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           Terrorism  

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v  Do You think that criminal behaviour and

terrorism are the same?

Is a serial killer the same as a terrorist?

Is a rapist the same as a terrorist?

}  Definitions… difficulties

}  Who is a terrorist?... T&T
}  Characteristics of terrorism and terrorist

}  Typologies
}  Statistics

}  Explaining terrorism

}  Impact –economic .. Other

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DEFINING TERRORISM

… difficult to define …
‘‘one man’s terrorist is another man’s freedom
fighter’’ (Laqueur, 1987: 7, 302)

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Gibbs (1989) any definition of terrorism may reflect

“ideological or political bias…..

.. essential dimensions that covers the various acts

that comprise terrorism
and the various actors that perpetrate these acts of
terrorism”.

…consist of factors within 5 categories

1. nature of the group

2. nature of the targets and victims

3. means

4. goals

5. mechanisms for achieving goals (Dershowitz, 2002:230).

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…Common elements of terrorism

‘violence’ ,‘force’, ‘political’,

…and ‘fear, terror emphasized’ and ‘threat’ (Schmid and

Jongman,1988:5).

“Terrorism is a method ….in which

random or symbolic victims become target[s] of
violence…

Through the previous use of violence or the

credible threat of violence other members of that
group… are put in a state of chronic fear (terror)…

The victimization of the target … is considered

extranormal by most observers … [which in turn]
creates an … audience beyond the target of
terror…

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….
The purpose of terrorism…
}  to immobilise the target of terror in order to
produce disorientation and/or compliance

to mobilise secondary targets of

} . .and
demands (e.g. a government)…or targets of
attention (e.g. public opinion)”.) Schmid (2006):

“The use of unexpected violence to intimidate or

coerce people in the pursuit of political or social
objectives”.
. Gurr (1989)

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Terrorists unlike Robin Hood do not distinguish

between the guilty and innocent or between justifiable
victims and unjustifiable victims. Lomasky (1991)

Terrorism …a violent tactic aimed at winning political change.

3. Features of typologies of terrorism –
1. “its purpose

2.  its actors and supporters

3.  and its location”.

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Hoffman (1998, p. 43)

… “the terrorist is fundamentally a violent
intellectual, prepared and committed to use of force
in the attainment of his goals

ANTI-TERRORISM ACT CHAPTER 12:07 Act 26

of 2005

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“terrorist” includes a person who—

(a) commits a terrorist act by any means directly or indirectly,
unlawfully and wilfully;
(b) participates as an accomplice in terrorist acts or the
financing of terrorism;
(c)  organises or directs others to commit terrorist acts or the
financing of terrorism; or
(d)  contributes to the commission of terrorists acts or the
financing of terrorism by a group of persons acting with a
common purpose where the contribution—
1.  is made intentionally and with the aim of furthering the
terrorist act or the financing of terrorism; or
2. with the knowledge of the intention of the group of
persons to commit the terrorist act or the financing of
terrorism;

“terrorist act” means—

an act whether committed in or outside of Trinidad and
a) 
Tobago which causes or is likely to cause—
(i) loss of human life or serious bodily harm;
(ii) damage to property; or
(iii) prejudice to national security or disruption of public
safety including disruption in the provision of emergency
services or to any computer or electronic system or to the
provision of services directly related to banking,
communications, infrastructure, financial services, public
utilities, transportation or other essential infrastructure, and
is intended to—
(iv) compel a government or an international
organisation to do or refrain from doing any act; or
(v) intimidate the public or a section of the public, for the
purpose of advancing a political, ideological or a religious cause;
b)  an offence under any of the Conventions; or
c) an offence under Part II, Part III or section 22A of this Act;

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CHARACTERISTICS OF TERRORISM

Hoffman (1998 ) characterizes terrorism as

having
(a) Having a political aim and motive.
(b) Designed for more widespread psychological
effects… beyond the immediate victims or
targets.
(c) Carried out by a subnational group or non-state
entity.
(d) C onducted by an organization with an
identifiable chain of command or cell structure.

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Characteristics of Terrorist

v  Hostage taking to instil fear

v  Committed by young males

v  Males- unemployed and marginalized by the

dominant groups in society (Hoffman, 1998).

MOTIVATION

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….are driven by political or moralistic goals against

what they often perceive is some “chronic” grievance
with a long history
(e.g., political independence or return of a disputed
land; Senechal de la Roche, 1996)

}  …want their actions to be made public and to

attach their group’s identity to the particular
crimes (Irvin, 1992; Schmid & Degraf, 1982).
}  When captured and prosecuted…. seek to turn
their trials into political theatre (Hoffman, 1998).

}  …motivated by ideology, religion, or a political

cause (…typical offender engages in violent
crime for personal gain) (Douglas et al., 1992).

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v  … Operate in Organized Structures

v  collectively focused & team oriented
v  … extremely strong devotion & unity
v  … organized multilevel command-and-control
v  Larger organizations create subunits- cells

v  members have close ties, a strong sense of

camaraderie, & shared sense of experience.

