AUDIENCE in defining the RELEVANCE OF A SONG. The other
issue is whether the artist and the voice reflect the message; I have said ah think of love songs
as opposed to sad songs…" This is another motif where the relationship between the lexical
message and the accompanying melody emerged as a context that defines how literary scholars
tend to think of the relevance of the melody and the voice of the artist in a song. However, there
seemed to lack a clear-out method which the respondents employ to infer implied messages in the
voice in the context of the message in a song. The researcher thought that although music listeners
can infer implied meaning in a song's melody there seemed to lack a clear method through which
implied meanings in the voice can be examined from a literary and linguistic premise.

3.2.2 Second Speaker/Respondent

The second speaker observed that "you find love controversies, disappointments, breakups
also good endings and things like that. Therefore, THE TOPIC because PEOPLE
IDENTIFY THEMSELVES WITH THE TOPIC, and understand because they see
themselves as part of the song" While the first speaker chiefly responded to the relationship
between the lexical meaning in the message and the role the sound production plays to add extra
meanings in a song, the second respondent focused mainly on the lexical meanings and messages

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artists address in a song. This observation was very important because it re-emphasized the role
the MESSAGE, the AUDIENCE, and the SOCIETY play in shaping and influencing THEMATIC
CONCERNS which an artist address in a song. The shared social values thus the researcher
observed play a key role in determining the kind of messages an artist addresses. How one sings
to capture the expectations of the audiences as a result of thematic choices one addresses was key
to this research. In this regard, the researcher noted that the second respondent referred to manner
of singing as techniques intended to appeal to EMOTIONS. Citing the song 'Rita' the respondent
added that the song is a TRAGEDY since it is a love story that ends sadly with the demise of the
lady. The observation that the song is a tragedy reemphasized the earlier observation the
researcher had made that literary scholars tend to think and contextualize song interpretation in
the context of the already existing knowledge and generic categories within which literary
criticism is carried out.

The observation that the style of singing in the song 'Rita' appeals to emotions, in addition,
confirmed the observations made in the first interview with the music producers. EMOTIONS thus
appeared as a motif that characterizes how Artists, audiences, and music producers tend to infer
and relate the lyrics to the style of singing. The term emotions in this regard way, however,
according to the researcher a general term which was rather employed to signal something much
more than the audiences can infer in a song as a result of the manner of rendition performance in
this context defined a major motif through which the relationship between lyrics and melody in a
song can be explored. Unfortunately, neither the music producers nor the literary scholars
advanced the role of emotions in defining the relationship between the lyrics and thematic
concerns beyond this observation. Arguably, by touching his heart with one hand as he explained
the point, the second respondent reaffirmed the earlier observation which the researcher had made
that audiences and literary scholars result to giving a story or using an analogy to explain how
the voice of the artist influence how they inter meaning in a song. The researcher underscored this
as the role of CONTEXT and the role context plays in shaping the meaning artists imply in their
voice and which on the other hand the audiences can infer as NUANCES because of the
CULTURALLY SHARED NORMS AND VALUES which define the relationship between the artist
and the target audience and the target expectations which they all have in relation to THEMATIC
CONCERNS and their respective modes of articulation.

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Although there was enough evidence that there appears to be a significant relationship between
the message and the style of singing in Bongo Flava, the researcher noted that the respondents did
not concretely explain how the voice of the artist and style of singing was tied to the message in a
song. The researcher, therefore, concluded that although the interviewees lacked adequate
technical terms which they could use to explain the implied meanings which they infer in the voice
of the artist's lack of adequate vocabulary cannot be an indicator that such knowledge doesn't
exist.

In addition to the basic themes that Bongo Flava musicians address and the informing basis, the
respondent observed that, "…. The contribution of musical instruments, they modify the
songs, this compilation of beats, and things like that, they modify the song and make them
more modern. But I think THE ROOT IS IN THE TUNE, and the subject that they choose
to represent." Giving an example of the Nigerian songs, the speaker observed that, "… East
Africans understand them easily because they are just the same way as our songs. People in
E. Africa can dance because they are just the same way as our songs. I think that this idea of
simple tune as for African songs, they are simple in tune and almost the same, and I think
this is the secret Bongo Flava employs." This was a very significant observation in regard to
this research. This is because, although, the respondent did not explicitly expound on the
relationship between the message in a song and the role of emotions, his choice of an analogy and
use of a descriptive approach using Nigerian music and the concept of simple TONE was a great
pointer towards the manner of composition, songwriting, thematic concerns and the relevance the
audiences draw from Bongo Flava. Drawing from the speaker's explanation, one can ask the
question what is the relationship between East Africa and West Africa songs that led to the
respondent's observation that E. Africans respond to Nigerian music because it is similar to "our"
music. Upon further interrogations, the researcher observed that most east African Bongo Flava,
songs use a similar melodic structure. The artists in addition, as the speaker observed, address
common and almost similar themes such as Love, Relationships, Death, marriage, break-ups,
disappointments to mention a few.

The "simple Tone" which the respondent had referred to was thus observed to characterize the
simple Bongo Flava tunes, the chord progression, and hence the common way of playing musical
instruments can be said to become a CULTURAL PRACTICE through which the songs ENACT

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THE SITUATIONS which a given artist addresses. Consequently, the style of singing becomes a
PRACTICE OF IDEOLOGY through which the Bongo Flava society chooses to address social
issues. The style of playing the musical instruments and the resultant tunes with time become a
practice of performing meaning and enacting situations, the same way one reacts to real-life
experiences. On the understanding that simple tunes, can be used to sing happy or sad songs, the
researcher begs the question how does a song appeal to emotions? This is because the motif of
EMOTIONS was common in how the respondents described the relationship between the message
in a song and the style of singing. In this context the style of singing. In this context, the style of
singing and playing musical instruments as the enactment of situations and experiences can be
said to bear significance and relevance which the audiences attribute to a song. This is about the
respondents' observation that "… people identify themselves with the topic, and understand
because they see themselves as part of the song." In this case, the researcher observed that there
must therefore be a relationship between the message in a song, manner of singing, and the
probable manner of interpretation. The researcher saw singing styles thus as processes of
simulating situations based on how members of given situations and experiences. The respondent's
argument that E. Africans respond to Nigerian music because their music is similar to "ours" could
therefore be surmised to mean a similar way of composing songs to articulate similar thematic
concerns in a similar manner of composition and performance. Upon interrogation, the researcher
observed that the motif of TUNE that was common in almost all the previous respondents define
stylistic features of Bongo Flava's song’s, MELODIC PROGRESSION. The simple tine which the
respondent. The simple tune which the respondent may have alluded to this becomes a form of
SONIC EXPERIENCE which the artist and audience associate with the themes the artist
addresses. The style of singing hence becomes a way of practicing being, practicing one's ways of
representing oneself and representing others. Consequently, this defines cultural procedures of
defining and articulating GENDER PRACTICES as evidence in songs about love, break-ups,
marriage. On the one hand and definition and articulation of POWER RELATIONS and POWER
PRACTICES on the other hand as evidence din songs such as 'Nikamwaga Bear Yangu' which the
respondent mentioned. This thus becomes the Relevance Audience identifies with as evidence in
what the respondent may have termed of the ability of the young tans to see themselves in the song.
The song in this case reflects society. The message and the style of singing as the previous
respondent had noted determine AUDIENCE'S APPEAL.

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3.2.3 Third Speaker

The respondent observed that "the message a song announces" "if they are the same with the
audience's feelings they get interested" MOOD of the song and STYLE OF SINGING.

The researcher reemphasized the motif of EMOTIONS in his use of the word FEELINGS to allude
to the reaction a song invokes in the audience. In addition, he mentioned MOOD as a
consequential response that results from a song's message and manner of performance. The
speaker, in addition, alluded to the possibility of genre and generic categories of Bongo Flava on
the observation that Diamond and Marlow's style is soft. Soft in terms of weight, i.e. they do not
give audiences hard times to discover the intended meaning. The researcher noted that the
respondents, in this case, identify a song's thematic concerns in terms of simple versus complex
songs. In this regard, Bongo Flava appeared as a song whose message is simple and straight
forward according to the respondent. The mention of THE INTENDED MEANING drew the
researchers' attention towards the theoretical approach of the study. The observation that the
songs are simple was recurrent. Since the previous speaker had made a similar observation. The
speaker noted that "the simplicity of the weight is accompanied usually by the instruments;
instruments also do not communicate anything hard." "The simplicity of the style goes or
gives interest makes the audience to enjoy, since they enjoy the meaning" "The extent to
which the song reflects actually what is happening on the ground, the people, their society…"
"this one now they will see themselves, in the message that is communicated." "…the
relevance of the song, song's ability to capture the BODY with ATTENTION and the
STYLE… those are the factors to be considered if one was to analyze a song." This comment
signaled the importance of the Theory the researcher had opted to use for data analysis in this
research. The speaker in addition reiterated the role of AUDIENCE, MESSAGE, and a song's
ability to appeal to the audience based on STYLE of PERFORMANCE. Consequently, this gives a
song the ability to reflect the prevailing reality, and society. The speaker, however, did not expound
on how the style of singing and performance captured the mood of the audience although this can
be surmised to be what he was alluding to when he talked of INTERESTS, that make the audience
enjoy.

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3.3.0 Critical Review of Responses to the Research Questions from Literature Students of
Dar Es Salaam University answers to the Questionnaires

This section examines responses Literature students of Dar Es Salaam made with regard to the
research questionnaires, this is in addition to the interview above. This section aimed to examine
explicit and implied meanings which they listen and infer in Bongo Flava songs. The researcher
had foreseen that during the interviews some respondents tend to veer from the main objective of
the interview and end up giving a lot of information that is irrelevant in the context of the research
objectives. This section therefore, aimed as tailoring the respondents’ answers precisely to the
objectives of the research. This is a class of about 40 students but due to limitation of time and the
fact that the students were having other classes besides this session, only a few about 16 students
remained to fill the questionnaires. We took a lot of time listening to the previous respondents
during the interview and so we ran short of time. As earlier acknowledged, this group of
respondents was identified with the help of the department of Literature and particularly the Chair
of Department Dr. Eliah Mwaifuge. Most importantly, this session aimed to collect precise
information with regard to the research objectives in order to examine the hypothesis that Bongo
Flava music bear implied literary meaning on the one hand and the other hand that such meaning
can be implied in the voice of the artist. This was in response to the first and second; objectives,
research questions, and hypotheses of the research.

Consequently, the researcher collected data that was tailored towards investigating how literary
scholars infer meaning from the voice and melody in a song. The researcher in addition wanted to
examine the language and manner of articulation which the Literature students would employ in
explaining the literary relevance they discern from a song. The main concerns of the research in
this context was based on the fact that most Literature students are probably not grounded in
musicology and therefore may not be able to apply knowledge based on music and musicology to
explicate the meaning in a song, however, the research was strongly of the view that it does not
and may not necessarily follow that because they are not trained in music they do not infer meaning
implied in the melody and the voice of the artist. What is however not clear is how literature
students who do not have a musical background employ when discerning meaning from the voice
of an artist. The feedback to this section the research assumed would give a roadmap that can
clearly show the pattern(s) which literature students and people grounded in Oral literature employ

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when examining and inferring meaning when they listen to a song. This was in addition informed
by the very desire to confirm the hypothesis that literary scholars can infer literary meaning in
audio text of songs. The researcher despite the hunch wanted to hear from the respondents how
they go about inferring meaning in songs. The researcher formulated the objective of the
questionnaire into seven question of the questionnaire into seven questions each intended to dissect
various facets and assumptions that the melody and the voice of the artist bear literary meaning
especially in Bongo Flava Songs. As it will be seen below, the researcher identifies the main
concerns that seem to define how the respondents think about meaning implied in the voice of the
artist in CAPS. This is intended to help the reader follow the steam of thought that define the
encyclopedic entries the respondents apply as they infer meaning from the song and most
particularly, from the voice of the artist.

Although the research employs relevance theory to examine implied meaning in the voice of the
artist, the researcher operated on the concerns that a theory and its respective tenets cannot be
forced on the respondent's way of perceiving meaning in oral literature. The researcher's fidelity
is therefore to report as faithfully as one can for the reader to see how the relevance listeners draw
from the song emerge from the data and from the confessions of the respondents in the most natural
way. The task of the researcher in the comments in each of the responses is to critique the responses
to underpin the relevance that listeners accrue from the songs based on the listening process and
as a result of the knowledge the listener brings to the listening and meaning making process as a
procedure of deriving relevance. The researcher has therefore put in UPPERCASE LATTERS
terms and concepts which the researcher has noticed that appear to define the elements of thought
that each of the respondents appear to be operationalizing, as one responds to how they infer
meaning from the audio text of the song, and the voice of the artist. In summary, in the following
responses one will notice the emergence of the following codes, terms or concepts as motifs;
AUDIENCE, INFLUENCE, SCENE, THEME, EMOTIONS to mention a few. The research has
however, kept the comments minimum in this section, since this chapter chiefly is a reporting of
the research results. The in-depth criticism of this the results will follow in the next chapter titled
discussion. This is because the prime aim of this chapter is to establish the main features that define
the encyclopedic entries listeners appropriate and employ when inferring meaning from a song.
As earlier observed, the term cognitive effect in relevance theory can be understood to mean the
final meaning that manifest in a listener's mind as a result of imputing certain communicative
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factors into consideration. The factors that determine the relevance a listener attaches to an
utterance is what the theory referred to as encyclopedic entries. Arguably, although it may be
permissible that listeners infer meaning from utterances, it may not be clear and therefore it
remains hypothetical the process music listeners such as Bongo Flava fans employ when listening
to songs. It is for this reason therefore that this chapter seeks to establish facts based on the speakers
own confessions of the most probable patterns they employ when inferring meaning as they listen
to a song. Establishing such patterns which listeners employ can be important since they can aid
in underpinning the features that govern and determine the meaning making process most listeners
appropriate as the listen to a song. Such features and procedures can help in assessing the strengths
and weaknesses of given conclusions which listeners arrive at in their song criticism processes.
Arguably, if the strength or weakness of an argument of meaning one underscores is to be based
on the process that lead to how it was arrived at. The few comments in italics in this section are
only to give the reader hints on key observations, which the researcher makes as he transcribed
complied the data. This is because the full analysis of these results will be the key focus of the next
chapter.

3.3.1 Question One

What role would you say the voice of the musician play in shaping how you interpret implied
meanings in the songs? This question aimed to investigate the criticism through which literary
scholars especially students employ when inferring Literary meaning in the voice of the artist.

Yohana Mung'aya

The voice INFLUENCES the LISTENER to FEEL the REAL SITUATION within the song.
"Nataka kulewa" THE VOICE IN THAT SONG AROUSE THE LISTENER'S EMOTIONS
regarding CHEATING IN RELATIONSHIPS.

Elias Godfrey

"The role played by the voice of the musician is to drive out the feelings of the listeners." For
example, in the song "Kwanini" The artist, Diamond, sings as he says, "Usione nalia, moyoni
naumia" with strong feelings. These feelings are to show how an artist diamond is pained by

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the love. Also, in the song, sorry sana" Marlow has sung with strong feelings. He sings so, due
to his sorry to his lover. The motif of THEME (purpose) in this regard emerge as a major factor
that determine the manner of singing, arguably to create the intended meaning in the minds of the
listener.

Sagire Josephat

The voice of the musician plays a potential role as it makes a reflection of portrayed issue in
bringing up the implied. This brings to bear the following codes as motifs: Tension, Movement
(plot), Meaning, Sense, Attention, Interest.

Masanjala Tangu

The musician’s voice works on creating audience's tension and moving them with song's meaning.
The Voice captures my attention hence interest on making sense of the song. Again, this this
case theme appears to be a major contributing factor that influences the meaning the listener infers
from a song.

Ibrahim Nyeura

How they sing suggest THE MEANING THEY INTEND. Their voices make the
audience/listener feel pity, sad, romantic etc. However, he did not, explain how he can infer
these MOODS from their voices.

Ruth N. Nzegenuka

Voice of any musician bring uniqueness for example, I can identify Diamond through his
voice. Consequently, this spells the role of voice in defining social Identity as a theme in this
context.

Zablon Peter Chacha

The voice of the musician indeed plays the rule in shaping how you interpret implied
meanings in the songs because the he or she sings by using his or her voice reflects, the

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meanings of the song concern. Example song of Marlow known as Rita voice interpret
implied meaning.

The Respondent in this case confirms one of the hypothesis of the research. However, he did not
explain concrete how his able to infer implied meaning from the voice of the artist. The researcher
in this regard observed that while most people are able certainly to infer implied in audio texts
such as voice few can explain the process through which the arrive at the meaning they infer in
texts. Probably because there seem to lack such a methodology in literature and literary criticism.
Based on this comment, Audience, Theme, Mood, Tension can be underpinned as motifs that
characterize features of the voice of the artist which a listener appropriates when inferring the
implied meaning.

Salehe Hamadi Salimu

Diamond Platnumz song "Utanipenda" The VOICE OF THIS SONG CREATES

ATTENTION to the reader about the CONTENT. For example, TENSION about
economically affect related to LOVE AFFAIRS hence show SAD VOICE to INTERPRET
TRUE LOVE. The researcher noted that literary scholars tends to use adjectives to describe the
inferential meanings which they find implied in the voice of the artist. The voice shows content
situation or event for example LOW VOICE used to console others, like her mother as
character within the song. Song in this context bear Autobiographical texts as evidenced in this
song where the artist is not only addressing the mother as the Addressee and a subsumed character
in the song, but in addition reflects a reality of his life. Although the researcher aimed at
underpinning concretely how listeners infer literary relevant meanings in the voice of the artist, it
was slowly emerging that Although listeners can infer implied meaning in the voice of the artists
none is capable of explaining the implied meaning beyond the use of adjectives to describe mood
and tone and the respective meanings conveyed based on the MESSAGE and TUNE.

Makonda Mihambo

The voice of the musician helps the listeners and audiences to understand which message the song
portrays e.g. the voice determines whether the message presented is about either LOVE or implies
HAPPINESS. This observation DISAMBIGUATES between explicit message that is stated in the

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lexical choices and message implied in manner of rendition. We can thus construe the thematic
concerns present in a song as a result of TRIGGERS and CONSEQUENCES as characteristic
processes that define the process of making inferences. For example, Diamond song "Lala
Salama." The voice determine that the artist is in love, having deep love with someone, (added the
respondent).

Spemba Spemba E.

The voice of the musician ATTRACTS ATTENTION for one to listen.

John Lameck

"Note this: most Diamond songs are about love issues thus the voice is harmonized
romantically."

Robbin Evince Richard

The ORGANIZATION OF TONE as whole, raising and falling of Tones, used by the artists add
credibility to Marlow. Although the respondents appear to have a grasp of the role of TONE and
INTONATION he appears to lack concrete way of explaining how the voice of the artist help him
to infer implied meaning in the voice of the artist.

William Baraka

The voice of the musician helps send the impeachable MESSAGE CLEARLY. For example, a
song such as "Rita" by Marlow IS EMOTIONAL through the voice of the singer and hence pass
the INTENDED MESSAGE. This is a hint that through the voice of the artist the respondent can
infer, inferential communication conveyed as ostensions in the voice of the artist.

Another song is "Nikifa Kesho" by Diamond the voice is sympathetic and hence arouses
EMOTIONS AND DEEPER MEANING. The responses however show that respondents didn't
explain how they are able to arrive at the meaning they infer in the voice of the Artist. Another
observation we made is that the respondents used adjectives e.g. romantic, sad to explain the
meaning they get from the voice. This however need a better explanation from a stylistic
perspective since the adjectival approach way only descriptive. The variations in responses

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depends on the encyclopedic entries a listener attaches to the voice and the experiences a songs
voice invokes in one's mind. Inferences they are context dependent and audience specific.

3.3.2 Question Two

Do you think the way Bongo Flava artists play the music instruments help in shaping the possible
meanings the song conveys? (Yes/No). Explain your answer in a few words. This question aimed
to investigate how literature students appreciate the meaning conveyed or implied in the voice and
melody of musical instruments. These responses the researcher thought would assist in pinpointing
the sensibilities literary scholars associate with the message in a song and the role the musical
instrument play in complementing the meaning one can discern from the voice of the artist as
probed in the first question. Theme, Audience, Favour(entertainment), Visualize (Drama),
emerged as major motifs that characterize the relationship between the relationship listeners find
existing between voice of the artist, the voice of musical instruments and the ensuing message in a
song.

Yohana Mung'aya

Yes, the musical instruments add flavor to the musicality of the song. For example, Marlow's
song "Pii Pii" where the musical instruments and the grasping of meaning in the way the
help a listener visualize his struggle on the traffic jam to head to the place of appointment.
MODALITY, MOOD, AUDIENCE, FEELINGS can be underscored as emerging codes and as
motifs in this regard.

Elias Godfrey

Yes, for example, Diamond Platnum in the song "Lala Salama" the beat is drawing feelings.
Since, there are various musical instrumental: instruments imbedded in that draw the
feelings of the listeners. EMOTIONS, MOTIVATION, AUDIENCE, DIRECTING can be
underscored as emerging codes and as motifs in this regard.

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Sagire Josphat

The musical instruments HELP VERY MUCH as they BRING about EMOTIONS,
FEELINGS and motivating the musician and the audience. Also they help in DIRECTING
the musician in track. TRIGGER, INTEREST, OST, MESSAGE define major motifs in this regard.

Masanja Tangu

Yes, especially when they STRIKE TO MY SENSES. The musical instruments normally
awaken MY INTEREST to know what the song communicates. The respondent however does
not explain how the instruments aid in his understanding of what the song communicates.
AUDIENCE, ATTENTION, HOOK, LISTENERS can be cited as emerging codes and as motifs in
this regard.

Ibrahim Nyeura

They capture the attention of the listeners hence to listen to the song.

Ruth N. Nzegenuka

Yes, music instruments develop FEELINGS to LISTENERS. Develop MEANING

INTENDED. On the understanding that the music can infuse feelings in a listener, this can be
construed as ability to yield POWER over or on the listener. The ability of the music to develop
meaning in this regard can be construed as an act of DISAMBIGUATION this is on the
understating that it can create one meaning and not another, in this context the song is conceived
as a cultural discourse. POWER PRACTICE, and DISAMBIGUATION can thus be seen as
emerging codes or motifs.

Zablon Peter Chacha

Musical instruments may help in shaping the possible meaning however, it is not for all songs.
For example, the song "listen" by Belle 9 Ha used musical instruments which helped in
shaping the possible meaning. PROBABILITY, DISAMBIGUATION, SHAPING MEANING in
this context emerge as part of the role the voice of musical instruments play. The respondent did

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not however explain how the musical instruments are able to do this. However, cannot explain his
Response.

Salehe Hamada Salimu

Yes, musical instruments are used according to the meaning. For example, in Marlow's
'Rita', the beat was very low compared to the content, that a singer was in sad situation about
his wife's death. So you cannot dance. MEANING, MOOD, SAD (ADJECTIVE). Emerge as codes
and as motifs defining the role musical sound partly play in shaping meaning.

Makonda Mihambo

Yes, the musical instruments help in shaping the possible meaning the songs, convey. For
example, the Diamond songs like "Ukimuona" and Nikita kesho", implies the contents of the
songs because the way they are organized show that the artist is in such situation. Context,
Theme, Drama (situation), Meaning can thus be seen as emerging codes or motifs in this context.

Spemba Spemba E

Yes, the artistes' voices most often reflect what is sung. THEME, REFLECT can thus be seen
as emerging codes or motifs in this context.

John Lameck

Yes, the musical instruments of Bongo Flava artists are made in a way that the sound goes
with the message conveyed. The music produced are romantic however not exactly compared
to very known romantic songs of the Westlife. MEANING, COMPLEMENT, DESCRIPTIVE,
THEME can thus be seen as emerging codes or motifs.

Robbin Evance Richard

Yes, it's true that the musical instruments help in shaping the possible meanings of the song
conveyed for instance. Diamond as an artist the song called. Mbagala there was the balance
between the voice of a musician and the musical instrument used, such situation leads TO
EFFECTIVELY CONVEYING of the MESSAGE. But this aspect is much dependent on a

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musician. It is not the factor for the whole musician. SHAPING, MEANING, BALANCING,
EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION (OST) can thus be seen as emerging codes or motifs.

William Baraka

No, because some song's instruments don't match with the message. For example, the song
"Moyo Wangu" by Diamond. The instruments are in a partying pattern but the singer is in
lamentation. "Mawazo," Nikifa kesho" by Diamond. The researcher was able to observe that
twelve out of the thirteen respondents affirmed that they relate the voice of musical instruments to
the message in a song. They however did not explain step by step how they are able to infer the
meaning they find imbedded the song melody of the musical instruments. As the justification of
this research suggests therefore, this research intended to provide a practical method through which
literature students can infer, explicate and articulate the meaning implied in the song voice, may it
be the voice of the artist or music instrument.

3.3.3 Question Three

Would you say the style of singing influence the message conveyed in the song? Following the
responses in question one and two, this question intended to examine if literature scholars do think
of voice and melody in songs from a stylistic perspective. And if they do the responses will help
examine how they approach the criticism process of examining voice and meaning that can be
implied and inferred from an artist's style of singing.

Yohana Mung'aya

Yes.

Elias Godfrey

Yes, the style of singing influence the message delivery, since the style attract certain artists
to be celebrated Example: Diamond Platinum has a style of crying while singing a chorus
and repetition of chorus. This style facilitates message delivery. Also Marlow uses the words
like pii pii, to show his creativity. The following codes or motifs appeared to characterize how

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the respondent appeared to infer meaning from the style of singing. MANNER, DELIVERY,
MODE, TECHNIQUE, CRYING, REPETITION, MESSAGE, CREATIVITY

Sagine Josephat

Yes, it does, the style ILLUMINATES the TASTE of the INTENDED MESSAGE ACTING AS
the TRANSFORMATION OF WORDS INTO REALITY. The following emerge as codes or
motifs that define how the respondents the encyclopedic entries the respondent appropriate when
inferring meaning in the song; INTENDED MESSAGE, ILLUMINATES, REALITY, TASTE.

Masanja Tungu

Yes, it does. Style such as that used by Diamond and Marlow are soft-and this gives the
MESSAGE and EMOTIONAL TONE of MEANING. As evidenced in this observation the
manner of singing can be tailored to favour a given manner of interpreting the expected meaning.
The soft manner the respondent alludes to as opposed to hard, mild, rough for instance is an
adjectival description arguably of purpose intended to shape the context within which the listener
identifies with the message in the song. In this regard, in can be observed that the following emerge
as codes or motifs that define how the respondents the encyclopedic entries the respondent
appropriate when inferring meaning in the song. DISAMBIGUATION, SOFT (DYNAMICS),
MESSAGE, EMOTIONAL TONE.

Ibrahim Nyeura

Yes. This was a straight forward ACKNOWLEDGEMENT but the respondent did not support his
claim with examples of further elaborations.

Ruth N Nzegenuka

It does because every artist designs HIS OWN STYLE to COMMUNICATE MESSAGE to
LISTENERS. STYLE helps to IDENTIFY the ARTIST. This observation can lead to the following
codes as motifs; DESIGNS HIS OWN STYLE, OST, MESSAGE, STYLE, IDENTITY. Purpose to
communicate the intended message in this case is identified as a major factor that determines the
style of singing. Consequently, style in this case can be identified as a factor that leads to
construction of identity.
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Zablon Peter Chacha

In some cases, the style of singing MAY INFLUENCE THE MESSAGE CONVEYED in the
songs, he or she may USE DIFFERENT STYLES OF SINGING so as to INFLUENCE THE
MESSAGE CONVEYED in the songs. As evidenced in this observation the respondent is tentative
arguably to mean the style of singing may or may fail to influence the message conveyed. Arguably
this may depend on the individual listener and the listening experiences one brings to the song.
The LISTENER, and the CONTEXTUAL INFORMATION one brings to the song can be cited to
be key to a song's ability to influence the message based on the style of singing an artist employs.
Generic categories as contextual information and the reason as to why an artist opts for a given
style of singing may be known to the listeners, hence forming the shared knowledge between the
artist and the listeners. The cognitive effects such a listener will infer from a song can be informed
by the shared knowledge between the listener and the artist. A listener who doesn't have the same
knowledge on the other hand, may not get the same implied meaning in this regard. CULTURAL
EXPERIENCE, and CONTEXTUAL INFORMATION, informing choice of GENRE, and SUB-
GENRES as STYLISTIC CHOICES, in this regard can be said to define the style of singing as
implicatures chiefly employed in Bongo Flava to pass contextual information. In this context, the
style of singing can be used to close out some members of the society who do not share in the in
the cognitive environment that bears the contextual information implied in the song. This can be
cited as a practice of style to code meaning. The practice of coding meaning in this case can be
said to be a practice of power over the listeners by the artist in that one has the power to control
the level at which different listeners can access different layers of meanings implied in the song as
encompassed in the style of singing. This may not only be specific in Bongo Flava, but the same
was reported in Mahugu (1990). Haroub Msingala in addition, made a similar observation that
some songs do while others don't. The LISTENER in this context appear to be a significant factor
that determine the meaning a song conveys based on the style of singing. The following motifs thus
emerge as key factors that determine influence the ability of style to convey the message.
LISTENER, OST, CONTEXT, DISAMBIGUATION. Disambiguation in this context applies in the
context that a certain fraction of the target listeners may infer the purpose informing why an artist
is appropriating a certain and not the other. Stylistic choice at performance level appear to
ostensibly inform the listener "I am suggesting this meaning, not this meaning". This is evident in
most African songs where Oral Nuances as style is appropriated to suggest implied meaning,
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which may close out those who may not understand the reason informing appropriation of certain
oral nuance in songs. As noted in Relevance Theory, CULTURE, is key in determining a listener's
ability to infer the meaning implied in a style of singing. If one listener can see the relationship
between the style of sing and the message in a song, and another listener fail to see such
relationship, the song is therefore not the problem nor the style of singing but the encyclopedic
entries (Cultural Knowledge) each listener is appropriating in their endeavour to infer implied
meaning. Style of singing in this context is a site for meaning creation and the performance space
a site for meaning permeation. A good example is Marlaw, the, he sings by using different style
of singing. As this respondent observed, Marlaw uses different styles, arguably to code, and to
conflate meaning as explained in the next chapter. Notably, some of the implied meanings in
Marlaw's songs are highly political, addressing serious themes such as racism in the society, in
spite of the fact that the style of singing camouflages the sensitivity side of the sharp criticism of
society by alluding to mild love and romance nuances that mask the implied meaning. Ultimately,
appropriation of style in this context can be cited as a practice that is appropriated based on class
of people in the society and their ability to infer various levels of meaning depending on their
background, race, culture and ideologies.

Style in this context can be said to encompass masking techniques arguably intended to address a
particular choice of audience based on the shared norms and values, the given class of audience
ascribe to in their shared knowledge which they appropriate in their inference making process
which they use to infer the implied meanings conveyed in a given style of singing. It can thus be
argued in this regard, that style is tied to particular meaning which it is expected to represent and
that such meaning is subject specific and particular to a given target audience. The ability of a
given style of singing to include a certain class of people as the target audience on the one hand,
and the ability of the same style to exclude others can thus be construed as a practice of identity
that is very subsumed and concealed and the practice of the same on the other hand. A style of
singing in this regard can be said to bear symbolic value and meanings specific to particular
context. A style of singing in this regard is an act of performing meaning explicitly and by implying
at the same time.

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Salehe Hamadi Salimu

Yes, because you can't dance within the sound while you blaming or pleasing somebody to rescue
on something but you can use this style in pleasure songs as used in Diamond's songs', Gongo la
Mboto and Bum bum respectively. As evidenced in this comment, it can be seen that style in songs
is related to the PURPOSE or function an artist intends to fulfill when one sings in a given style.
This however, as the respondent observed, cannot stop the same style from being used in a different
context. As the respondent observes, the style of singing Diamond Platnumz and Mrisho employs
in the song Gongo la Mboto is to appeal to the public to come to the rescue of the victims of the
bomb blast that left many homeless, dead, injured, as a result of the calamity. The appeal to pity
in the song is explicit as evidenced in the mourning and crying tone in the voice of the two artists.
However, as the respondent argues, the same style of singing can be used in a song that bears a
different message. A style of singing can be responsive to the message in a song but not necessarily
rigidly tied to only that one kind of message. The interdependence between the message and style
of singing in a song does not however, tie or limit styles of singing to particular messages. Purpose
as the respondent observes appear to be the chief factor that govern stylistic choices in songs.

Makonda Mihambo

The style of singing INFLUENCE THE MESSAGE CONVEYED in the songs in the sense that
the STYLES used by the artist DETERMINES THE MESSAGE, AND THE ATTITUDE OF THE
ARTIST. For example, in Marlaw's song 'Rita' shows the sorrowful situation or condition. From
this comment, INFLUENCE, MESSAGE, STYLE, ATTITUDE, emerge as major motifs that
determine the meaning a style of singing can create in a song the lyrics not to withstand.
Unfortunately, the respondent did not expound on HOW, style influences the message conveyed.
Giving an example of the song Rita, and sighting SORROW, SITUATION, and CONDITION, can
be inferred to suggest that the style Marlaw used in singing the song Rita, invokes the sorrowful
condition of the persona, the situation of mourning and the condition of the persona in the minds
of the listeners, although this is an interpretation of the researcher, with a view to make sense of
what the respondent meant. In addition, the respondent's perception of the term message, in this
regard, appear to allude to the implicature of the meaning an artist implies as a result of one's
style of singing. This observation can be arrived at since it appears to suggest that the respondent

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is not referring to the transcribed text in this case. This is because the transcribed text can convey
meaning independent of the manner of singing. The usage of the term MESSAGE in this case does
not refer to the transcribed message but to the meaning that comes out as a result of the message
and the style of singing. Message in this context is therefore treated as a referent pointing at
perspectives which the style of singing brings to bear based on the ensuing message. This
observation can thus lead to the conclusion that a style of singing can be a form of
DISAMBUGUATION, where upon it suggests to the listener a given meaning and interpretation,
which the artist appear to expect the listener to attach to the song as one identifies with the
relevance the artist expected to address. The respondent's argument thus appears to suggest that
manner of presenting the message determines the meaning a listener infers from a song.

Spemba, Spemba E

Yes, singing as opposed to rapping is essential element in communicating message. Example the
singers in relation to love message and rapper most often are harsher. To mean singing as opposed
to rapping in love songs is construed to suggest gentle way in which the message is conveyed.
MESSAGE, COMMUNICATING, THEME can thus be cited as motifs that determine how the
listener infer meaning from a song. Although it can be argued that there are love songs that are
in rap form, the respondent appears to suggest that love songs could be more appealing to him as
compared to rap songs because rap songs are harsh. CULTURE in this regard can be cited as a
major motif that determine the appreciation patterns of different music genres. One can argue that
what the respondent suggests may not necessarily follow based on the context that would inform
the composition and performance of different songs. However, his opinion remains valid based on
the context within which he is operationalizing taste and appreciation patterns which he brings to
the listening experience. The musicality in singing, in Bongo Flava music appreciation practices,
can be said to be favored more that rapping although this is a biased sample assumption because
it is only based on this comment. The mildness in singing as opposed to the harshness in rap music
thus appear to suggest that the THEME for instance love can influence the suitability of a style of
singing. Based on this comment, one can therefore ask whether the process of attaching relevance
to style is a practice of subjectivity, and if yes to what extent can it be reliable in underscoring
meaning on the one hand, and on the other hand, if the same practice of subjectivity characterizes
the mode of perception for members of a given society, what would this reveal and purport of their

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shared values. If the assertion by the respondent doesn't necessarily follow as a fact, to what extent
does such a perspective and as a perception not only reveal possible weaknesses that could
determine the ideological practices within which such audiences operate? The TARGET
AUDIENCE and the THINKING PATTERNS that characterize there meaning making process in
this case can be cited to be key in determining the implicatures an artist suggests in one's STYLE
of singing.

John Lameck

The STYLE CHOSEN by these BONGO FLAVA ARTISTES are DIRECTLY INFLUENCING
THE MESSAGE CONVEYED IN THEIR SONGS. For example, the way Diamond sings and
even performing his songs which are mostly about love affairs the style of singing corresponds
with the topic of his songs. Although the respondent does not support the comment with
illustrations, he appears to affirmatively confirm that there is a relationship between the massage
in a song and the style of singing. Unlike the lexical meaning explicit in the song's text, the message
Bongo Flava fans infer from the songs appear to be dependent on the style of singing an artist
employs. Arguably, this can be underscored as the role of aesthetics in determining implied
meaning in a performance. Contextual information that is thus permeated in the performance can
be cited as key in determining the meaning listeners infer from a song. INFLUENCE, SING,
PERFORM, STYLE, CORRESPOND, TOPIC are major motifs that characterize the features that
a listener may operationalize in this context to infer implied meaning in songs.

Robbin Evance Richard

It's TRUE that the STYLE of SINGING MAY INFLUENCE THE MESSAGE CONVEYED ON
DIFFERENT ASPECTS e.g. a musician SINGS SLOWLY and adheres to the rules of RAISING
and FALLING of tones. It is easy for each conveying of the message compared to those who sing
LOUD and FAST it is possible for an individual to miss the intended message by the musician.
Can it be true and probable at the same time? This comments asserts that it is true that style
influences the message conveyed in songs. This would thence invite the question how. The
respondent elaboration alludes to the role of prosody which arguably forms a KEY aspect in
ostensive communication. Based on the objectives of the research, it can thence be said that the
congruence of the responses regarding the role of style in message permeation, may no longer be

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a contested issue but a fact as far as Bongo Flava is concerned. The significance listeners associate
with the style of singing in the inference making process would however remain, the central
concern. That is, what is it in the rising and falling tone serve to constitute meaning? Arguably,
his may lead to the role of NUANCES, TONE, and INTONATION, as key elements that would
determine implied meaning in style of singing. MESSAGE, CONVEYED, ASPECTS, TEMPO,
INTONATION, DYNAMICS can thus be cited as major factors that determine the meaning
listeners infer from songs.

