2.

1: Earth-Sun Relationships
● The amount of solar energy received at any location varies with latitude, time of
day, and season of the year
● The unequal heating of Earth’s surface creates winds and drives ocean currents,
which in turns transport heats from the tropics toward the poles in an unending
attempt to balance energy inequalities
○ Consequences of these processes are the phenomena of weather
○ The sun drives the wind and the weather to continue
● The Earth's two basic motions are its 24-hour rotation on its axis, and its year-
long orbit around the sun

Earth’s Rotation and Orbit:

● Rotation: The spinning of Earth on its axis
● Orbit: The elliptical path that Earth travels around the sun once each year (365
¼ days)
● Since the Earth’s path is not circular, the distance between the Sun and the Earth
varies during the year
○ On ~January 3rd, Earth is at its closest point to the Sun; about 91.5
million miles, which is known as the perihelion
○ On ~July 4th, Earth is at its farthest point from the sun; about 95.4 million
miles, which is known as the aphelion
○ The average distance between the Sun and the Earth is about 150km, or 93
million miles

What Causes the Seasons:

● Length of daylight: Changes gradually throughout the year. This becomes more
evident the further you get from the equator; in the North Pole, daylight is
continuous from March 21- August 21 annually
● Angle (Altitude) of the Sun: The angle of the sun above the horizon affects the
amount of solar energy that reaches the Earth’s surface
○ When the Sun is directly overhead (90º angle), the solar rays are most
concentrated and most intense
 ○ At lower sun angles, the rays become more spread out and less intense

○ Sun angle determines the path that solar rays take as they pass through
the atmosphere; when the sun is directly overhead, the rays strike the
atmosphere at a 90º angle and travel the shortest possible route to the
Earth’s surface
○ When the sun is not directly overhead and the rays strike the atmosphere
at a 30º angle, the rays must travel twice the distance of 90º before
reaching the surface
○ Rays entering the atmosphere at a 5º angle must travel a distance
equivalent to ~ 11 atmospheres
○ The longer the path the rays must travel, the greater the chance the
sunlight will be dispersed (scattered) or absorbed by the Earth’s
atmosphere, which reduces the intensity of the sunlight reaching the
surface

Daily Changes in Earth’s Orientation to the Sun:

● Earth’s orientation to the Sun continually changes; which causes the
fluctuations in Sun angle and length of daylight throughout the course of a
year
● Earth’s axis is not perpendicular to the plane of its orbit; instead, the axis
is tilted at 23.5º from the plane of the ecliptic
● Circle of Illumination: The boundary separating the dark half of the Earth
from the lightened half
 ○ Length of daylight is established by comparing the fraction of a line
of latitude that is on the “day” side of the circle of illumination with
the fraction on the “night” side
● Inclination: The 23.5º angle at which the Earth’s axis is tilted
○ The Earth’s inclination is the reason we have seasons; the
orientation of the Earth;s axis to the Sun’s rays are constantly
changing, creating the variation in amount/intensity of sunlight
that reaches the surface

Solstices and Equinoxes:

● Spring (Vernal) Equinox:
○ March 21-22nd annually
○ Sun is vertical at the equator
● Fall (Autumnal) Equinox:
○ September 22-23 annually
○ Sun is vertical at the equator
● Winter Solstice:
○ December 21-22 annually
○ Sun is vertical at 23.5º S, or
the Tropic of Capricorn
○ Length of daylight is shortest
during the winter solstice
● Summer Solstice:
○ June 21-22 annually
○ Sun is vertical at 23.5º N, or
the Tropic of Cancer
○ Length of daylight is longest during the summer solstice

Calculating Noon Sun Angle:

1. Find the number of degrees of latitude separating the location you want to know
about from the latitude that is receiving the vertical rays of the sun
2. Subtract that value from 90º

The Seasons:
● Spring:
○ Astronomical season: March 21-22 to June 21-22
○ Climatological season: March, April, May
● Summer:
○ Astronomical season: June 21-22 to September 22-23
○ Climatological season: June, July, August
● Autumn/Fall:
 ○ Astronomical season: September 22-23 to December 21-22
○ Climatological season: September, October, November
● Winter:
○ Astronomical season: December 21-22 to March 21-22
○ Climatological season: December, January, February

*Divided into astronomical and climatological periods because the weather associated
with each season does not coincide with the astronomical seasons, both are based
primarily on temperature

2.2: Energy, Temperature, and Heat

● Energy comes to Earth from the Sun in the form of radiation, which we see as
light and feel as heat. This energy is then transformed and transported by the
Earth system