TERRORISM TYPOLOGIES

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Terrorist Group Typologies: Irvin, C. (2007).

v Religious Extremism
v  Acts motivated by a sense of religious authority.
v Ethno-Nationalism
v  violence in attempt to forge national identity.
v Right-Wing Terrorism
v  acts to promote an anti-government or racist ideology.
v Special Interest Terrorism
v …a particular social issue..

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Typologies of Terrorism
based on “political status and situation of the
perpetrators” Gurr (1989)

} 1. Vigilante Terrorism

} 2. Insurgent Terrorism
} 3. Transnational Terrorism
} 4. State Terrorism

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1. Vigilante Terrorism
}  Committed by private citizens against other
private citizens as an expression of hatred
or social change.
}  Example: Hate Groups.

2. Insurgent Terrorism
}  Private citizens commit terrorism against
their government to win political goals.

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Schmid and De Graff( 1982)

3 types of insurgent terrorism:
1. Single-Issue Terrorism ..
individual /small group … pressure government to change a policy.

2. Separatist Terrorism …
assisting an ethnic group secede from a state.
3. Social Revolutionary Terrorism
…to overthrow the government and bring about dramatic
economic, political and social change.

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The Black Panther Party (BPP)

} … preached for a “revolutionary war”
} … spoke out for all those who were
oppressed- from whatever minority group.
} …had 4 desires
1. equality in education
2. housing
3.  employment
4. civil rights.

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}  Irish Republican Army (IRO)–

◦  ..for Ireland to gain independence from Britain.

}  Palestinian Liberation Organization (PLO) –

◦  get control of Palestinian land from the Israel (Cobban, 1985).

3. Transnational Terrorism
} …international terrorism….committed by terrorist living in
one nation against other nations (Gurr, 1989).

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}  September 9/11

◦  attack on the World Trade Centre and the Pentagon.

}  Omega 7 –
◦  an anti-Castro organization - Cuban Americans.
◦  committed over 50 bombing and assassinations against
Cuban diplomats and businesses involved in Cuba.

4. State Terrorism
} Repressive
Terrorism – used by governments to intimidate its
own citizens. … to stifle dissent.

e.g. French Revolution

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}  Despite the risks posed by terrorism, including

newly emerging threats and the increased targeting
of private citizens,

}  it is criminal violence that continues to affect a

larger proportion of individuals in modern society.

}  Most countries have homicide levels that far exceed

terrorism-related fatalities. Irvin, C. (2007).

}  .

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EXPLAINING TERRORISM

2 paradigms for models of terrorist behaviour

1. rational/strategic paradigm
}  views it as a deliberate, calculated choice made by an
organization as part of its overall strategy (Crenshaw, 1985;
Hoffman, 1998; Sederberg, 1989)

2. psychological paradigm
}  .. argues that individuals who are drawn to and ultimately join
terrorist organizations and commit violent acts are in some
way psychologically damaged (Post, 1990, 2004; Rapoport,
1984, 1992).

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Psychological and Social-Psychological Views

} … psychological perspective individuals commit
terrorism because they have psychological states or
problems that predispose them to do so. (Bongar et
al, 2007).
} Psychological state can be connected to structural
conditions that lead to discontent relative
deprivation, alienation and rising expectation s
(Bongar et al, 2007)

Criticisms:
Social Psychological states cannot explain by
themselves why person engage in acts of terrorism.
}  Terrorism is unlikely to occur unless individuals adopts
ideologies that justify extreme violence to achieve political
goals. (Rapaport, 1988)

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Structural approach to understanding terrorism

} 
…. behaviours are seen as a rational response to the
economic, political and social conditions.

}  Collective violence

…such behaviour emerge when groups perceive a
threat to their economic, social and political well-
being (Gamson, 1990).

Other factors: Minority group discrimination..

a factor that motivates and fuels terrorist campaigns

(see, for example, Bradley, 2006; Buendia, 2005; Ergil, 2000;

Laqueur, 1999; O'Hearn, 1987; Van de Voorde, 2005; Whittaker,
200

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Macro perspective:
Studies that use cross national analysis to
model the effects of macroeconomic indicators
on terrorism fail to show conclusively that
impoverished or underdeveloped countries
experience higher rates of terrorism, or
produce more terrorists, than do middle or
high-income countries (Abadie, 2006; Dreher &
Gassebner, 2008; Krueger & Laitin, 2008; Piazza, 2006).

Micro Perspective:
Studies examining individuals likewise do not
reveal a causal link between poverty,
inequality, and terrorism. (Berrebi, 2007; Fair &
Haqqani, 2006; Krueger & Maleckova, 003; Sageman, 2004).

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The global economic impact of terrorism reached

US$89.6 billion in 2015,
Decreasing by 15 per cent from its 2014 level, and
reflecting the overall decline in the number of
people killed by terrorism.
However, the 2015 economic impact of terrorism is
still its second highest level since 2000.
The economic and opportunity costs arising from
terrorism have increased approximately eleven-
fold during the last 15 years.
GLOBAL TERRORISM INDEX 2016

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}  Tourism and tourism-related services

◦  aviation and transport.. one of the sectors of the
economy that suffers the most from terrorism.

}  Counter terrorism cost

◦  The air campaign against ISIL has cost US$8.7 billion in
total…not including military aid and efforts against
terrorism elsewhere such as in Afghanistan and Libya.

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