William Baraka

CERTAINLY, because what one sings and wants to convey should match with the style. For
example, it can be a MOURNING and GRIEF message and then you use a PARTYING or
clubbing styles. E.g. Marlow's song 'Rita' is a SORROWFUL MESSAGE INTENDED and its
STYLE CORRELATES. SOFT VOICE. Based on this observation, the THEME of a song can be
central in determining the style an artist may use when expressing a given message. MESSAGE
CONVEYED, WANTS MATCH, STYLE, CULTURE, THEME, CONTEXT, EXPECTATIONS,
DYNAMICS emerge as key factors that may determine the style of singing an artist may
appropriate in order to cause the meaning the listener expect based on the genre of the song. A
dirge in this case may not be sang in a jovial way according to the respondent. Arguably this may
be cultural specific because there could be other cultures where a "clubbing" dance mood can
define a dirge as a cultural practice of mocking death. The mention of grief, and the allusion of
softness in love songs as compared to harsh tunes in rap music can signal that Bongo Music, its
style of singing, is central to the EMOTIONS the music creates in the listener. The same was
observed by the music producer Haroub Msingala. This can thus lead this research into
interrogating, why are Bongo Music fans EMOTION oriented and what does this reveal about
their culture, identity and ideologies?

3.3.4 Question Four

Do you think sound production techniques in Bongo Flava songs contributes to meaning of songs
and their effects on the Audience? The aim of this question was to probe further if the literary
scholars in the process of listening to songs mores on Bongo Flava are able to designate meaning
to production techniques and in addition to examine how they assign relevance to audio aesthetics

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features in songs. Although the sound production techniques can refer to a very wide area of voice
and sound production the researcher wanted to examine the areas of sound and voice production
that define how the literary scholars interpret and name and explain audio features in songs.

Yohana Mugaya

Yes

Elias Godfrey

Sound production contribute much to the meaning of the songs, and effect the audience. Since it
the artist songs the of pleasure will use the normal words but when singing the sad song, he uses
the sad words. Although the question was focusing on PHONOTATION and PHONOTATION
TECHNIQUES and their EFFECT ON MEANING, the respondent in this case response focused
on lexical choices. The researcher though the respondents can associate voice production to
nuances and enunciation practices and their effect on meaning

Sagire Josephat

Yes. They do, as they accord/accompany the motion of the song and arise the tone of a particular
hidden MEANING or MESSAGE. That is each tone tends to have specific issue. The respondent
did not however elucidate on how he is able to infer meaning from tone or other sound features in
songs. The researcher was of the hunch that despite the earlier observation that literary scholars
think of sound and meaning from an adjectival and descriptive approach, they in addition tend to
stop their criticism at the descriptive stage upon the description of the emotions they find
represented in a song's voice or melody. In addition, the researcher way of the opinion that there
must be factors of criticism which the respondents and listeners employ when they attach meaning
to text. Such factors could be forming the criticism process the listeners were employing although
they seem to be unaware of such factors. On the observation that listeners bring their personal
experience to song interpretation of the meaning inferred in the voice of the artist the researcher
was thus into task of generating and explaining a method through which variation in interpretation
can be explained without the risk of adopting a method that wouldn't address all probable
responses different critics can attach to voice. In their explication of meaning implied in audio
text. The researcher therefore was to establish patters and emerging motifs through which he

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thought could aid in underpinning the criticism procedure through which listeners attach
relevance in voice and music.

This called for interrogation of where emotions and choice of tone emanate in voice on the one
hand, and on the other hand, how this can be studied as artistic texts that bear literary relevance.
MEANING, MESSAGE, ISSUE emerge as major motifs or codes that determine the meaning a
listener is able to infer in this regard.

Masanja Tungu

They do, for the reason given in III above. Ref his responded in the earlier question. In his earlier
observation he had observed that styles such as those used by Diamond and Marlow are SOFT-
and this gives the message an emotional tone of meaning. The mention of soft the researcher
thought can be examined in the context of VOICE DYNAMICS. As the respondent has observed
the CONTEXT, and NATURE of the message appear to control how a speaker regulates one's
voice so as to express the meaning one wants to create in the listener's mind. In this regard, the
choice of message (THEME), choice of AUDIENCE determines manner of expression. The choice
of expression one opts for can be thought of as a practice of DISAMBIGUATION where upon this
is intended to help the listeners get the meaning the speaker intends or expects to convey and not
any other. The responses the respondents were giving however appeared to point towards the
consequential effects of how one uses the voice and not the manner in which such meanings are
created or produced. Hence the researcher way of the observation that literary critics tend to focus
more on the audio effects and not the triggers responsible for the creation of the meaning they
discern in audio texts. This in addition attracted the question; what are the possible sources of
emotions in the voice of a human and in the voice of a musical instrument?

Ibrahim Nyeuna

They make the song MORE INTERESTING hence to insist the intended messages.
ENTERTAINMENT, EMPHASIS, MESSAGE, THEME & THEMATIC, RELEVANCE emerge as
major motifs or codes that determine the meaning a listener is able to infer in this regard.

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Ruth N. Nzegenuka
MEANING. Relevance emerge as major motifs or codes that determine the meaning a listener is
able to infer in this regard.

Zablon Peter Chacha

The sound production techniques in Bongo Flava songs MAY contribute to meanings of songs
once the sound production techniques are CLEAR TO THE SONG CONCERNS. The audience
CAN be AFFECTED by sound production techniques, when there is a low quality in sound
production techniques. Unlike other previous respondents Zablon's observation is significant
because he tended to see the relevance of sound techniques in relation to the themes a given song
addresses. The researcher hence wished to take this direction and question the most appropriate
method sound productions can be studied in order to bring to bear their relevance to thematic
concerns in songs on the one hand and on the other hand the manner in which different sound
techniques in voice can be classified, studied and their effects on meaning underscored from a
stylistic perspective. POWER PRACTICE, RELEVANCE OF TECHNIQUE TO SONGS
MEANING, Effect emerge as major motifs or codes that determine the meaning a listener is able
to infer in this regard.

Salehe Hamadi Salimu

Yes, sound production techniques provoke emotion of the reader in relation to the meaning for
example sound used in "Je utanipendaga" SOME of the AUDIENCE CAN CRY DUE to the WAY
this artist uses in this song. Unlike other songs like "Nana" "Bum bum" as well as moyo wangu
which provoke audience to sing and dance. Although this observation firstly appears to
operationalize an over generalization on the one hand, on the other hand it begs the question what
is provoking emotion where one can question whether there is any audio state that is totally free
of emotions. The respondent however could have intended to suggest that manner of voice usage
and audio techniques can intensify certain emotions probably based on the context of the message
and the alignment of the sound/voice to capture and imitate the phonic implicatures members of a
given community associate with a given message. The music producer Haroub Msingala had

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expounded on this an earlier interview, the explication and description of the role of emotion in
this context from a literary perspective can be read as PATHOS and this a texts ability to invoke
deep feelings as a result of the experiences and fate that befalls characters. AUDIENCE, THEME,
and EFFECT emerge as major motifs or codes that determine the meaning a listener is able to
infer in this regard.

Makonda Mihambo

Sound techniques in Bongo somehow attribute the hearing of the song and their effect on the
audience. This was an open ended observation where the respondent appears to suggest that the
sound techniques can or may not affect or have an effect on the audiences. This is thus a neutral
observation. If thus begs the question within which context or basis would sound techniques affect
the meaning and vice versa?

Spemba Spemba E.

Yes, Failure to engineer the sound may result into fainted copy of production which will end up
not being pleasant as opposed to clear sounding music. In which music and poetry are audible.

In this observation Spemba conceptualizes sound production process as a process of

contextualizing meaning in voice. The statement clear sounding can be understood from a
performance and rendition perspective. Performance as a process of rendition as Spemba observes
here can lead to the musicality and poetry discernible in song. The researcher in this regard begs
the question; what aspects of performance and voice production that lead to musicality and poetry
being audible in a song? PRODUCTION, PERFORMANCE, AUDIO AESTHETICS,
EXPECTATION, CONTEXT emerge as major motifs or codes that determine the meaning a
listener is able to infer in this regard.

John Lameck

The sound production techniques used by these Bongo Flava songs affect the AUDIENCE in the
sense of ENTERTAINMENT and conveys MESSAGE about romance. Thus, other songs are
focusing on entertainment in terms of their melodies. MELODY. Question what is it in a melody
that makes it ENTERTAINEOUS? What are the prevailing factors that lead to the audience's

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ability to get entertainment from a piece of melody- culture, sensibilities, class, social background
etc? AUDIENCE, PURPOSE, ENTERTAINMENT, AESTHETIC VALUE, MESSAGE,
ROMANCE, THEME OF LOVE, MELODY emerge as major motifs or codes that determine the
meaning a listener is able to infer in this regard.

Robbin Evance Richard

The sound production in Bongo Flava have led to the CONVEYING of the INTENDED
MESSAGE in a way that, every individual has his/her own way of interpreting the music and How
an individual is EXPOSED TO SUCH KIND OF TONE (Sonic Experience)for example the tone
used in the song called "Mdogo Mdogo" by Diamond Platnumz has features that many of the
people in Tanzania…(Culture & cultural aesthetics) Role of shared knowledge) (Shared values in
informing discourses of music creation and appreciation patterns) Ethno poetics)… they like
…(Appreciation)… it, such situation lead to easy conveying of the message and affect them on
(in) different (CONTEXT) ways. Unlike all others respondents Robbin Evance Richard's
observation in the above response happen to give lead to the various criticism and inference
making process through which Artists and Audience share in the visimilitude and simulacrum of
artistic and aesthetic discourses encompasses din song as a cultural text. If way thus slowly
emerging that the Artist, Audience, Message, Aesthetic effect define major parameters through
which literary scholars infer meaning in songs. SUBJECTIVITY, AUDIENCE CENTRED,
LISTENER RESPONSE, INTERPRETING, INFLUENCE MAKING PROCESS, SONIC
EXPERIENCE, APPRECIATION, MESSAGE, EASY, WHY, CONVEYING, EXPECTATION AND
PURPOSE, EFFECT, CONTEXT, CULTURE emerge as major motifs or codes that determine the
meaning a listener is able to infer in this regard.

William Baraka
Not all

3.3.5 Question Five

How does the musical sound resulting from digital sound technology influence how you interpret
the song? The purpose of this question was to examine the Relevance and inference the
respondents make out of songs as a result of their listening experience and listening as an active
process through which a reader comes to terms with meaning in audio texts. And if at all they can
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underscore the role played by sound production features such as those mentioned by the music
producer Haroub Msingala such as EQ, Distortion to mention a few.

Yohana Mung'aya
Its clarity on words used. Expressivity, Performance emerge as major motifs or codes that
determine the meaning a listener is able to infer in this regard.

Elias Godfrey

The digital sound technology influences the musical sound by making the voice attractive. In its
attraction results to AUDIENCE listen to it carefully. AESTHETIC VALUE, ENTERTAINMENT,
LISTENING, AUDIENCE, HOOK, PURPOSE emerge as major motifs or codes that determine the
meaning a listener is able to infer in this regard.

Sagire Josephat

There are some situations in which the listener does not get clearly the meaning of spoken/sung
words hence the musical sound will help in this case in informing IMPLICITLY the POSSIBLE
MEANING. This was a significant observation. This is because it is in line with the theory
proposed for this research and in addition to one of the HYPOTHESIS that AUDIO AESTHETIC
features in songs bear relevance that can pass IMPLIED meaning. MEANING, IMPLIED emerge
as major motifs or codes that determine the meaning a listener is able to infer in this regard.

Masanja Tungu

Sometimes the musical sound communicates actual words recited by the musician. RENDITION,
PERFORMANCE, ADSR emerge as major motifs or codes that determine the meaning a listener
is able to infer in this regard.

Ibrahim Nyeura

The respondent left this question blank.

Ruth N. Nzegenuka

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Digital sound's blurs or blocks the real sound of instruments. They produce artificial rhythm.
What's the basis of the artificial rhythm and within which parameters does it operate? RHYTHM,
ARTIFICIAL (FICTIONAL) emerge as major motifs or codes that determine the meaning a listener
is able to infer in this regard.

Salehe Hamadi Salimu

Through ATTRACTING on CONVINCING to INTERPRET the MEANING due to its

technology. For example, Nana of Diamond Platnumz uses digital technology and PRODUCES
EMOTIONAL BEATS that attract readers compared to the meaning hence readers FEEL
COMFORTABLE to hear and dance that song. MEANING, CONVINCING, ATTRACTING,
INTERPRETATION, EMOTION, BEAT (NUANCES), READER /AUDIENCE, EFFECT,
CONSEQUENTIAL EFFECTS, CONTEXT emerge as major motifs or codes that determine the
meaning a listener is able to infer in this regard.

Makonda Mihambo

They influence the EMOTIONAL/FEELINGS of the ARTIST. CONTEXT, EMOTIONS, ARTISTS

emerge as major motifs or codes that determine the meaning a listener is able to infer in this
regard.

Spemba, Spemba E

BACKING of VOCAL EMPHASIZES or PUT EXTRA INFORMATION. Sound effects MAY

SUGGEST EXTRA MEANING. This is a very significant observation because of the researcher
opted for relevance theory in this research, this was a confirmation that harmonies and backup
voices can bear significance as communicative ostension or nuances. The respondent however did
not expound on how such meaning can be examined in a song. HARMONIES, EXTRA MEANING,
EMPHASIS emerge as major motifs or codes that determine the meaning a listener is able to infer
in this regard.

John Lameck

The musical sound produced DEPENDS on the TUNE form the digital installment it produces.
The tune mostly depends on the MOOD of the song i.e. SAD or HAPPY. The researcher examined
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and inferred this to mean there is a relationship between thematic concerns and the texture
(Timbre) of the voice of musical instruments. The researcher in this regard sought to interrogate
how stylistic use of voice features in human voice and voice of musical instruments can be
examined and resultant meaning brought to bear. If the texture of the voice can have meaning,
how can such meaning be examined? And can such meaning be construed to have or to be of any
literary value? If yes, how can they be studied and be documented. MOOD, ADJECTIVAL
READING AND INTERPRETATION OF MELODY (TUNE), THEME emerge as major motifs or
codes that determine the meaning a listener is able to infer in this regard.

Robbin Evance Richard

By interpreting the musical sound from digital sound technology, have contributed to the song
INTERPRETATION basing on the technology used in music production. Nowadays the musical
instruments are being HEARD CLEARLY compared with the previous years hence such music
quality contributes to easy interpretation of the MESSAGE of the song by THE AUDIENCE.
INTERPRETATION, MESSAGE, AUDIENCE, CONTEXT emerge as major motifs or codes that
determine the meaning a listener is able to infer in this regard.

William Baraka

It helps to LAMINATE MORE EMOTIONAL TUNES or TUNES THAT HELP CEMENT THE
MEANING e.g. "Lala Salama" by Diamond, Mawazo. EMOTIONS, TUNE, THEME, and
CEMENT MEANING emerge as major motifs or codes that determine the meaning a listener is
able to infer in this regard.

3.3.6 Question Six

What factors would you consider while making the responses to Question 1-5 above? That is what
factors do you think would mostly influence how Bongo Flava fans interpret the songs? The aim
of this question was to give the respondents an open ended space to react and give feedback
regarding interpretation of meaning implied in song audio text in the context in which most
listeners other than the respondent appear to construe meaning in songs based on the factors or
tenets which they operationalize consciously or unconsciously. The researcher found this question
essential since it would act as a control against the researcher or the respondent's biases. This was

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found to aid in avoiding self-serving interpretation and assumptions of how literary scholar infer
meaning in voice.

Yohana Mung'aya

1. Voicing
2. Musicality nature that invoices musical instruments
3. Appearance of the artist on the stage (physical)
4. Body movement when singing
5. Style on performance

PERFORMANCE emerge as major motif or codes that determine the meaning a listener is able to
infer in this regard. This was a pointer that literary scholars think of meaning in songs from a
performance perspective.

Elias Godfrey

1. Voice of the artist

2. Musical instruments
3. The artist himself that is how he is wearing, talking like an artist
4. The use of language like archaic words

As evidence in the order of listing the factors above, it was clear that the two respondents above
Elias and Yohana had a given preference to voice, followed by musical instruments, and other
factors had followed. This was a confirmation of one of the hypothesis of the research that the
voices bear significance however the two respondents had not explained how such meaning
implied in voice can be examined.

Sagire Josephat

1. Styles
2. Musical sound
3. Costumes/dressing
4. Body languages and movement

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STYLE emerge as major motif or codes that determine the meaning a listener is able to infer in
this regard. The researcher was slowly observing that the respondents were confirming that
musical features bear relevance but unlike the approach the thought and conceived of using music
production and musicological approaches the literary scholars appear to employ. The voice, The
Artist, Text, Audience, and Performance aspects to articular the relevance they discern in songs.
The respondents thus refuted the researchers Assumptions of a musical and sound engineering
approach to music appreciation from a literary, performance and Theatre perspective.

The responses were thus leading to the same hypothesis but from a different perspective. This is
because an interdisciplinary approach which the researcher though in the beginning of the
research appeared not to inform how literary scholars think of meaning invoices in songs. The
respondents appeared to operationalize very strictly disciplinary rigid approaches on how they
discern meaning in audio texts. This is because as the responses to this question show the
respondents were favoring a performance perspective approach as opposed to a musicological or
a sound engineering perspective. On this observation the researcher deduced that the respondents
were more comfortable responding to the questions based on their academic orientation.
Academic background was thus cited as a major factor that can contribute to the propensity of the
meaning different people are capable of discerning in songs. In addition, academic orientation
appeared to influence the manner of articulation of the menacing different people find in songs.

Masanja Tungu

1. Relevance of the song

2. Song's ability to mobilize audience's attention
3. Style used
1. This was a big coincidence since the respondent appears to have prior knowledge
and experience of how the research at hand could have been operationalized. The
researcher noticed that there was a common pattern that way emerging as 'a
motif(s) (through which meaning implied in songs could be examined. One way a
prominence of Relevance Theory and its respective tenets. Secondly way the role of
Audiences. That is the Audience experience and response to songs.

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 2. This would be the equivalent of Reader Response but this case talking of Listener
Response Approach to text explication of meaning implied in audio texts.

3.

Ibrahim Nyeura

1. The Tune
2. The musical instruments
3. The subjects (topics)

Ruth N. Nzegenuka

Experience of people/ fans and what message they receive in these songs. From Nzegenuka's
response above the motif of CULTURE and the role culture plays in informing interpretation of
meaning in songs was prominent. The mention in songs was prominent. The mention of fans again
confirmed the role AUDIENCES play in determining the meaning encompassed in a song. The
role melody and musical instruments play as mentioned by Nyeura above was significant in that
the two are or form the basis through which MESSAGE addresses din the topic defines the THEME
of a song.

Zablon Peter Chacha

1. Tone
2. Voice
3. Producer

Salehe Hamadi Salimu

1. Use of STYLE compared to the content within the song like wear of rags ad dirt clothes in
the song "utanipendaga?" emerge as major motifs or codes that determine the meaning a
listener is able to infer in this regard. PERFORMANCE, FORM emerge as major motifs
or codes that determine the meaning a listener is able to infer in this regard.

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 2. Use of real character compared to the meaning like Marklaw's song "pii pii" characters like
cars, traffic, drivers, the way the song tells us. PROPS & COSTUMES emerge as major
motifs or codes that determine the meaning a listener is able to infer in this regard.
3. Use of intonation to create meaning and attraction to the audience the way tone rise and
flal like "je utanipendaga" sometimes Diamond rise up and fall hence provokes the
audience's emotion. EMOTIONS, TONE, INTONAITON, DRAMATIZATION, MEANING,
and AUDIENCE emerge as major motifs or codes that determine the meaning a listener is
able to infer in this regard.

Makonda Mihambo

1. Instruments
2. Tune
3. Voice / Producer
4. Participants – Audience

Spemba Spemba E

1. Sound engineering
2. Melody chosen
3. Whether the artist's sound reflect the message i.e. think of love song sad songs as opposed
to happy songs.

ENGINEER, MELODY, MOOD emerge as major motifs or codes that determine the meaning a
listener is able to infer in this regard.

John Lameck

The voice of the musician matter most to the interpretation of Bongo Flava music. VOICE emerge
as major motif or codes that determine the meaning a listener is able to infer in this regard.

Robbin Evance Richard

1. The voice of the musician

2. Message of the song

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 3. How the song's and the message relate to contemporary society
4. Is the song brought about positive impacts or negative impacts?

VOICE, MESSAGE, SOCIETY, EFFECT emerge as major motif or codes that determine the
meaning a listener is able to infer in this regard.

William Baraka

1. Message
2. Style
3. Relevance

MESSAGE, STYLE, RELEVANCE emerge as major motif or codes that determine the meaning a
listener is able to infer in this regard.

3.3.7 Question Seven

How would you explain the role melody or tune of the song play in shaping how Bongo Flava
Music fans interpret the songs? The aim of this question was to examine how literary students can
interpret and elucidate the meaning that is possibly permeated in the melody of a song. The
researcher was looking favored to see how the how the responds would apply and define relevance
of ostensive communication implied in audio texts of a melody as evidence din the meanings the
respondents would attach to song audio features.

Yohana Mung'aya

The respondent left this question blank.

Elias Godfrey

Yes, the style of the song influences the MESSAGE DELIVERY, since the STYLE ATTRACTS
certain artists to be CELEBRATED. Example, Diamond Platnumz HAS A STYLE OF CRYING
while singing a chorus and repetition of chorus. This message facilitates message delivery. Also
Marlaw, uses the words like "Pii Pii" to show is creativity. PERFORMANCE, HARMONICS,
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FIGURES OF SPEECH, MESSAGE, ONOMATOPOEIA emerge as major motif or codes that
determine the meaning a listener is able to infer in this regard.

Sagire Josephat

It calls for attention and eventually it CAPTURES AUDIENCE or HEARER towards

CONTEMPLATING… (Cognitive Effect) …THE IMPLIED MEANING. HOOK, AUDIENCE,
COGNITIVE EFFECT emerge as major motif or codes that determine the meaning a listener is
able to infer in this regard.

Masanja Tungu

Giving VIVID DESCRIPTION of FEELING that CHARACTERIZE the MUSICIAN'S WORDS.

DRAMA, ENACTMENT, IMITATION emerge as major motif or codes that determine the meaning
a listener is able to infer in this regard.

Ibrahim Nyeura

Most of the melodies come from the environment. THEY ARE SOMEHOW FAMILIAR
MELODIES but modified: therefore, they capture the attention of the LISTENERS. They are
somehow SIMPLE MELODIES unlike the western songs. CULTURE, COGNITIVE
ENVIRONMENT, AUDIENCE, SHARED EXPERIENCES, SIMPLE CHORDS emerge as major
motif or codes that determine the meaning a listener is able to infer in this regard.

Ruth N. Nzegenuka

Melody connect feelings to music fans they get involved in the song. AUDIENCE,
PERFORMANCE, FEELINGS, PARTICIPATION emerge as major motif or codes that determine
the meaning a listener is able to infer in this regard.

Zablon Peter Chacha

Through style of beats as used in Nana, we can interpret that song is the pleasure song hence you
can dance compared to the Marlaw's 'Rita' which his MELODY REFLECTS SADNESS of the

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singer hence you can't dance or show happiness melody. PURPOSE, ENTERTAINMENT, THEME
emerge as major motif or codes that determine the meaning a listener is able to infer in this regard.

Makonda Mihambo

The respondent left this question blank.

Spemba Spemba E

BEST MESSAGE is communicated by BEST MELODY. TUNE AND MELODY match with the
beat to complete harmonious product. MESSAGE, TUNE, MATCH, HARMONY emerge as major
motif or codes that determine the meaning a listener is able to infer in this regard.

John Lameck

The MELODY used by these Bongo Flava musicians are CONNECTED CLEARLY with the
ISSUES. That is, when fans hear the melodies which go HAND IN HAND WITH THEIR
EMOTIONS and feelings about love helps them to interpret the particular song. TUNE,
MESSAGE, CONNECTED ISSUES, CONCERNS, OST, CULTURE, COGNITIVE, EFFECT,
THEME, INFERENCE, INTERPRET emerge as major motif or codes that determine the meaning
a listener is able to infer in this regard.

Robbin Evance Richard

Tune of the song for the Bongo Flava fans is highly considered for instance, those songs that have
a certain MELODY which AWAKEN PEOPLE'S EMOTIONS like DANCING or shaking their
bodies are much more preferred compared to those that cause the majority into DEEP FEELINGS
basing on their DAY TO DAY ACTIVITIES. COGNITIVE EFFECT, GENRES, PERFORMED,
EFFECT, SOCIAL VALUES, CULTURE, EXPERIMENT emerge as major motif or codes that
determine the meaning a listener is able to infer in this regard.

William Baraka

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MELODY influence the MESSAGE. Message, Melody emerge as major motif or codes that
determine the meaning a listener is able to infer in this regard.

Summary

As this chapter has tried to show, CULTURE, MESSAGE, MELODY, SOCIETY, EMOTIONS,
AUDIENCE, THEME OF THE SONG, TONE, TUNE, and ATTITUDE are among some of the
major factors that define the components artists appropriate in order to make a given manifest in
Bongo Flava songs. The cognitive effect (meaning) the listeners infer from the text and the melody
of the song is thus tied to the emotions and cultural experiences the song is likely to invoke in the
listeners. The meaning making process therefore, involves and is characterized by how the listener
identifies with these factors as encyclopedic entries. The manner of singing and the emotions it
invokes in the listener consequently, influence the meaning and the relevance a listener attaches to
a song.

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 CHAPTER FIVE
Summary of the Key Findings Conclusions and Recommendations

Introduction: What the Research Set Out to Do

This chapter mainly addresses the following; what the research set out to do, what the research
found out, conclusions and recommendations. The chapter mainly examines literary meanings that
can be permeated and therefore be discerned from the voice of the artist. The chapter in addition,
discuss the finding of the second objective of the research, which was to examine literary meaning
implied in the voice of the artist. This was based on the premise that Bongo Flava, use styles of
singing that could bear implied meaning based on how they intone their words. Most importantly,
the objective of the research in this case was to interrogate how literary scholars especially students
of literature infer meaning from the voice of an artist. Mainly in order to use the same criticism
practices to examine literary meaning implied in the voice in Bongo Flava songs. This was
informed by the assumption that how Bongo Flava artists appropriate their voices as style of
singing can encompass implied meaning that are suggested in the manner of singing. Although it
was permissible that listeners can infer implied meaning from the voice of an artist, based on one's
manner of expressing the inherent message in a song, it was however not clear how listeners
grounded in literary studies go about inferring implied meaning in the voice of an artist while
listening to a song.

The chapter therefore, classifies the results of the previous chapter into categories which appear to
define how literary scholars and none musicologists infer implied meaning in oral features of the
artist's voice. The chapter categorizes the findings of the previous chapters into what was observed
to define major motifs through which listeners employ when listening to a song and as the factors
they employ when inferring implied meaning in a song during performance. The researcher
observed that these motifs kept resuming as was evidence in the responses the respondents gave
during data collection. On the understanding that analysis involves uncovering patterns and
interpretation involves uncovering meaning in data analysis, this chapter categorized the major
motifs that were observed into categories which appeared to inform the patterns which the
respondents employ when inferring meaning from the voice of the artists. It is these patterns that
aided the researcher in defining the sub chapters below. Arguably, it is these same patterns of
inferring meaning in a song cultural practitioners employ the researcher was interested in their

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generalization not to withstand. These generalizations were arrived at following the similarity of
the responses different people who do not even know each other, of different ages, sex and
professions gave with regard to how they interpret meaning when listening to a song. These
included music producers, band members, and literature students of different nationalities
(Kenyans and Tanzanians) and therefore people of different cultural backgrounds, who had been
purposively sampled. This chapter in addition, interprets the results of the previous chapter in order
to uncover meaning that respondents infer in songs using Relevance Theory. The chapter therefore
wishes to achieve the following; show how the actual results compared with what the researcher
expected, show how the results compared with the results of other researchers, explanation of any
unexpected results, show how these potential explanations can be tested, and lastly based on the
results raise questions which future researches in this area can focus on in the recommendation
section.

Research Findings

Major Factors That Determine the Meaning Listeners Infer from The Voice of the Artist.

This section discusses major motifs that emerged in the previous chapter, which appear to
determine key features which most students grounded in literature employ when inferring meaning
from a song. The term motif in this context is appropriated in the context of a feature that keep
recurring and hence defining a given pattern through which thematic analysis appear to operate
based on the appropriation of the feature under examination by a cross-section of subjects that
could be using the said motif in order to draw a particular thematic concern or relevance. A motif
in this case is not just something that keep recurring without a reason or a purpose but instead it's
a repetition that reveals certain pattern through which a given group of people identify with the
very meaning purported by the very recurrence of the motif in question of under investigation. The
following emerged as major motifs or factors that most listeners rely on while inferring meaning
from the voice of the artist; the artist, the message in a song, a singer's target audience based on
social class, culture, subsumed character in a song who are addressed by the persona, and particular
ideologies that appear to govern and inform the meaning making process which listeners attach to
a song based on the manner of expression as evidenced in the voice of the artist.

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For instance, in Droessler's study which focuses on the linguistic and cultural tensions in Hip Hop
culture. Droessler uses Gsann, an artist from Arusha to articulate his observations where he
examines the global growth of hip hop in relation to its cultural adherence to a locality or group of
people. For example, he notes that when Gsaan attended the International Black Entertainment
Television Hip Hop Awards in Atlanta in 2009, his audience were captivated by his performance
though he did so in Kiswahili. BET producers however, provided an English translation of his
Swahili rhymes. Droessler analyses the implication of this translation to the song. He points out
that "the local and the global need not be mutually exclusive in hip hop - particularly in its everyday
practice…In the same way that local Hip Hop artists build a community and construct social
organization through the rhyming practices involved in the cipha, hip hop communities interact
with each other…in ways that organize their participation in a mass-mediated, cultural movement"
(2). Droessler asserts that Gsaan uses Swahili as his hip hop language to distinguish himself as an
African among African American rappers and yet appeals to a global hip hop culture in the choice
of his rhymes (3).

The Artist and the Nature of One's Voice

Based on the responses the respondents made, it was observed that the Artists and the nature of
One's voice defines one of the major considerations that inform and influence the meaning listeners
infer in song. Firstly, if the audience is familiar with a given artist, it was observed that this
previous awareness of a musician leads to the expectations which the listener always brings to the
song and the listening process is always shaped and influenced by these previously shaped and
sets of attitude. This previous knowledge of the artist, thus contributes to the tacit assumptions that
form the encyclopedic entries a listener employs in attaching meaning and relevance to a song.
Haroub Msingala, the music producer for instance gave an example of a musician such as Barry
White. He observed that the artist had a very deep bass but he sounded good. This is an example
of how prior set attitudes inform the experiences a listener brings to a song and hence the relevance
one attaches to a song. It was observed that the respondents associated the two artists Diamond
Platnumz and Marlaw with love songs and as artists who sing what happens in the society. It can
therefore be said that the two musicians are social commentators who use music to report,
comment, express particular standpoints with regard to various thematic concerns that characterize

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the lives of ordinary people in Tanzania especially the youth since their songs reflect on life
experiences of young people in the society.

The voice of an artist in this context becomes an icon and an index, through which various
meanings are symbolized. This is because with time, the listeners grow to associate the voice of
an artist, with the nature of the particular meanings one sing about. This can be said to be a fallacy
of association which yields into affective fallacy that characterize the meanings assumptions and
attitudes that shape a listener's interpretation of meaning in song. The moment listeners hear the
voice of the artist; the voice therefore triggers the tacit assumptions a listener associates with the
artist even before one has listened to the message in the song.

Arguably, this can be cited as one of the ways through which the voice comes to shape social
attitudes based on the meanings the listener associate with an artist. Consequently, the voice in this
context becomes a shaper of ideology. It was observed for instance that the audiences have come
to associate the voice of Diamond Platnumz with the theme of love, relationships, and the
ideologies the artist advocate for and articulate thus come to form those the listener associate with
his voice. This view is in line with Hog's discussion which focuses on the role music play in
shaping the social vision of a society. According to Hog, music is a powerful tool that musicians
have previously used to break barriers in political systems, enlighten the society and even enforce
changes. This has been achieved by using music as a communicative tool in social movements.
Religious institutions and social movements have been beneficiaries of this aspect of music. He
compares musicians to soldiers without guns (7). Hog cites musicians such as Eyerman and
Jamison whose songs in the 20thCentury were sang or played amid political upheavals (1).
"Importantly, music is as much an instrument that mobilizes for conflict or war as it is used for
repair bonding or peacemaking. No revolution without singing…many songs have an afterlife or
renaissance (1)"

The voice in this context becomes a premise or a launching pad through which identity is shaped,
propagates, and ideologies rather unconsciously. This is as a result of the values the audiences
associate with the voice, with time. In this regard the texture of an artists' voice acquires the power
to signify the meaning the audiences associate with the artist. This signification is based on the
type of messages and themes which an artist's most often than not. This consequently shapes the

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expectations an audience bring to a song. The choice of practicing expectation which takes place
in the mind of the audience can thus be conceived as a process of disambiguation. This observation
is related and therefore agrees with Kibona, an assistant Professor of Pan African Studies in
California State University, examination of the conflict arising from the struggle to retain authentic
hip hop music against the commercialization of hip hop music in Tanzania. The work observes
that hip hop artists feel there is a need to distinguish authentic hip hop from what they refer to as
"pop culture" which has gained a greater global presence and consequently marginalized authentic
hip hop. This new pop culture stems from the desire of a new generation of urban youths to form
their own musical identity using Bongo Flava as well as to attract a greater international market
for their music. Authentic hip hop artists on the other hand, describe this as a dilution of hip hop
and has forced them "to create and utilize alternative means to develop and produce authentic hip
hop" (Pan African Studies 5).

During the experience or act of hearing the voice of the artist therefore, there are particular types
of meaning, themes and worldviews that form in the mind of the listener. Consciously or
unconsciously, this acts of disambiguation consequently, qualifies as an act and practice of the
ideologies the audience and the artist associate with the message one articulates in one's songs.
Largely, this is influenced by the shared knowledge, and the cultural experiences which both the
artist and the audience appropriate in defining the relevance they attach to a voice, as a result of
their shared knowledge and cultural experiences. These shape the cognitive process they employ
in discerning relevance. On this premise, this research found out that in this context audiences have
come to associate the voice of Diamond Platnumz and that of Marlaw with love, romance, break
ups, and the ups and downs that characterize youth's ideologies and perspectives on themes that
engender love. This research is thus in agreement with Kerr's study which aims at proving how
symbols and signs popular with hip hop music are used by rappers to promote social and liberal
ideals in contemporary Tanzania. Kerr argues that the Ujamaa concept of a national culture
confined Tanzanian music to what was considered politically correct at that time. However, upon
the collapse of Ujamaa, came a new popular culture that liberalized music. Kerr uses "thugs" and
"gangster" images in Hip Hop to make his case. These images, he explains, "embody a specific
form of value" (2). Kerr says that the new breed of underground rappers, "employ gestures and
body movements that seek to embody the masculine identity of the rapper and gangster" (17).
Rapping in this sense, incorporates a lot of physical exertion by the use of the body language
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movements mentioned. These symbols are also similar to those of the "classical" hip hop moves,
therefore, giving the new rappers a sense of liberal identity. The rappers also create this gangster
image in the choice of clothes they wear especially during performances. Artists will be seen
dressed in large t-shirts, boots and baseball caps (17). This masculinity is intended to show one
who is fighting for survival through music.

The artist in this context becomes an image and a metaphor through which embodiments are
defined. Such embodiments permeate the listeners mind upon hearing the voice of the artist. In
this context the occurrence or hearing the voice as one listens to a song, becomes not only a process
of paying audience to a performance either live or recorded, but in addition a process through
which the meanings associated with the voice are enacted in the listener's mind, and hence the
listening process reawakens these significations associated with the voice, and consequently the
representation of the same ideologies, through which the artist represents one's society. The voice
in this regard not only articulates the message but in addition provoke certain emotions in the
listener. This is an instance of pathetic fallacy and affective fallacy which yield the meaning they
do as a result of the value the artist as well as the audiences attach to the emotions the voice of the
artist elicits. The voice of the artist therefore sets induction of the most probably message and
theme a listener expects immediately ones hears the voice of an artist.

Message of the Song

Although the researcher expected straight forward answers on how listeners i.e. the interviewers
and the respondents interpret meaning from the voice of the artist it was observed that the
respondents were giving a variety of factors that inform the meaning they infer from the voice of
an artist. As it was observed in the results that the message of a song influence to a great extent
the meaning listeners associate with the voice of the artist. As Haroub Msingala observed, the
choice of what message to sing about is dependent on the artist. However, how one sounds must
bring out the meaning in the message. This observation was in line will key factors of that define
rehearsals during performance. In addition, this observation was in line with key features and
determinants of pragmatics in linguistics. Within performance, as the interviewee observed one
cannot just sing anyhowly e.g. many I love you, Mary I love you. Instead one should ensure, that
how one sounds brings out the message in the song. This as the researcher observed was an

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observation that could be examined under discourse analysis, suprasegmentals, and tone,
intonation, and stress markers.

However, the interviewee did not concretely explain how or what features in a voice cause specific
meaning to be present or absent or what features of voice or the message makes a song or a
performance to be classified as a good performance or a bad performance. Instead he used an
analogy. The interview elaborated that when one sings well, depending on the nature of the
message, the listener will just be there listening and listening again. This view was in line with a
similar response from one member of the Dar-Es-salaam University who observed that when one
sings well one attracts the audience. But if one sings badly one is not liked by the audiences.

As the music producer had observed that before they release a song, they invite ordinary people
from the society to comment on if the song is bringing out the intended meaning, the researcher
observed that based on the message of the song and thematic concerns the song is expected to elicit
in the audiences' mind, manner of singing and voice usage depend on the commonly held values
that characterize how members of the society identify with the message in the song. In this regard
Marlaw and Diamond Platnumz were described as artists who have a soft voice which is suitable
for the messages of love which characterize their manner of singing. As a result, it was observed
that following the theme of love and the theme of death that define the main message in the song
Pii Pii and the song Rita and Nikifa Kesho, the listener's identify with the mood in the voice of the
artist. They described this lying adjectives such as happy, Romantic, sad.