Forms of Energy:
● Energy: Defined as having the capacity for doing work (making an object move,
heating something, etc)
● Potential Energy:
○ Energy that has the potential or capacity to do work
■ E.g., hailstones suspended in a cloud have gravitational potential
energy; should the updraft weaken, the hailstones will release and
gravity pulls them to the ground
○ Many substances are capable of doing work; wood, gasoline, food, all
contain potential energy which is capable of doing work given the right
circumstances
● Kinetic Energy:
○ Energy associated with an object by virtue of its motion (energy of motion)
■ E.g., A swinging hammer can cause another object to do work; the
faster the hammer is swung, the greater its kinetic energy and vice
versa
○ Kinetic energy is important at the atomic level; all molecules and atoms
vibrate and thus have kinetic energy
■ When a solid, liquid, or gas is heated, its atoms/molecules move
faster and thus produce greater kinetic energy

Temperature:
● Formally defined as a measure of the average kinetic energy of the atoms or
molecules in a substance
 ○ When a substance is heated, its molecules/atoms move faster and raise the
temperature
○ When a substance is cooled, its molecules/atoms love slower and decrease
the temperature
● Temperature uses standard measures:
○ Fahrenheit (F)
○ Celsius (C)
○ Kelvins (K);
● Temperature is not a measure of the total kinetic energy of an object

Heat:
● Defined as energy transferred in or out of an object because of temperature
differences between that object and its surroundings
○ Thermal Energy: The energy contained in a substance as a result of its
temperature
● Latent Heat:
○ Heat is released or absorbed when water changes from one state of matter
to another; a process called phase change
○ Defined as the energy required to convert a solid into a liquid (or vapor),
or a liquid into vapor, without a change of temperature
■ Thermal energy is stored or “hidden” within the object or substance
undergoing a phase change
○ Latent heat can be transported from location to another
○ The latent heat stored in water vapor is released into the atmosphere during
condensation→ when water vapor returns to its liquid state during cloud
formation
■ Through the combined processes of evaporation and condensation,
latent heat transports large amounts of energy from the Earth’s
surface (mainly the oceans), into the atmosphere
Sensible Heat:
● The heat that we can feel and measure with a thermometer but does not involve a
phase change
○ Sensible heat can be transported from one location to another

2.3: Mechanisms of Heat Transfer

● The flow of energy can occur in three ways: conduction, convection, and radiation
● All three mechanisms can operate independently or simultaneously, and, working
in tandem, these processes can transfer heat between the Sun and Earth and
between Earth’s surface, its atmosphere, and outerspace

Conduction:
● Defined as the transfer of heat through molecular collisions from one molecule to
another
○ Metals are good conductors; air is a poor heat conductor; consequently,
conduction is important only between the Earth’s surface and their air
immediately in contact with the surface

Convection:
● Much of heat transport in Earth’s atmosphere and oceans occur by convection
● Defined as heat transfer that involves the actual movement or circulation of a
substance
○ Takes place in fluids (liquids such as water, and gasses such as air) where
the material can flow freely
● Air in the lowest layer of the atmosphere that is heated by radiation and
conduction is then transported by convection to higher layers of the atmosphere
● Warm parcels of rising air that are less dense than the surrounding air
(Thermals) from the surface buoy upwards, and the space beneath them are
replaced by the cooler air that sits farther above the surface
 ● (1) Heating of the Earth’s surface produces thermals of rising air that transport
heat and moisture aloft, (2) The rising air cools, and if it reaches the
condensation level, clouds form
Global Convective Circulation of the Atmosphere:
● Driven by the unequal heating of the Earth’s surface
● These global movements are responsible for the redistribution of heat between
hot equatorial regions and freezing polar latitudes
● Atmospheric circulation consists of both vertical and horizontal components,
meaning heat is transferred vertically (upwards) and horizontally (outwards)
● Convection is used to describe the vertical (upward and downward) motion of air
● Advection: Defined as the horizontal motion/component of airflow in the
atmosphere
■ Common example of advection is wind

Radiation:
● The only mechanism that can transfer thermal energy through the vacuum of
space and is responsible for solar energy reaching Earth.
● Solar Radiation:
○ The sun is the main/ultimate source of energy that drives weather
○ Sun emits a variety of energy forms; visible light, infrared radiation, and
ultraviolet radiation
● Infrared Radiation: A long wavelength which cannot be seen by the human eye
but is detected as heat
● Ultraviolet Radiation: Shorter wavelengths that produce heat and cause sunburns
● Defined as the wavelike energy emitted by any substance that possesses heat.
This energy travels through space at 300,000 km per second (the speed of light)
● Often identified by the effect it produces when it interacts with an object;
○ The retinas in our eyes are sensitive to the range of wavelengths called
visible light, which gives us the ability to see/reflect/produce colors
● Shorter wavelengths are more energetic than long wavelengths
Laws of Radiation:
1. All objects continuously emit radiant energy over a range of wavelengths
2. Hotter objects radiate more total energy per unit area than do colder objects
3. Hotter objects radiate energy in the form of shorter-wavelength radiation than do
cooler objects
4. Objects that are good absorbers of radiation are also good emitters