Consequently, the researcher observed in this regard that the mood that define how most people
identify with a particular theme or message in a song influence the manner of voice appropriation
which the artist employ. Arguably, this is intended to bring out the same mood and feeling in the
minds of the listeners as they infer the implied meaning or relevance in a given song. In this regard,
it was observed that the same mood of strong love, and affection that characterize how a young
man behaves when expressing his love influenced the manner of voice usage in the song Pii Pii.
Unfortunately, the respondents did not know that this expression of love and excitement can be
described as sharawaji based on the effect it is expected to have on the audiences. The manner of
singing in the song "Rita" as a dirge, and the song "Nikifa Kesho" on the other hand is characterized
by expression of remorse. This is arguably because the two artists in these two songs are cognizant

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of the fact that in Swahili culture death is treated as a bad phenomenon arguably because it robs
of the loved ones on the one hand and the other hand ends one's life, while one would want to cling
to life. The sadness in this context can be inferred in the mood of how the artist uses their voices
in each of these two songs. While the message articulated clearly shows that the persona in the
song Rita is in a state of mourning, the mood his voice cause in the listener's mind complement
the message. This is because as a form of ostensive communication, it conveys a mood of less and
remorse which can be termed as perdition based on the effect it has on the audiences.

While the lexical message in the clearly shows that the death of the lover may have caused the
persona to express his pain and loss the way he does, the effect this has on the audience as a
cognitive effect is deep introspection on the evils of racism. When the audiences are thus set into
a mood and state of sympathizing and empathizing with the persona, the effect of racism can
directly be blamed for the effect of perdition which the persona is going through. The voice of the
artist in this case can thus be seen functions to vivify thematic concerns in a song. Consequently,
the voice in this context aid in illumination and articulation of social evils for the sake of
amelioration. Arguably the effect this song would have on listeners can thus aid in curbing racial
stereotypes, animosity, and hatred thus leading to a better society where all live together in peace
and harmony and even intermarry regardless of one's race or culture.

The voice of the artist in this regard can be said to be metaphorical on the understanding that it
functions to emphasize the central concerns that define the intentions and expectations of the theme
an artist addresses. What may however, fail many in their attempt to uncover the implied message
in the voice of an artist in the manner of explanation of the meaning which one may infer from the
manner of voice usage. This however can be easy. This is because it only calls for one to examine
the relationship between the message in a song and the possible purpose that could be informing
the manner of singing as evidenced in the mood a voice elicits. From a linguistic perspective, this
can be explained as a practice of pragmatics and as modality. From a musical perspective, the
concept of mood in literature can be examined as mode in music. The mode an artist appropriates
in one's style of singing can be said to bear direct relationship with the explicit and implicit
concerns which an artist ends up conveying.

The Target Audience a Singer aims at Addressing

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Based on the results in the previous chapter, it was observed that the audience define one of the
major factors an artist considers in determining or choosing aesthetic features one appropriates.
The voice appropriation in this regard can be construed as a rhetoric strategy whose artistic choices
cannot be made independent of the target audience. As the respondents observed, the voice of the
artist serves to grasp the listener's attention. Expectation can in this regard be underscored as a
major parameter that define how an artist appropriates one's voice. There are therefore features of
the voice that can be said to be audience centred with respect to the expectations an artist wants to
achieve on the one hand and the audience propensity to infer the same intentions as inferential
communication.

Attitude that defines the immediate reaction or impression a listener infers upon hearing the artist's
voice in this context was observed to be a key factor and consideration that determines the manner
of enunciation in this case. The nuances associated with how the artist and the wider society react
to the texture of a voice was observed to be one of the determinants that an artist considers in
shaping the voice to capture the attention of the audience. Consequently, the voice can capture the
audience's attention hence making one to listen to the unfolding message in a song. To achieve
this, responsiveness to phonotation techniques as aesthetic practice arouse the emotions of the
listener. As the respondents observed, the ability of a voice to hook the listeners, emotions, is key
in determining an audience reaction to a song. Consequently, one listens to the message keenly
since the voice of the artist hooks one to pay attention.

The Timbre (texture) of an artist voice in this regard can be examined as an aural text based on the
meanings it is capable of arousing in the listeners. Such arousal would be based or are dependent
on the experiences the listener attaches to the song as communicative ostensions. Such
communicative ostensions it can be argued rely on the artist and the audience’s linguistic and
communicative skills which lead to their ability to read meaning in voice based on their shared
knowledge of the voice as anaphones. Following the reaction, the voice can have on the audiences,
the voice of the artist can be said to imbue rhetorical devices based on the reaction it causes on the
listeners on the one hand and the other hand can be said to function as allusions for the respective
thematic concerns one addresses. Based on the cultural experiences, history, and ideologies the
listener appropriates to infer meaning implied in the voice, the voice in this context can be seen as
an enactment of experiences, or imitation of the ensuring scenes. Consequently, the audiences

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identify with the meaning as a result of how well the voice reflect the respective experiences the
artist addresses.

The artist in this regard is cognizant of the most probable associations the audience can draw from
the voice. Consequently, the audience influence and shape manner of voice appropriation. As the
music producer Haroub observed giving the example of a dirge, one cannot sing a dirge the same
way one would sing a dance song for the club. This is because as opposed to a dance song where
one expects the audience to do more of dancing than listening to the message, in a dirge one expects
the audience to be touched by the message. As a result, one listens on an on as one identifies with
the message.

This was evidenced in the three songs that formed the basis of this research. Where the voice
created the sonic experiences the audiences associate with love and romance in the song "Pii Pii,"
the nuances of mourning in the song "Pii Pii", the nuances of mourning in the song "Rita, and the
nuances of self-pity in the song "Nikifa Kesho". Arguably, the artists in all the three songs
envisaged the listening experiences, and emotions the audiences would associate with the
respective themes in each of the song. Consequently, the voice in this regard can be examined as
onomatopoeia. The artist in this case may have thus considered the target audience and how they
are affected by the theme of love especially when one is held by traffic yet one has been away and
is longing to get home to one's lover, as evidence in voice usage in the song "Pii Pii". The mood
of excitement and impatience that define the voice of the artist is thus in recognition of the
audiences and the drama the artist expects to enact. The voice in this case functions to draw
entertainment value as the audiences empathize with the persona. The audiences and how they
would visualize and imagine a young man who has been away from his lover may have thus
informed the artist's manner of voice appropriation. In a related study, Saimon in a discussion of
gender identities, using Niambie, a video by Harmonize tries to understand gender relationships in
the Tanzanian community. He achieves this by analyzing the participants' gender identities in the
video and the perceptions that informed this gender identity. This study is predicated upon the idea
that "the way men and women are represented in media such as films and advertisements
sometimes reflects social realities and in other times act as lenses through which we view our
world" (6). Saimon notes that the video involves the construction of gender identity based on a
"patriarchal ideological frame of romantic male-female relationship" (17). This conclusion is

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arrived at by analyzing the actions and the vocabularies used by the participants in the song and
what both imply. The persona, the major male character, is presented as talented, more physically
strong, caring, protective and better than other men morally. For example, he defeats a white man
in a tennis game and he also impresses fellow artists with his singing in the studio.

The female character, the video queen, on the other hand is presented as one who is caring, and
richer than the persona (she drives a car and is the one who picks him up) and vulnerable. She is
seen as the one who initiates the relationship as the persona does not look at her until she calls to
him. She also calls him in the studio and picks him up despite that it is raining. Saimon argues that
this suggests the socialization of women in this society who are taught to do everything they can
to keep a man (15). This song by Harmonize can said to reflect the theme of upward transcendence
in addressing racism in the society as depicted in Marlaw's song which had been released decades
before Harmonize' song "Niambie". In a similar study, Jilala assesses how hip-hop helps promote
human rights in Tanzania and the challenges that come with this role. Jilala notes that hip-hop
began in America and was used to champion the rights of the poor and neglected societies against
an oppressive ruling class "kuanzishwa kwa muziki wa Hip-Hop nchini Marekani kulilenga kudai
na kutetea haki za wanyonge ambao walikuwa ni tabaka linalokandamizwa na tabaka tawala"
(Muziki wa hip-hop na Haki za Kijamii). Jilala argues that the artists use their music as a weapon
to speak against social evils in society. The themes covered range from politics, labour, street
children, HIV/AIDS to politics and economic issues. Notably, the musicians illustrate the need for
equitable provision of resources in a country that grapples with the effects of socialism in the past.
Politically, hip-hop criticizes the government on discriminative policies and sensitizes the citizens
on the importance of voting. They also create awareness on the importance of education in poverty
eradication and emphasize on the provision of free basic education. This study therefore shows
how hip-hop artists are promoting the rights of Tanzanian citizens. Based on this commentary, it
thus emerges clearly that Hip hop employs direct and explicit language in its criticism of social
evils however, as evidenced in the song "Rita" Bongo Flava employ indirect criticism in its address
and articulation of social and political problems. Marlaw for instance does not state verbatim his
concerns of racism instead he defamiliarizes the theme as an implied concern resulting from the
fate of the Asian lady Rita. Such appropriation of indirect way of addressing sensitive issues cannot
only be viewed as a practice of euphemism but also is a character of Literature per excellence.

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However, as Ntarangwi argues hip hop is a channel through which young people echo their
dissatisfaction and social concerns especially when the ruling class, the rich and the elderly
disregard them. He further insists that the power in hip hop emanates from the globalization of the
genre. Ntaragwi explains that the processes involved in the creation, production and circulation of
the music stems from a global consciousness that cannot be controlled or abused by the powers or
institutions within a country or community. Hip hop artists continually engage in very difficult
political and social conversations through their lyrics. They redefine hip hop by composing songs
that dissociate hip hop with crime, hooliganism and laziness. Hip hop musicians enact positive
African identities by promoting values and attitudes that convey African pride and esteem. They
also seek to establish the aspirations of the youths and the neglected people in the society. The
artists use elements and figures that point to the rich African heritage they hail from. These include
the use of local languages to rap, traditional musical instruments and traditional attire (EastAfrican
Hip-Hop 140). All these efforts are the hip hop artists attempt to voice their identities through hip
hop music. From this assertion, it thus emerges clearly that the Tanzanian youths' appropriate
different music genres e.g. Hip hop, or Bongo Flava based on one's temperament, social attitude,
one's judgment, and mode of approach towards solution to social problems based on one's
perspectives regarding different social problems. Bongo Flava in this regard can be cited to
appropriate a less radical and therefore a more diplomatic approach in their articulation of social
problems. Hip hop artists, however appear to use a combative approach in their address of the
challenges facing the youth. Music in this context emerge as a negotiating tool through which the
artists articulate their concerns. Marlaw and Diamond Platnumz in this case form part of the
pioneering class of Bongo Flava artists who not only shaped the diplomatic tone that characterize
the genre but are also part of the musicians who championed this less combative approach as an
ideological practice.

As some of the respondents observed, Marlaw sings with strong feelings to bring out the implied.
Consequently, this moves the audience as a result of the tension the voice creates. Although the
respondents appear to have stopped their explication on the description of the dramatic effect the
voice is expected to have on the audiences; the researcher observed that manner of voice
appropriation concerning the audience function to illuminate Gender categories, and gender
relations that ensue between the persona and the purported addressee. The artist in this regard enact
the voice that depicts the power relations that define the relationship between how both men and
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women define themselves and their roles how they define the other. For instance, the artist's choice
of enunciation in the song "Pii Pii" can clearly show that the persona is addressing a person whom
he regards with the same status with himself. This is evidenced in the tone and the attitude of the
male persona towards the lady. For instance, the manner of utterance in the following lines;

………………………………

Unanikatia simu unanionea

Wewe ungekuwepo ungejionea

The voice of the artist in this regard has a filtration effect that depicts the semblance of a young
man who is at pains to convince his lover to bear with him. This in itself is an acknowledgement
of gender equality because as opposed to the African tradition where make chauvinism and
masculine hegemony may have made the artist to use a male domineering voice and tone, the artist
in this case employs a voice that does not regard the lady as a lesser subject based on here gender.
Arguably such oral techniques may or must have been informed by the artist's clear awareness of
how the target audience especially the young men and women of today would have expected him
to represent both the persona and his lover.

Consequently, this creates an artistic audio sonic experience known as phonotonie. This is because
the audio experience is defined by a characterization of a feeling of euphoria. Such a feeling
induces a behavior of renewed activity, energy, enthusiasm and idyllic situation that characterizes
the mutual relationship between the persona and his lovers. Arguably, were it not that the artist
and the audiences draw their experiences from such as reality, which informs today's society and
gender sensibilities, chances are the artist could have used his voice differently. To address the
expectations of the audiences in his portrayal of current gender relations, it can be said that the
audience played a role in determining his voice appropriation as a form of discourse for purposes
of gender portrayal. The same applies to the tone the male persona uses for addressing the deceased
in the song "Rita". However, cordial and greater sense of respect features in the persona address
of the mother in the song "Nikifa Kesho". Therefore, the relations between sexes as evidenced by
age and relationship between members of opposite sex determine the voice each gender uses when

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addressing each other. This can be informed by the current gender sensitivities and sensibilities in
the society.

In a related study, Thiong'o and Barasa acknowledge that the way a song is sang, articulated and
performed, influences its meaning. The study focus on the application of literary criticism on songs
as forms of literature. The author's use "Gongo la Mboto'' by Diamond Platnumz and Mrisho
Mpoto. The study analyses the suprasegmental features in the artists' voice. This work emphasizes
that the "meaning in verbal texts rely on the manner of presentation" (54). In addition, time and
context in a song also help in understanding the meaning of a song in addition to tone. The tempo
of a song too affects the meaning that is brought out in a song. In this case study the tempo was
set at 98 beats per minute but it was later adjusted to 40BPM and even 120BPM. These changes
created different meanings. For example, the slow tempo allows the listeners to share in the pain
associated with the bomb blast at Gongo la Mboto. The higher tempo suggests a happy mood
which would give a wrong interpretation of the intended meaning. The singers also incorporate
the use of wailing and moaning as performance techniques to bring out the pain that accompanies
a tragedy such as a bomb blast. These and other suprasegmental features help in understanding the
intended meaning of Gongo la Mboto. In addition, the authors in a different paper examines the
role of intonation in Bongo Flava. In this study Thiong'o and Barasa explore how intonations
influence meaning in songs. This study thus reveals that the respondents knew what they were
alluding to in their descriptive reporting about Marlaw and Diamond Platnumz singing techniques
although they seemed to lack adequate vocabulary, background knowledge and technical terms in
their description of how the voice of the artist influence in permeation of implied meaning in songs.

A critical examination of this research and similar studies by other scholars can show that while
most scholars can identify with the lexical meaning articulated in Bongo Flava and Hip hop music
from Tanzania, few have examined the roll voice play in permeation of implied meaning such as
irony, in the tone of an artist's voice. Although Mwendwa analyses the structure and organization
of Taarab music by focusing on its historical development, its performance and how it relates to
religion and gender, this study does not explicate the poetic salience articulated in the genres rich
harmonies, rhythms, and dance styles despite the observation that Taarab is a Swahili musical
genre mostly performed in weddings though it does not limit itself to wedding themes. The themes
cover a wide range of issues such as the beauty of Swahili women, environmental concerns, the

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pain of death and even political matters. Taarab is the only Swahili musical genre that features
both men and women in a performance. This is not part of Swahili culture and it is against the
teachings of Islam, the dominant religion among the Swahili (A Socio-Historical and Contextual
Analysis of Popular Musical Performance 2). This change is an indication of changes in the social
relations of the Swahili people. However, even in weddings, Mwendwa notes that men in the
audience do not dance to the Taarab music, preferring to watch as women dance. Taarab could be
described as an African musical genre though it is also associated with Arabian music. Taarab
music is not as widespread as other genres. Lack of proper marketing and distribution is cited as
one of the factors contributing to its lack of popularity. "The distribution network limits their
market to Mombasa residents and others who know about the Mbwana Radio Service in Old Town,
Mombasa" (A Socio-Historical and Contextual Analysis of Popular Musical Performance 8).
Besides, much of Taarab is written in archaic Kiswahili vocabulary that is difficult to understand
for many people. Taarab has also received very little research and this also contributes to the lack
of popularity surrounding this genre. The little research done is however sufficient to conclude
that music can be used to understand the culture of its people. A cultural understanding of a given
people through their music in this context would involve an in-depth analysis of the social cultural
relevance that define the meaning a given people draw from their music, its sounds, performances
as philosophical practices.

For instance, in Adolescence in Tanzania a report that examines the experiences, aspirations, fears
and dreams of adolescents in Tanzania. The report indicates that a lot of strides have been made
in improving the lives of the adolescents. For example, the report explains that there were more
adolescents in school between the years 2004 and 2010. There was also a decline in teenage
pregnancies and an increase in the use of contraceptives among sexually active teenagers during
this period. The report also acknowledged that more adolescents were taking on responsibilities
by becoming peer educators and were actively participating in sports, art and environmental
protection activities (2). These achievements are a result of investments done to empower
adolescents. However, the report also notes that the country was still grappling with child
marriages, teenage pregnancies, abuse and exploitation of adolescents. There is however, lack of
enough comprehensive data on areas such as the impact of HIV/AIDS on adolescents. The report
therefore emphasizes the need to invest in adolescents to give priority to adolescent issues that
require immediate attention and to help in poverty eradication. The Creative Economy Report
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however, acknowledges that a lot of efforts have been put in place to promote the economic growth
of the world. Even poor economies have been able to grow their GDP's albeit in small indices.
However, the report further explains that more strategic policies need to be utilized to enable
countries achieve full economic independence. According to this report "86 out of 144 developing
countries still depend on commodities for more than half of their export earnings" (5). The report
asserts that there is a lot of untapped wealth in the creative industries that can be a solution to the
aforementioned problem. "The interface among creativity, culture, economics and technology, as
expressed in the ability to create and circulate intellectual capital, has the potential to generate
income, jobs and export earnings while at the same time promoting social inclusion, cultural
diversity and human development" (5). Developing countries are however facing challenges in an
attempt to exploit the creative economies. Domestic and international obstacles, lack of quality
products and services in the world market and lack of proper policies to support the creative
industries are some of the challenges that hinder the maximum exploitation of the creative
economy. Developing countries are encouraged to look for ways to deal with these challenges for
them to leap economically. Arguably it is this same concerns that appear to encourage the Bongo
Flava to come up with songs that are audience centred in addition to addressing social issues the
artists articulate. Consciously or unconsciously these concerns are brought out in Diamond
Platnumz song "Nikifa Kesho". It can thus be surmised that that is why he engages the audience
in rhetorical questions such as, will you continue playing my songs when I die? Notably, such
concerns can be tied to the value the artist envisages in his songs and the relevance this can have
on the society.

Notably, in the Institute of Economic Affairs Journal , for instance Odidi explains how East African
artists are a powerful tool for enhancing integration in the region. The writer argues that the artists
have already made significant contributions in promoting cultural and economic integration. Odidi
insists that "artists offer a perfect template for the political class in breaking down the existing
barriers, overcoming mistrust and creating a powerful cultural and economic synergy" (19). He
traces the development of music in East Africa from pre-colonial times citing the music of people
like Fundi Konde, Daudi Kabaka, Dr. Remmy and Fadhili Williams. He also traces the music
styles that have been embraced by the different generations in the East African countries. Kiswhili
classics, "Twisti", Benga, Rumba, Lingala are mentioned as the early forms of music that were
very popular in East Africa. Odidi in addition shows the development of the genres of music in
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this region. With the liberalization of many economies in this region came new genres of music
that appealed to young people. Many recording studios were opened and more and more artists
fashioned their music to suit their aspirations and markets. The music industry involved many
collaborations between the artists and this popularized their music. Major corporations operating
in the region also stepped in to sponsor artists directly or contracted them to market their products
and services. This encouraged the growth of music and earned musicians more money. Odidi
analyses the ease at which these artists navigate the different countries as they perform because of
using Kiswahili as their language of delivery. In this way Odidi proves that the foundation for
integrating the economies of East Africa is already set and that music has a central role to play in
defining a common social fabric that units East African community beyond the country
boundaries.

In explication of such ideological values enshrine in music Tagg argues that musical structures
must be "of symbolic value …and be conceived of practical building blocks in the construction of
music" (1). The study establishes links between the audio-visual associations made by participants
in the research and musical elements that informed those associations. This study comes up with
four main categories of musical structures. These structures are: anaphone, genre synecdoche,
episodic marker and style indicator. Anaphone is explained as "the use of existing models in the
formation of sounds'' (3). Anaphone is further subdivided into three categories. Synecdoche in
music includes the citation of one part of style in another. This citation is therefore said to not only
allude to that other style but also to the complete genre of which that other musical style is a subset
(10). Style indicator refers to the compositional norms that identify a particular style as such while
episodic markers point a musical narrative in a certain way. These structures are necessary in
criticism of songs. This is because such structures play signification roles in defining the meaning
listeners can infer from the song. In this regard, the style of singing, the manner of composition,
the costumes, mode of grooming, oral nuances and the language an artist opts to use all can define
major markers of ideological aspects of East African hip hop as well as Bongo Flava.

The spirit informing manner of composition and performance as meaning representation reflects
therefore, the shared values the artist and the target audience embody in common. Sound or voice
in this regard function as agency through which the shared norms and values are permeated. As
evidenced in the song "Pii Pii" where we encounter a male character who is coming home after he

156
has been away for as well as in Diamond Platnumz's song "Lala Salama" which depicts a persona
who is wishing the wife to sleep well because he is away from home, Bongo Flava songs despite
having a heavy dose of love and romance on the one hand, on the other hand reflect the economic
endeavoures of the newly married youths in society and their desire to eke life, by taking part in
economic activities despite their poor economic backgrounds. Arguably, this is a reflection of
filtration of Capitalism in Tanzania after the collapse of Ujamaa.

Language in this context becomes a serious tool through which the artists communicates their
perceived vision for the society with the audiences. As Reuster observes for instance, in a study
that examines the reasons why musicians have been increasing the use of English in Bongo Flava
in Tanzania. He explains that this new trend is "…indicative of a transformation of Bongo Flava
towards pop, caused by changes in the domestic market on the one hand and by a growing outward-
looking market orientation on the other" (English Versus Kiswahili 2). Artists who want to link
their music to the global hip hop presence, opt to use figures, images and expressions that resonate
with their global audience. Common expressions in English will therefore be used as a means to
achieve this end. The exposure to global hip hop music has also affected the language change in
Bongo Flava in Tanzania. With the advancement of technology, social media sites provide avenues
for Tanzanians to consume different varieties of music. This exposure has in particular influenced
artists to integrate what they deem popular aspects of music from other regions into their
compositions. Such an example includes "Naijabeats" (English Versus Kiswahili 9) or Afrobeats.
"Naijabeats is influencing Bongo Flava since the last few years resulting in an increased use of
English as a trend towards faster beats" (English Versus Kiswahili 9). Also, the success of the
Naijabeats on the international market encourages more use of the beats in the Tanzanian music
industry to compete effectively with their Nigerian counterparts. Such reasons encourage the
inclusion of more English in Bongo Flava.

In a related study, Sanga examines Mzungu Kichaa's Bongo Flava music in an attempt to describe
how Mzungu Kichaa constructs Tanzanian and African identities through the music. Born to
Danish parents, Mzungu Kichaa uses his music to show how he relates to these two identities
having relocated to Tanzania in 1995. Mzungu Kichaa sings about his experiences in the African

157
continent (early years in Zambia and later in Tanzania). He cites his travels, musical journey and
his interactions with the people of Tanzania who are described as very welcoming and
accommodating (196). He also uses musical instruments and styles akin with the African context.
Imani points to the Congolese guitar picking styles, Maasai chants and Tanzanian singing styles
"Muziki wa Dansi'' (197). In using the Ma language and depicting the valorous acts of the Maasai
Morans, he negates the negative attitudes that are associated with the Maasai and identifies himself
with the Morans. He is in essence boasting of his ability to become one of them (198). Mzungu
Kichaa also collaborates with his "fellow" Tanzanian Bongo Flava artists as a way of cementing
his identity in the Tanzanian hip-hop industry. Perhaps his fluent use of Kiswahili is his greatest
asset in asserting his Tanzanian identity. Imani notes that "he does not only speak Kiswahili
fluently but also his accent makes him sound as if Kiswahili is his first language or mother tongue"
(198). This study reveals the importance of hip-hop in forming Mzungu Kichaa's identity.

Culture

The shared knowledge significantly determine the information and interpretation members of a
given culture can infer from a piece of communication based on the on manner of utterance. It was
observed that the respondents brought in a lot of shared knowledge in how they inferred meaning
from the voice of the musician. As the first interviewee Haroub Msigala observed one cannot just
sing anyhowly, this to mean, the manner of singing must capture cultural nuances which the
members of the society associate with the message one is conveying.

Upon recording, the voice of the artist in the studio he acknowledged that they do a few tricks to
make the voice of the artist standout and to give one a unique identity based on the message one
is singing about. Get referred to this as the mastering. During this process the voice is tweaked to
ensure it brings out, implies, and suggests the cultural meaning associated with the message. The
process of tweaking the voice involves several steps as the researcher witnessed in the studio work
that goes on. Some of these include tuning the voice using graphic equalizers. As respondents in a
different group interview observed if the studio work is poorly done, the audiences will not like
the song. In this regard, the researcher observed that social values and cultural norms influences
significantly the sensitivity with which the audiences and music producers treat the message. This
is chiefly based on the feelings and the emotions the voice of the artist invokes as one articulates

158
words. The manner of word articulation the researcher therefore noted is aligned to cultural values
to reflect the message in the song in the same manner most people in the society would or identify
with the given theme.

The researcher observed that culture in this regard influence two aspects of the voice. These are
the aesthetic value and the communicative value. Although most respondents only talked of the
emotions and feelings with respect to how the voice bring out the message in the song, it was
observed that the artists draw their manner and style of singing from common traditional tunes that
have formed the cultural practice of singing lullabies in Swahili culture. As one respondent
observed, "these artists employ simple tunes that have been there since time immemorial. The only
thing that they do is to modify the tune a little." On the same note, the respondent observed that
these artists in addition sing on basic issues that take place in the society. This is in an attempt to
raise consciousness among members of the society regarding particular concerns which attract the
attention of the artist, and which one would invariably wish to bring to the listener's attention.
However, this has hard it share of challenges from a generic, age, and audience preferences
perspectives.

As Sanga's observes on what appear to thwart the participation of youths in traditional dances in
contrast to their ever increasing enthusiasm for Bongo Flava in Tanzania. Sanga also proposes the
changes that should be put in place to encourage young people to take part in traditional
performances. Authenticity battles, administrative issues, and exclusion of the youth in dance
groups are identified as the reasons why youths refrain from participating in traditional dance
groups. Sanga explains that young people are wrongfully perceived as short- tempered, naïve and
lacking in resilience, factors that deny them leadership roles in traditional dance groups and this
discourages them from joining dance groups. When these leadership positions are the preserve of
"old" people, conflicts arise between the dancers (young) and their leaders. Young dancers are also
given peripheral roles such as carrying drums and helping adult dancers to dress up. The young
dancers can therefore earn very little money from such roles. "There is a battle between older and
younger generations concerning the issue of authenticity in traditional dances. While the younger
strive for change, the older strive for retention of traditional music forms (27950)". These
challenges push the youth further away from traditional dances and they venture into Bongo Flava
music which they feel suits their modern realities and preferences.

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The researcher in this context be it as it may observe that the style of singing borrows a lot from
culture and cultural values and cultural norms. Consequently, this leads to infusion of what the
researcher termed as cultural ostensions which form the oral nuances that define the shared beliefs
and the meaning and relevance attached to them. In this context, the researcher observed for
instance that the manner of singing a dirge must bring out nuances of pain, loss and tears which
the mourner experiences as one reflects on the dead. The voice of the artist in this context must
thus bring out an effect known as perdition or must create this effect in the mind of the audience.

As the researcher observed, this effect results from singing as if one is crying. This crying effect
results from how one configures the lips, the nose and the facial muscles. As one respondent
observed, this is crying on pitch. The researcher noted that for the voice to bring out the expected
effect such as the effect of perdition in the song "Rita" the artist sings from a part of the nose
known as the lower turbinate. This creates the mournful and sad effect which the listeners will
associate with the agony the persona in the song is experiencing.

This was evidenced in how Marlaw sings the song "Rita" especially in the following lines;

Ooh Rita (Rita) x 3 Ooh Rita oh no no no

Sauti inaskika tega makini
Hujui nani inamwita
Chozi lanitoka nitazamapo angani
……………………………………
Once mikono yangu mitupu
Imezoea kukushika we

The researcher observed that it is in the same style of emotive talking that most native Swahili
speakers contour their voices especially when addressing the theme of death. Swahili culture the
researcher therefore noted infuse the emotions that define thematic concerns in manner of speech
practice. This is chiefly governed by the tonal nuances members of the society attribute to the
ensuing theme or topic. The manner of articulation in this context was noted appeals to the
emotions of the listener. Arguably this is a rhetoric practice intended to draw the listener's emotions
to empathize with the speaker or the persona. This performance technique the researcher in
addition noted alludes to an appeal to pity. This is because the artist draws the listener's emotions

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to emotively make the listener identify with the message from the persona's perspectives.
Consequently, this can be a rhetoric practice intended to cement the social fabric that unite
members of the society based on the fact that every member of the society can be affected by the
same fate at one time or the other.

The voice of the artist in this context function to draw nuances of introspection as one identifies
with the fate of the character. The nose, it was thus observed functions to shape and in fuse the
nuances of emotions in song. This results from the harmonics the air that passes through the nose
create in the voice. The voice in this regard not only functions as a means of articulating the
immediate message in a song but also as a cultural metaphor through which archetypal meanings.
One triggered in the mind of the listener through the creation of pathos. In this regard the cultural
memories triggered by manner of voice appropriation are allegorical. This is based on the
meanings of the past experiences which they cause in the mind of the listener. These meanings can
be examined by underscoring the relevance the voice of the artist invokes as a filtration.
Consequently, the voice ends up creating signification through the anamnesis it brings to the
conscious mind of the listener.

In so doing one can associate not only the message in the song but also the manner of rendition to
the life experiences and cultural images associated with the voice of the artist. Consequently, the
artist in this regard becomes an agent through which the society can reflect on its values. The fate
of the characters e.g. in the song "Rita" becomes images through which the society can reflect on
its follies. The soft voice and manner of singing employed in the song. "Rita" in this case can thus
be termed as a litote since it understates the social evil of racism and death. Arguably, this is
because the aim of the artist as a bard, is to present social evils with an aim of amelioration where
upon he hopes the affected society will correct it social weaknesses of killing and condescending
members of the society because of their racial background. The fact that the protagonist, the
persona in the song is an African, this begs the question if "Rita" would have sang a similar song
for Laiti if her family members had succeeded in shooting him in the two failed attempts. The
sympathy, and pity the voice of the artist arouses in this context cannot be reduced to expression
of self-pity, but arguably is a reflection and an extension of discourses of the inferiority of the
under privileged in society since it is a reflection of how they are treated by the Rich and the

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superior races in society who own guns and can therefore shoot at an African at will, instead of
employing more humane methods of extricating him from this daughter.

Arguably the voice of the artist in this context can be said to function as an imagery where upon it
serves to reflect the social identities and class ideologies of the lower class in society. This is
because the oral nuances in the voice of the artist function as implicatures through which members
of this class of people can see themselves as one of the respondents observed. This observation
was in line with Reuster and Hacke's examination of how artists use Bongo Flava as a means to
achieving a better life. Their study focus on the relationships between the artists and those they
meet in the music industry and how these players influence the social mobility of the artists. They
argue that the artists mostly hail from poor backgrounds and therefore use music as a means to
escape poverty. This has been evidenced in Diamond Platnumz economic success from a simple
artist to the richest musician in East and Central Africa. Uta and Gabriel further explain that many
such artists are struggling to make a name for themselves or whose popularity is confined to the
area they live in or come from. Such underground rappers face enormous challenges before they
become successful. Digitalization and the expansion of technology however has helped transform
the music industry. Production of music has become easier and people can access music at cheaper
cost. This advancement in technology however poses a problem to the artists. Illegal copying of
music is rampant and this deprives artists of a lot of money. The music industry is also dominated
by Asian producers who "dictate prices and many artists complain about being forced to sell their
master copies below value" (11). Also, some private radio stations refuse to pay copyright fees and
this hinders the economic development of the artists.

Despite the challenges Bongo Flava musicians face, this research observed that the genre is likely
to kill other sectors of art and performance especially as a result of how the music genre is favored
by advancement in technology and the speed at which artists takes advantage of modern computer
technology in music and video production. Consequently, this may lead to the extinction of drama
and theatre in Tanzania. For instance, as Kigombe observes, the reasons why theatre groups
collapse and what factors contribute to the existence and sustainability of the groups. In particular,
Kigombe analyzes the "system structure" (3) and how it impacts the management of theatre groups.
The study proves that the longevity of theatre groups is not entirely hinged on management. The
social, political, economic and technological environments are vital in sustaining a theatre group.

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Kigombe proposes that current organizational and group systems must be re-structured to compete
effectively with the new popular culture in Bongo Flava and the film industry. One of the main
factors that Kigombe raises is the issue of financing theatre groups. Theatre groups finance their
activities in many ways including gate collection fees (70). This was one of the major sources of
funding in the past and it was earning the groups enough money to pay their casts as well as run
the groups well. However, with the entrance of film and video production as well as advanced
technology that allows people to download videos and movies, very few people attend theatre
shows and these groups can therefore not support themselves. Lack of committed and skilled
actors, lack of rehearsing spaces and poor management policies are also some of the reasons why
theatre groups continue to collapse in Tanzania.

The Subsumed Character in a Song

The voice of the artist cannot be divorced from the character it simulates or the persona it enacts.
In this context the voice of the artist is an imagery of the respective social subjects in real world
and in addition the thoughts and ideas an artist articulates a representation a facet of ideologies of
the same people. The researcher noted that the respondents in the quest of informing meaning from
a song can identify with the purpose of the artist in the characters one simulates. As one of the
respondents observed, the persona in the song "Nikifa Kesho" uses a voice that consoles his
mother-as the addressee in the song. The researcher noted that in such instances, the characters
addressed by the persona are not only related to the physical world and experiences of the artist,
but also become agents through which the artist appropriates the song for autobiographical
purpose. The characters in this context are not only reflection of real people in the real world but
the fate of the character defines sites through which the artist articulates the thematic concerns. In
the song "Pii Pii" the address of the female character in the song, not only serves the dramatic
events in the song but can qualify as a disguised form of social appeal to members of the opposite
sex especially with regards to their attitude towards their male friends in the society. The coercion
evidence din haste and impatience in the persona can thus be said to be emanating from the lover.
The persona at some point observed that she is impatient and as a result she is even hanging up on
him when he calls. Such coercion can be construed as a form of gender harassment.

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The artist can bring out these nuances by appropriating the frontal sinus, the ethmoid and the
sphenoid sinuses. These create the mood of complaint, which is evident in his voice especially in
the following lines;

Hello, hallo, unakikatia simu

Unanionea,
Wewe ungekuwepo ungenjionea
Unfaanya hivyo unakosea mama
Nakuomba mpezi ungonjee
Ni nijani naja niombee

The intentional portrayal of the persona in this context cannot be reduced to a more enactment of
a love song because it is ostensibly a reflection of similar experience of gender harassment men
could be enduring in real life from women. It is thus a reflection of a form of psychological battle
but are ever silent about it. The artist in this regard invites the society to re-examine such sufferings
which men endure insincere in the guise of love and affection. The persona says that he will drive
even on the wrong side of the road. Arguably, he is thus yielding to the pressure he is getting from
the lady. This is thus an appropriation of character in a song to articulate the suffering and smiling
which some members succumb to as a result of the power sharing that define the gender relation
in society.

The metaphor of pain and suffering are thus evidenced in the voice of the artist as a social discourse
ostensibly intended to appeal to members of the society to treat one another with some level of
understanding, love, patience and humane. As the respondents observed, the audiences can see
themselves in the songs. The voice of the artist in this regard can be construed to represent social
discourses that define and permeate relationships most often in the society. The character in this
context is a portrayed and a reflection of gender relations in society and the manner of enactment,
a mirror of psychological experiences that some members of the society, as they contend with the
behavior orders endure or go through. The artist in this case appear to be begging the question as
to whether it should be the order of things or it is a form of social ill that need to be
corrected/addressed. The voice of the artist in this case become a premise through which an artist

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articulates and enacts the theme of social dissonance in society to bring the problem to the attention
of the members of the society.

The voice of the artist in this regard is a metaphor through which the artist in this regard is a
metaphor through which the artist reflects social attitudes that are prevailing in the society. While
the voice in the song "Pii Pii" can be said to a form of address social evil in society, the voice of
the artist as a character, representation can be said to reflect the positive gender relation that most
often exist between mother and son in society. This is because the artist's manner of voice
appropriateness especially in the following lines;

Oh nani atambia mama asicry

…………………………
Oh mama mwanao me sina hata motto moja wa kusingiziwa
Hivi nikiondoka wasikundanganye hao

Paints the theme of decorum as a result of how the singer appropriates the nasal cavity by singing
from the lower turbinates. This consequently creates rich harmonics that spell the love and respect
the persona has for the mother. The harmonics in this context function for aesthetics on the one
hand since they create a pictorial mental image of the character in the listener's mind and at the
same time celebrate mothers and therefore women especially for the role they play in the
upbringing of the boy child. The imagination of his death and the pain it can cause the mother is
brought out in the voice of the artist. This is because it has an effect referred to as perdition.

Ideologies

Ideology in this context is understood as a system of beliefs and ideals that are consciously and
unconsciously in operation in how a given people define value in their practice of being. From a
relevance theory perspective, ideological standpoints that form a people's collective conscience
define their commonly shared knowledge, and the exercise of that knowledge define and
characterize their cognitive environment. Consequently, their cognitive process yields the
expected interpretations and assertions about their treatment of speech utterances. The meaning
they attach to tone, intonation, and stress markers in this case form the nuanced ostensive meanings
in oral statements. As Suriano's observes for instance, Bongo Flava is influential in establishing a

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social identity for contemporary Tanzanian youths. Suriano explains how political reforms and the
collapse of Ujamaa policies in Tanzania created a new freedom that promoted Western culture,
including Western music. In line with this argument, Hip Hop music started gaining momentum.
Tanzanian Hip Hop is said to have been started by "young people with rich parents" (4) who were
educated enough to rap in English. In recent years, however, the Bongo Flava version of Hip Hop
which also incorporates Kiswahili, has become more popular among young urban Tanzanians.
These rappers are mainly drawn from slums and they move to Dar-Es-Salaam to record their songs.
These young rappers will usually just have completed secondary education and thus cannot be
employed in the formal sector (6). They therefore turn to music as their alternative source of
revenue. The writer further asserts that because most of this genre is sang in poor areas, it is evident
that the music gives these artists a platform to express themselves.

A speaker and listeners can thus in this context infer with least effort implied meaning conveyed
in oral statements, by basing their inferences on what a given manner of utterance is expected to
signify. However, rarely do members of a given community arguably question their belief systems,
and ideals that define the cultural norms which for instance they believe in, cherish and defend.
On this understanding, this section examine the effect ideology play in informing the aesthetic
choices encompassed in the voice of the artist in the three songs under examination. In this same
proposition for instance Reuster's examination on the contributions made by Bongo Flava music
in politics cites the 2005 General Election in Tanzania to justify his assertions that Bongo Flava
was used to criticize politicians and voters as well as campaign for the ruling party, Chama Cha
Mapinduzi. Uta also points out that the Bongo artists used this campaign opportunity to popularize
themselves. "The General Elections 2005 provided an opportunity for Bongo Flava artists to speak
out and comment on a subject of social and political relevance not only to the youth but the whole
nation, while at the same time negotiating their image in society" (Bongo Flava and the Electoral
Campaign 2005 44). Songs addressed rallying and voting issues unlike other genres which before
2005 criticized corruption and the government's failure to uplift the lives of the ordinary citizens.
The songs not only emphasized the importance of voting but also warned the citizens against
selling their votes (47). Thus Reuster shows how Bongo Flava was used to promote democracy in
Tanzania.

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Besides contributions in national politics, Bongo Flava is appropriated in religious circles for
instance in churches to attract followers. As Kameli (2010) notes, "Disco La Yesu" genre of music
and how it is strategically being used by the Evangelical Lutheran Church for evangelization. The
study acknowledges that this genre may not be appreciated by the elderly or older people but it
resonates with young people since it is similar to that which is played in discos where young people
frequent. This music is described by young people as modern and very interesting unlike the
traditional music which they describe as boring and backward. The music is played very loudly
and has very fast beats. It is recorded in a studio and artists use CDs to perform their songs in
crusades instead of the traditional live performance. The Evangelical Lutheran Church uses this
genre of music because it has garnered a lot of airplay in Tanzania in the recent years. This affects
performances even in churches because gospel artists also choose music genres that appeal to a
larger audience. Further, since majority of the Evangelical Lutheran Church members are youths,
and youths also form the greatest percentage of the Tanzanian population, the church allows "the
playing of electronic music instruments and equipment as well as the incorporation of disco-like
dance skills… to attract, retain and convert people to the Lutheran faith" (16). This observation is
in line with facts about Marlaw's musical career which according to his music biography defines
its roots in the church before the artist ventured into secular music. Religion and ideological
practices and doctrines can hence be cited to have influenced the making of Marlaw's aural
aesthetics as evidenced in his voice. The calmness that define church and religious song has thence
found its way into his composition style and performance techniques. Such styles constitute the
basis of this research that they do not exist in a vacuum and are not art for art's sake, but instead
are core to the values implied in the aural nuances the artists imply in their manner of singing.

Arguably, the role Bongo Flava music play in society is not only evident in Tanzania but also in
Kenya. As Morin (2012) observes for instance, NGOs play a role in music production in Nairobi.
It is hereby acknowledged that Western influences and local cultural influences find their way in
the music produced in this region. Some of the interviews he carried out revealed the criticism that
artists have towards the influence of NGOs on the music industry. These artists expressed their
disapproval of the "elite" group of musicians who are a product of NGOs. "We have what I call
"elite" musicians who do not sing for the normal Kenyan…but they are heavily funded to do those
things…but their music is boring…which means that Kenya will never be viewed as a land of
musicians" (3). However, Morin in addition, shows that there are those artists who receive funding
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from NGOs to produce music that promotes "local cultural consciousness" (6). Morin also seeks
to address these ironies by explaining that such are common in sociocultural dynamics.

As one of the respondents observed, these artists (ref Bongo Flava Artists) use simple tunes, and
simple melodies. The same way Nigerians so you find East Africans can easy listen and enjoy their
music. The researcher observed that concerning this observation, almost all Bongo Flava songs
use simple music chord progression of I, V, IV, VI. Although the respondent had not used this
musicological explanation of the common voice motifs, he had come to notice that characterize
Bongo Flava, he was very right. This is in line with Englert exploration of what Bongo Flava is
and who the underground rappers are in Tanzania. In Bongo Flava, Swahili is used as the main
language of rapping though there is frequent code switching within the genre. This mostly involves
borrowing words from English and sometimes even from Tanzanian languages. She further
describes Bongo Flava as being "more Africanized" in beats as a way of popularizing the genre on
the world market as a unique African form of music. Bongo Flava is also highly popular among
young people and some of the singers are "underground rappers". These are artists who sing but
have not yet become successful or are only known in their localities or not even known. Englert
notes that, "though some "East Coasters" sing about love and party life, most rappers especially
among the "Undergrounds" address more serious topics: social problems, the poor state of the
educational system, HIV/AIDS, politics and corruption and especially the problems of the young
generation" (81).

Besides these observations, the researcher noticed that rarely does Bongo music employ very
complex 'tunes. Most often the musical scale is chosen based on ability of the pitch of the music
to bring out the expected mood and the manner of playing the instrument which imitate speech
mannerisms of words articulation and words enunciation. The manner of speech practice in order
to insinuate a given implied contextual information is common and the same characterize the
manner of singing. This is characterized and defined by the amount of emphasis and word stress a
singer employs, the manner and style of pulling or sustaining the vowels in order to infuse a poetic
and dramatic contextual information in one's utterance. These two techniques of speech practice
are intentionally employed to suggest particular information in form of oral nuances. This is
because these singing techniques as cultural expressions bear significance, which in this context
can be construed from an archetypal perspective of reading meaning in Oral Literature. As

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Browning observes for instance in a study that examines the importance of traditional dance and
drumming in Tanzania and how they are affected by westernization and globalization. The
advancement in technology Browning argues has contributed to the increase in the transfer of
culture among different communities which in turn affects their values, ideas and practices.
Traditional dances in Tanzania vary from one tribe to another and even in the tribes there are many
distinct dances. These dances played different roles including bringing people together, teaching
values and spreading messages. However, these roles have been picked up by the new forms of
technology such as televisions, radio and the internet. Browning also draws readers to the fact that
the young generation barely knows these traditional dances or their importance. Instead, they are
more familiar with hip hop music which promises a more lucrative life from the money it fetches.
Traditional dances do not earn as much money compared to hip hop. However, some continue to
dance because they love to do so and so continue to preserve this form of culture. Brownig
concludes that although the risk of traditional dances "becoming obsolete is debatable it is
important that as Tanzania continues to grow and develop, the remaining traditions such as dance
and drumming should be prioritized by citizens as well as the government" (24). Bongo Flava and
Taraab in this context can thus be said to define the evolution that could be taking place as a result
of interactions of cultures. The hybridization of traditional music, songs and dances has thus
directly and indirectly influenced not only the singing styles but also the led to creation of the
values the music genres ascribe and popularize. It can thus be argued that while on the one hand
Bongo Flava has its poetics informed by Swahili traditional tunes, the adoption of western voice
production techniques can lead to creation of value systems that challenge and contest Swahili
traditional values directly or indirectly. For instance, Diamond Platnumz voice techniques such as
crying on pitch, and dancing styles can be said to be influenced and to have borrowed a lot from
Michael Jackson's voice and dancing mannerisms. Arguably these forms of vocal expressions that
tend to appropriate femininity in tone and timbre, and which are also common in Marlaw's songs
can define forms of masculinity that tend to veer from the traditional masculine hegemony which
could be termed as "the Okonkwo complex".

As one of the respondents averred that Diamond Platnumz and Marlaw sing the soft type of Bongo
Flava music, the researcher observed that the two artists employs gentle and soft word articulation
techniques and in addition sustain their vowels significantly to elicit the emotions the intended
audience associate with how they relate to a given message, and attach value to it. In this context
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the researcher noted that the theme of love and the theme of death are highly emotive topics in
Swahili culture. Consequently, the artists sing by crying on pitch and avoid a lot of force when
enunciating the consonants. This creates the drama and the poetic salience that characterizes the
implied meaning in the songs. These singing techniques with time can be said to embody values
the artist as well as the audiences associate with the meaning implied in these singing techniques
as voices of a given class of members of the society. Notably, as Kibona argues, in the analysis of
the role of hip hop in shaping the political and economic structures of Dar-Es-Salaam and Accra.
In this analysis Kibona shows that both Tanzania and Ghana have a vibrant hip hop culture that
raises a social consciousness among its people. Since both countries share a history of socialist
ideals, hip hop plays a major social commentary role (Hip-Hop as Social Commentary in Accra
and Dar Es Salaam 23). The lyrics in the hip hop of young artists traverse politics, economic and
social spheres. "Hip Hop artists in Accra and Dar-Es-Salaam often critically examine government
leaders, though they differ slightly in how they do this. They also deconstruct social institutions
and economic oppression in songs that address urban life, migration, and the perceived failure of
elders to protect the youth" (Hip-Hop as Social Commentary in Accra and Dar-E-Salaam 24). The
artists use social media tools to disseminate their music and therefore can reach a large audience.
They are also able to transcend traditional barriers which offer a lot of resistance to social and
economic consciousness. Kibona also notes that while hip hop artists also define themselves as
hip-life artists, hip hop artist's in Tanzania completely dissociate themselves from Bongo Fava
artists. This is because in Tanzania, Bongo Flava "unlike hip-life contains very little social or
political commentary" (Hip-Hop as Social Commentary in Accra and Dar-Es-Salaam 29). Hip-
life in Ghana refers to songs sang over "High Life beats'' in Ghanian languages. Ultimately, hip
hop artists tell the stories that help their societies understand the social and political dynamics in
their countries. In addition, Kibona, discusses the role that social media plays in promoting hip-
hop music in Tanzania. She explains that the new hip-hop is similar in style, structure and even
identity with that in America. Hip-hop artists use this similarity to maintain authenticity though
they have also attempted at creating a unique Tanzanian hip-hop experience in the creation of
content and commentary.

The artists use social media to reach their audience both locally and internationally. The use of
social media has been influenced by several factors although it is not without challenges.
According to this study, artists have turned to social media to promote their music instead of
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relying on local promoters. However, the majority of Tanzanians do not have a very active social
presence. Also, the mainstream market comes with a lot of bureaucracy and does not offer a level
playing field for artists. Major corporations control who is promoted and what content is "friendly"
(1117). Artists use Facebook and YouTube as their main avenues to disseminate their music. They
also use the social media platforms to post on their personal lives, other artists and they also link
music videos to their posts as a way of generating income. These social avenues also help them
get social projects especially if they have many followers. "The increased use of social media has
resulted in numerous projects aimed at empowering artists and developing Hip-Hop as both a
culture and a way for artists to earn a living from their music" (The Role of New and Social Media
in Tanzanian Hip-Hop Production 1131).

Hip hop and Bongo Flava music genres as practices of youth ideologies can therefore, in this
context show factions of youths values which the respective fans of these music genres ascribe to.
In this regard generic choices can be said to function to define social identities of the youths. With
reference to Bongo Flava, one can therefore beg the question, why the simple melody characterized
by simply lyrics that are softly articulation attitude of most people towards the two themes are
characterized by the attitude of the need to be gentle. The simplicity of the tunes can thus be taken
to characterize the simplicity of though which most members of the society employ when
addressing matters of love or death. This simplicity of discourse and tonal nuances can be a
metaphor that signify simplicity and powerless state of being that define the reality of members of
a given class. In a related study, Erno, et al. discuss the impact that Bongo Flava has created in
Tanzania and the changes that have resulted from its increase in popularity.

According to the study, Bongo Flava is an artistic expression of the Tanzanian mind (3). This genre
has broadened its scope from offering social and political commentary to include diverse messages
that target young people who have become more and more Bongo Flava enthusiasts. This
popularity has also led to the commercialization of the genre and this has attracted a lot of criticism
that comes with the commodification of music. While music in Tanzania has previously been used
to propel what is considered as traditional morals and values, the rise in popularity of Bongo Flava
seems to have brought a change to this notion. The main ideas in some of the songs touch on love,
money and even fame. This is a great diversion from the past. However, the themes also point to
who the target audience for the songs are and what message appeals to them. In this case, the

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writers argue that Bongo Flava artists are dealing with the aspirations and issues that affect young
people. It is a reflection of the desires of young people to embrace their individualism and find
their niche in the society. The writers conclude that "while the social and political overtones of the
genre are less noticeable today, Bongo Flava can still be a way for young people to speak up and
negotiate their own identities as Tanzanians" (4).

In this regard, Bongo music can certainly be said to be music of the subaltern. The softness of the
voice and simplicity of the songs can thus be an indication of the simplicity of their minds and
judgement about their predicaments in life. This simplicity is thus an expression of helplessness
probably resulting from their inability to out maneuver the challenges that define their everyday
experiences. On this premise one thus notices that Bongo Flava is marked by a subsumed nuance
of complaint, selflessness and helplessness that can thus be said to reflect the turmoil that most
members of the reflected class in society endure in their daily lives. For the artists, however, music,
singing, dance and performance becomes a way of eking life to improve their economic conditions.
As evidenced in the report World Intellectual Property Organization, Dickson Nyariki, Caleb
Otieno, Doreen Sinare, and Alinda Lema notably, examines how the creative/copyright industries
in Tanzania contribute to the economic growth of the country through the revenue generated from
the industries locally and internationally. Their study acknowledges the importance of Copyright
Laws since they provide an avenue for artists to earn from copyright fees. Protection Laws also
encourage investors to invest in the creative industries thus offering employment opportunities to
artists. According to the study, the copyright industries' role in promoting economic growth in
Tanzania cannot be overlooked. The study establishes that in 2009, "employee numbers for
copyright-based industries were higher than those in health and social work, finance, real estate
and business services, construction, transport and communication, mining and quarrying and the
electricity, gas and water services" (38). In the same year "advertising topped the other core
copyright industries earning employees TZS 27.346 billion out of a total of TZS 28.272 billion"
(43). These and other statistics explain how important copyright industries are in Tanzania.

Concealing the economic agenda to improve the life of the artist by sale of music and invitation
for performances on the one hand, the emotions that characterize how the two artists sing, on the
other hand can be assumed to be aesthetic discourses for coloring the song, are metaphors of tears
which reflect the agonizing situations in everyday reality and inability of most members of society

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to transcend the challenges. The tears, implied in the emotions as the artist cry on pitch can be said
to be metaphorical in that they are reflection of the coping mechanism that finds its way into the
song. Song and music in this context become a platform for venting one's frustrations in life where
the performance become the site for self-expression. The cry in the artist voice is thus an
expression of the worry not only the persona but also a legion of members of the subaltern class
endure in their everyday life.

When drama characterizes the actions of the characters, the poetic salience implied in the voice is
the key theme expressed in the musical note duration. This duration creates in the mind of the
listener a mental picture of the mood the persona or other subjects in the song are going through.
Arguably this is meant for the audience to sympathize and empathize with the persona and other
characters in the song. This appeal to pity can thus be said to indicate discourses for seeking help
or assistance from those in authority or privileged position in society. Arguably, as the researcher
observed, poverty and harsh conditions of life could thus be the basis for the emotions that
characterize the wail and pain that define perdition as a sonic motif in most Bongo Flava songs.
The perdition as a sonic explicature in this context function to reflect the state of suffering, pain,
worry, helplessness and crave for help for most of the members of this class. It is therefore a
metaphor of social tribulations of a given class on the one hand and a call for social dialogue for
those in power to address the plight of the affected.

Tone in Bongo Flava is thus not only an artifice but also a discourse marker that designate class
ideology. In this context the voice of the artist simulates the gender relations, power structure,
social identities, and are employed to disambiguate meaning to facilitate ease of interpretation or
inference of the implied meaning. As a gender discourse, voice is sensitive to thematic concerns,
age difference between the speaker and the addressee e.g. Mother, girlfriend, relation to a male
speaker, and finally it is also sensitive to difference in sex. Where male speakers employ a tone
imbued with cordial regard when addressing members of the opposite sex. This was reported by
the respondents either directly or by implying and it is also confirmed in the quality of voice
Marlaw and Diamond Platnumz use when addressing the Audience, and the subsumed female
characters in their songs: Pii Pii- girl friend, Rita-wife, and Nikifa Kesho-mother. This is in line
with Eisenberg analysis of the songs and tracks produced by Kenyan youths in Mombasa and the
distinctive qualities that differentiate this music from that in other parts of Kenya especially in

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Nairobi where most Kenyan artists are based or produce their work from. While "Mombasani"
artists aim to create music that is easily identified as Coastal hip hop, the cultural identity conflict
of the Swahili (a major identity factor in Mombasa) still affects the production and perception of
Mombasani music. Andrew explains that the Swahili people are perceived as "neither completely
African nor by extension Kenyan" (556). Swahili artists therefore not only struggle to establish an
identity for themselves but also grapple with creating music that distinguishes them from other
Mombasani artists who are careful to avoid being associated with the Swahili culture. Mombasani
artists prefer to present themselves as part of the modern Mombasa and this is reflected in their
music videos that rarely feature places like the Old Town or Swahili culture. However, they use
Mombasa slang that is different from the more popular use of Sheng in Nairobi. The use of the
term Mombasani is also very purposeful as it "references an urban Kenyan experience unique to
the Coast" (560). However, this Mombasa identity is inclusive as it portrays the idea "of being and
not of or from" Mombasa. It therefore "rests upon a conceptual opposition to the Swahili Coast
and its subjects" (561). Consequently, Swahili artists are left out of this identity. Subsequently,
generic choices in this regard become forms of designating and practicing identity.

Other Results and Observations

This section discusses other results and observations which the researcher would honestly say were
unexpected.

Observations and Discussions

Although the researcher had a preset mind and assumption on how the voice in songs affects the
conveyance of meaning in songs, the responses from the students of literature presented very
different findings. This is because as observed in the previous chapters specialization of disciplines
such as music, literature, linguistics influence how the audience tends to draw meaning from the
audio (voice) text of songs. The interdisciplinary of this research thus unveiled the possibility of
rigidity, which informs how scholars tend to infer meaning in the voice as a text. The researcher
noted thus that each category of scholars tends to gravitate towards their major discipline.
Arguably this could be informed by the fact that this choice is based on their area of competence.

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The researcher, therefore, failed in his earlier assumption of the possibility of a universal way in
which meaning implied in sound can be inferred. He thus observed that ability to infer meaning in
song voice is discipline sensitive and this is influenced by the experience and competence the
listener brings to a song. There is therefore not one way of discerning implied meaning in the
voices of a song's melody. Within literary studies and literary criticism culture, context, Artist,
message, Audience, character implied in the song and a people's ideological standpoints from the
major tenets that literary scholars operationalize when underpinning thematic concerns and their
respective relevance in songs. Acquiring knowledge and skills in different disciplines the
researcher observed lead to a multifaceted ability and skills which one can apply to infer and
articulate meanings encompassed in audio texts.

Observation on Interdisciplinary Nature of the Research

It was observed that it was very difficult for the researcher to make the respondents think of
meaning in the context of a different discipline other than the one they have specialized in e.g.
literature students were biased towards describing meanings in songs in the context of lexical
choices and stylistic use of lexical choices in texts. Music students, on the other hand, favoured a
musicological approach that was characterized by a description of the melody from a musical
notion with little effort to tie the description to implied meaning discernible in the voice of the
artist. Notably, the researcher observed that this is a discrepancy in literary criticism especially of
oral literature text that could result from relying on stylistic criticism techniques that do not
advance how meaning implied in the voice as an audio text can be critiqued from a literary
perspective. To bridge this gap, the researcher thought that besides teaching oral literature in class
from a theoretical perspective, performances, and voice labs can be made mainstream in the
teaching of Orature as a performed at as opposed to oral literature which is the transcribed version
of the oral work of art. In addition, borrowing sonic terms used to describe the effect different
voices e.g. sounds in a film have on the audiences can be adopted to form part of the major terms
and concepts that critiques can use to discuss the meanings one may infer in a voice as an audio
text.

Moreover, the sound engineers/sound technicians, on the other hand, could contextualize how the
sound production machines; such as sound mixers are controlled to shape the expected meaning

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in the voice but appeared to face difficulties to explain why they do what they do. They were,
however, conversant on the sensitivity of the audiences and how the final sound quality brings out
the expected meaning based on the message in the lyrics.

Observation on Methods and Methodology

After experimenting with the voice from a stylistic perspective in literature, music, and sound
production perspectives, the researcher noticed that there are very many methods through which
the knowledge that the researchers expected to contribute in doesn't and cannot work. This is
because the knowledge sought after by this research seems to take an interdisciplinary approach.
This is constituted of knowledge and background in Literature, Linguistics, Music, Anthropology,
and Sound production. Such an all-rounded person can or could adequately handle the extreme
and convergences within which meaning conveyed in voice is passed from one person to another.
The research thus acknowledges Wasamba's (2015:33) assertion that Oral Literature is
multidisciplinary in nature. The researcher observed that owing to already set traditions that appear
to govern research practices in different disciplines such as Literature, Linguistics, Music,
Anthropology, and sound engineering, there is an extent to which disciplines face rigidity and
completely cannot be merged or mixed. On the other hand, there is an extent to which genres as
well as disciplines, cannot merge. The only merging the researcher observed can only happen if
the processes of mixing contextualize the sought merging in the context of the already set
disciplinary practices within a given discipline as a school of thought.

Challenges Faced During Data Collection and Interpretation

a. Methodology
b. Interviewees
c. Data Analysis
d. Interpretation of Results
e. Research Equipment - (lost mobile phone)

Observations on Methodology

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Between 2014 and 2016, the researcher encountered several failures since many of the data
collection methods employed at this time failed. This was attributed to the interdisciplinary nature
of the research. At the inception stage, the researcher employed a sound engineering approach in
the formulation of research questions for the questionnaires and data interpretation. This
questionnaire was presented to Theatre and Performance students and music major students. The
students could not, however, give feedback that could have been relied upon since they were not
able to contextualize and see the relationship between the sound engineering technical terms and
concepts and their relevance in literature as sound devices. The literature students unfortunately
were not able to understand these terms since as many observed in their oral responses, they had
not been taught these terms in any of their literature classes.

The researcher revised the questionnaire and replaced the technical terms for musical terms and
concepts. Once again the terms and concepts appeared strange and as a result, the literary scholars
(students) could not understand the research questions from a musicological perspective. As a
result, the researcher had to recast the questions in descriptive ordinary language which appeared
accommodative to the language the target audience understood with ease. The researcher in
addition noted that he was taking a lot for granted and had to accept the emerging reality that
although he was familiar with Technical terms in music, literature, and sound production the same
was not the case with students who have majored in these disciplines.

To mitigate this challenge, the researcher dropped the subjective approach, which was rather self-
serving, and instead experimented with a conversational approach to data collection.
Consequently, the researcher opted for interviews and focus group interviews to tailor the intended
research and data collected towards the competencies of the respondents. Following the responses,
the interviewees gave, this method proved fruitful because the researcher could recast, and reframe
the questions and in addition seek clarification from the respondents. Consequently, the researcher
was able to make inferences and cross-check information and facts from the interviewees. When
interviewing Kenyan scholars, the researcher observed that the respondents lacked first-hand
experience of Swahili culture as opposed to Tanzanian students. The researcher thus faced a big
problem as a result of the assumption that he could have gotten the responses with regards to
cultural influence and effect from respondents whose cultures were different from Swahili and
Bongo Flava.

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The Tanzanian students, however, were much at home with the music and the extent to which the
artist draw from the Swahili culture. Consequently, the researcher was able to gain a lot in terms
of insights from the students who had a Swahili cultural background. Unfortunately, the fact that
100% of these respondents would respond to questions on thematic concerns, and songwriting
only a few were able to explain the technical aspect of voice as oral nuances. Apart from the sound
technicians, and a few others who had prior experience of the studio, the rest were not able to
explain the relevance which they discern in a song as a result of sound production techniques. In
addition, the sound technician had the prerequisite vocabulary but, they would not competently
explain the literary relevance that informs the applications of artistic choices in the voice of
instruments and the voice of the artist. As a result, the researcher noted and observed that a
researcher cannot design any research methodology independent of the knowledge and experiences
of the target respondent.

Solution Adopted in Data Analysis and Interpretation

The researcher sought to identify major motifs that were recurring in the description and
explanations the respondents used to describe how they infer meaning in the song. These formed
the codes which the researcher employed to investigate and critique how listeners attach meaning
to oral expressions. Code in this context was contextualized as a word or phrase that is used to link
to the idea and meaning associated with a given impression. The researcher sought to identify
patterns in the collected data. And to observe the evolving patterns. This was on the understanding
that evolving trends I research reveal meanings that reveal something significant in relation to the
research questions. Consequently, the emerging patterns allowed the researcher to come up with
themes. The theme in this case to mean a theoretical construct that can be supported by the ensuing
data. Consequently, this leads to the identification of themes. Themes in this regard reflect the
essence of a pattern within the data in the context of the research question. A code in this case was
understood as a form of description of the data segment that assigns meaning. The codes were then
to be categorized and it is these categories that were then to produce the themes.

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This was conceptualized as follows:
CODE
This was conceptualized as follows:
CODE
Description of a segment of data that assign meaning.

Category Category

Derived from codes and more conceptual and abstract

Theme Theme Theme Theme

Theoretical construct that explains similarities or variations across codes

A theme in this case was understood as an entity that brings meaning and identity to a given pattern
and its various expressions. Themes in this regard developed from the patterns.

The researcher employed in part the following methods of coding;

a) Descriptive coding- Narratives based on data. Summarizes the data using sentences. (helps
to maintain the meaning a speaker intended)
b) In Vivo coding – Uses single words to identify themes in the data, words, and short phrases
from respondents' language.
c) Emotion Coding – uses descriptive emotion words from the respondents or researcher and
their inferences.

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Following the effect, the codes have on meaning, this was treated as triggers. Such are the feelings
that the voice of the artist cause and consequential emotions which are the emotions, feelings, and
meanings which the listener experiences.

This can be summarized as follows:

From Data to Categories, and from Categories to Themes. The relevant meaning is attached to the
data. This was based on the understanding that analysis involves uncovering patterns in data and
interpretation involves uncovering meaning and multiple meanings. The researcher then
endeavored to provide evidence of multiple meanings present in data by identifying the relevant
themes that support the purported meaning. The song in this context was construed as a cultural
product that reflects the multiple discourses that reflect the shared experiences between the artist
and the target audiences. The meaning that results can be examined by questioning the meaning
and value the audiences and the artist ascribe to a song test the hypothesis and change the
hypothesis appropriately, as data may demand.

Interviewees

The researcher had a challenge with interviewees were upon, while some understood the cultural
affect their day-to-day life experience has on their music appreciation habit, many know but fee
had adequate vocabulary with which to express themselves. Many resulted in giving a story in the
hope that what they want to communicate will emerge from the context of the story or analogy.
Consequently, the researcher had to readjust the data interpretation procedure, to focus more on
making inferences.

Challenges Faced During Data Analysis Stage

One of the challenges faced during data analysis was the verification of the information the
respondents gave in relation to their interpretation of meaning which they infer in the voice. While
it was easy to underpin figures of speech in lexical text such as imagery, metaphors, alliteration to
mention a few, the respondents used adjectives such as nice, sad, romantic, etc. to describe the
effect voice of the artist had on them as the listener. It was, however, challenging, in the beginning,
to decipher how this can be measured, analyzed, and documented.

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The researcher consequently, had to revise the tools of analysis set earlier in the research to
incorporate sound production tools such as graphic equalizers. The aim of using these tools was to
assess how the trajectory of voice lead to the meaning the respondents had described using
adjectival terms. This process was laborious and time-consuming. In addition, the researcher
observed that the tweaking of graphic equalizers has a significant effect on the voice of the artist.
This led to another challenge of how this can be recorded and documented.

The researcher decided to employ frequency range to calibrate the data, but the interpolation of Hz
did not appear to make sense to literary scholars but instead, this led to unforeseen confusion since
the literary audience could not relate to mathematical figures with the least effort. The researcher
as a result replaced figures with musicological terms such as bass, (for low frequency) and Soprano
(for high frequency). This did not help much either because one, the make artists whose voices
were being examined sang only within a limited range that was more of tenor and not in all the
voice ranges. Two, this approach could not underpin the semantic differences the listeners can
infer within the voice of the artist. On the other hand, the musicological approach could not
underpin the semantic differences the listeners can infer with the voice of the artist. On the other
hand, the musicological approach could not clearly explain how the same range and timbre of the
artist's voice could yield a variety of meanings such that the listeners can construe the voice as sad,
happy, romantic to mention a few. Moreover, literary scholars did not make sense of the musical
approach whereupon the transcription of the song into musical score sheet, the music sheet could
not deliver the exact tone that was heard through the speaker when the song was played.

The music sheet approach thus failed because although it gives details of the melody of a song, it
is devoid of the exact tone of the singer on the one hand and the other hand, this research is a study
in Literature and performance scholars in this area, especially students, do not know how to read
music sheet. Consequently, the researcher had to define a way of appending the audio text on the
written document and in addition borrowed from linguistics the concept of modality and the
concept of sonic text. This is because these two approaches enabled room for further elaborations
of the adjectival terms that listeners associated with the meaning they inferred in the voice of the
artist.

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The researcher thus adopted this approach because it enabled contextualization and interpretation
of data with regard to the data that had been collected. Upon this breakthrough the researcher
borrowed from Theatre performance, and film criticism upon the realization that the voice of the
artist not only employs latent linguistic skills to cause or enunciate a given meaning but also that
the manner of enactment involves conscious muscle coordination of speech organs to bring the
intended meaning to bear. On the other hand, it was easy for literary scholars (students) to apply
terms employed in film criticism and film scores to infer and describe meaning ostensibly
conveyed in the voice of the artist by attaching literary meaning to the film audio style that define
the effect a voice has on a listener based on one's listening experience. This method was tested
with a second-year class of oral literature. The researcher observed that upon introduction of the
sonic terms as style that can be used to explain the meaning that can be inferred in the voice, the
students were able to advance the earlier adjectival description to elucidate literary salient form of
criticism by following a series of easy to follow steps: These were underpinned at adjectival level
- identification of sonic term that best describes the - experience criticism of the purpose as to why
the artist may have opted for this effect based on the effect it brings to the song as a result of the
manner of rendition.

Research Equipment

The researcher lost a Huawei smartphone in Tanzania during the research and data collection stage.
The phone in addition to contacts and messages contained part of the research collected data which
had been recorded both in audio and video. This data was lost before transcription. However,
through the contacts of the interviewees and the relations established during the first interview, the
researcher was able to make follow-ups on call to verify the information that had been lost. The
researcher as a result of this experience learned that it is not good to trust strangers with equipment
during fieldwork.

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Explanations of How These Potential Explanations and Findings Can Be Tested

As the data collected and the analysis showed, the respondents did not articulate clearly how
various aspects of voice can be explored and examined. But instead, the responses they gave made
it clear that they were responding to the effect voice has on how they attach meaning in songs.
This was in line with the hypothesis that the voice of the artist bears literary relevance which can
be inferred from the manner of voice usage and the expected meaning an artist would want the
listeners to infer from the song.

However, other than the music producer Haroub Msingala, and one other respondent who has a
bedroom studio all other respondents did not show signs of understanding how the voice as a
performance practice functions to shape the meaning listeners infer from the voice of the artist. It,
therefore, appeared to the researcher that though the interviewed respondents were students of
literature, they did not appear to understand how phonation techniques as an aspect of performance
influence ostensive communication or meaning that can be inferred from the voice based on the
manner of utterance. The researcher hereby wishes, therefore, to observe that the effect the voice
has on the listener can easily be tested by examining or questioning the mood the voice creates in
the audience or the images, and thoughts the voice creates on the audience. The voice in this
context functions as a semantic consequence. The manner of voice production or the performance
in this context functions as a semantic trigger.

Although largely this research has focused on the results of the voice as implicature and hence the
stylistic texts that are encompassed in voice, this section provides insights into how phonation
techniques that are in operation during performance and voice production can be tested and hence
their effect on meaning underscored. The movement of the tongue and the lower and the upper lips
as they achieve speech organs against the passive organs leads to the creation of voice when the
speech organs and the air stream from the lungs come in contact. This leads to the articulation of
the consonants and when there is no total air obstruction of the air the creation of the vowels. This
process can be termed articulation.

As the researcher noted, when the artists understudy articulated their words, gently or softly e.g.
to suggest love and romance, the respondents would easily identify and describe the manner of
utterance as soft. The opposite of this would be Hard e.g. the voice people use when issuing the

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command. In both of these cases, the soft and hard articulation, the researcher noticed that a variety
of speech organs are involved and they all function in unique ways to make the voice carry or
create the intended meaning. In addition to the amount of energy a speaker uses to shape the
intended meaning from hard to soft, the researcher noticed that the length of time a speaker or
singer holds or sustains the notes or the sounds can also vary or shift meaning based on the amount
of force and duration through which one holds the voice.

The researcher noticed that context and the shared knowledge that define contextual information,
cultural experience, gender, age, the relationship between the speaker and the listener, and
expectation of the speaker are among the major factors that influence the manner of articulation.
During Performance, the process of voice rendition is characterized by the coordination of various
muscles to create the expected effect on the voice. Following a couple of experiments with the
voice, the researcher observed that features of the voice can be examined by focusing on the source
of rendition. Consequently, the researcher identified the following sites, which significantly affect
the texture of the voice thereby having a significant effect on meaning.

Voice

a. Frontal sinus
b. Nasal cavity
c. Sphenoid sinus
d. Ethmoid sinus
e. Maxillary sinus
f. Cheeks
g. Lips
h. Oral cavity
i. Larynx
j. Chest cavity

The researcher observed that the manner of air control by the diaphragm, and the amount of energy
exerted by a speaker, and how the airstream comes in contact with these regions leads to the

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creation of sonic effects present in the voice. When this is associated with the message conveyed
in the lyrics and cultural context, it yields the implied meaning expressed in the voice as oral
nuances.

If the amount of energy a speaker employs when making an utterance, in this case, can be referred
to as an attack and the duration one holds the notes the release time, the researcher noticed that
using a sound compressor (a music production and voice editing equipment-used for shaping the
oral nuances in a voice) one can easily measure and assess the attack and release which yields the
intended meaning in a voice. Graphically the researcher sought to represent this as follows:

Attack

(Amount of Sustain
energy
used when
uttering
words)
Ratio
STRESS
Time

Release

Using the studio voice compressor, the researcher observed that the higher the attack and the
shorter the release the more a voice acquires a format, and very officials nuance. And the lower
the attack and the longer the release time, the friendlier and less formal a voice/sound feels in the
listener's ears. In addition, the researcher noticed that the human body similarly uses the diaphragm
to control the nuances suggested in an oral speech. Phonotation in this regard shapes the meaning

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the listener can infer based on the message and context. The art and technique of voice creation
thus become a semantic trigger, which shapes the voice based on the meaning one wants to convey.

While the speaker makes an utterance, the researcher also observed that other than the mouth (Oral
cavity) the nasal cavity and the different sinuses affect the quality of the voice as a result of the
resonance that comes from the different sinuses. When some air passes through the oral cavity and
another amount of air passes through the nose and is vibrated by the sinuses, this leads to the
creation of the harmonics in the voice. The researcher noticed that this is what gives the voice the
largest amount of emotions especially if a singer appropriates the nasal cavity and the maxillary
and sphenoid sinuses to imitate a cry. This is a technique common with Marlaw and Diamond
Platnumz. Consequently, theory voices are laden with emotions that can be metaphorical based on
the message in the song. In this context, the suggested emotions can be examined as nuances and
onomatopoeic. The researcher noted that these can be measured, controlled, and shaped using the
equalizers e.g. the graphic equalizer, the parametric equalizer, and the mixing console. In the body
of the human being, the control of the nose to vary the site of phonation or resonance in the three
parts of the nose namely the superior turbinate, mid turbinate, and inferior turbinate is the main
technique that shapes the harmonics in the voice. This is the technique that is responsible for the
creation of emotions and introspection nuances in a voice. If this leads to the appeal to emotion as
a rhetoric technique in oral speech. This can be tested by shutting one's nose by pinching/pressing
it hard with fingers from the side.

In addition, the researcher noticed that the tune (melody) of a song is key in determining the mood
and the effect the voice has on the audience. The manner of articulation, the phonation, and
harmonics, therefore, as well as the melody form the three basic levels at which the voice function
to shape the meaning encompassed in the voice of the artist. How high or low an artist sings in this
regard will not only depend on one's vocal range but the melody will be chosen within not only
one's voice range but also the mood the voice is expected to create based on the nature of the
message. The mood in this regard leads to the choice of the model or the scale or the key of the
artist's voice. The techniques of words enunciation, in this case, will be determined by the rhythm
of the song, the speed (tempo), and the meter. Graphically the researcher noticed that this can be
represented as follows:

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 Pitch
Melody

Harmonies

Root Acceleration

Intonation (melody)

The movement of the melody based on the nature of the voice of the artist (as evidenced in the
interview with the music producer Haroub Msigala) will be dependent upon the artist's voice to
express the intended message by implicature. In this context, the listener should feel and identify
with the message in the song based on the style of singing, style of words articulation, and the
effect of the resulting harmony. Consequently, this leads to the accumulative effect the voice of
the artist has on the listener based on how well it paints the message goes the song. During
rehearsals, the researcher thus observed that the artist practices enacting the message by the
appropriation of one's voice until one can capture the mood and attitude of the audience.