2.4: Incoming Solar Radiation

● When solar radiation enters the Earth’s atmosphere, three different things may
occur simultaneously:
○ Air may simply transmit energy; allowing it to pass through without
redirecting or absorbing it
○ The energy may be absorbed, which will increase the kinetic energy of the
molecules and cause a temperature increase
○ The energy may “bounce off” or redirect off gas molecules or dust particles
in the atmosphere without being absorbed or transmitted

Transmission:
● Defined as a process by which energy passes through the atmosphere (or any
transparent media) without interacting with the gases or other particles in the
atmosphere
● About 50% of the incoming shortwave (solar) energy that reaches Earth’s surface
is transmitted through the atmosphere
○ Remaining energy is redirected by gas molecules/particles and arrive as
diffused light
○ 20% absorbed by the atmosphere/clouds, 50% absorbed by the land and
sea, 30% lost to space due to reflection and scattering

Absorption:
● The amount of energy absorbed by an object depends on the wavelength and the
objects absorptivity
○ In the visible range of wavelengths, the degree of absorptivity is
responsible for the brightness of an object
● ~20% of the solar radiation that reaches Earth is absorbed by gases in the
atmosphere

Reflection/Scattering:
● Reflection is defined as the process whereby light bounces back from an object at
about the same angle and intensity at which it was received
● Scattering is defined as a general process in which radiation bounces off an
obstacle in many directions
 ○ Atoms, molecules, and particles in
the atmosphere cause incoming
sunlight to scatter
● Albedo: The fraction of radiation that is
reflected by an object
○ Earth’s total albedo, called
planetary albedo, is 30%
○ The amount of light reflected from
Earth’s surface represents only a
small percentage of the total
planetary albedo
● Diffused Light: Solar energy that is
scattered and reflected in the Earth’s
atmosphere and reaches Earth’s surface in the form of diffuse blue light from the
sky
○ Overall, about 50% of the solar radiation that is absorbed at Earth’s
surface arrives as diffused light.
● The color of the sky is an indication of the size of particles present→ small particles
produce red sunsets, whereas large particles produce white or grey skies

2.5: The Role of Gases in the Atmosphere

● How the atmosphere is heated is reliant on how atmospheric gases interact with
the short-wavelength incoming solar radiation and the long-wavelength outgoing
radiation emitted by Earth
○ Solar radiation is emitted in wavelengths < 2.5 micrometers
○ Earth’s surface radiation is emitted in wavelengths between 2.5-30
micrometers

Heating the Atmosphere

● When a gas molecule absorbs radiation, the energy is transformed into kinetic
energy and is emitted as sensible heat causing a rise in temperature
● The atmosphere is nearly transparent to incoming shortwave radiation, but
relatively opaque to outgoing longwave radiation
○ Solar energy is not an effective “heater” of Earth’s atmosphere
● Water vapor and carbon dioxide (CO2) are the principle absorbing gases,
absorbing about 60% of terrestrial radiation
○ Water vapor accounts of the warm temperatures in the lower troposphere
where it is most highly concentrated
● Atmospheric window: Terrestrial radiation between 8-11 micrometers in length
to which the troposphere is transparent
 ● The atmosphere is heated from the ground up; explaining the general drop in
temperature with increased altitude in the troposphere
○ On average, the temperature drops 6.5ºC per km, or 3.5ºF per 1000 feet

The Greenhouse Effect

● Greenhouse Gases: Gases that absorb longwave radiation
○ Two gases; water vapor and CO2 absorb a significant portion of the
longwave radiation. As the radiation heats these gases, the temperature in
the atmosphere increases
● Greenhouse Effect: A natural phenomenon that warms the surface and lower
atmosphere through capture of energy and emittance of heat, making Earth
habitable
○ Without the greenhouse effect, the Earth’s temperature would be -18ºC
(0ºF)

2.6: Earth’s Energy Budget

● In order for Earth’s atmosphere and annual temperature to remain relatively
stable, the energy exchanged between Earth’s surface and the atmosphere must
also remain stable.
○ This surface-to-atmosphere equilibrium is accomplished through
conduction, convection, and that transfer of latent heat + the transmission
of longwave radiation between the Earth’s surface and the atmosphere

Annual Energy Budget:

● Defined as the balance of incoming and outgoing radiation, as well as the energy
balance that exists between Earth’s surface and its atmosphere
● The balance is maintained because all the energy absorbed by Earth’s
surface is returned to the atmosphere and eventually radiated back to
space
● Earth's surface loses energy through different processes; (1) emission of longwave
radiation; (2) conduction and convection; (3) through evaporation and latent
heat

Latitudinal Energy Budget:

● Although there is a balance of incoming and outgoing radiation over the entire
planet, it is not maintained at each latitude
○ There is a wide zone that spans over the equator that receives more solar
radiation than is lost to space
○ At higher altitudes, more heat is lost through radiation emitted by the
Earth than is received by the Sun
● The global wind system (and to a lesser extent, the oceans) act as giant “thermal
engines” that transfer surplus heat from the tropics towards the poles
● The transfer of surplus heat between the tropics and the poles drives
Earth’s weather system