Ability to capture the mood results from one's acumen and style of appropriating the harmonics.
The ability of one to capture the attitude depends on one's ability to infuse the intended meaning
by appropriating cultural nuances, tone, and intonations as well as stress patterns as to imply the
interpretation the artist expects the audiences to consider as they (audience) infer the rhetorical
purpose for a given manner of singing. Consequently, the combination of the three parameters is
Rendition, harmonics, and Interval leads to the emergence of the sonic effect(s), which becomes
present or permissible in the voice of the artist. The critic in this regard can examine the purpose
or expectation the artist may have wanted to achieve by appropriating one's voice the way one
does. Based on the mood the voice brings to bear, the critic can then use the terms used in
explaining and discussing sonic in everyday experience, to attach relevance to why the artist may
give sang or express a given message in a given way. The sonic effects in this regard can be
construed as style and stylistic features employed for a particular semantic purpose. In this regard,
the voice of the artist has a filmic effect that is cinematographic in the mind of the listener, based

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on the message of the song and the cultural values. The researcher noted that depending on how
well one sings, the voice of the artist in this case can elicit/create in the mind of the listener a
variety of effects. For instance, it can invoke memories an effect known as anamnesis, it can elicit
exuberance excitement and romance a feeling known as phonotonie, it can create a deep sad feeling
known as perdition, it can have a blissful feeling known as sharawanji, to mention a few.

The observation of this section can be tested by changing the pitch and tempo of any song. The
researcher noticed that the higher the tempo and pitch, the great the level of excitement as a mood
manifests in a song, and the lower the pitch and tempo the greater the solemn noted and dullness
as the sonic effect. The tempo (speed) and pitch of a song is best set based on the most appropriate
texture of the singer's voice to express the sensibilities and meaning listeners associate with the
message and are addressing. The researcher consequently concluded that based on the different
textures of people's voices based on cultures, age, sex, and speech mannerism, this become the
origin of the different music genres that there are in the world. Any genre in this regard is an
expression of an aspect of a people's culture, social perspectives, cultural viewpoints, and
ideologies.

The total becomes an expression of a facet of a given people's philosophies. Bongo Flava in this
regard the researcher noted is an expression of discourses of the weak members in the society. It
is thus an expression of their dissatisfaction with the order of things, where audio aesthetics are
employed to attract and entice the listeners so as one can pay attention to the message in the song
and at the same time to camouflage sensitive meaning into euphemism discourses. This is because
the aim of the artist in expressing these social problems that characterize the reality of the subaltern
days in society, is not to criticize and pass harsh judgment, but it is to invite the members of the
society to correct or to address them to improve their lives, hence leading to a better society that
is more just and equitable for all. Song and film in this regard serve to reflect the daily problems
which the young people in society contend with. A case in point is Thompson's interview which
brings out the experiences and challenges that Josiah Kibira encountered in producing Kiswahili
films in the U.S.A and Tanzania. Josiah, having immigrated to Kansas City in the U.S.A, expounds
on his experiences as an African student living in America and life after college. He cites loneliness
as one of the challenges he faces especially during holidays and festive seasons. He also expresses
his dismay when people asked him whether Tanzania was in Africa yet he was already familiar

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with Kansas, its people, economic activities, and even its major highways before he even went to
America. Josiah explains how these experiences and challenges influenced his decision to produce
Kiswahili films. "Imagine this: before I made Bongoland there was (no place) here in the States
where a Tanzanian could get Swahili movies. Now they can" (17). He reveals that there are very
many similarities between his film Bongoland and what he experienced as an individual. "Like
Juma, I have been denied jobs, passed on promotions, and stuck in one job grade for a long time.
The whole intention of Bongoland was to show people back home that life is not as easy as we all
grew up thinking…" (42). Though his films received a good reception in Tanzania and the U.S,
producing them was not an easy task. Lack of experience on his and the producer's part, a rejection
of his grant applications, and a harsh African climate for some of his crew members are some of
the obstacles they encountered in shooting and producing the films.

From a music production perspective, the pitch and tempo, manner of articulation, and the
harmonics accumulatively form and suggest implied attitudes, temperaments, judgments,
concealed emotions, and all these functions to communicate explicit and implied thematic
concerns which the artist expects to share with the listeners. In this regard, the researcher noticed
and observed that music and song are powerful cultural tools appropriated to issue social protest
messages in the guise of other less sensitive themes such as explicit messages. But upon
examination of the root cause of the persona or character's fate, one realizes that the surface
meanings are juxtapositions employed to create double meanings where the concealed (implied)
meanings engender sharp criticism of social evil in society. The artist in this regard appropriate
parallelism which only becomes visible upon a critical examination of the relationship between
the message expressed in the lyrics and the verbal (phonic) manner of voice appropriation.

A song such as "Rita" in this context may represent thematic concerns of a dirge based on the
message of the lyrics, but at the same time qualifies as a discourse of social protest against racism
and suffering of the less powerful in society. This is evidenced in the aural effect in the voice of
the artist where the moderate tempo of singing, ordinary/natural pitch (based on the voice of the
artist), manner of words articulation, and resultant harmonies invite the audience into the dialogue
the persona is having with the implied audience and society at large.

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The song "Pii Pii" in this case, though it disguises as a love song, is and can be construed as
discourse articulating themes on gender protest. This is reflected in the voice of the artist as
complaints of psychological harassment by a lover who is not loving and kind enough to bear with
him as he waits for the traffic to ease so that he gets home. The cry in the voice of the persona
portrays the female character as pushy and unreasonable. Arguably, it is this weakness that defines
her character that the persona could thus be addressed directly in his choice of lyrics and the tone
of his voice.

The song "Nikifa Kesho" in this context though it presents a surface meaning of a person who
worries as to whether his music fans and friends will mourn him when he dies; the song is an
expression of the pains and sufferings that characterize the psychological turmoil that define the
thoughts of the poor and less fortunate in society. This is brought out in the voice of the artist as a
result of the voice technique of crying on pitch, appropriation of the inferior turbinates, gentle
attacks, and long release of the words as well as pitch placement of the voice to ensure it captures
the tone of suffering common with ordinary people and how they articulate their worries in their
discourses. The art of using aesthetic and artist features is a rhetorical practice of criticizing the
society without causing harm on injury to those who are the source of the suffering others to endure
in society. Arguably, this is because two wrongs don't make a right, and most probably because
the artist feels all members of a given society should co-exist together in peace and harmony.

Cadence

This research, in addition, noted that as Wasamba (2015) observes performances are made up of
rhythms and cadences, repetitions and intonations, the use of particular speech forms such as
anecdote or reported speech, the use of the dialect, as well as volume, tone and speed (13). As this
research observed, cadence results from notes and chords combination (movement/progression)
thus leading to cadence e.g. plagal cadence, etc. The voice of the chords and resulting melody
(tune) imitate human emotions members of a given culture associate with the mood they
appropriate when expressing the resultant theme and thematic concerns expressed in the lexical
choice in the context of the accompanying melody, (TUNE). The chord movement resulting from
cadences imitates emotions specific to cultural and anthropological tunings of Tone, pitch,

190
intonation, and mood. It is this tuning that characterizes the emotions resulting from the mood a
given people employ to constitute meaning implied in oral (verbal) texts.

The pattern of the melody gives the character of the cadence. The cadence bears cultural value
entrenched in the nuance of voice. Although musicology has named different cadences e.g. plagal
cadence, etc. the value of a cadence is in the meaning the cadence foregrounds. The meaning
implied in cadences can be examined using the following steps:

a) Identification of the cadence

b) Identification of the effect resulting from the cadence as a sonic text.
c) Explanation of value (purpose-why) resulting from the relevance associated with the
message in the context of the mood the cadence creates.

Summary of examination of chords as cadence

The chord progression can be examined as cadences by examining the melodic contour and the
effect it creates using the following steps:

a) Identification of the chord progression.

b) Naming the cadence using available terms either in Literature, Linguistics, or Musicology.
c) Explanation of the Mood, or Mode, or Modality that results from the cadence.
d) Explanation of the effect it has on the message in the song.
e) Explanation of the relevance this has as a sonic and stylistic feature.

Voice as Performance

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Song performance simulates five major paradigms for the expected meaning to be brought to bear.
In this case, the artist bears in mind all these five factors during the performance.

a) Artist - Identity (of oneself and what one wants to represent or reflect)
b) Message - Concerns that define the purpose of the message and performance.
c) Culture - cultural norms and social values and the role they play in
determining artistic choices one appropriates.
d) Character - persons or addressee in the song who the persona addressee.
e) Audience - Expected audience and their sensibilities and sensitivity to the
message the artist is addressing.

These five define the basis of context in performance

Voice as Cultural Practice

Manner of speech adheres to linguistic and Anthropological dictates of culture. This forms the
nuances in a verbal text. Cultural values inform the nuances and meanings they represent. The
implied meaning in oral nuances can be examined by focusing on the mood resulting from
Tone as a rhetoric practice. Pitch in this case of a given voice can be examined based on the
Tonic, supertonic, median, subdominant, Dominant, Submedian, and Diminished as various
degrees of the pitch which can be appropriated for particular aesthetic and semantic functions.

Mood (Scale)
Pitch

Time

Intonation/Melody

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 Energy or
Intensity Sustain
(Attack)

The higher the attack and the short the

release the formal the voice and vice versa

Time
Release

Conclusion

This research was valuable in appreciation of oral poetry, film, and performance studies. The
research observed that there was a way in which adaption of voice to meaning of the lyrics in a
song functioned to enrich the meaning a song was capable of communicating. The research
operated on the hypothesis that there was a role the voice, and melody of the artist's voice play in
a song to enrich the message conveyed in the verbal text and to influence the interpretation of
implied meanings in a song. This engendered a practice of voice aesthetics which operationalize a
philosophical background of cultural meaning permeated in the voice as oral nuances. The voices
in a song as well as in a film, it was argued, define contexts for meaning constitution and
permeation. The research, therefore, focused on a stylistic approach of reading voice—as texts—
and their respective forms of accentuations to underpin the principles informing voice operations
that help govern how the voice function to bring the intended meaning to bear.

Following the data analysis, results, and findings, this research arrived at the following
conclusions. Examination of literary meaning encompassed in the voice of the artist can be
achieved using the following steps:

a) Identify the voice under examination

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 b) Listen
c) Identify relevance associated with the manner of expression based on the expected
context – (this is the filtering process) where the voice function as anaphones and
the interpretation process involves identification of the encyclopaedic entries
listeners operationalize to infer meaning.
d) Underscore cultural and tacit assumptions the artist and the intended audience are
likely to operationalize in order to infer meaning from the manner of expression.
e) Identify sonic terms that can best explain the effect that results from the listening
experience.
f) Discuss the consequent meaning associated with the effect the mood in the voice
can have on the listeners.
g) Underscore the relevance of the resulting mood to the thematic concerns based on
the message of the song as envisaged in the given people's cultural norms and social
values.

The research also concluded that the voice of the artist and the tune (Melody of a song) functions
as forms of interpretations of cultural meanings and cultural sensibilities which members of a given
community attach to thematic concerns. The voice of the artist and the tune (Melody of a song)
the voice of the artist and the tune (Melody of a song) in addition function as enactments of
meanings, and emotions that members of a given community associate with thematic experiences.
These enactments bear literary relevance that can be examined from a stylistic perspective. The
voice of the artist and the tune (Melody of a song) also functions as a foil in music and song. In
this context, the voice and song melody bear characteristic features reflective of given ideologies.
From a film criticism perspective, the voice and the melody in this regard create mis-es-scence in
the mind of the listener. This is an enactment of the situation that defines the reality the artist
addresses in the song that is based on the scenes and experiences the voice evokes in the listener's
mind.

The tune Melody and notes that form the words articulations imitate speech and modality implied
in a given way of speaking. Music sounds imitate experiences, situations, emotions moods,
characters, persons, animal voices, attitudes, and therefore thematic concerns in audio texts can be
inferred by assigning, describing, explaining, or analyzing the VALUE the compose, performers

194
audiences, and a given society attach to their music can be deduced as power practice when
conceived in the context of the effect it has on listeners as evidenced in the actions, thoughts,
feelings, mood it invokes in the listener. TONE in this context leads to invocation of FORMs of
JUDGMENT, whereupon the discourse between a speaker (voice) and listener, audience
operationalizes permeation of meaning. The tone in this context simulates and enacts practices of
ideology. The IDEOLOGIES that define characterize, shape, and influence particular
interpretation and assignment of meaning can be examined and analyzed by QUESTIONING the
assumptions that inform the values agents attach to a given text. May it be a book, the author,
characters, culture, reader, audience, or an oral text.

Tone, mood, and timbre it can be concluded are dependent on the harmonics an artist appropriates
while singing. And the artists and the audiences attach relevance to the voice-based on the effect
the tone, tune, and timbre of the voice has on the expected meaning. This is dependent on the
cultural experiences associated with the nuances encompassed in a style of singing. Such
expressions as cultural experiences bear Anthropological, Literary, Linguistic, Musical, and
Philosophical significance. And lastly, that the meaning encompassed in the voice of the artist is
subject to the lexical message conveyed in the song. It was thus concluded that attachment of
meaning implied in the voice of the artist operates at two levels; one, identification of the message
in the song, two, identification of sonic implicatures, three, attachment of relevance (meaning) to
the sonic features that characterize the voice of the artist; based on the manner of rendition,
resulting harmonics in the voice and ensuing tune as cadence.

It was also concluded that that the manner of singing (voice appropriation), can function to reveal
a singer's attitude towards; the audience, the message in the song, oneself, the implied character(s)
in the song, the culture, and ideologies of the respective society. The attitude of the artist in this
context reveals ideological standpoints that define the value the artist attaches to the thematic
concerns one articulates in the song.

Recommendation

The research observed that criticism of literary meaning implied in the voice of the artist faces
problems from a literary perspective. One is a problem of adequate vocabulary with which to
articulate in written form, what is perceived through the ear, and two is a problem of method. There

195
appear to lack adequate methods for analyzing the perceivable meaning passed from the singer to
the audiences in form of aural nuances. In the light of the above concerns, the research sought to
make the following recommendations.

Literature as a discipline can adopt sonic features described in the book Sonic Experience: A Guide
to Everyday Sounds Ed. Jean –Francois and Torgue Henry, translated by Andra McCartney and
David Paquette, McGill-Queen's University Press, London, as a stepping stone towards stylistic
criticism of literary meaning encompassed in the voice as text. This will enrich stylistic studies
and stylistic criticism because the knowledge of critic features in voices and their criticism
procedure can be used to add and expand the already existing criticism of Drama, Oral Poetry,
Songs, Performance, Theatre, and Films Studies and Orature. Literature can adopt the rudiments
of the chord progression in song or music tunes (melody) as Cadences. This adoption can aid in
explication studies of implied meanings in songs as literary texts.

In addition, the artist's voice and the sound of musical instruments in songs arguably bear literary
meaning while examined in the context of meaning the lyrics imply. The literary meaning
discernible in the sound is created during song composition and production stages to qualify salient
contexts in which implied meaning in the songs can be discerned. Techniques informing
appropriation of sound technology operate invariably, within linguistic contexts in order to signify
aspects in which poetic meaning in the song can be discerned. Listening to a song from a literary
perspective in this context provokes the question its sound features play to influence how meaning
in the song or poem can be interpreted. Research in songs, film studies, and oral poetry appear to
face a discrepancy, however, in analytical methodology that can be applied to examine the
influence sound production techniques have on meaning. The relationship between the lyrics
meaning and the role of the accompanying audio aesthetics in songs, therefore, calls for the need
to examine the literary meaning musical sound brings into the song warrants for a theoretical
procedure in the literature on songs and on sound technology that can be employed to analyze
literary meaning encompassed in the sound of a sound in songs.

Filling these criticism gaps for instance can enrich the meaning film critics infer from a Film. For
instance, the program, "Going on an East African Safari" is a Swahili virtual adventure program
intended to help 9th and 10th-grade learners visit and explore Nairobi National Park and Tsavo

196
National Park in Kenya. Learners are expected to virtually experience traditional songs and dances
of the locals in these two parks as well as learn about the migration of wildebeests. This program
aims at promoting culture, content, and language learning through the various teaching and
learning experiences incorporated in the program. One listening and speaking goal for Intermediate
Mid learners is "to write and present a review of a local song or dance in Kenya" (21). Learners
are also expected to orally respond to questions about Taarab songs and dances. "Learners will
select their favorite song and dance based on a local culture such as Bongo and practice it. They
will then perform the song to an audience…" (21). This program, therefore, exposes learners to
the different cultural performances of the locals in the videos.

The voice in this context can be treated as performance and oral expressive which form and is
capable of suggesting a literary meaning. The research examined for instance, how fans of Bongo
Flava songs attach meaning to sound as a result of the various sound production tools and
techniques the sound producers operationalize during the song production process. The increasing
use of English in Kiswahili movies for instance defines Mandelile and Mwakapina's (2018) study,
where English use in Tanzania is limited because, beyond the educational system, English is only
spoken by a minority group. English links Tanzania to the rest of the world while Kiswahili gives
the country its unique identity. Therefore, the new trend of using more English in Kiswahili movies
raises some concerns. The language change in the movies involves code-switching, code-mixing,
the use of English subtitles, and lexical borrowing (204). Cultural change is cited as one of the
main reasons contributing to the aforementioned language change. "As a result of the fall of
Ujamaa, Bongo movies, as well as Bongo Flava musicians, started embracing English as a co-
language in movies, as well as speaking styles, dressing styles, and many others from outside the
country" (206). The study also explained that English is used in Kiswahili movies to attract a
bigger audience, especially beyond Tanzania. This of course fetches more money from non-
Swahili speakers. Interestingly, Philemon and Wilson's study also revealed that some actors switch
from Kiswahili to English as a deliberate attempt to prove that they have gone to school since
"using English in Tanzania is prestigious" Different variables the sound production entails in this
regard are examined into contexts of cognitive frames within which meaning in songs audio text
are constructed. A theorization process of how each of the variables operates to cause meaning can
therefore lead to the creation of a theory of sound or voice criticism in oral literature and film. The
researcher here can ask questions such as: how does the application of Delay in a song affect
197
meaning that is discernible in the song? How can the cognitive process leading to this meaning be
explained? Within what structure of thought and cognition do fans operate within in order to
constitute the meaning they discern in a song?

Sound features such as utterances, may not always suggest the superficial meaning one assumes
upon hearing the utterance. An ironical or satirical statement for instance suggests the implied
meaning as a result of the manner of tone and context of usage. The responses that follow may
function to point interpretational frames which the listener applies in the interpretation of the
statement. Intentions as evidenced in the consequences evidenced in audiences premises the
unforeseeable meanings within which assumptions, suppositions, and presuppositions function to
influence the very meaning which a text is capable of causing but which remains concealed or
implied in the utterance. The language suggests and implies. An examination of its implications
reveals one meaning that is implied that could have been ignored and two, the theoretical
(cognitive) frame within which an interpretation that is brought to bear is constituted. Musical
sounds in a song exist in a virtual spectrum but the discerning ear perceives the song as a single
piece of discourse. Deconstruction of the various elements of an ensemble can help in
underpinning the role each element plays in a song as may be revealed in the intentions of the
studio sound technicians and the interpretational frames traceable in the explanations of fans. On
the assumption that musical sounds are not accidental in a song, their underlying intentions can be
examined by deconstructing their effects on audiences.

Possible Application of Research Findings

This research finding can be employed in criticism of oral performances in Oral literature and
theatre and performance, in film criticism, phonology, anthropology in the examination of meaning
associated with oral nuances as cultural expressions, in forensics in the examination of oral
evidence as well as in legal studies, in music production, song production, sound engineering,
media studies in the examination of ideologies informing manner of voice appropriation as
expressions of meaning and ideologies. Lastly, having a literature background, film production
and editing, basics in fieldwork e.g. data collection and analysis, Literary theory, basics in music
theory, music production, and the ability to play the guitar and the piano worked for me as a

198
researcher in this thesis. I could therefore connect them easily with the arguments of the
respondents and I would easily not only see where one is coming from but also identify with the
emerging patterns that defined the mosaic and collage the collected data revealed upon analysis.

199
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Discography
1. Binadamu Wabaya-Diamond - https://youtu.be/hSDilTuo2Gg Nov 2012.
2. Chande Ft Diamond-Nashindwa - 3 Sep 2018: https://youtu.be/muGJ2lXc_ek
3. Diamondi-Hisiaz: 12 Aug 2018 : https://youtu.be/E4u-UL-VBaY

4. Diamond – Kamwambie: Nov 28, 2013: https://youtu.be/CS5ui_5RCiw

5. Diamond – Mawazo : Nov 28, 2013 https://youtu.be/HxNh5thLnAE

6. Diamond Natamani : Dec 15, 2014 : https://youtu.be/cmHymnXNWTI

7. Diamond – Nitarejea: Nov 28, 2013 : https://youtu.be/rZt2KJpGuTg

8. Diamond – Chanda chema : Jun 5, 2012 : https://youtu.be/vsyTlqGn3xg

9. Diamond – Utanipenda : Dec 12, 2015 : https://youtu.be/LSk_M7d_OWM

10. Diamond Ft Mr Blue - Kiss To The Lady : Oct 7, 2015 : https://youtu.be/CFRReFjnzLw

11. Diamond Ft Mrisho—Gongolamboto : Jan 8, 2014 : https://youtu.be/tEmOeOKWcEI

12. Diamond Ft Sam Wa Ukweli & Top C-Usiniumize : May 13, 2011 :

https://youtu.be/8dMCnPaR9_k

13. Diamond Nalia Na Mengi – Dec 9, 2014 : https://youtu.be/jGM0TEANyOY

14. Diamond Platnumz - Kesho – Dec 29, 2012 : https://youtu.be/LWrGHYaq65I

15. Diamond Platnumz - Number One - Sep 2, 2013 : https://youtu.be/64riif8FfNI

16. Diamond_Mapenzi Bidhaa - May 15, 2020 : https://youtu.be/EdrCQvIErrM

207
17. Diamond_Moyo_Wangu_ Nov 28, 2013 : https://youtu.be/SyLtTr2_jHc

18. Diamond_Nataka_Kulewa - Dec 3, 2014 : https://youtu.be/XcnYJom4DBc

19. Diamond_Platnumz_Kizaizai - Nov 25, 2014 : https://youtu.be/uqxHi0S8OjM

20. Diamondi-Ukimwona - Nov 21, 201 : https://youtu.be/_InPhHJN3Qw

21. Diamond – Mbagala : Nov 28, 2013 : https://youtu.be/zeUe1NFwqnw

22. Diamond-Lala Salama - Dec 8, 2014 : https://youtu.be/jdA6iJT8Avc

23. Diamond-Mapenzi Basi - Nov 20, 2014 : https://youtu.be/tl7j0JQ_s54

24. Diamond-Nimpende Nani - Dec 15, 2014 : https://youtu.be/HAByR4StLOQ

25. Kesho-Diamond - Dec 29, 2012 : https://youtu.be/LWrGHYaq65I

26. Kigoma-Kigoma All Stars - Apr 19, 2016 : https://youtu.be/2G1yVcMfwiQ

27. Kwa Nini-Diamond - Dec 3, 2014 : https://youtu.be/ctAFWYVsDTo

28. Diamond Nana - May 29, 2015 : https://youtu.be/IflpfcHmq5I

29. Lolilo Ft Diamond-We Ndo Wathamani - Jan 16, 2012 : https://youtu.be/nsk3XIM2X24

30. Ngwair & Mr. Blu & Diamond - Black Beauty Model - Aug 8, 2017 :

https://youtu.be/6C9HTFvtTBg

31. Nimechoka-K-Sher Ft Diamond - May 17, 2013 : https://youtu.be/Mc0pAgV1WKk

32. Shetta_Ft_Diamond – Nidanganye - Feb 27, 2014 : https://youtu.be/l2okzSIpbCc

33. Utamu-Diamond Ft Dully & Ommy D - Dec 5, 2012 : https://youtu.be/HgbeloMU9ck

34. Diamond Sikomi -- Dec 6, 2017 https://youtu.be/oc1GryBs-4g

35. Diamond Naanzaje - Sep 5, 2021 : https://youtu.be/iKbW2EDs_mE

36. Nikifa Kesho https://m.youtube.com/watch?v=z7yV0CSBdCk

37. Nataka kulewa Dec 2, 2014 – https://youtu.be/0RLhYgzirtU

MARLAW SONGS

208
38. Pii Pii – Marlaw - Apr 1, 2010 : https://youtu.be/b8mWNP874zs

39. Sitamsahau - Kinywena Ft Marlaw - Dec 31, 2010 : https://youtu.be/KgXsnJ8DOrE

40. Marlaw-Mbayuwayu-Ngo-Ngo-Ngo - Oct 27, 2011 : https://youtu.be/q36vymF83MQ

41. Busu La Pinky – Marlaw - Dec 20, 2009 : https://youtu.be/Dm05MEj3GqA

42. Wanimaliza - At Ft Marlaw - Sep 13, 2009 : https://youtu.be/WtYA9cUBn_o

43. Rita Marlow - Oct 22, 2008 : https://youtu.be/bT1ctHnPKTQ

44. Marlaw Mbembeleza - Jan 11, 2009 : https://youtu.be/f9rIAHb_eTg

45. Marlaw sorry sana - Apr 2, 2013 : https://youtu.be/d7g772T2dgM

46. Marlaw DAima milele - Feb 2, 2021 : https://youtu.be/MEg_H-SFBOU

47. Marlaw Bado umenuna - Apr 18, 2021 : https://youtu.be/QBd3W3Kbj0c

209
210
 APPENDIX 1
INVERVIEW RESEARCHER THIONG’O JOSEPH AND HAROUB MSINGALA
BONGO FLAVA MUSIC PRODUCER AND DISCO JOCKEY

The interview was carried out on 16 MAY 2016. It was too hot inside the studio. So we decided
to do the interview outside.

(Stage directions – information in parenthesis [MINE])

The term Beat, in modern day music production discourses is employed to refer to the composition,
and arrangement of musical instruments to express the implied meanings in a song as ostensive
communication.

Although Wilson & Sperber argue in relevance theory that if you keep quiet and you are willing
to give an answer, then you don’t know, and that if you know and you keep quiet, then you are
unwilling to answer, these two are not the only possible situations in criticism of oral performance.
The researcher hereby observes that in analysis of Oral literature research materials there are cases
where the researcher and the oral artistes know, based on the shared knowledge and cultural
assumptions within which they can infer meaning implied in an oral performance, and they are
willing to explain it but for lack of adequate vocabulary or most appropriate words that can be
used to explain subtle meaning implied in oral performance discourses in form of nuances. Lack
of adequate vocabulary does not therefore imply one doesn’t know and therefore cannot be treated
as a confirmation that one doesn’t know. Lack of prerequisite vocabulary can result from linguistic
competence, which consist of active repertoire at any one time as a result of regular usage. What
speakers are not any to put in words in oral discourses can be conveyed through hands movements,
facial expressions, pauses, hesitations, and other non-verbal cues. The researcher in this regard,
has opted for a full transcription of the interview and in addition has attached a video of the
interview so as to show the reader how data interpretation was informed by inferential
communication on the one hand and ostensive communication on the other since the two
complement each other in oral performances. The researcher assumes that this can aid the reader
in appreciation of; data analysis, observations and conclusions made with regard to the objectives
of the research.

211
 Figure 1 The researcher Thiong'o Joseph interviewing Haroub Msingala Bongo Flava Music
Producer and Disc Jockey

THIONG’O JOSEPH: Kindly remind us your name brother

MSINGALA HAROUB: My name is Msingala Haroub but down the street they call me
Singa, I am a DJ.

THIONG’O JOSEPH: Great

MSINGALA HAROUB: Aa here is our studio

THIONG’O JOSEPH: Yea

MSINGALA HAROUB: (Pause) (Puts a reflective face) We do recording, music

production.

THIONG’O JOSEPH: What’s the name of your studio?

MSINGALA HAROUB: Kausha music.

THIONG’O JOSEPH: Kausha music, pleasure. So, I don’t know what could be your take
on my concern that aah, there’s a relationship between the words in
a song and the sound or how the musician sings those words?

MSINGALA HAROUB: Ahh, I think aah, (Putting a reflective mood) some of the artists

THIONG’O JOSEPH: Yeah,

MSINGALA HAROUB: They don’t have that much, some of them, some they do.

THIONG’O JOSEPH: Some they do

212
MSINGALA HAROUB: Yea,

THIONG’O JOSEPH: Okay

MSINGALA HAROUB: The way the song it is, the way the artist sound

THIONG’O JOSEPH: Yea

MSINGALA HAROUB: They don’t match.

THIONG’O JOSEPH: They don’t match.

MSINGALA HAROUB: They don’t match, but some of them they do. The message, the
sound, they don’t come together.

THIONG’O JOSEPH: Okay

MSINGALA HAROUB: I don’t know, what’s the problem, (Shrugs the shoulders)
but…

THIONG’O JOSEPH: Okay…Aah, when you are recording a musician, and they come to
your studio, and you listen to their song, and you hear how someone
is singing, what do you consider when doing the mixing, and the
playing of the instruments?

MSINGALA HAROUB: First ahh, you just have to listen to the artist before you make any
beat.

THIONG’O JOSEPH: Aah,

MSINGALA HAROUB: Then the message will come later…

THIONG’O JOSEPH: Aah,

MSINGALA HAROUB: But ahh first things like how you sound,

THIONG’O JOSEPH: Aah,

MSINGALA HAROUB: First things like how you sound; the way you sound we can make a
beat. Then if there is… (Pause) some little changes maybe
you can tell you’ll have to do this, and this and that.

THIONG’O JOSEPH: Okay. Would you make the same beat for someone who is singing a
love song or if let’s say…I come to your studio, I have one song a
song on politics, and another song that is on love…will you change
the beat? And I am the same musician? And maybe the speed
of the song is the same?

213
(Upon realization that the interviewee answers or gives evidence of how listeners / music
producers identify with the personality in a person’s voice, the interviewer rephrases the question
to interrogate how thematic concerns / (generic choices) affect or influence production of ostensive
communication.)

MSINGALA HAROUB: (Puts a contemplative mood and appears to reflect)

Yaah, that depends on you. That depends on the artist.

THIONG’O JOSEPH: Aah,

MSINGALA HAROUB: If you sing about politics, love war…stuff like that, that depends
on you. The way you want the tempo to be, that depends on
you, and the producer, maybe can tell you like (Pause) According to
the lyrics,

THIONG’O JOSEPH: Aah,

MSINGALA HAROUB: That you wrote, the tempo must be like this maybe….

THIONG’O JOSEPH: Aah, according to the lyrics I wrote …yea, the tempo
should be like this.

MSINGALA HAROUB: Yeah,

(both the interview adopt tempo as an example to explain how oral communication concepts form
the basis of ostensive communication in order to bring the expected meaning to bear, based on the
message in the lyrics.)

Maybe… (pauses and reflects) even the style…

THIONG’O JOSEPH: Aah, great.

MSINGALA HAROUB: That you are using to sing…that can make a tempo…

THIONG’O JOSEPH: Aahaa, so the lyrics and the message will also help the producer to
help me guide the sound to bring out the meaning in the
song.

MSINGALA HAROUB: Yeah,

THIONG’O JOSEPH:
Okay let me (Hesitates) for instance if I sing (Hesitates) a song to
praise East Africa, for instance, would you set or also guide me also
on the sound of the Key board, the sound of the piano, the sound of
the guitar, that would suit or maybe how would you go about
choosing the right sound, for such a song?

214
MSINGALA HAROUB: Aaahh…

THIONG’O JOSEPH: You have said that when I sing you can guide me on how to change
the tempo, so as to fit the message, what about the sound of the other
instruments?

MSINGALA HAROUB: (Pauses and reflects) First of all, music is about the feeling

THIONG’O JOSEPH: Great

MSINGALA HAROUB: The inner feeling

THIONG’O JOSEPH: Sure

MSINGALA HAROUB: The inner feeling (pause) there is some messages you don’t need
like to go faster you don’t need like a tempo of 100 or stuff
like aah 80 coz you want people to listen not to dance that’s the
difference.

THIONG’O JOSEPH: Great

MSINGALA HAROUB: There is music people will only listen not dancing and
there is a music you need like dancing, dancing, dancing all through.

THIONG’O JOSEPH: Entertainment…, Aahh.

MSINGALA HAROUB: The message, that’s the difference (pauses to think) there’s a music
people they can just sit down, listen and talk, there’s music people
they just like going to the bar drinking all the time dancing, beng,
beng, beng, beng.

THIONG’O JOSEPH: Yeah,

MSINGALA HAROUB: That’s the difference. It depends from the artist to the producer that
ahh, I want this type of music

THIONG’O JOSEPH: Yeah,

MSINGALA HAROUB: My message is like this

THIONG’O JOSEPH: Yeah,

MSINGALA HAROUB: So how can you make a beat

THIONG’O JOSEPH: Yeah, for this music

MSINGALA HAROUB: For this music , okay, let me hear first

215
THIONG’O JOSEPH: Okay

MSINGALA HAROUB: You just can’t like aah, let’s say for example, someone just passed.

THIONG’O JOSEPH: Mmmh

MSINGALA HAROUB: Passed away, ahh just died. You just can’t like aah play the music
boom boom boom (Gesticulating with raised hands) No.

THIONG’O JOSEPH: Sure sure, we must do something that has to do with… eeeh

MSINGALA HAROUB: It’s like a “sloooow” (sustains the word to bring out the motion of
the supposed melody) people they can listen…they can feel
it

THIONG’O JOSEPH: Aaaah sure, great. So my…would you agree with me in my research
when I say…when you mention that someone has died, we are
singing a mourning song, so the music we’ll make has to bring out
the effect of mourning in the message….

MSINGALA HAROUB: (Nods)

THIONG’O JOSEPH: Ahh great, now my question would be, what do you consider
because that the main prime area of my research? Because I was
arguing in my proposal that there are things in music production
process like the EQ, like the tempo, like the punch, the volume, the
envelop that affect meaning. Would I be right in my argument?

MSINGALA HAROUB: (Takes a long pause, thinks and appears to reflect on the question)
that depends maybe…

THIONG’O JOSEPH: Oh that depends…how would you approach it?

MSINGALA HAROUB: (Smiles, looks on the side, but doesn’t give a straight forward
response) (The interviewer goes on to fill the silence, just in case the
interviewee lacks an explanation to complement the relativity
suggested earlier that “That depends.”)

THIONG’O JOSEPH: Because, I was arguing this way, if you do a dance song for instance,
if we examine the issue of volume, and may be you do, a dance song
that requires a lot of punch but in your production you give the
punch very little strength, it will not give people that effect to dance,
(the interviewee smiles) and therefore the effect of envelop, volume
(The interviewee nods) can factor to psyche people to dance…boom
boom boom. That, the way we shall come to the studio and set that

216
 punch or even the quality of the drum you’ll use, it is one that should
psyche and therefore there is something within the drum sound that
we’ll consider to give people that effect and desire to dance.

MSINGALA HAROUB: (Nods and appears to reflect) Ahh, first…you have like aah,
let’s say you are a producer

THIONG’O JOSEPH: Yeah

MSINGALA HAROUB: (Thinks for a moment) what you should do or shouldn’t do.

(Pause)

THIONG’O JOSEPH: Yeah

MSINGALA HAROUB: (Pauses again) You have to choose between two things like I said
before (pause) People just die, you can’t just sing music like
beng, beng, beng….No. People they are sitting somewhere they are
having fan, or a dance like maybe having drink and stuff like that,
you can play a music that people can dance (gesticulates with the
hands) so when it comes like aah, to the beat, like aah, Boom,
bombom, Boom, bombom, if you are standing some where
you are just like shaking your head.

THIONG’O JOSEPH: Yeah

MSINGALA HAROUB: To match the sound of the artiste, and the beat and the meaning, let’s
say how you sing (gesticulates) is that the correct voice to
the beat, like you said, you sing like the song of the morning, should
be morning (Pause) should be morning

THIONG’O JOSEPH: Yeah

MSINGALA HAROUB: You are talking about the mourning, people they just wake up, some
they are going to school, some they go to work, like going to farm
like aah, you have to aah represent the real situation

THIONG’O JOSEPH: Yeah, great. Aah tell me something, when you listen to a song
maybe about mourning, we are making a song about someone who
has died, when considering the feeling, you said music is about the
feeling what will you consider when making the beat?

MSINGALA HAROUB: Like I said, first as a producer you have to listen to the artist and
while I am listening to you, (gesticulates, “Go ahead and sing”)
your voice.

217
THIONG’O JOSEPH: Yeah

MSINGALA HAROUB: Can make me (pauses) to do the tempo at first. That’s where
we start.

THIONG’O JOSEPH: Yeah, that’s where we start.

MSINGALA HAROUB: Then I can start making the beat, like eeh, ta ta, ta ta, ta ta
…I’m searching the tempo.

THIONG’O JOSEPH: Yeah,

MSINGALA HAROUB: Then when I get the tempo of your voice, like we say; your tone, the
message, and the way you sound can make the tempo

THIONG’O JOSEPH: Yeah,

MSINGALA HAROUB: So you start, singing then I can make like ta ta, ta ta, ta ta. Ask any
producer, any producer. Then after that I’ve gotten your tempo, then
I’ve started making the beat.

THIONG’O JOSEPH: After the beat where shall we go next?

MSINGALA HAROUB: Okay, I’ve gotten the beat, then listening to you, you match with the
beat, then we can go to the booth

THIONG’O JOSEPH: Ahaa,

MSINGALA HAROUB: Start recording as a demo

THIONG’O JOSEPH: Where will you now bring in the other instruments? The guitars, the
pianos, the strings, where will they come in? Or will you consider
anything once we have the beat?

MSINGALA HAROUB: Ahh, the once you are…the beat is like a let’s say this is my shirt

THIONG’O JOSEPH: Yaah,

MSINGALA HAROUB: Is like aah, is a dirty shirt still I can wear it but I have to clean it have
to iron it, so if I go out, people they can see smart person.

THIONG’O JOSEPH: Yaah,

MSINGALA HAROUB: So first the beat will be like aah, just a frame

THIONG’O JOSEPH: Ahaah, just a frame, just a frame

218
MSINGALA HAROUB: Just a frame. When you finish, your lyrics, then we start like aah,
making all the voices like aaah the beat, the way you sound,
everything is like a put it normal then if there is anything we need
to add we can add like a the guitar, sometimes we are like we have
to call people to like aah, from the music band aah they can play the
guitar live.

THIONG’O JOSEPH: Yaah, sure

MSINGALA HAROUB: so we do that sometimes

THIONG’O JOSEPH: And the same way we clean the beat once we have it, shall we also
clean the other instruments, to fit into the song?

MSINGALA HAROUB: You have to do that; (Reiterates) you have to do that. You have to
like, let’s say MASTERING THE BEAT, (gesturerizes, what
mastering is using hands) we put everything on the same level.
Maybe your voice is not high is low, you have like the way you
sound is bass so we have a little bit twist you, change the voice and
make it like everybody can listen and hear what you talk.

THIONG’O JOSEPH: Yaah, Yaah. So do you think when you change that voice while
mastering to make me audible and clear to everybody, you’d also
consider the message in a song? Cause may be there’s a way
we’d master and it’s a mourning song and it changes the meaning
and then and it’s a mourning song we change the message
in a song? And then there is a way we may master and then maybe
maintain the meaning in a song?

MSINGALA HAROUB: (Pauses and reflects for a few seconds) Yeah, and aaaah, (Takes a
longer pause) what’s a

219
Figure 2 The interviewee reflecting on the question

… the music is like a the artiste is like put the lyrics and staff and
record

THIONG’O JOSEPH: Yeah,

MSINGALA HAROUB: (pauses again) the best thing or the best part

THIONG’O JOSEPH: Yeah,

MSINGALA HAROUB: …you don’t need to do and lose the reality

THIONG’O JOSEPH: aaah,

MSINGALA HAROUB: Of the artist, how him or her sounds

THIONG’O JOSEPH: Ah haa, okay.

MSINGALA HAROUB: So we can do a little tricks of people they can hear but not
losing the message.

THIONG’O JOSEPH: Yeah,

MSINGALA HAROUB: And the sound, and the real sound from the artist.

THIONG’O JOSEPH: So, in, in, in a nutshell you are saying there are a lot of things we’ll
consider in the studio to make sure we maintain the reality of the
message. Oh, what would you say about the EQ? The parametric
equalizers, do they matter in a song?

MSINGALA HAROUB: (Nodding) Yeah,

220
THIONG’O JOSEPH: They matter

MSINGALA HAROUB: They matter because if they, the equalizers that are not perfect

THIONG’O JOSEPH: Yeah,

MSINGALA HAROUB: That means the music will distort

THIONG’O JOSEPH: Ahaah, whats distorting?

MSINGALA HAROUB: Distortion is like, the bass is high, the twitter is high so when
someone is playing the music is like you never hear the lyric sound,
there’ll be some other sounds like ah…they are not good.

THIONG’O JOSEPH: So whatever we are considering, if you are mixing a reggae song
and we are mixing a mourning song, will the message affect how we
shall do the EQ, the, the equalizers?

MSINGALA HAROUB: Aaaah, first tempo, the way the music is sound…

THIONG’O JOSEPH: Yeah,

MSINGALA HAROUB: And aah, doing an EQ…

THIONG’O JOSEPH: Yeah,

MSINGALA HAROUB: it’s very important!

THIONG’O JOSEPH: Very important

MSINGALA HAROUB: Very

THIONG’O JOSEPH: Okay, assume I sound bass like I do and I want to do a love song
what would you consider in the EQ -ing? And may be I’ve come to
your studio and I’ve sang a song to a lady called Mary and I am
saying, “Mary I love you, Mary I love you” would you’d, would
you…what would you do maybe to, to my voice when I am saying,
“Mary I love you, I love you Mary” may be to make me bring out
the reality of the message?

MSINGALA HAROUB: First you need to have a style

THIONG’O JOSEPH: Ahaah, great,

MSINGALA HAROUB: (Smiling) You need to have a style of singing

THIONG’O JOSEPH: (Sounding happy) Yeah not just anything

221
MSINGALA HAROUB: Not just anything. You can’t just say Mary I love you, I hope you
remember there’s a there’s a guy, ahh, late Barry White, the guy was
like not only singing but talking the voice was very bass but the guy
was good.

THIONG’O JOSEPH: Ahaah, (pause) okay…

MSINGALA HAROUB: So sometimes is like it doesn’t matter how you sound

THIONG’O JOSEPH: Yeah,

MSINGALA HAROUB: what matters is the message and the way the producer is doing things
to you. The way he’s just like ah mastering the, your voice and
the beat everything should come together

THIONG’O JOSEPH: Yeah, Yeah. Okay let me ask you, let me look at it from a diff,
different perspective; what if a University like University of Nairobi
or Dar University came up with a course to teach music production
and they want you to, teach students on factors to consider when
making a song to sound the reality of the message would such a
course ever exist or do you think such things would really matter, is
it teachable?

MSINGALA HAROUB: Yes, it is teachable, but it depends on how and what people they
want.

THIONG’O JOSEPH: Ahaah, so the audience may also consi, come into play? Because
my, I am imagining that when you are making this song about
someone has died, it’s a mourning song will you consider, will you
have the image of the audience in your mind? Like how do I want
to my people listening to my song receive it? Would, would, do you
consider that?

MSINGALA HAROUB: When you are sitting down and writing the music

THIONG’O JOSEPH: Yeah,

MSINGALA HAROUB: the lyrics (pause) it’s like, let’s say like I am talking about ahh, my
finger

THIONG’O JOSEPH: Yeah,

MSINGALA HAROUB: I have to think wide like ehh, this is a finger, everybody has a finger

222
…………………………………………BREAK…………………………………………….

THIONG’O JOSEPH: You were telling me about aahh, the sound, the audiences that music
is most to do with feelings

MSINGALA HAROUB: Music is dealing with feelings just like I said once, inner feelings,
inside feelings like eh someone is felt something about, so how can
I represent it? That’s in the mind, so when you sing
about love song or whatever, you have to make sure: the message
(Pausing and putting emphasis) will be very very touching to
someone.

THIONG’O JOSEPH: Mmh, (In acceptance)

MSINGALA HAROUB: Someone will be like sitting down and keep listening and listening
to your music.

THIONG’O JOSEPH: Yah,

MSINGALA HAROUB: What you have to do is that not that just singing and singing because
you have the voice to sing but you don’t have a message. You have
to write a message that people they they…

(He stops to give attention to a gentleman who has brought us some water)

THIONG’O JOSEPH: There must be a message.

Thank you (To the gentleman who brought the water)

MSINGALA HAROUB: So you have to aah, write the message

THIONG’O JOSEPH: Yah,

MSINGALA HAROUB: and ahh, the listeners they can feel it.

THIONG’O JOSEPH: they can feel it.

MSINGALA HAROUB: and understand. Not only feeling. There’s a lot of music you can
listen just can feel it but …they don’t mean it.

THIONG’O JOSEPH: Sure, great. Yah, let me take you back to …someone has come to
your studio, they have the lyrics, the song has the message, the way
he has written and, but he’s not making it have that feeling, do you
assist them or is there something you can do to such an artist?

MSINGALA HAROUB: Yah, sometimes ah, the artists, they just are coming to the studio

223
THIONG’O JOSEPH: Yah,

MSINGALA HAROUB: the way they sound and the message is two different things

THIONG’O JOSEPH: Great! Ahah,

MSINGALA HAROUB: so what you should do is like you just making a beat: go back at
home and train

THIONG’O JOSEPH: Ahah,

MSINGALA HAROUB: once you get better come back

THIONG’O JOSEPH: …come back. So in this process of telling this guy to go back home
and train, you are telling him to go back and learn how to formulate
his voice to suit the message?

MSINGALA HAROUB: Yeah,

THIONG’O JOSEPH: so this process of formulating the voice to his message, we are
therefore arguing that…the song doesn’t just happen. We must make
sure it sounds the message

MSINGALA HAROUB: (Nods in agreement)

THIONG’O JOSEPH: Great, and the…h, what if someone goes home they train, they train
but then you realize he is good to go he has recorded now you tell
him, you are good we can do recording, when we now get to the
mixer will you do other things now to make him even shine like once
you polish the shoe he has practiced now you want to make it shine,
anything you’ll do for that.

MSINGALA HAROUB: Yes, yes,

THIONG’O JOSEPH: ahaah,

MSINGALA HAROUB: Yeah, just like aah, let’s say, the way the artiste sound, you just like
aah, want aah to make the music sound more good so there’s a little
trick you can do like to make it like (Gestures)

THIONG’O JOSEPH: Lively…polish the sound

MSINGALA HAROUB: Yeah,

THIONG’O JOSEPH: What factors maybe three four factors would you mention because
in my proposal I was saying that, for the voice of the artist one must

224
 consider the EQ, EQ is a factor because if one maybe is a low voice
may be we do some highs, if one is singing with a lot of mid maybe
you do some bit of high, some bit of low, would I be correct in my
argument?

MSINGALA HAROUB: I think you are right,

THIONG’O JOSEPH: ahaah,

MSINGALA HAROUB: I think you are right,

THIONG’O JOSEPH: and then, let’s look at this scenario, we do the EQ for my voice for
a love song, and we set the mixture, the Mixer so that to bring out
that feeling, again I want to sing a dirge-a song for someone who
has just died, do you think have to change the mix, the mixer a bit
to fit that other message, and I am the same artiste?

MSINGALA HAROUB: let’s say goes like aah, the love song, someone just passed away,
sometimes like you just can’t play a keyboard, when someone ahh
just passed away, you are not like singing singing, your like just
talking not only singing with a can a hard voice and stuff like….

THIONG’O JOSEPH: So there are, we are agreeing there are factors to be considered about
how a song brings out the message? Factors that have to do with the
sound.

MSINGALA HAROUB: Yeah

225
 APPENDIX 2
GROUP INTERVIEW OF STUDENTS AND LECTURERS IN DAR ES SALAAM
UNIVERSITY
INTERVIEW CARRIED OUT ON 16 MAY 2016
………………………………………………………………………………………………………

SPEAKER 1: A song like “Nataka kulewa”

THIONG’O: Nataka kulewalewa (sings the phrase of the song) eheh.

SPEAKER 1: So you find that the, the tune that has been selected

THIONG’O: Yah

SPEAKER 1: Has to communicate something about that detector of nataka

kulewa

THIONG’O: ah

SPEAKER 1: not just…he is singing sad issues so therefore even the tune is sad

THIONG’O: Yah,

SPEAKER 1: As opposed to for example ah, “Nana” Babi Onana nana… (Sings a line of
the song). So you find in “Nana”

THIONG’O: Yah,

SPEAKER 1: the tune is meant to be happy.

THIONG’O: Happy…

SPEAKER 1: Compared to

THIONG’O: because “Nana is a song about a happy message?”

SPEAKER 1: Yes, and even the dancing styles is a bit happier compared to “Nataka
kulewa”

THIONG’O: Okay, Thank you.

SPEAKER 1: Regarding also the digital sounds,

THIONG’O: Yah,

226
SPEAKER 1: There a lot of issues that are that have to be in digital sounds. One of
them is the voice effects of the performer that is aah, is a bit tricky for me
to find an example of Diamond cause most often his songs contains the
natural sounds as opposed to some of the instances having a producer
matching his feelings with that of the singer. Therefore, there is certain
digital maneuvers that are really put in the beat to communicate
something else

THIONG’O: Great

SPEAKER 1: In one of the songs “Nipe Tano” a you have a line that says, majani na
beat nzito, Bokorecords nazikome, when he says “Majani na beat nzito,
the beat is having an extra weight Dii Dii, as opposed to that other beat
“Majani na beat nzito Bokorecords na zislow, you can hear that kind of
beat, the heavy beat, it may be communicating something extra
pertaining the recording studio, and the musicality probably of the music
the man is making. The producer avoids flags and tries to create sounds
that that identifies them, so this find those artistes who can appreciate
his sound. Away for the audience to appreciate the song compared to a
song that is not fine-tuned for example. We can talk of Producers like
Emanuota, the song that is produced by Emanuota is having a particular
digital sound that is supposed to be the sound of the singer and you can
hear it, something like, water running, tune tune there’s something
shwaaa that is added: that sound communicates something extra. The
producer is known is Emanuota AKA Manuali Maji Maji so there is the
sound of maji which is added sometimes even without even mentioning
his name hearing that sound of water understand that this song
has been produced by Manuota.

THIONG’O: Great

SPEAKER 1: And however, on top of that you can also observe that the producer also
plays with his sounds especially in relation to the artist in the sense that
there is a song called ahh “Fok Fok” “Fak Fok” there is the backing of
Fok. As we know that ahh we usually make repetition in order to create
emphasis artistically, and this is one on the cases in African Poetry
now when it comes to back up vocals you find that there
is a message that is being highlighted

THIONG’O: So you are saying, if you are singing and you sing the main voice, and I
sing the backup voice, you are saying the backup vocal will have another
message that is communicating. Thank you go on kindly.

227
SPEAKER 1: Ahh now, with that, with that kind of ahh effect, sound effect you find
that there is some sort of emphasizing the message, as well as
putting some extra information that is missing in the main voice. You can
also have suggestions of extra meanings in the sounds, someone maybe
singing the main song and then there is an issue of other sounds.
Which are not mainly part of the main song, because they are having extra
type of information.

THIONG’O: Do you of a song that you can use to support what you are saying in your
last point? In any song not necessarily for Diamond or Marlaw, in your
own music experience. Any song you can quote where the backup vocals
add some extra meaning in a song?

SPEAKER 1: Yes Sir, I am having a bit more time…

THIONG’O: Yeah I’ll give you before we get the responses from the others. Maybe
you’ll still get a song. You have my contacts; you can still get me on the
same.

SPEAKER 1: Okay thank you.

THIONG’O: You are done, maybe we are done with that part but not everything else
you had.

SPEAKER 1: Okay, ahh, I would like also to respond to factors that also mostly
influence sound effects in songs,

THIONG’O: Yeah, how do they?

SPEAKER 1: One of the issue that ahh, facts you’d be interested is how the sound
engineering has been done.

THIONG’O: You are great, aha, I’m happy to hear that.

SPEAKER 1: The sound engineering ehh, you know we have several studios,

THIONG’O: Yah,

SPEAKER 1: Main studios and there are studios which you can find someone is having
in his bedroom, for example mine is in my bedroom.

THIONG’O: aah,

SPEAKER 1: If I want to compose and you’ve

THIONG’O: You can record yourself…

228
SPEAKER 1: Yes, I usually end up using a computer and a program

THIONG’O: Okay

SPEAKER 1: But there are other live sounds which can be incorporated in the songs.
Other studios which are well off, equiped the engineering of the sound
is good.

Figure 3University of Dar es Salaam Literature Students and Lecturers during the Data Group
Interview

THIONG’O: ahah,

SPEAKER 1: and if the song is heard someone develops interest in that song because
it is attractive, it is audible, each and everything that has been used in
that song is going to be heard. And there is no collision of instruments
and and the vocal, there is also the merging of the fancy called “Kunata
na beat”, there is also the choice of melody

THIONG’O: ahah,

229
SPEAKER 1: A good song

THIONG’O: ahah,

SPEAKER 1: is the one which whose message relate with the melody which the singer
has chosen

THIONG’O: yah

SPEAKER 1: aah, now failure to choose an appropriate tune or melody will result to
someone having not appreciated by fans.

THIONG’O: yah

SPEAKER 1: The other issue is whether the artist the voice reflect the message, I have
said ah think of love songs as opposed to sad songs, now there must be
one relationship between aah,

THIONG’O: The message and the melody. Okay.

SPEAKER 1: I think I should end.

THIONG’O: Thank you, thank you so much.

………………………………………………………………………

SPEAKER 2: You also find love controversies, disappointments, break ups also good
endings and things like that. Therefore, the topic, (emphasizing) because
people identify themselves with the topic, and understand because
they see themselves as part of the song.

THIONG’O: You say that you remind me of a song like Rita, by Marlaw.

SPEAKER 2: Yeah, “Rita” you can see, the sad story, bad ending. Therefore, you can
say the, the Tragedy it makes you eeh,

THIONG’O: Like the song

SPEAKER 2: Yeah, like the song

THIONG’O: You identify with the theme

SPEAKER 2: It appeals to your emotions (Touches the heart area with the right hand)
therefore the topic that they choose, even some non-sense songs like eh,
“Nikamwaga Beer Yangu” just interesting, you see yourself in the club
and you are complaining about someone who have says, this is
my song, therefore you see yourself, the young stars, they see themselves,

230
 then the songs like ganja, and things like that, they are club songs
therefore people see themselves and especially the young stars.
Therefore, they like the songs because they create the environment that the
understandtherefore, I see the topic and also the contribution of
musical instruments, they modify the songs, this compilation of beats, and
things like that, they modify the song and make them more modern. But I
think the root is in the tune, and the subject that they choose to represent.
That is why you find sometimes some songs like the Nigerian
beats, East Africans understand them easily because they are just the say
way as our songs. People in East Africa can dance because they are the
same way as our songs. Therefore I think that this idea of simple tone as
for African songs, they are simple in tune, and almost the same.
And I think this is the secret Bongo Flava employs.

THIONG’O: Enjoys…

……………………………………………………………………………

Appropriation of voice OST SO AS to communicate meaning with least

effort

SPEAKER 3: …The message the song announces,

THIONG’O: Yah…

SPEAKER 3: If they are the same with their feelings, they get interest

THIONG’O: Yah…

SPEAKER 3: And the mood of the song

THIONG’O: ahah…

SPEAKER 3: Aah, I feel I should also speak about the style. They give you like, like,
like, ehh, consider Marlaw and Diamond Platnumz

THIONG’O: ahah…

SPEAKER 3: …their style is soft,

THIONG’O: ahah…

SPEAKER 3: …their style is soft,

THIONG’O: is soft eh, ahah

231
SPEAKER 3: Though I don’t know the word where that category where that would fit
because I know

THIONG’O: …there are other genres…

SPEAKER 3: I hear of RnB…whether…I’ll speak of these two artistes. There songs they
are soft, there style is soft, it is what the majority (Gesturizes drawing a
circle in the air using both hands) likes,

THIONG’O: ahah…

SPEAKER 3: soft in terms of weight, they use, aahm, they are not weights that would
give audience hard times, to discover the intended meaning

THIONG’O: ahah…great.

SPEAKER 3: Yah, but the way, it...the simplicity of the weight is accompanied usually
by the instruments, instruments also does not communicate anything
hard,

THIONG’O: ahah

SPEAKER 3: Yah that will block more of the emotions or something like that. So I think
its true about the style, the styles they use,

THIONG’O: mhm,

SPEAKER 3: The simplicity of the style

THIONG’O: Yah

SPEAKER 3: Goes or gives interest makes audience to enjoy, since they enjoy the
meaning

THIONG’O: Great great

SPEAKER 3: Aah, factors that I would consider while making the responses, ahh, I
think one of the factors is relevance

THIONG’O: (To some of the interviewees as they leave) Pleasure, pleasure pleasure.
Ahah, just go on.

SPEAKER 3: The relevance,

THIONG’O: The relevance eh, ahah,

232
SPEAKER 3: The extent to which the song reflects actually what is happening on the
ground, the people, their society

THIONG’O: ahh,

SPEAKER 3: Yes, this one now they will see themselves, in the message that is
communicated

THIONG’O: ahh, …maybe maybe cause I can see most of you want to leave, let me
make ah, this request that, you can inform everyone else who is a fan of
Bongo Flava to get in touch, are you guys in whatsapp, you can do a
group and then you also add me in the group then we continue chatting
on the same, you have my email, so those of you who have a class can
feel free to leave, but those of you who are still free we can still continue
with the same. But please put all the responses via my email, even after
this.

SPEAKER 3: I spoke, I was speaking about the factors, I said about the relevance of
the song, songs ability to capture the body with attention and the style

THIONG’O: Yah,

SPEAKER 3: Those ones are the factors to be considered if one was to analyze a song.

THIONG’O: Wow, I am very grateful, thank you so much and I am very happy. I don’t
know anyone else with more responses?

END

233
 APPENDIX 3
QUESTIONNAIRE

NAME
TELEPHONE CONTACT
EMAIL ADDRESS
TOWN / CITY
DATE OF INTERVIEW

Please make your free responses to the following questions as best as you can with regard to the
songs of Diamond Platnumz and Marlaw. You are free to mention the title of the song which helps
best explain your response.

i. Is there a role you would say the voice of the musician plays in shaping how you interpret
implied meanings in the songs of the two artistes?

ii. Do you think the way Bongo Flava artistes play musical instruments help in shaping the
possible meanings the song conveys? (YES/NO). Explain your answer in a few words.

iii. Would you say the style of singing influences the message conveyed in the songs?

iv. Would you think that sound production techniques in Bongo Flava contribute to the
meaning of the songs based on their effect on audiences?

v. Does the musical sound resulting from digital sound technology influence how you tend
to interpret the song?

vi. What factors would you consider while making the responses to question 1-5 above? That
is, what factors do you think would mostly influence how Bongo Flava fans interpret the
songs?

vii. How would you explain the role melody or tune of the song play in shaping how Bongo
Music fans interpret the songs?

234
 NAME MASANJA TUNGU
TELEPHONE CONTACT
EMAIL ADDRESS
TOWN / CITY
DATE OF INTERVIEW
CODES TEXT POSSIBLE THEME RELEVANCE:
INFERENCES I.E. ASK; HOW
DO MY
FINDINGS
CONFIRM /
CHALLENGE
THE
EXISTING
LITERATURE?

Please make your free responses to the

following questions as best as you can
with regard to the songs of Diamond
Platnumz and Marlaw. You are free to
mention the title of the song which helps
best explain your response.

i. Is there a role you would say the

voice of the musician plays in
shaping how you interpret
implied meanings in the songs of
the two artistes?

. The musician’s voice

basically works on
creating audience’s
tension and moving them
with the song’s meaning.
The voice captures my
attention hence interest
on making sense of the
song.

235
RENDITION:

ii. Do you think the way Bongo

Flava artistes play musical
Dramatic instruments help in shaping the
effect of the possible meanings the song
artist’s voice. conveys? (YES/NO). Explain
your answer in a few words.

ADSR: . YES, especially when

Rendition as they strike to my senses.
performance The musical instruments
technique normally awaken my
interest to know what the
song communicates.

iii. Would you say the style of

singing influences the message
conveyed in the songs?

. Yes, it does. Style such

as that used by Diamond
and Marlaw are soft-and
this gives the message an
emotional tone of
meaning.

iv. Would you think that sound

production techniques in Bongo
Flava contribute to the meaning
of the songs based on their effect
on audiences? COGNITIVE
EFFECT
. They do – for the reason
given in (iii) above.

v. Does the musical sound

resulting from digital sound

236
 technology influence how you
tend to interpret the song?

. Sometimes the musical

sounds communicates
actual words recited by
the musician.
VOICE AS
vi. What factors would you consider
while making the responses to OSTENSIONS
question 1-5 above? That is,
what factors do you think would
mostly influence how Bongo
Flava fans interpret the songs?

. Relevance of the song

a. Song’s ability to
mobilize audience’s
attention.

b. Style used

vii. How would you explain the role

melody or tune of the song play
in shaping how Bongo Music
fans interpret the songs?

. Gives vivid description

of feelings that
characterize the
musicians words.

Please make your free responses to the following questions as best as you can with regard to the
songs of Diamond Platnumz and Marlaw. You are free to mention the title of the song which helps
best explain your response.

i. Is there a role you would say the voice of the musician plays in shaping how you interpret
implied meanings in the songs of the two artistes?

237
 a. The musician’s voice basically works on creating audience’s tension and moving
them with the song’s meaning. The voice captures my attention hence interest on
making sense of the song.

ii. Do you think the way Bongo Flava artistes play musical instruments help in shaping the
possible meanings the song conveys? (YES/NO). Explain your answer in a few words.

a. YES, especially when they strike to my senses. The musical instruments normally
awaken my interest to know what the song communicates.

iii. Would you say the style of singing influences the message conveyed in the songs?

a. Yes, it does. Style such as that used by Diamond and Marlaw are soft-and this gives
the message an emotional tone of meaning.

iv. Would you think that sound production techniques in Bongo Flava contribute to the
meaning of the songs based on their effect on audiences?

a. They do – for the reason given in (iii) above.

v. Does the musical sound resulting from digital sound technology influence how you tend to
interpret the song?

a. Sometimes the musical sounds communicates actual words recited by the musician.

vi. What factors would you consider while making the responses to question 1-5 above? That
is, what factors do you think would mostly influence how Bongo Flava fans interpret the
songs?

a. Relevance of the song

b. Song’s ability to mobilize audience’s attention.

c. Style used

vii. How would you explain the role melody or tune of the song play in shaping how Bongo
Music fans interpret the songs?

a. Gives vivid description of feelings that characterize the musicians words.

NAME IBRAHIM NYEURA

TELEPHONE CONTACT
EMAIL ADDRESS

238
 TOWN / CITY
DATE OF INTERVIEW

Please make your free responses to the following questions as best as you can with regard to the
songs of Diamond Platnumz and Marlaw. You are free to mention the title of the song which helps
best explain your response.

i. Is there a role you would say the voice of the musician plays in shaping how you interpret
implied meanings in the songs of the two artistes?

a. How they sing suggests the meaning they intend.

b. Their voices make the audience / listener feel pity, sad, romantic. etc

ii. Do you think the way Bongo Flava artistes play musical instruments help in shaping the
possible meanings the song conveys? (YES/NO). Explain your answer in a few words.

a. They capture the attention of the listener hence to listen the song.

iii. Would you say the style of singing influences the message conveyed in the songs?

a. Yes

iv. Would you think that sound production techniques in Bongo Flava contribute to the
meaning of the songs based on their effect on audiences?

a. They make the song more interesting hence to insist their intended message.

v. Does the musical sound resulting from digital sound technology influence how you tend
to interpret the song?

a. ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

vi. What factors would you consider while making the responses to question 1-5 above? That
is, what factors do you think would mostly influence how Bongo Flava fans interpret the
songs?

a. The tune

b. The musical instruments

c. The subject (topic)

vii. How would you explain the role melody or tune of the song play in shaping how Bongo
Music fans interpret the songs?

239
a. Most of the melodies come from the environment -They are somehow familiar
melodies – but modified: therefore, they capture the attention of the listeners.

b. They are somehow simple melodies unlike the western songs.

240
 NAME
TELEPHONE CONTACT
EMAIL ADDRESS
TOWN / CITY
DATE OF INTERVIEW

Please make your free responses to the following questions as best as you can with regard to the
songs of Diamond Platnumz and Marlaw. You are free to mention the title of the song which helps
best explain your response.

i. Is there a role you would say the voice of the musician plays in shaping how you interpret
implied meanings in the songs of the two artistes?

a. The voice of the musician helps to send impeccable message clearly. For example,
a song such as “Rita” by Marlaw is emotional through the voice of the singer who
is Marlaw, and hence helps pass the intended message. Another song is “Nikifa
Kesho” by Diamond the voice is sympathetic and hence arouses emotions and
deeper meaning.

ii. Do you think the way Bongo Flava artistes play musical instruments help in shaping the
possible meanings the song conveys? (YES/NO). Explain your answer in a few words.

a. NO, because some songs instruments don’t match with the message. For example,
the song “Moyo Wangu” by Diamond. The instruments are in a partying pattern
but the singer is in lamentation. “Mawazo”, Nikifa Kesho by Diamond.

iii. Would you say the style of singing influences the message conveyed in the songs?

a. Certainly. Because what one sings and wants to convey should match with the style.
For example it can’t be a mourning and grief message and then you use a partying
or clubbing style. Example, Marlaw’s song of “Rita” is a message sorrowful
message intended and its style correlates - (Soft voice).

iv. Would you think that sound production techniques in Bongo Flava contribute to the
meaning of the songs based on their effect on audiences?

a. Not at all.

v. Does the musical sound resulting from digital sound technology influence how you tend
to interpret the song?

a. It helps to innovate more emotional tones or tune that help cement the meaning.
E.g. Lala Salama by Diamond.

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vi. What factors would you consider while making the responses to question 1-5 above? That
is, what factors do you think would mostly influence how Bongo Flava fans interpret the
songs?
a. Message
b. Style
c. Relevance
vii. How would you explain the role melody or tune of the song play in shaping how Bongo
Music fans interpret the songs?
a. Melody influence the message.

242
 NAME ROBIN EVINCE RICHARD
TELEPHONE CONTACT
EMAIL ADDRESS
TOWN / CITY
DATE OF INTERVIEW
Please make your free responses to the following questions as best as you can with regard to the
songs of Diamond Platnumz and Marlaw. You are free to mention the title of the song which helps
best explain your response.
i. Is there a role you would say the voice of the musician plays in shaping how you interpret
implied meanings in the songs of the two artistes?
a. By considering Marlaw as an artist, the song title “Rita” the song is really
impressing as the voice of the musician it’s good and his words are easily heard
compared to other artists, also the organization of tone as whole raising and falling
of tones. Used by the artist adds credibility to Marlaw.
ii. Do you think the way Bongo Flava artistes play musical instruments help in shaping the
possible meanings the song conveys? (YES/NO). Explain your answer in a few words.
a. Yes, it is true the that the musical instruments help in shaping the possible meanings
of the song conveyed for instance, Diamond as an artist the song called “Mbagala”
there was the balancing between the voice of a musician and the musical
instruments used, such situation leads to effectively conveying of the message. But
this aspect is much dependent on a musician.it is not the factor for the whole
musicians.
iii. Would you say the style of singing influences the message conveyed in the songs?
a. It’s true that the style of singing may influence the message conveyed on different
aspects for example a musician sings slowly and adheres to rules of raising and
falling of tones it is possible for easy conveying of the message compared to those
who singing loud and fast it is possible for an individual to miss the intended
message by the musician.
iv. Would you think that sound production techniques in Bongo Flava contribute to the
meaning of the songs based on their effect on audiences?
a. The sound production in Bongo Flava have led to the conveying of the intended
message in a way that, even individual has his/her own way of interpreting the
music and how an individual is exposed to such kind of tone for example the tone
used in the song called “Mdogo mdogo” by Diamond Platnumz have features that
many of the people in Tanzania they like it, such situation lead to easy conveying
of the message and affect them on different ways.
v. Does the musical sound resulting from digital sound technology influence how you tend
to interpret the song?
a. By interpreting the musical sound from digital sound technology, have contributed
to the song interpretation basing on the technology used in music production.
Nowadays, the musical instruments are being heard clearly compared with the

243
 previous years hence such music quality contributes to easy interpretation of the
message of the song by the audiences.
vi. What factors would you consider while making the responses to question 1-5 above? That
is, what factors do you think would mostly influence how Bongo Flava fans interpret the
songs?
a. The factors to be considered
i. The voice of the musician
ii. Message of the song
iii. How does the song and the message relate to the contemporary society?
iv. Is the song brought about positive impacts or negative impacts?

vii. How would you explain the role melody or tune of the song play in shaping how Bongo
Music fans interpret the songs?
a. Tune of the song for the Bongo Flava fans is highly considered for instance these
songs that have a certain melody, which awaken people emotions like dancing or
shaking their bodies are much more preferred compared with these that causing the
majority into deep feelings basing o their day to day activities.

NAME RSPNDT 1 - YOHANA MUNG'AYA

TELEPHONE CONTACT

244
 EMAIL ADDRESS
TOWN / CITY
DATE OF INTERVIEW 15-5-2016

Please make your free responses to the following questions as best as you can with regard to the
songs of Diamond Platnumz and Marlaw. You are free to mention the title of the song which helps
best explain your response.

i. Is there a role you would say the voice of the musician plays in shaping how you interpret
implied meanings in the songs of the two artistes?

The voice influences the listener to feel the real situation within the song. For example, Diamond’s
song “Nataka Kulewa” the voice in that song arouse the listener’s emotions regarding cheating
in relationship.

ii. Do you think the way Bongo Flava artistes play musical instruments help in shaping the
possible meanings the song conveys? (YES/NO). Explain your answer in a few words.

Yes, the musical instruments add flavor to the musicality of the song. For example, Marlaw’s song
“Pii Pii” who’s the musical instruments aid the grasping of meaning in the way the help a listener
visualizes his struggle on the traffic jam to head to the place of appointment.

iii. Would you say the style of singing influences the message conveyed in the songs?

Yes.

iv. Would you think that sound production techniques in Bongo Flava contribute to the
meaning of the songs based on their effect on audiences?

Yes

v. Does the musical sound resulting from digital sound technology influence how you tend to
interpret the song?

-Its clarity on words used.

vi. What factors would you consider while making the responses to question 1-5 above? That
is, what factors do you think would mostly influence how Bongo Flava fans interpret the
songs?

-Voicing

-Musicality nature that involves musical musical instruments

-Appearance of the artiste on the stage (physical)

245
 -body movement when singing

-Style on performance

vii. How would you explain the role melody or tune of the song play in shaping how Bongo
Music fans interpret the songs?

246
 NAME RSPNDT 2 - ELIAS GODFREY
TELEPHONE CONTACT
EMAIL ADDRESS
TOWN / CITY
DATE OF INTERVIEW
Please make your free responses to the following questions as best as you can with regard to the
songs of Diamond Platnumz and Marlaw. You are free to mention the title of the song which helps
best explain your response.

i. Is there a role you would say the voice of the musician plays in shaping how you interpret
implied meanings in the songs of the two artistes?

The role played by the voice of the musician is to drive out the feelings of the listeners. Example,
In the song “Kwa Nini” the artiste, Diamond sings as he says, “Usione nalia, moyoni naumia”
with strong feelings. These feelings is to show how an artiste Diamond is pained by the love.

Also in the song “sorry sana,” Marlaw has sang with strong feelings. He sings so, due to
his sorry to his lover.

ii. Do you think the way Bongo Flava artistes play musical instruments help in shaping the
possible meanings the song conveys? (YES/NO). Explain your answer in a few words.

Yes, For example Diamond Platnumz in the song “Lala salama” The beat is drawing feelings.
Since there are various musical instrumental: Instruments imbedded in that beat that draw the
feelings of the listeners.

iii. Would you say the style of singing influences the message conveyed in the songs?

Yes, the style of sings influences the message delivery, since the style attract certain artists to be
celebrated. Example, Diamond Platnumz has a style of crying while singing a chorus and
repetition of chorus. This style facilitates message delivery. Also Marlaw, uses the words like “Pii
Pii” to show the creativity.

iv. Would you think that sound production techniques in Bongo Flava contribute to the
meaning of the songs based on their effect on audiences?

Sound production contributes much to the meaning of the songs and affect the audiences. Since if
the artiste sings the of pleasure will use the normal words, but when singing the sad song, he uses
the sad words.

v. Does the musical sound resulting from digital sound technology influence how you tend
to interpret the song?

The digital sound technology influences the musical sound by making the voice very
attractive. In its attraction results to audience listen it careful

247
vi. What factors would you consider while making the responses to question 1-5 above? That
is, what factors do you think would mostly influence how Bongo Flava fans interpret the
songs?

Factors that influence how Bongo Flava fans interpret songs are like:
 Voice of an artist
 Musical instruments
 The artist himself, that is how he is, wearing, talking, like an artiste
 The use of language like archaic words.
vii. How would you explain the role melody or tune of the song play in shaping how Bongo
Music fans interpret the songs?

The role played by the melodyis to make the music sound as music. For example, in the
song of “Nataka Kulewa” by Diamond uses normal melody and also in the song “Kesho”
there is normal use of melody to show normal feelings.

248
 NAME RUTH N NZEGENUKA
TELEPHONE CONTACT
EMAIL ADDRESS
TOWN / CITY
DATE OF INTERVIEW

Please make your free responses to the following questions as best as you can with regard to the
songs of Diamond Platnumz and Marlaw. You are free to mention the title of the song which helps
best explain your response.
i. Is there a role you would say the voice of the musician plays in shaping how you interpret
implied meanings in the songs of the two artistes?
a. Voice of any musician brings uniqueness for example, I can identify Diamond
through his voice.
ii. Do you think the way Bongo Flava artistes play musical instruments help in shaping the
possible meanings the song conveys? (YES/NO). Explain your answer in a few words.
a. Yes,
b. Music instruments develop feelings to the listeners.
c. Develop meaning intended.
iii. Would you say the style of singing influences the message conveyed in the songs?
a. It does because every artist designs his own style to communicate message to
listeners.
b. Style helps to identify the artist.
iv. Would you think that sound production techniques in Bongo Flava contribute to the
meaning of the songs based on their effect on audiences?
a. Sound connect to meaning
v. Does the musical sound resulting from digital sound technology influence how you tend
to interpret the song?
a. Digital sounds blur or blocks the real sound of instrument.
b. They produce artificial rhythm.
vi. What factors would you consider while making the responses to question 1-5 above? That
is, what factors do you think would mostly influence how Bongo Flava fans interpret the
songs?
a. Experience of people / fans and what message they receive in those songs.
vii. How would you explain the role melody or tune of the song play in shaping how Bongo
Music fans interpret the songs?
a. Melody connect feelings to music fans, they get involved in the song.

249
 NAME ZABLON PETER CHACHA
TELEPHONE CONTACT
EMAIL ADDRESS
TOWN / CITY
DATE OF INTERVIEW
Please make your free responses to the following questions as best as you can with regard to the
songs of Diamond Platnumz and Marlaw. You are free to mention the title of the song which helps
best explain your response.

i. Is there a role you would say the voice of the musician plays in shaping how you interpret
implied meanings in the songs of the two artistes?

a. It is true that that the voice of the musician plays the role in shaping how you
interpret implied meanings in the songs because he / she sings by using his or her
voice reflects the meaning of the song concern. Example, song of Marlaw known
as “Rita” voice interprets implied meaning.

ii. Do you think the way Bongo Flava artistes play musical instruments help in shaping the
possible meanings the song conveys? (YES/NO). Explain your answer in a few words.

a. The musical instruments may help in shaping the possible meaning however it is
not for all songs. For example, the song Sisters by Belle 9 has used musical
instruments which helped in shaping the possible meaning.

iii. Would you say the style of singing influences the message conveyed in the songs?

a. In some cases, the style of singing may influence the message conveyed in the
songs, he / she may use different styles of singing so as to influence the message
conveyed in the songs. A good example is Marlaw, the he sings by using different
styles of singing.

iv. Would you think that sound production techniques in Bongo Flava contribute to the
meaning of the songs based on their effect on audiences?

a. The sound production techniques in Bongo Flava songs may contribute to meaning
of song once the sound production techniques is clear to the song concern.

b. The audiences can be affected by sound production techniques when there is a low
quality in sound production techniques.

v. Does the musical sound resulting from digital sound technology influence how you tend to
interpret the song?

250
vi. What factors would you consider while making the responses to question 1-5 above? That
is, what factors do you think would mostly influence how Bongo Flava fans interpret the
songs?

a. Tone

b. Voice

c. Production

vii. How would you explain the role melody or tune of the song play in shaping how Bongo
Music fans interpret the songs?

251
 NAME JOHN LAMEK
TELEPHONE CONTACT
EMAIL ADDRESS
TOWN / CITY
DATE OF INTERVIEW

Please make your free responses to the following questions as best as you can with regard to the
songs of Diamond Platnumz and Marlaw. You are free to mention the title of the song which helps
best explain your response.
i. Is there a role you would say the voice of the musician plays in shaping how you interpret
implied meanings in the songs of the two artistes?
 The voice of these Bongo musicians are harmonized because the focus on love
issues. That is, they are shaped in a very sweet voice to depict the message about
love issues. For example, Diamond’s Moyo Wangu, Nanana, and Nitarejea.
 Note this; Most Diamond’s songs are about love issues thus the voice are in
romantic way.
ii. Do you think the way Bongo Flava artistes play musical instruments help in shaping the
possible meanings the song conveys? (YES/NO). Explain your answer in a few words.
 Yes
 The musical instruments of Bongo Flava artistes are made in a way that the
sound goes with the message conveyed. The music produced are romantic
however, not exactly compared to very known romantic songs of the
Westlife.
iii. Would you say the style of singing influences the message conveyed in the songs?
a. The style chosen by the Bongo Flava artistes are directly influencing the message
conveyed in their songs. For example, the way Diamond sings and even performing
his songs which are mostly about love affairs the style of singing corresponds with
the topic of his songs.
iv. Would you think that sound production techniques in Bongo Flava contribute to the
meaning of the songs based on their effect on audiences?
a. The sound production techniques used by these Bongo Flava songs affects the
audience in the sense of entertainments and conveys message about romances. Thus
other songs are focusing on entertainment in terms of their melodies
v. Does the musical sound resulting from digital sound technology influence how you tend to
interpret the song?
a. The musical sounds produced depends on the tune from the digital instrument it
produces. The tune mostly depends on the mood of the song i.e. sad or happy.
vi. What factors would you consider while making the responses to question 1-5 above? That
is, what factors do you think would mostly influence how Bongo Flava fans interpret the
songs?

252
 a. The voice of the musician matter most to the interpretation of Bongo Flava music.
vii. How would you explain the role melody or tune of the song play in shaping how Bongo
Music fans interpret the songs?
a. The melody used by these Bongo Flava musician, are connected clearly with the
issues they communicate especially about love issues. That is, when fans hear the
melodies which goes hand to hand with their emotions and feelings about love helps
than to interpret the particular song.

253
 NAME SALEHE HAMADA SALIMU
TELEPHONE CONTACT
EMAIL ADDRESS
TOWN / CITY
DATE OF INTERVIEW
Please make your free responses to the following questions as best as you can with regard to the
songs of Diamond Platnumz and Marlaw. You are free to mention the title of the song which helps
best explain your response.
i. Is there a role you would say the voice of the musician plays in shaping how you interpret
implied meanings in the songs of the two artistes?
a. Diamond Platnumz, song utanipenda?
b. Voice of this song creates attention to the reader about the content for example,
tension about economically affected related to love affairs. Hence show sad voice
to interpret true love.
c. Voice shows content situation or events for example law voice used to console
others, like her mother as a character within the song.
ii. Do you think the way Bongo Flava artistes play musical instruments help in shaping the
possible meanings the song conveys? (YES/NO). Explain your answer in a few words.
a. YES, musical instruments are used according to the meaning for example in
Marlaw’s song “Rita” the beats was even low compared to the content that a singer
was in sad situation about his wife’s death. So you cannot dance.
iii. Would you say the style of singing influences the message conveyed in the songs?
a. Yes, because you can’t dance within the sound while you are blaming or pleasing
somebody to rescue on something but you can use this style in pleasure songs as
used in Diamond’s songs “Gongo la Mboto” and Bumbum respectively.

254
iv. Would you think that sound production techniques in Bongo Flava contribute to the
meaning of the songs based on their effect on audiences?
a. YES, sound production techniques provokes emotions of the reader in relation to
the meaning for example sound used in “Je Utanipenda” some of audience can cry
due to the way this artist uses in this song. Unlike other songs like Nana, Bum bum,
as well as Moyo wangu which provoke audience to sing and dance.
v. Does the musical sound resulting from digital sound technology influence how you tend
to interpret the song?
a. Through attracting and convincing to interpret the meaning due to its technology.
For example Nana of Diamond Platnumz uses digital technology and produces
emotional beats that attract readers compared to the meaning hence readers feel
confortable to hear and dance that song.
vi. What factors would you consider while making the responses to question 1-5 above? That
is, what factors do you think would mostly influence how Bongo Flava fans interpret the
songs?
a. Use of style compared to the content within the song like wear of rags and dirty
clothes i.e. “Utanipenda”
b. Use of real character compared to the meaning like Marlaw’s “Pii Pii” characters
like cars, Traffic, drivers, the way the song tells us.
c. Use of intonation to create meaning and attraction to the audience the way tone rise
and fall like “Je Utanipenda” sometimes Diamond rise up and fall hence provokes
the audience’s emotions.
vii. How would you explain the role melody or tune of the song play in shaping how Bongo
Music fans interpret the songs?
a. Through style of beats, as used in Nana we can interpret that song is the pleasure
song hence you can dance compared to the Marlaw’s song “Rita” which his melody
reflects sadness of the singer hence you can’t dance or show happiness melody.

255
 NAME SAGIRE JOSEPHAT
TELEPHONE CONTACT
EMAIL ADDRESS
TOWN / CITY
DATE OF INTERVIEW
Please make your free responses to the following questions as best as you can with regard to the
songs of Diamond Platnumz and Marlaw. You are free to mention the title of the song which helps
best explain your response.
i. Is there a role you would say the voice of the musician plays in shaping how you interpret
implied meanings in the songs of the two artistes?
 The voice of the musician plays a potential role as it makes a reflection of portrayal
issue in bringing up the implied.
ii. Do you think the way Bongo Flava artistes play musical instruments help in shaping the
possible meanings the song conveys? (YES/NO). Explain your answer in a few words.
 The musical instruments help very much as they bring about emotions feelings and
motivating the musician and the audience. Also they help in directing the musician
in track.
iii. Would you say the style of singing influences the message conveyed in the songs?
a. YES. It does, the style illuminates the taste of the intended message acting as the
transformation of words into a reality.
iv. Would you think that sound production techniques in Bongo Flava contribute to the
meaning of the songs based on their effect on audiences?
a. YES they do. As they accord / accompany the motion of the song and arise the tone
of a particular hidden meaning or message. That is, each tone tends to have specific
issue.
v. Does the musical sound resulting from digital sound technology influence how you tend
to interpret the song?
a. There are situations in which the listener does not get clearly the meaning of the
spoken / sang words, hence the musical sound will help in this case in informing
implicitly the possible meaning.
vi. What factors would you consider while making the responses to question 1-5 above? That
is, what factors do you think would mostly influence how Bongo Flava fans interpret the
songs?
a. Style
b. Musical sound
c. Costumes / dressing
d. Body languages and body movements
vii. How would you explain the role melody or tune of the song play in shaping how Bongo
Music fans interpret the songs?
a. It calls for attention and eventually it captures the audience or hearer towards
contemplating the implied meaning.

256
 NAME SPEMBA SPEMBA
TELEPHONE CONTACT
EMAIL ADDRESS
TOWN / CITY
DATE OF INTERVIEW
Please make your free responses to the following questions as best as you can with regard to the
songs of Diamond Platnumz and Marlaw. You are free to mention the title of the song which helps
best explain your response.
i. Is there a role you would say the voice of the musician plays in shaping how you interpret
implied meanings in the songs of the two artistes?
a. The voice of the artist attracts attention for one to listen.
ii. Do you think the way Bongo Flava artistes play musical instruments help in shaping the
possible meanings the song conveys? (YES/NO). Explain your answer in a few words.
a. Yes, the artist's voice most often reflect what is sung.
iii. Would you say the style of singing influences the message conveyed in the songs?
a. Yes, singing as opposed to rapping is essential element in communicating message
example, the singer in relation to love message and rapper most often are harsher.
iv. Would you think that sound production techniques in Bongo Flava contribute to the
meaning of the songs based on their effect on audiences?
a. Yes, failure to engineer sound may result to faint copy of product which will end
up not being pleasant as opposed to clear sounding music in which music and poetry
are audible.
v. Does the musical sound resulting from digital sound technology influence how you tend
to interpret the song?
a. backing of vocals put extra information.
b. sound effects may suggest extra meaning.
vi. What factors would you consider while making the responses to question 1-5 above? That
is, what factors do you think would mostly influence how Bongo Flava fans interpret the
songs?
a. sound engineering
b. melody chosen
c. whether the artist's sound reflects the message I.e. Think of love song / sad songs
as opposed to happy songs.
vii. How would you explain the role melody or tune of the song play in shaping how Bongo
Music fans interpret the songs?
a. Best message is communicated by best melody.
b. tune and melody matches with the beat to complete harmonious product.

257
 NAME MAKONDA MIHAMBO
TELEPHONE CONTACT
EMAIL ADDRESS
TOWN / CITY
DATE OF INTERVIEW
Please make your free responses to the following questions as best as you can with regard to the
songs of Diamond Platnumz and Marlaw. You are free to mention the title of the song which helps
best explain your response.
i. Is there a role you would say the voice of the musician plays in shaping how you interpret
implied meanings in the songs of the two artistes?
a. The role which the voice of the musician plays in shaping how you interpret
meaning in the song is that, the voice of the musician helps the listeners to
understand which message the song portrays. e.g. the voice determines
whether the message presented is is about either love, or implies happiness.
For example, the Diamond songs like "Nende Kamwabie" "Ukimwona"
"Lala Salama" etc the voice determines that the artist is in LOVE having
deep love with someone.
ii. Do you think the way Bongo Flava artistes play musical instruments help in shaping the
possible meanings the song conveys? (YES/NO). Explain your answer in a few words.
a. Yes, the musical instruments help in shaping the possible meaning the song
conveys for example Diamond songs like Ukimwona and Nikifa Kesho
implies the content of the song because the way they are organized shows
that the artist is in such situation.
iii. Would you say the style of singing influences the message conveyed in the songs?
a. The style of singing influences the message conveyed in the song in the
sense that the style used by the artist determine the message and the attitude
of the artist for example, Marlaws song Rita, shows the sorrowful situation
or condition.

258
iv. Would you think that sound production techniques in Bongo Flava contribute to the
meaning of the songs based on their effect on audiences?
a. Sound techniques in Bongo somehow contribute to the hearing of the song
and their effect oN the audience.
v. Does the musical sound resulting from digital sound technology influence how you tend
to interpret the song?
a. they influence the emotional/feelings of the artist.
vi. What factors would you consider while making the responses to question 1-5 above? That
is, what factors do you think would mostly influence how Bongo Flava fans interpret the
songs?
a. Tune
b. voice
c. participants
d. Message
e. producer
f. Audience
g. Instruments
vii. How would you explain the role melody or tune of the song play in shaping how Bongo
Music fans interpret the songs?
a. ------------------

259
 APPENDIX 4
INTERVIEW PHOTOS

RESEARCHER THIONG’O JOSEPH AND HAROUB MSINGALA BONGO FLAVA MUSIC

PRODUCER AND DISCO JOCKEY

STUDENTS OF UNIVERSITY OF DRA ES SALAAM

260
 APPENDIX 5
DATA VERIFICATION QUESTIONNAIRE

Verification of Findings and Conclusions

The aim of this data collected on 18 Jul 2019 was to verify finding and conclusions which the
research had arrived at after analysis of data on the role the voice of the artist plays in conveyance
of meaning. The researcher had observed that Bongo Flava artists use language stylistically and
their voices operationalize a variety of oral techniques to convey implied meaning.

The questionnaire was presented to fourth year Literature students of Egerton University, who
were in their second last semester. The researcher wanted to compare how other literary scholars
at graduate level tend to reason out meaning in while listening to a song. The researcher played
the to the interviewees, several times, distributed to questionnaire and requested the interviewees
to respond to the questions based on the transcribed and translated text as well as the audio that
continued to play in the background.

It was observed that the interviewees responded to the questions with least effort. This led to the
conclusion that age, knowledge, academic level, experiences one has in relation to a given situation
influence the relevance and inferences listeners make out of a song. However, the researcher still
observed that in manner of criticism of literary meaning implied in the voice of an artist, like most
people the interviewees only used Adjectival Descriptive elaborations of how the songs made them
feel. In relation to the findings of the research the researcher was thus of the opinion that the
knowledge this research had contributed to the existing knowledge would aid in providing new
methods for critiquing literary meaning on voice or audio texts.

261
 NAME
TELEPHONE CONTACT
EMAIL ADDRESS
TOWN / CITY
DATE OF INTERVIEW 18-7-2019

“Nikifa Kesho” If I Die Tomorrow

Ai, Oh vipi Ameneke atanililia - Will Ameneke mourn my death
Je wasani wenzangu wataniimbia - Will my fellow artistes sing for me?
Au litafutika jina langu - or my name will fade
Na nyimbo zangu watosikia - and my songs will be forgotten
Oh vipi Wasafi watanililia - Oh will Wasafi cry for me
Je ndugu rafiki watahudhuria - Will friends attend the funeral
Au nitakapo kufa sina change - Or when I die there will be no change
Hata mamangu atanikimbia - Even my mother will forsake me
Ni swali gumu sana - It’s a very difficult question to
Lakini nauliza sababu ipo siku itafika - But I am asking because the day is coming
Nitapotenganishwa nafsi na roho -When the spirit and the body will be separated
Kwenda milele kupumzika - To rest in eternal peace
Sijui wengi watalia kwa uchungu - I don’t know if many will cry because of pain
Ama nd'o watafurahi - Or that is the time they’ll celebrate
Mi siku zamu nikiitwa kwaMungu - My time to be called in Heaven
Nitapokatishwa na uhai - When I’ll be separated from life
Chorus
Ni kama nikifa kesho - If I die tomorrow
Hivi ninani nitazikwa naye - Whom will I be buried with
Oh nani atakumbuka nauliza - Oh who will remember
Nikifa kesho oh nani atamwambia mama asi cry - who will tell mama not to cry
Oh mama mwanao me sina hata motto mmoja - Mom I don’t have a single child
Wakusingiziwa hivi nikiondoka wasidanganye hao - so let no one cheat you
Wengi l'onao waliniambia ngoja ngoja eti subiria - Many told me to wait
Na wengine kabisa wakakataa tuzae - And many more refused to give birth
Oh Wakiniambia - Oh telling me
Eti muda wao haujawadia - that their time hasn’t come
Wataharibu ujana - They’ll spoil their youth
Wengine pia - Others in addition
Baada yashi dawao wakanikimbia - because of poverty they left me
Waliniumiza sana.... - I got very hurt
Chorus

262
 Please Respond To These Questions

1. Styles in Bongo Flava: Do you think the artist has used any stylistic features in this song?
2. Why would you say, may be his reason for using these style?
3. What would you say the artist may have expected to achieve in this song?
4. How does the voice of the artist affect how you interpret the song?
5. Within which song genre would you classify this song?
6. Why did you classify the song in the genre in 5 above?
7. Why do you think the artist uses his voice in the style he does?
8. Are there literary or linguistic terms you can use to describe this style of singing or other
styles? List
9. Do you think the artist employs these singing techniques for some reasons?
10. Who is your favorite musician and why.

263
 NAME : DAMARIE BITUTU
TELEPHONE CONTACT
EMAIL ADDRESS
TOWN / CITY
DATE OF INTERVIEW 18-7-2019

RESPONSES TO THE QUESTIONS

1. Styles in Bongo Flava: Do you think the artist has used any stylistic features in this song?
 Yes
 Rhyme – it is expressed through the final words with the ending of the /a/ sound
e.g. ata nil ilia…wataniambia. This is referredtoas assonance.
 Rhetoric questions – Je wasani wenzangu wata niimbia?
 Effect – to make one reason out on the issues displayed.
2. Why would you say, may be his reason for using these style?
 So that he can bring rhythm to the song and make it enjoyable.
3. Themes: what would you say the artist may have expected to achieve in this song?
 Major theme – sorrow
 He wants pity from the people he is addressing.
 He wonders what will happen when he dies.
4. How does the voice of the artist affect how you interpret the song?
 He sings in a low sorrowful song – this is to bring a sad effect to the people
listening to it.
5. Within which song genre would you classify this song?
 Soft Bongo Flava
6. Why did you classify the song in the genre in 5 above?
 There are different types of Bongo Flava; there are those that are fast or (hard)—
party type of Bongo Flava but this one is soft for it has slow beats.
7. Why do you think the artist uses his voice in the style he does?
 The artist wants the effect of his voice to be heard. He wants to show how he
feels, his emotions through the song.
8. Are there literary or linguistic terms you can use to describe this style of singing or other
styles. List
 Soulful music – type of music whereby the singer sings with sorrow, passionate
about something that is at times disturbing his peace.
9. Do you think the artist employs these singing techniques for some reasons?
 Yes – he wants to express himself.
10. Who is your favorite musician and why?
 Venesa Mdee – she sings melodiously. One can feel her emotions through her
vocals and her lyrics are meaningful.

264
 NAME : SHARON SIMALOI
TELEPHONE CONTACT
EMAIL ADDRESS
TOWN / CITY
DATE OF INTERVIEW 18-7-2019
RESPONSES TO THESE QUESTIONS
1. Do you think the artist has used any stylistic features in this song?
 Repetition – “oh”
 Rhyme – atanililia, wataniimbia
 Consonance
 Assonance – Lakini nauliza sababu
2. Why would you say, may be his reason for using these style?
 To show that there is still an event that occurs after.
3. What would you say the artist may have expected to achieve in this song?
 The artist is trying to figure out whether his life on earth has impacted people
enough to remember him when he dies.
4. How does the voice of the artist affect how you interpret the song?
 The artist voice affects my interpretation of this song because it creates a merciful
mood and thoughts as he creates a desire to seek awareness or what will happen
after he dies.
5. Within which song genre would you classify this song?
 Bongo Flava
6. Why did you classify the song in the genre in 5 above?
 Bongo because it is a Tanzanian song sang by a Tanzanian artist, its beats are also
like Hip-hop, which in Tanzania is considered as Bongo.
7. Why do you think the artist uses his voice in the style he does?
 So as to create a convincing mood for the reader and make the reader emphatic of
his situation.
8. Are there literary or linguistic terms you can use to describe this style of singing or other
styles. List
 Rhyme, Repetition, Assonance
9. Do you think the artist employs these singing techniques for some reasons?
 Yes
10. Who is your favorite musician and why?
 Rihanna, her style of dressing, her confidence as she does her video not to forget
her beautiful voice.

265
 NAME : ABUDHO UMURO GALGALO
TELEPHONE CONTACT
EMAIL ADDRESS
TOWN / CITY
DATE OF INTERVIEW: 18-7-2019
RESPONSES TO THE QUESTIONS

1. Do you think the artist has used any stylistic features in this song?
 Code switching – nani atambia mama asi cry
 Repetition – Je, oh.
 Similes – nikama nikifa kesho.
 Rhetorical questions – if I die tomorrow, will my fellow artists sing for me?
2. Why would you say, may be his reason for using these style?
 To emphasize on his messages
 To spread the song message and ideas
 To create suspense
3. What would you say the artist may have expected to achieve in this song?
 Good legacy about his career
 His song to be remembered forever.
4. How does the voice of the artist affect how you interpret the song?
 It comes from deep sense of animosity and the need for survival of the song and
to be fighters of legacy.
5. Within which song genre would you classify this song?
 Reggae
6. Why did you classify the song in the genre in 5 above?
 It has the skank guitar rhythm from listening to its audio
 It has verse – chorus structure
 Vocal styles
7. Why do you think the artist uses his voice in the style he does?
 To show sympathy.
 To show love that he has for Ameneke and his mother.
 To create rhythm
8. Are there literary or linguistic terms you can use to describe this style of singing or other
styles. List
 Assonance e.g. “Oh” sounds
 Consonance, Alliteration, repetition.
9. Do you think the artist employs these singing techniques for some reasons?
 Yes, for instance for emphasis, clarifications.
10. Who is your favorite musician and why?
 Diamond is my favorite musician. Reasons: his songs are entertaining, educating.

266
 NAME: DOREEN KATHURE
TELEPHONE CONTACT
EMAIL ADDRESS
TOWN / CITY
DATE OF INTERVIEW: 18-7-2019

RESPONSES TO THE QUESTIONS

1. Do you think the artist has used any stylistic features in this song?
 Repetition (Oh) – creates
 Assonance – Lakini nauliza sababu
2. Why would you say, may be his reason for using these style?
 To create rhythm and musicality
3. What would you say the artist may have expected to achieve in this song?
 Theme of sadness: the artist feels sad as he questions of how people would react
after he dies. He wonders who will mourn for him and who will comfort his mom
during burial.
4. How does the voice of the artist affect how you interpret the song?
 The voice of the artist makes the audience feel mercy for him and also think of
how life would be after their death. How close people would react. It makes the
audience come into contact with reality of the happening after their death.
5. Within which song genre would you classify this song?
 Bongo flava
6. Why did you classify the song in the genre in 5 above?
 It’s a Tanzanian Hip-hop music sang by a Tanzanian artist.
7. Why do you think the artist uses his voice in the style he does?
 To capture the mind and attention of his audience and engage them too.
8. Are there literary or linguistic terms you can use to describe this style of singing or other
styles. List
 Rhyme
 Assonance
9. Do you think the artist employs these singing techniques for some reasons?
 Yes: to create musicality and maintain the rhythm of the song.
10. Who is your favorite musician and why?
 Beyoncé – The music inspires women.

267
 NAME : CINDY MUNENE
TELEPHONE CONTACT
EMAIL ADDRESS
TOWN / CITY
DATE OF INTERVIEW: 18-7-2019

RESPONSES TO THESE QUESTIONS

1. Do you think the artist has used any stylistic features in this song?
 Rhyme – Uchungu, Mungu
 Repetition – Je, oh
 Symbolism – Kwenda milele pumzika
2. Why would you say, may be his reason for using these style?
 To show that there is still an event that continues to occur or the song continues.
3. What would you say the artist may have expected to achieve in this song?
 There is a theme of sadness. It is being brought out as you talk about death and
discuss how the experience would be.
4. How does the voice of the artist affect how you interpret the song?
 The artist’s voice affects my interpretation in that he brings me into a reality of
how much death would impact him and I find myself feeling pain and mercy for
him as well as leaves me wondering if people would celebrate or actually mourn
him or forget him.
5. Within which song genre would you classify this song?
 Bongo Flava
6. Why did you classify the song in the genre in 5 above?
 Bongo Flava. It is the name for Tanzanian music. (Ubongo) gotten from Bongo to
mean brain also to reference Dar es Salaam.
7. Why do you think the artist uses his voice in the style he does?
 He is actually talking in a way that gets the reader to emphasize on his situation
that is ongoing. He uses it to discuss or try to understand what would happen in
his passing.
8. Are there literary or linguistic terms you can use to describe this style of singing or other
styles. List
 Rhyme, symbolism, assonance, repetition
9. Do you think the artist employs these singing techniques for some reasons?
 Yes, to capture the audience’s attention
 To get the audience to see things from his point of view.
10. Who is your favorite musician and why?
 Rihanna. Her message and confidence as she sings.
 Her mode of dressing and her voice.

268
 NAME: EDERA WINNIE
TELEPHONE CONTACT
EMAIL ADDRESS
TOWN / CITY
DATE OF INTERVIEW: 18-7-2019

PLEASE RESPOND TO THESE QUESTIONS

1. Do you think the artist has used any stylistic features in this song?
 Repetition: Oh who will remember, oh tell me.
2. Why would you say, may be his reason for using these style?
 Rhyme: Ata nil ilia
 Wataniambia
3. Themes: what would you say the artist may have expected to achieve in this song?
 Theme of sorrow or sadness
 The intonation within the song is expressing sadness when he dies.
4. How does the voice of the artist affect how you interpret the song?
 The reason for using rhyme is to create musicality in the song.

5. Within which song genre would you classify this song?

 Bongo Flava
6. Why did you classify the song in the genre in 5 above?
 It’s a Kiswahili song, making and the musician himself is based in Tanzania.
7. Why do you think the artist uses his voice in the style he does?
 He uses his voice to attract the audience or the listeners, so that they can get the
message.
8. Are there literary or linguistic terms you can use to describe this style of singing or other
styles. List
 Alliteration
 Rhyme
 Repetition
9. Do you think the artist employs these singing techniques for some reasons?
 Yes.
10. Who is your favorite musician and why?
 Mbasso: A very famous Tanzanian musician. His songs have great information
together with its titles. The information he gives within his songs has great
information.

269
 NAME: WANJIKU AKA GATUSH
TELEPHONE CONTACT
EMAIL ADDRESS
TOWN / CITY
DATE OF INTERVIEW18-7-2019

PLEASE RESPOND TO THESE QUESTIONS

1. Do you think the artist has used any stylistic features in this song?
 Alliteration:
i. consonance – wasafi watanililia
ii. Assonace – Ameneke atanililia
 Repetition – Je? Je wasanii, Je ndugu?
 Rhyme – Uchungu, Mungu.
2. Why would you say, may be his reason for using these style?
 To create a rhythm
 To emphasize certain words / message – about what will happen when he dies.
 To enhance / create mood / tone
3. Themes: what would you say the artist may have expected to achieve in this song?
 The author is trying to figure out like how people will react to his death. Like he
is worried if his death will affect or impact on people. That is why he is worried if
his name will fade or who will console his mother.
4. How does the voice of the artist affect how you interpret the song?
 The voice of the musician is of mercy. This is because he is filled with sorrow.
5. Within which song genre would you classify this song?
 Bongo Flava
6. Why did you classify the song in the genre in 5 above
 Because it is a Tanzanian song (Wasafi) i.e Artist is a Tanzanian.
 The beats of the song.
7. Why do you think the artist uses his voice in the style he does?
 The artist uses his voice in the style he does because he is worried he wants to
attract audience attention (AMENEKE) i.e. he doesn’t know if people are
hypocrites they pretended to love him yet they don’t.
8. Are there literary or linguistic terms you can use to describe this style of singing or other
styles. List
 Rhyme
 Repetition
 Alliteration
9. Do you think the artist employs these singing techniques for some reasons?
 YES! This is to emphasize and make the reader or audience get the deeper
meaning of the song.
10. Who is your favorite musician and why?
 Diamond Platnumz. I love his style of singing, dancing, lyrics, his outfits etc

270
 NAME: MAYABI JOY
TELEPHONE CONTACT
EMAIL ADDRESS
TOWN / CITY
DATE OF INTERVIEW 18-7-2019

PLEASE RESPOND TO THESE QUESTIONS

1. Styles in Bongo Flava: Do you think the artist has used any stylistic features in this song?
 Alliteration type of consonance
 Assonance – Lakini nauliza sababu
 Rhyme – uchungu, Mungu
 Repetition – Je je
2. Why would you say, may be his reason for using these style?
 Repetition and musicality.
 To create rhythm
3. Themes: what would you say the artist may have expected to achieve in this song?
 The artist is trying to figure out whether his life on earth has impacted people and
if at all one day he dies if he will be remembered and if the song will be
remembered.
4. How does the voice of the artist affect how you interpret the song?
 The artist sings with a lot of sorrow
5. Within which song genre would you classify this song?
 Bongo Flava
6. Why did you classify the song in the genre in 5 above?
 Because it is a Tanzanian song. The artist is a Tanzanian.
 The beats are like Hip-hop
7. Why do you think the artist uses his voice in the style he does?
 The artist uses his voice to convince the audience and the readers.
8. Are there literary or linguistic terms you can use to describe this style of singing or other
styles. List
 Alliteration
 Repetition
 Rhyme
9. Do you think the artist employs these singing techniques for some reasons?
 Yes, to emphasize and to make readers or audience get the deeper meaning of the
song.
10. Who is your favorite musician and why?
 Christiana Shusho from Tanzania
 She sings with passion and conveys the message which is the word of God
through the words she uses.

271
 DATA INTEERPRETATION KEY

QUESTION INFORMATION CODE CATEGORIES OBSERVATION NO OF

SORT MADE AS RESPONDENTS
THEMES
1
2
3
4
5
6
7

STAGES OF OSTENSIVE COMMUNICATION

INTERVAL
ORAL EXPRESSION INVOLVES A PARTICULAR MANNER OF VOICE MODULATION.
This can be broken down into the following levels

1. Musicality in the voice forms a musical phrase – Chord (imitation of particular cultural
emotions)
2. Melody of voice as modalities

MENTAL PROCESS
3. Ostension
4. Emotions
5. Mood
6. Attitude (Judgment)
7. Cultural experience (leading to the association)

COGNITIVE EFFECT
8. Associated Meaning
9. Conclusion

VOICE AS SIMULATION OF CHARACTERS IN SOCIETY REVEALS

FUNCTION OR PURPOSE FOR VOICE USAGE AS STYLE
1. Shaping identities (perception of author / Artist as physical reality formed in the
cultural norms, ideologies and perspectives as cultural dictates.
2. Shaping character (subsumed in the song)
3. Shaping meaning implied in the message) - TEXT
4. Shaping perception (Inferential communication)
5. Shaping voice of poetic and dramatic celebration of cultural values of a given people.
(upon examination of the ideologies informing voice techniques as performance.
6. Composition techniques employs rules to set expected meaning in the audio text

272
 APPENDIX 6
SONGS TRANSCRIPTIONS
“PII PII”

Ahh Ahh Eiy Eiy (Eiy Eiy)

Verse 1
Ninataka niwahi kufika,
nija inajam sasa wapi nitapita
Nimekaa karibia saa sita, s
asa kukaa nimechoka ooh baby
Sijamwona long time now,
nimerudi toka mwezi jana Nimeshakwambia
mama nimefika tangu mchana Anajua nimeshafika, ameshapika, amekasirika Alipika tangu mchana,
ila sasa, lunch imegeuka dinner
Chorus
Nimechoka kupiga honi now (pii pii) hatuelewani (2x)
Pii pii, nimechoka kupoteza time
Nina siku nyingu kwenda home,
I'm missing my baby Pii pii,
hello baby, natamani niwe nyumbani
Nimekwama hapa nijani kuna jam baby Aah aah,
kuna jam baby Aah ahh, hello (3x)
Verse 2
Unanikatia simu unanionea, wewe ungekuwepo ungejionea Unafanya hivyo unakosea
mamaa Unanikatia simu unanionea,
wewe ungekuwepo ungejionea Unafanya
hivyo unakosea mamaa Nakuomba mpenzi ungojee,
ni nijani naja niombee Nimeochoka nakuja tulee,
huruma nionee Nakuomba mpenzi ungojee,
ni nijani naja niombee Nimeochoka nakuja tulee,
huruma nionee
Hook 2x
Nimechoka kungoja highway,
nitapita popote mradi wee Ili kama ni kesi na iwe (hatuelewani)
Chorus
Nimechoka kupiga honi now (pii pii) hatuelewani (2x)
Pii pii, move out of the way,
nimechoka kupoteza time Nina siku nyingu kwenda home, I'm missing my baby Pii pii, hello baby,
natamani niwe nyumbani Nimekwama
hapa nijani kuna jam baby
Aah aah (ooh), I love you so much Aah ahh,
I love you Mama Aah aah, I love you Mamaa,
ah ah ai
Hook 2x
Nimechoka kungoja highway,
nitapita popote mradi wee Ili kama ni kesi na iwe (hatuelewani) 2x
Pii pii, move out of the way, nimechoka kupoteza time Nina siku nyingu kwenda home,
I'm missing my baby Pii pii, hello baby,
natamani niwe nyumbani Nimekwama
hapa nijani kuna jam baby 2x

273
I love you so much, I love you Mama I love you mama (2x) My baby (6x)

“RITA BY MARLAW”
Ooh Rita (Rita) 3x Ooh Rita oh no no no
Sauti inasikika Tega makini, hujui nani inamwita
Chozi lanitoka nitazamapo angani, Naona Sura ya Rita
Ona mikono yangu mitupu, imezoea kukushika we
Hata nyumbani kwangu haupo umepotea sikuoni kwamwe Ooh Rita 2x
Daily nakuwaza wee
Ooh Rita 2x
Mimi nitanyamazaje?
Rita we unajua jinsi gani mimi na wewe tulivyopendana, Jitoa sadaka kimapenzi ilimradi tusijetengana,
Ila we unajua ni yako familia,
damu yangu ya Bongo si ya Asia.
Ndo kigezo cha wao kunitosa mara mbili risasi wamenikosa. Kumbuka ile mimba ndio iliyokufanya
ukaja kwangu (ulifukuzwa kwenu).
Ulijifunguapo mtoto na wote mkaishi kwangu (ukawachukiza kwenu).
Na taarifa ikaja kwako wewe Rita,
Uende Arusha nduguzo wanakwita,
Ukani-kiss kiss mimi na mtoto,
nikakukiss hey hey
Ni tangu Arusha hadi Iringa simu inaita napokea unalia, Kurudi Iringa uishi nami ndugu zako
wamekuzuia
Ukasema laiti ungejua usingekubali uondokee pekee, Mwanao analia, ona mumeo ni bora ninywe pombe.
Ila kwa penzi ukafosi kurudi,
piga simu mume wangu nakuja,
Na maneno ya konda kwenye basi ulifika alikupa siti ukakaa, ulipokaa ukakaa.
Ile siku mi nimelelewa,
niko mi na mwanangu kumpokea mke wangu.
Konda akasema si wewe, ila tu mwili wako
Ooh Rita Rita ahh Na Marco Chali,
ndani ya MJ Records,
this is true story to Marco
Rita 3x
Aaah hata nyumbani kwangu haupo!!

274
“Nikifa Kesho” If I Die Tomorrow
Ai, Oh vipi Ameneke atanililia - Will Ameneke mourn my death
Je wasani wenzangu wataniimbia - Will my fellow artistes sing for me?
Au litafutika jina langu - or my name will fade
Na nyimbo zangu watosikia - and my songs will be forgotten
Oh vipi Wasafi watanililia - Oh will Wasafi cry for me
Je ndugu rafiki watahudhuria - Will friends attend the funeral
Au nitakapo kufa sina change - Or when I die there will be no change
Hata mamangu atanikimbia - Even my mother will forsake me
Ni swali gumu sana - It’s a very difficult question to
Lakini nauliza sababu ipo siku itafika - But I am asking because the day is coming
Nitapotenganishwa nafsi na roho -When the spirit and the body will be separated
Kwenda milele kupumzika - To rest in eternal peace
Sijui wengi watalia kwa uchungu - I don’t know if many will cry because of pain
Ama nd'o watafurahi - Or that is the time they’ll celebrate
Mi siku zamu nikiitwa kwaMungu - My time to be called in Heaven
Nitapokatishwa na uhai - When I’ll be separated from life
Chorus
Ni kama nikifa kesho - If I die tomorrow
Hivi ninani nitazikwa naye - Whom will I be buried with
Oh nani atakumbuka nauliza - Oh who will remember
Nikifa kesho oh nani atamwambia mama asi cry - who will tell mama not to cry
Oh mama mwanao me sina hata motto mmoja - Mom I don’t have a single child
Wakusingiziwa hivi nikiondoka wasidanganye hao - so let no one cheat you
Wengi l'onao waliniambia ngoja ngoja eti subiria - Many told me to wait
Na wengine kabisa wakakataa tuzae - And many more refused to give birth
Oh Wakiniambia - Oh telling me
Eti muda wao haujawadia - that their time hasn’t come
Wataharibu ujana - They’ll spoil their youth
Wengine pia - Others in addition
Baada yashi dawao wakanikimbia - because of poverty they left me
Waliniumiza sana.... - I got very hurt
Chorus

275
 APPENDIX 7
LINKS TO THE AUDIO VISUAL SITES OF THE SONGS

Pii Pii

https://m.youtube.com/watch?v=8eyAeqkV2gg

Rita

https://m.youtube.com/watch?v=bT1ctHnPKTQ

Nikifa Kesho

https://m.youtube.com/watch?v=z7yV0CSBdCk

276
 APPENDIX 8
Sonic Experience: A Guide To Everyday Sounds Edited By Jean –Francois And Torgue Henry,
Translated By Andra McCartney And David Paquette, McGill-Queen’s University Press,
London.

Accelerando

In music, a marking (usually abbreviated as Accel.) that indicates an acceleration in the speed of
performance, and consequently an increase in the tempo of the piece.

Anamnesis

An effect of reminiscence in which a past situation or atmosphere is brought back to the listener’s
consciousness, provoked by a particular signal or sonic context. Anamnesis, a semiotic effect, is
the often involuntary revival of memory caused by listening and the evocative power of sounds.
Anamnesis, an evocation of the past, refers to situations in which a sound or a sonic context revives
a situation or an atmosphere of the past. This effect can span very different periods of time while
retaining its intrinsic nature: it can happen on the scale of an entire life –a song that evokes a
childhood memory – or a short span of time – for example, when a film soundtrack plays on the
exposition of a sound element previously heard. However, the more distant and unexpected the
reference, the more the emotion may overwhelm the listener. The effect is not based on the sound
or on its meaning. It is rather the listener who gives it an anamnestic value. Two people listening
to the same sound environment can develop very different evocations, but these effects could not
happen without the occurrence of sound. The anamnesis effect merges sound, perception, and
memory. It plays with time, reconnecting past mental images to present consciousness, with no
will other than the free activity of association. In its clinical meaning, anamnesis does not refer
only to a simple evocation of a memory; it also implies the historical reconstitution of a disease by
a patient. In the same way, a sound or a group of sounds may lead to the reconstitution of a whole
period of life as it unfolds during the entire updating of a time sequence.

Anticipation

Someone waiting for a sound to appear will “pre-hear” – that is, he or she will actually hear – the
expected signal, even if no sound has been emitted. This effect can be observed either in the
expectation of an unknown sound, every rustling then becoming a potential sign, or in familiar
situations where the listener anticipates in her or his mind, a foreseeable (or fore-hearable) sonic
context.

277
If anamnesis is most often an involuntary phenomenon, anticipation, on the other hand, may appear
when one expects too much.

Asyndeton

The deletion from the perception or memory of one or many sound elements in an audible whole.
Surveys studying everyday sound behaviour show that the amount of “forgotten” or unheard sound
is extremely prominent. The asyndeton effect allows the valorization of a portion of the sound
environment through evacuation of useless elements from our consciousness. Asyndeton is
therefore complementary to the synecdoche effect. Asyndeton, through its rhetorical origin, refers
more to the generic notion of forgetting, whereas erasure is used specifically in reference to
practice.

Attraction

A phonotropic effect in which an emerging sound phenomenon attracts and polarizes attention, be
it conscious or not. The magnitude of this effect can range from fleeting comprehension to the
complete mobilization of attention. In very busy streets for instance, singers and musical groups
try constantly to gain the attention of passersby. These sound situations exert a power of attraction
precisely because they are in contrast with the ambient hubbub. When the acoustic horizons of
different musicians overlap, there is no emergence effect, thus no attraction. A siren, which
manifests itself exclusively in the sonic sphere, and whose source often cannot be located,
illustrates the attraction/repulsion duality that characterizes the emergence of certain sound events.

Blurring

The blurring effect refers to the progressive and imperceptible disappearance of a sound
atmosphere. In contrast to the decrescendo effect, the auditor usually only notices the absence of
sound once the effect is completed.

Chain

A chain reaction: one sound event provokes a sonic response, which produces another, and so on.
These successive inductions, whether or not they are enacted consciously, can result in a
phenomenon of sound escalation. Crowd situations are favourable to the appearance of this effect;
the applause that follows a show, for instance, may be started by a small group of people, or even
a single auditor, and progressively lead the whole audience up to a manifestation whose intensity
greatly exceeds the sum of individual contributions. Sometimes the role of a “claque” appears to
be quite useful in inciting movement and maintaining pressure.

278
Chorus

An electroacoustic effect that consists of mixing a direct signal with a portion of itself, slightly
delayed and modulated through a low frequency oscillator. The variable phase displacement thus
produced enriches the original sound by seeming to multiply the sound sources – hence its
reference to chorus, sum of individual voices.

Cocktail

This effect, named by E. Cherry with reference to the sound space in which we can observe it best,
refers to our ability to focus attention on the speech of a specific speaker by disregarding irrelevant
information coming from the surroundings. In this type of metabolic context, sound components
are almost equivalent in intensity and frequency: it is their multiplication that creates the
surrounding sound level. “From the physical point of view, one of the predominant elements in the
cocktail effect is the spatial separation of noise and speech. In consequence, we know that, on the
psycho-physiological level, selective listening is governed by our capacity to discriminate sounds
from different sources – that is, by our capacity to localize in the noise.”

Colouring

An effect describing the influence of a location, electroacoustic system, or instrument on the new
balance of the frequencies of a sound, “coloured” through its diffusion. We speak of the “colour”
of a room or the “colour” of a loudspeaker. Colouring is acoustically linked to filtration, but its use
remains more popular. To the untrained ear, the colouring of a sound situation is particularly well
perceived when colouration changes rapidly. A good example is the clear inside/outside transition
of film soundtracks or the entry of woodwind instruments (flute, clarinet, bassoon, oboe) in the
musical stream of string instruments.

Compression

An electroacoustic effect: a compressor reduces the dynamic range of a signal by raising low-
intensity signals while lowering high-intensity ones. Generally speaking, compression makes it
possible to raise the average energy of a recording by avoiding the strict use of peak signals in the
calibration of its maximum volume. It allows the adaptation of a signal to media supporting
different dynamics: vinyl disc, cassette, or compact disc.

Coupling

Interaction between two sound phenomena that seem to be distinct yet connected, without being
necessarily engaged in a causal relationship. In architecture, for example, we can observe the
reciprocal influences of different reverberations of two adjacent spaces.

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Crescendo

An effect produced by a progressive increase in the intensity of a sound. This well-known effect,
which has specific notation in music, can be found in the most diverse contexts: in the approach
of a sound source, the acceleration of a vehicle, the start-up of a machine, the rise of a murmur,
etc.

Crossfade

While the cut out effect describes an abrupt change from one sonic state to another, the term
crossfade refers to a more progressive transition between states, accomplished through a decrease
in intensity of the first state and increasing apparition of the second. We can experience this effect
when crossing a mid-sized square in which reflections from the street or the façade behind us
slowly crossfades with sounds from the opposite direction.

Cut Out

The cut out effect refers to a sudden drop in intensity associated with an abrupt change in the
spectral envelope of a sound or a modification of reverberation (moving from reverberant to dull

spaces, for instance). This effect is an important process of articulation between spaces and
locations; it punctuates movement from one ambience to another.

Deburau

With this effect, the listener’s attention searches for a sound that is inaudible, such as the voice of
a mute person. The effect is named for Jean-Baptiste Deburau (1796–1846), a famous mime whose
trial attracted the whole of Paris, curious to hear his voice. By extension, this effect characterizes
the identification of a sound source followed by the observation that once discovered, it is no
longer of particular interest.

Decontextualization

The incongruous intervention of a sound or group of sounds into a coherent situation that was
previously experienced, or into a situation where the sonic content is predictable: for example,
sounds from the private domain heard in a public space. More or less refined musical gags
essentially play on a decontextualization of sound or meaning, as illustrated by the French
ensemble Le Quatuor, a classical string quartet that performs in a humorous style, playing on
traditional conventions by varying rhythmic and melodic lines and stylistic digressions.

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Decrescendo

An effect produced by a progressive diminution of sound intensity. Often indicated in music at the
end of a phrase or a movement, a decrease in sound intensity can also be found in varied contexts,

whether it is caused by the sound source moving away or by something like a machine stopping.

Delay

In its generic sense, this effect refers to any delay between the emission of a sound and its
repetition. Echo and reverberation are thus two types of delay. As an electroacoustic effect, delay
can be applied at the level of milliseconds; generally, it is less than a second. Delay is used to give
depth to a sound or to spatialize it in the stereophonic field.

Desynchronization

Desynchronization, a temporal decontextualization effect, characterizes the emergence of a sound

emission that breaks the regularity of a rhythm or a well-established sound structure, creating a
feeling of incongruity. The event may have the same sonic nature as the elements it disrupts, as
when someone interrupts another person without respecting the rhythmic alternation of a
conversation. The social dimension of the desynchronization effect is crucial. Cinematographic
montage also offers a clear field of application for this effect; arranging sounds in a sequence, the
rhythmic development must be accomplished while respecting both the acoustic complexity of the
scene and legibility of significant sound events. Any discontinuity in the phrasing of the sequence
provokes a feeling of desynchronization.

Digression

The digression effect refers to the emergence of a temporary change of sound ambience in a
complex perceptive organization that does not seem to affect behaviours or mark memory.
Digression is an erasure effect at the level of a whole sequence. The most common example is a
phone call that interrupts a conversation, suspends it for a moment, and then allows its resumption
at the place where it stopped without altering its content.

Dilation

The dilation effect refers to the feeling of the emitter concerning the space of propagation and the
hearing sensitivity of others: the emitter feels that the sound he or she produces will carry and be
clearly perceived (diastolic movement). This effect can be anticipatory as well as perceptual.
Human ethology is swarming with representative cases of this preventive sound marking: for
instance, a person who is not accustomed to using a telephone and speaks loudly as the
correspondent is far away.

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Distortion

A distortion of specific frequencies of the spectral envelope of a sound that affects the totality of
a sequence. In comparison with filtration, distortion acts through addition rather than subtraction.
Distortion manifests itself as an electroacoustic effect, either in an involuntary manner in the
electrophonic chain, when saturation is produced during amplification, or as a specific additive
intended to voluntarily transform the sound of an instrument such as an electric guitar.

Doppler

Physicist Christian-Johann Doppler (1803–53) noticed this effect first with sound and then also
with light. The Doppler-Fizeau effect describes a relative anamorphose of the original signal. This
perceptive modification is due to a relation of movement between the sound source and the listener
that provokes either a compression or an expansion of the sound wave. A sound signal that moves
closer is perceived as being higher than it actually is, whereas that same signal moving away will
be perceived as being lower. This phenomenon comes from a combination of the sound’s speed of
propagation and the movement of the sound source. When both the sound wave and the sound
source move in the same direction, the perceived frequency rises. When they move in opposite
directions, the perceived frequency drops. When there is a sudden change of direction of the source
in relation to the listener, the Doppler effect can be accompanied by a complementary effect of
approach and distancing.

Drone

The drone (bourdon) effect refers to the presence of a constant layer of stable pitch in a sound
ensemble with no noticeable variation in intensity. Linked to music in its designation (the drone is
a permanent bass note over which other elements are laid), the drone effect can also be observed
in urban and industrial soundscapes. Many technical systems generate constant sounds that are
close to a drone, even if thefrequencies concerned are not limited to the bass range that originally
characterized it.

Dullness

The dullness (matité) effect is the effect to reverberation; absolute dullness implies total absence
of reflected sound signals. A room is considered as “dull” when absorbent materials prevent
diffusion of reflected waves. The absolute state of dullness is only realized in an anechoic chamber.
In such a room, searching for total silence, composer John Cage, could still hear his own
circulatory and nervous systems.

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Echo

Echo, a phenomenon observed in nature, is the simple or multiple repetition of a sound emission,
linked to a reflection in the space of diffusion. The term comes from Echo, a mythological nymph
condemned to never speak first, but only repeat the last syllables of others. The psychogenetic
signification of this effect was underlined as being possibly as important as the mirror stage.

Emergence

A generic effect that includes the totality of sound occurrences that appear in a given context.
Often coupled with another effect, emergence not only implies the irruption of a loud sound in a
low-intensity context; it also characterizes the appearance of sounds that differ in pitch, timbre, or
rhythm. The singularity of the emergence effect is marked by the affirmation of a new sound rather
than the modalities of its appearance, the latter being linked more closely to other effects with
which it is combined.

Envelopment

The feeling of being surrounded by a body of sound that has the capacity to create an autonomous
whole, that predominates over other circumstantial features of the moment. The envelopment
effect is sometimes applied to negative situations, but most often it provokes reactions comparable
to bewitchment – staggering, delightful. The accomplishment of this effect is marked by
enjoyment, with no need to question the origin of the sound: hence the clear difference between

envelopment and ubiquity.

Erasure

The erasure effect refers to one or several sound elements in an audible ensemble that are deleted
from perception or memory. This selective suppression is a fundamental effect of hearing. The
majority of audible sounds in a day are heard without being listened to and are then forgotten.

Expansion

An electroacoustic effect. An expander increases a signal over a chosen threshold of intensity,

avoiding the disappearance of faint signals in background noise, while increasing the energetic
impact of the signal.

Fade

Disappearance of a sound through a progressive decrease in intensity. A fader is a potentiometer

that controls volume. In English, the term “fade” also refers to the wave effect caused by fluctuating
radio reception, particularly with short wave.

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Feedback

Feedback is an application of the retroaction theory developed in the 1940s (by Norbert Wiener,
Claude Shannon, and Warren Weaver) that makes it possible to anticipate a current action using
past experience as a guide. Feedback, or re-injection, is particularly used in musical
electroacoustics. As a controlled Larsen effect, feedback characterizes the sonic loop that occurs
between the pickup of an electric guitar and the loudspeaker that amplifies it. The guitarist
modulates the Larsen effect created by playing on the orientation of the instrument in relation to
the speaker. Thus, the guitarist controls the re-injection of the signal over itself, producing a
sustained sound that is often distorted.

Filtration

A reinforcing or weakening of specific frequencies of a sound. Modification of the spectral

envelope can be caused by distortions linked to the mode of utterance, to the space of propagation,
or to an electroacoustic filtration that makes it possible to act voluntarily on the response curve. A
filtration effect is perceived when the frequency of a sound that we are accustomed to or that we
have heard previously is modified. Various features of the environment separating the source and
listener can filter sound. These features may be related to sound propagation through air
(atmosphere density, air movement created by wind, lapse rate), or to the presence of obstacles
that block the direct reception of a signal (for instance, traffic insulation walls). Textual and media
expressions The filtration effect often provides an opportunity for novelists to describe the
behaviour of characters who produce or listen to sounds in their environment. For instance, in the
writing of Stendhal, filtered sounds create an atmosphere of fullness. The romantic hero in a
Stendhal novel will find a medium for reverie. Similarly, sounds softened by the density of the air
or reflected on walls of houses or across lakes, allow characters to flee the presence and proximity
of people surrounding them. These sounds, which lead to melancholy and resignation, are
associated with the character’s affective fixation on himself or herself, independent of the listening
pleasure the sounds may engender filtered sounds are the basis for shaping relations between
individuals. They lead to and may even motivate hearing curiosity. It is, however, in the work of
Marcel Proust that we achieve a new step toward an understanding of the influence of filtration on
individual sound behaviours. The narrator of In Search of Lost Time devotes particular attention
to the family entourage. Sounds that penetrate through partitions of a room maintain contact, but
this contact simultaneously throws the Proustian hero into a state of anxiety. These examples
demonstrate that listening through a filtering partition does indeed play a role in behaviour rules,
self-reflection, and sonic modes – all practices that Michel Foucault called “practices of the self”

Flange

A musical electroacoustic effect in which direct sound is combined with its own delayed
reinjection, thus creating a phase effect. By balancing the intensity of reinjection and modulating

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the filtration of frequencies, it is possible to control the progressive evolution of a sound. This
effect was developed in the 1960s from the simultaneous diffusion of the same message over two
tape players and the possibilities of desynchronization that this innovation offered.

Flutter Echo

A flutter echo is the localized emergence, in the reverberation of a room, of a specific frequency
and its harmonics that remains stationary between two parallel and reflecting walls.

Fuzz

A musical electroacoustic effect that is synonymous with distortion. Fuzz originally referred to the
saturation of a tube amplifier that was pushed to its maximum; later the term was also used to refer
to devices of the electrophonic chain that make it possible to obtain and control a similar sonic
result. The “fuzz pedal” on an electric guitar allows the player to act specifically on the even
harmonics of a sound.

Haas

An effect, described by Helmut Haas in 1950s, that corresponds to a gap in perception between a
direct wave and a reflected wave in order of one to thirty milliseconds. We now call this effect
artificial reverberation.

Harmonization

A musical electroacoustic effect. A harmonizer makes it possible to transpose a signal and mixes
different pitches created. The chords obtained are often delayed to spatialize each element while
making reproduction clearer.

Hyperlocalization

A perceptive effect linked to the sporadic character of a sound source that irresistibly focalizes the
listener’s attention on the location of emission. When the source moves, the listener continues to
follow it. This effect is often found in transmission through solids (for example a marble rolling
on the floor upstairs).

Imitation

A semiotic effect referring to a sound emission that is consciously produced according to a style
of reference. Imitation implies the use of a cultural code that allows recognition of this style in the
sound emission. Imitation is found as structure in the global shape of a sound utterance, and it
works in a complex way; Imitation implies a sense of intention on the part of the emitter, and to
be appropriately perceived, it also requires the listener’s knowledge of the reference. Imitation is

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a semiotic effect because it re-represents particularly significant features of the style of reference.
This reference is characterized by a remarkable emission style, or a particular use of certain

acoustic parameters that allow its recognition and its differentiation from other sources.

Physic Al and Applied Acoustics

Since the imitation effect is, above all, defined as a semiotic effect, our interest in it focuses
principally on sound as a carrier of meaning, a signifier. It is hard to apply acoustic definitions.
For instance, researchers encountered difficulties when dealing with speech recognition. It is
extremely difficult to physically express what we call “style.” In fact, every acoustic parameter,
including rhythm and timbre, can participate in the formation of a particular style of reference.

Immersion

The dominance of a sonic micromilieu that takes precedence over a distant or secondary perceptive
field. While it is possible that the submerged sound element may be heard temporarily, the
dominant effect is primarily perceived as positioned above the background sound.

Natural contexts offer numerous examples of this effect: listening to snatches of conversation, a
song near the sea, or the music of a carousel on a beach. In this specific context, the murmur of
the waves creates a permanent setting that gives the impression of containing a primary sonic
situation. The urban drone can also create this structure of a permanent framework over which
individual sonic activities are superimposed.

Incursion

The incursion effect refers to an unexpected sound event that modifies the climate of a moment
and the behaviour of a listener in a characteristic way. This effect is to time as the intrusion effect
is to space. Even with its generalized use, a telephone ring remains an aggressive sound event for
many people, not so much because of its timbre, which has softened over time, but because of its
unexpected and imperious character: a call not only interrupts the present state, but also dictates
new behaviour for a given moment.

Intrusion

A psychomotor effect linked to territoriality. The inopportune presence of a sound or group of

sounds inside a protected territory creates a feeling of violation of that space, particularly when it
occurs in the private sphere. In some pathological states, voices and sounds are perceived as
illegitimate intrusions in the body.

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Larsen

This effect, refers to the loop established in an electrophonic chain between a microphone and
loudspeakers that constantly reinjects the signal over itself. If nothing interrupts this cycle, the
speakers may blow out when they are used at a high intensity. Related effect feedback

Limitation

An electroacoustic effect: a limiter prevents a sound signal from exceeding a specified threshold
of intensity, thus reducing its most intense sections and peaks. A limiter is also used to augment
the average dynamic of a signal. Related effect compression

Lombard

The greater the intensity of a sound environment, the greater the level of vigilance, regardless of
the intelligibility of the signal. In industry, we have observed an increase in attentiveness linked to
an increase in the sound level, even when it reaches or exceeds the legal threshold of 85 dB(A) at
which occupational hearing loss may start to appear.

Mask

The mask (masque) effect refers to the presence of a sound that partially or completely masks
another sound because of its intensity or the distribution of its frequencies. This effect, easily
demonstrated acoustically, also implies a subjective psychophysiological reaction: the masking
sound can be judged as either parasitic or favourable, depending on whether or not the masked
sound is perceived as pleasant.

Metamorphosis

A perceptive effect describing the unstable and changing relations between elements of a sound
ensemble.

Mixing

A compenetration of different and simultaneous sound sources. In everyday life, the mixing effect
implies close levels of intensity between the diverse sounds present.

Narrowing

The narrowing effect refers to a sensation that the space is shrinking, which is felt by an emitter
listening to the return of a sent message.

Niche

An occurrence of a sound emission at the moment that is the most favourable and that offers a
particularly well-adapted place for its expression. The niche effect, which merges a sound message

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and a sound context, is one of the key instruments of sound action, and can operate on any
component of sound: intensity, pitch, timbre, rhythm.

Noise-Gate

A musical electroacoustic effect that involves the establishment of a threshold of intensity, literally
a “gate,” below which the signal is automatically cut. The cutting rate of the sound intervenes
directly on attack and release, making it possible to retain only the most dynamic impact of a
sound.

Perdition

A semantic effect that might also be called the “dereliction” or “loss.” This effect is linked to a
feeling of perdition, in the double sense of a soul in distress and the dissipation of a sound motif.
The sound seems to be emitted for nothing, for everyone to hear but requiring no answer. It is a
sound without destination, absurd in the etymological sense; its entire expression is simply a sign
of powerlessness. Often characteristic of extreme suffering constituted principally of tears and
moans, this effect accompanies life situations that are violent or painful.

Phase

An acoustic effect that desynchronizes the cycles of two simultaneous emissions of a sound signal.
Phasing is in fact a de-phasing effect: two cycles that are identical but begin at two different points
of their curves, or two cycles that begin together but do not have the same duration.

Phonomnesis

This effect refers to a sound that is imagined but not actually heard. Phonomnesis (phonomnèse)
is a mental activity that involves internal listening: examples include recalling to memory sounds
linked to a situation, or creating sound textures in the context of composition.

Phonotonie

This effect, also called the phonotonic effect, characterizes the feeling of euphoria provoked by a
sound perception. Sometimes it induces a behaviour directly, such as a renewed activity, a
collective movement, or a reflex gesture. Musical listening often plays this functional role in
individual or collective work.

Quotation

The emergence, in a contemporary context, of a sound fragment for which the semantic reference
is confirmed. Contrary to imitation, quotation (citation) is a textual reprise and does not imply
distance. It is easily identifiable in musical and verbal contexts, but it can also be observed in the
everyday sound environment. This semiotic effect can range from homage to burlesque. The

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quotation effect will always be accomplished in the scope of a known cultural product; it is
conventional and is recognized in a given culture. This excerpt of another expression is
accompanied by signs that make it possible to recognize the original source.

Rallentando

In music, a rallentando (rall.) marking instructs the musician to reduce the speed, or tempo, of the
performance.

Release

Release (traînage) is an acoustic effect that describes the residual duration of a sound, from its
cessation until silence or background noise.

Remanence

A continuation of a sound that is no longer heard. After the extinction of both emission and
propagation, the sound gives the impression of remaining “in the ear.” Remanence is neither an
anamnesis (sounds heard in the present that evoke the past), nor a phonomnesis (remembered
sound without physical listening). Remanence does not involve deep and early memory. It is
simply the mnestic trace of barely subsided sound signals.

Repetition

A reappearance of similar sound occurrences. The repetition effect works on two levels: on one
hand, it marks phenomena of automatism involving subjection; on the other hand, it characterizes
phenomena of return, reprise, and enrichment by accumulation.

Reprise

A musical marking indicating the strict repetition of a sound motif (phrase, chorus, air). The reprise
may take place either immediately after the exposition of the theme and be quickly repeated, or
after one or more developments. The reprise does not imply any modification of the original motif
but may be performed by another instrument, or at different octaves.

Repulsion

A psychomotor effect referring to a sound phenomenon that produces, in an uncontrolled or

conscious way, an attitude of rejection and behaviours of flight, whether mental or real.

Resonance

The resonance effect refers to the vibration, in air or through solids, of a solid element.

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Reverberation

A propagation effect in which a sound continues after the cessation of its emission. Reflections of
the sound on surfaces in the surrounding space are added to the direct signal.

Sharawadji

An aesthetic effect that characterizes the feeling of plenitude that is sometimes created by the
contemplation of a sound motif or a complex soundscape of inexplicable beauty.

Suspension

A semantic compositional effect characterized by the feeling of nonfulfillment of a heard sound

sequence: the sound seems to be suspended, awaiting continuation. This effect leaves the listener
in a state of uncertainty, indecision, or powerlessness. In its aesthetic dimension, suspension
corresponds to the principle of incompletion of a work; in its psychosociological dimension, it
refers to waiting. Sound signals and sonic punctuation (jingles) are types of tamed suspensions.

Synchronization

A psychomotor effect by which the rhythm of appearance of a sound phenomenon determines the
beginning of an individual or collective perceptive or motor activity. Synchronization is one of the
major forms of chronophony in social life – that is, of punctuation of time by sound.

Synecdoche

Listening to a complex sound ambience, the synecdoche effect is the ability to valorize one specific
element through selection. Selective listening,

Tartini

The Tartini effect refers to the production of a sound that is physiologically audible, but that has
no physical existence. It looks like a sonic hologram. In psychoacoustics, this phenomenon is also
sometimes described as “combination tones.” This compositional effect exists under very specific
conditions: for instance, it is possible to hear a fundamental frequency reconstituted by the ear
based on listening to two or more of its harmonics.

Tremolo

A fast pulsation characterizing the diffusion of a sustained sound, in the form of multiple
repetitions articulated in discontinuous frequencies. Tremolo actually cuts a signal into square
signals, whereas vibrato leads it into a sinusoidal movement (frequency continuity).

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Ubiquity

An effect linked to spatio-temporal conditions that expresses the difficulty or impossibility of

locating a sound source. In the major variant of this effect, the sound seems to come from
everywhere and from nowhere at the same time.

Vibrato

Vibration that affects a sustained sound. Vibrato consists of a continuous modulation of intensity
or pitch allowing one to enrich a sound. The control of vibrato required for the human voice and
for string and wind instruments is one of the great characteristics of performance style.

Wall

A composite effect in which a continuous high intensity sound gives the listener an impression of
facing an ensemble of sound materialized in the shape of a wall.

Wave

A compositional effect describing a sound or a group of sounds that we hear following a curve of
intensity, the shape of which is analogous to the shape of a wave and consequent undertow:
crescendo, maximal point, fast or progressive rupture of the sound, and decrescendo.

Wha-Wha

An electroacoustic effect that intervenes in the filtration of a sound and allows successive
subtraction or reinforcement of diverse frequencies, notably higher ones.

Wobble

An electroacoustic effect of analog tape recorders that characterizes the deformation produced
during playback due to an incorrect alignment between the magnetic tape and the playback head.

Wow

An effect characterizing variations in the pitch of a sound message caused by the irregular rotation
of a turntable deck or the maladjusted or broken mechanism of an analog magnetic tape recorder.

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 APPENDIX 9
Contribution of this Research to Existing Research Methodology and Criticism of
Meaning implied in Audio Texts

This section discusses the contribution the research would wish to make with regard to
methodology and criticism of Oral Literary meaning encompassed in criticism of the voice of the
artist, voices in general as audio texts, as perceived in song, theatre, and in film. This is based on
the research results and discussions above possibly in order to fill the existing gap that the research
had identified based on the second objective of the research as well as the second hypothesis. This
is on the observation that Oral Literature methodology appear to grapple with challenges on how
meaning implied in oral texts can be collected and analyzed. As Wasamba (2015:195-6) succinctly
observes, analysis and interpretation of verbal art especially in Kenya reveals an inadequate
engagement with the raw data collected during field work, as well as with the secondary data
already published. Wasamba goes on and notes that Data analysis in oral Literature is still
struggling with establishment of hybridized tradition that harmonizes the Literary, Linguistic, and
social science analytic traditions. The researcher thus agrees totally with Wasamba on the
acknowledgement that “a lot still need to be done to address this lacuna (195).”

9.1 Key Observations on Pitch of a Song and the Effect it has on Meaning Based on the
effect the melody / tune of a song has with reference to the Voice of the Artist

Pitch can be understood as the highness or lowness of a sound or a voice. It was inferred from the
relevance the respondents attached to the songs that the pitch of an artist’s voice aid in setting the
mood permeated in a song as implicature. High pitch based in the context of an artist’s vocal range
is suitable for conveying happy messages because they are conceived to bear nuances of positive
excitement. Low pith on the other hand is suitable for dull, sad, and unhappy messages. However,
for the implied meaning to suffice, the duration within which an artist sustains the notes should
bring out the implied nuances. In again, must be in correspondence with the musical scale or key
in which the artist is singing based on the nature and texture of one’s voice. The implied nuances
in the voice is registered in the mind of the listeners within milliseconds. This depends on how fast
the listener is able to associate a given style of singing with the expected implicature or implied
meaning. That period of perception within which the listener appropriates particular cultural
linguistic contexts in order to infer meaning in a voice this research established is key in

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determining a singer’s voice to have the expected cognitive effect. This research sought to refer to
this duration as Predelay. A Predelay in this context is the character a voice must simulate in order
to invoke the expected feelings, mood, emotions, and thoughts in the mind of the listener.
Consequently, emotions in this regard or the mood the song creates in the listener’s mind define
the ostensive communication i.e. ability of the song to communicate the intentions of the artist.
For instance, the nuances of mourning and self-pity in this context are noticed in Diamond
Platnumz voice in the song “Nikifa Kesho”, The song “Rita” by Marlaw on the other hand is laden
with nuances of mourning and the song “Pii Pii” is characterized by a mood of youthful
excitements. The style of singing in this context it was noted appropriates a tune or melody that
will capture and create the intended mood in the listeners. It was observed that during the song
making process, the producer establishes the cadence that best brings out the intended meaning
based on the texture of the artist’s voice. The cadence in this context it was observed is made up
of the rising and falling of the melody of the song. The picks and troughs of the melody in this
regard are determined by the choice of chord progression. The chord progression it was noted
defines a phrase and hence functions as a phrasing procedure enunciating a given meaning that can
be inferred as cultural nuance from an oral literature perspective and as modality from a linguistic
perspective.

Most importantly, the researcher observed in addition that the chief source of emotions in the voice
depends on the phonotation techniques which an artist appropriates a one’s unique style of singing.
The research noted that the emotions encompassed in an artist’s voice, and which are
communicated to the audience as ostensions chiefly rely on how an artist resonates one’s voice
within three main parts of the nose. These are inferior, mid and superior turbinates. In addition,
this depends on how one appropriates the frontal, sphenoid, ethmoid, and maxillary sinuses.
Although the research established that most listeners identified the implied emotions in an artist’s
voice with ease, it was observed that almost none knew the source of the inherent nuances in the
voice as well as the meaning they would associate with the implied meaning in the voice. As a
result of this observation, it would be sound for future studies and criticism methods of Orature
and performed texts such as songs and oral poetry to train learners on listening skills that can help
one identify particular nuances in the voice as well as ground learners in criticism practices that
can help the learner underpin the purpose and relevance various nuances have on the implied
meaning in oral texts.

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9.2 Character Analysis as Themes

In the examination of the voice of the artist as a character in the song, the research found that the
following questions can be asked in the examination of characters as themes: Why do these people
do the things they do? What meanings do they attach to their activities? Why do these people sing
the way they sing? What meaning do they attach to their style (s) of singing? Can their styles of
singing be said to bear any literary value? Can their styles of singing be studied as literary texts?
If yes, how? (sonic Texts). These questions were limited to the Audio text not the musical
transcription.

9.3 Styles of Singing as Music Genres

The research found that the following questions can guide in criticism of styles of singings as
aesthetic practices: At what point does one manner of singing shift from one generic category into
another. How can the generic shifts be underpinned and how can they be described and explained?
What is it that characterize a music genre and delineate it from other genres? E.g. Rhythm, Tempo,
Harmonics and Relevance the members of a given culture attach. Chord progression as cultural
idiophones and cultural onomatopoeia. Explain in details different aspects of performance that
characterize the meaning, which is discerned in the voice. To their respective meanings as generic
categories. Is it the music that matter or it’s the cultural practitioners and the relevance they attach
to their music as cultural activities?

9.4 Contextual Information That Inform the Inferences and Inferential Process

It was in addition observed that contextual information that inform the inferences and inferential
process ought to define the criticism procedure of analyzing literary meaning implied in voices. It
was found that during performance the shape of the Lips – control the mood. It was found that
during performance the nose- controls the harmonics that carry emotions encompassed in the voice

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of the artist. It was found that during performance the Pitch Designates Gender and the character
simulated by the voice of the artist.

It was found that during performance the message of the song is key in determining how the artist
appropriates the voice in order to bring the expected meaning to bear.

Bass Tenor Alto Soprano

9.5 Stylistic Features Expressed in Lexical Choices in Bongo Flava Bear Literary
Meaning Which Is Implied in the Use of Figures of Speech

Stylistic features expressed in lexical choices in Bongo Flava bear Literary meaning which is
implied in the use of figures of speech. The voice of the artist implies audio stylistic features that
bear thematic relevance in Bongo Flava music. The manner of word utterance in this regard is
sensitive to cultural values and expectations of the nuanced meaning an artist expects to convey.
Consequently, singers imply a variety of thematic concerns as a result of their oral artistic
techniques- as speech practices. The tune in Bongo Flava songs bear meaning that reflect
ideological and social cultural perspectives of the artist, and others and the larger society.

9.6 Steps That Can Be Used To Repeat This Research/Experiment Using Other Music
Genres and Songs

Notably, this research can be repeated by following the following procedure or by asking the
following questions: What is the main message expressed in the lyrics? How have these words
been uttered? What is the effect of their manner rendition? What is the effect of their harmonies?
What is the effect of their pitch? What Sonic Effect do their mood create? How the implied
message is interpreted based on the ensuing context? Why have they been uttered in that manner?
What can we discover about manner of voice as literary discourse? What/ who do they reveal about
the speaker? What and why do they reveal about the persona? What and why do they reveal about
other characters? What and why do they reveal about this society? What and why do they reveal
about human relations about the community or culture? What conclusions can we draw based on
responses above? What recommendations can we make in this regard?

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9.7 Stages of Data Collection, Organization and Analysis

For purposes of future researches, the research noted that the following steps can guide future
researches when carrying out researches of voice of the artist
a) Field work
b) Data collection
c) Date coding
d) Data sorting
e) Data organization based on emerging categories as THEMES
f) Results
g) Discussion
h) Findings
i) Conclusions
j) Recommendations

9.8 Observation on Data Coding

This research observed that Oral Literature data can be coded for but not limited to:
a) Stylistic devices
b) Aural stylistic effects as devices
c) Cultural Expectations
d) Cultural Meanings
e) Assumptions
f) Explicature & Implicature
g) Expectations of the speaker
h) The following technique can be used when coding for different concerns
a. The descriptive narratives of the field notes will be in regular font. Which the
b. Quotations of the respondents will be in bold, and
c. The Observations made by the researcher in italics.
d. Major motifs / key features in CAPS

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9.9 Steps to Follow After Coding

This research observed that the following steps can be followed to organize data after data
coding:

a) Establish categories
b) Classify
c) Establish concepts
d) Contextualise purpose based on intentions & expectations
e) See connections based on context
f) Identify emerging motifs
g) Infer relevance (meaning) based on emerging motifs
h) Identify emerging patterns
i) Base interpretation on emerging motifs
j) Look for regularity
k) Underpin possible social influence on meaning
l) Note: Meaning is context dependent.
m) Voice as explicature is always dependent on cultural relevance
n) Context is the basis of the implied meaning.

9.10 Levels/Steps of Examining the Meaning Implied in the Voice Based on Manner
of Utterance

After data has been coded and categorized, the following steps it was observed can aid in the
inference and meaning making process:

1. Identify the voice under examination

2. Focus on a word, phrase or line and the intended meaning.
3. Pay attention to the manner of utterance based on the effect they have on the listener and
what they reveal about the speaker
4. Use adjectives to describe the effect so as to contextualize the intended meaning the listener
is expected to infer.

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 5. Identify a sonic term that can best be used to describe the effect resulting from the voice.
6. Justify or argue for the purpose of why the speaker may have used this mode of utterance.
Argue for the role culture and society may have plated in determining and influencing the
speaker to use this manner of voice
Summary of application of relevance

9.11 Theory in Criticism of Voice as a Style in Song as an Oral Performance

Style in Song As an Oral Performance Can Be Examined By Following the Following
Steps

a) Examine the shared knowledge i.e. voice as an implicature intended to convey nuanced
meaning.
b) Encyclopedia entries. Identify probable images, symbolic metaphors etc. that are suggested
or implied, which can be inferred from the voice.
c) Examine the cognitive process that characterize inferential process.
d) Account for the cognitive effect the voice has on the audience, based on cultural role in
influencing implied mood, attitude, encompassed in tone, pitch and intonations.

In this context tone, pitch and intonation are treated as semantic triggers, while mood and
attitude are semantic consequents.

9.12 Summary of Steps through Which the Brain Attaches Meaning In Audio Texts

Voice 2. Listening 3. Brain process (cognitive process) 4. Semantic

Association based on the linguistic and cultural knowledge of the listener 5. Cognitive
Effect (discernment of meaning) Interpretation of implied Relevance based on context.

9.13 Sonic Features as Style

After using adjectives to describe the effect the voice has on the listener by focusing on words,
phrase and line, one can examine the implied suggested meaning that result from the effect the
manner of voice usage has on the listeners- as Ostensive communication. Then identify a term in
the sonic terms/texts in everyday experience. Account for why (purpose) the voice (speaker)
expected to achieve by eliciting the effect the voice has on the listener.

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 9.14 Filtration Process
When listening to a song and consequently inferring meaning from the song. The diagram below
is a semblance of the process through which meaning is created. This process can be said to
comprise the following stages; perception of concept, identifying with language bearing expected
meaning, identification with mood/melody (Tune) bearing implied meaning encompassed in voice,
identifying with sonic effects responsible of a given meaning implied in the feeling the song has
on the listener, and lastly cognitive Effect i.e. phonic text implied in voice as style evidenced in
the implied context and manner of utterance.

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 Resulting Meaning
Voice as Filtering process meaning encompassed in Relevance Based on
Cognitive
of the meaning stylistic use of the knowledge that
informative Effect. I.e. the based on:
implied in the meaning the words that define the cultural
text voice of the artist emerge as a meanings the artist
listener
Artist’s based on cultural attaches to the
Lexical result of how and the audiences
Voice / Language Audience context voice of the message and the listener can decode and
Tune & artist and the make inferences encode in the song
message in the
Message Sonic Effect based on cultural
lyrics based on
Filtering process present in contexts
manner of
of the meaning expression. the voice of determining manner
implied in the Meaning of expression and
the artist encompassed in
lexical message word articulation.
based on cultural stylistic use of
Voice as
context the voice as
ostensive
(Audio
communication
Aesthetic
Texts)
Evidenced in
the effects the
song has on the
listener. e.g.
phonotanie,
Anamnesis.

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