DE-36 (DME)

NUST COLLEGE OF

ELECTRICAL AND MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

DESIGN AND DEVELOPMENT OF SOLAR

POWERED VEHICLE WITH FOCUS ON DYNAMIC
ANALYSIS OF SUSPENSION, STEERING SYSTEM
AND CG CALCULATION
A PROJECT REPORT
DE-36 (DME)
Submitted by

MUHAMMAD MUQADDAS REHMAN

SYED MUHAMMAD FAHAD BUKHARI
HAMZA KHAN KHATTAK
BACHELORS
IN
MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
YEAR
2018
PROJECT SUPERVISORS
COL. DR. IMRAN SHAFI
LEC. JAWAD HAIDER SYED
YEAR 2018

NUST COLLEGE OF
ELECTRICAL AND MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

PESHAWAR ROAD, RAWALPINDI

1
 DESIGN AND DEVELOPMENT OF SOLAR
POWERED VEHICLE WITH FOCUS ON DYNAMIC
ANALYSIS OF SUSPENSION, STEERING SYSTEM
AND CG CALCULATION
A PROJECT REPORT

DEGREE 36

Submitted by

MUHAMMAD MUQADDAS REHMAN

SYED MUHAMMAD FAHAD BUKHARI
HAMZA KHAN KHATTAK

BACHELORS
IN
MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
Year
2018

PROJECT SUPERVISORS

COL. DR. IMRAN SHAFI

LEC. JAWAD HAIDER SYED

NUST COLLEGE OF
ELECTRICAL AND MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
PESHAWAR ROAD, RAWALPINDI

2
 DECLARATION

We hereby declare that no portion of the work referred to in this Project Thesis has been
submitted in support of an application for another degree or qualification of this of any other
university or other institute of learning. If any act of plagiarism found, we are fully responsible
for every disciplinary action taken against us depending upon the seriousness of the proven
offence, even the cancellation of our degree.

COPYRIGHT STATEMENT
 Copyright in text of this thesis rests with the student author. Copies (by any process)
either in full, or of extracts, may be made only in accordance with instructions given
by the author and lodged in the Library of NUST College of E&ME. Details may
be obtained by the Librarian. This page must form part of any such copies made.
Further copies (by any process) of copies made in accordance with such instructions
may not be made without the permission (in writing) of the author.
 The ownership of any intellectual property rights which may be described in this
thesis is vested in NUST College of E&ME, subject to any prior agreement to the
contrary, and may not be made available for use by third parties without the written
permission of the College of E&ME, which will prescribe the terms and conditions
of any such agreement.
 Further information on the conditions under which disclosures and exploitation may
take place is available from the Library of NUST College of E&ME, Rawalpindi.

3
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We are extremely grateful to Allah Almighty who enlightened us and guided us throughout
our project and blessed us with strength and ability to accomplish our project successfully.
With deep gratitude and appreciation, we would like to thank our project supervisors COL.
DR. IMRAN SHAFI and LEC. JAWAD HAIDER SYED whose guidance and efforts helped
us to complete our endeavor. We would also like to acknowledge the efforts of University
Management that helped us to achieve our project objectives. Last but not least, we are
extremely indebted to our families, friends and colleagues for their constant encouragement
and support which was very vital for the completion of this project.

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 ABSTRACT
Air pollution in Pakistan is one of the serious issue. Pakistan is ranked one of the top most
polluted country in the World. Lahore is the 4th most city affected by pollution. The health
risks of air pollution are extremely serious. Poor air quality increases respiratory ailments like
asthma and bronchitis, heightens the risk of life-threatening conditions like cancer, and burdens
our health care system with substantial medical costs. Our project, SOLIS, provide Solar-
Electric Hybrid Car as a solution for this problem. SOLIS will have zero emissions, safe for
environment. Not only that, the vehicles will be quiet and eco-friendly. In this project, our
main focus is the design of Chassis with focus on dynamic analysis of suspension, driveline,
steering system and CG calculations. In our project, we have worked on four sections of the
SOLIS. Chassis is designed using CREO and stress analysis is done using the same software
to know the weak sections of the Chassis and is made as stable as possible. For suspension
design, we designed Double wishbone type suspension using CREO and analysis is done using
Lotus Shark. The CG calculations are done using the design equations and parameters of the
Chassis and is made closer to the ground to make it more stable. For the driveline part, each
component is explained using design equations and designed accordingly. Our design is off-
road, commercial type and can be used for many purposes.

Keywords: Solar Car, SOLIS, Electric Vehicle, Solar Energy, Suspension.

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 Table of Contents

Chapter 1
Introduction
1 Introduction ..................................................................................................................... 13

1.1 Introduction to Solar Powered Vehicles................................................................... 13

1.2 Advantages of Solar Powered Vehicles ................................................................... 13

1.2.1 Eco-friendly and Quiet .......................................Error! Bookmark not defined.

1.2.2 Energy Availability ........................................................................................... 13

1.2.3 No Fuel Costs .....................................................Error! Bookmark not defined.

1.2.4 Driving Comfort.................................................Error! Bookmark not defined.

1.3 Pollution - A global problem.................................................................................... 13

1.3.1 Acidification ..................................................................................................... 14

1.3.2 Eutrophication ................................................................................................... 15

1.3.3 Particulate matter .............................................................................................. 15

1.4 Causes of Air Pollution ............................................................................................ 16

1.5 Solution .................................................................................................................... 16

1.6 Types of Solar Powered Vehicles ............................................................................ 17

1.6.1 Solar Buses: ...................................................................................................... 17

1.6.2 Rail .................................................................................................................... 17

1.6.3 Water boats ....................................................................................................... 18

1.6.4 Air Solar Vehicles ............................................................................................. 19

1.6.5 Manned solar aircraft ........................................................................................ 19

1.6.6 Unmanned aerial vehicles ................................................................................. 20

1.6.7 Solar powered spacecraft .................................................................................. 20

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 1.6.8 Planetary exploration ........................................................................................ 21

1.7 Applications of Solar Power in Automobile Industry around the Globe ................. 21

1.8 Electric vehicle with solar assist .............................................................................. 22

1.9 Limitations ............................................................................................................... 23

1.9.1 Power density .................................................................................................... 23

1.9.2 Cost ................................................................................................................... 23

1.10 Design considerations .............................................................................................. 23

1.11 Importance of designing efficient solar powered vehicle ........................................ 24

1.12 Design Efficiency in SOLIS ..................................................................................... 24

1.13 Applications of SOLIS ............................................................................................. 24

Chapter 2

Literature Review and Background Study

2 Literature Review and Background study....................................................................... 25

2.1 Efficiency ................................................................................................................. 25

2.1.1 Petrol Cars ......................................................................................................... 25

2.1.2 Hybrid cars ........................................................................................................ 25

2.1.3 Electric Cars ...................................................................................................... 26

2.2 Advantages of Solar car ........................................................................................... 26

2.3 Solar panel specifications ......................................................................................... 26

2.4 Suspension system.................................................................................................... 28

2.4.1 Dependent suspension system........................................................................... 28

2.4.2 Independent suspension system ........................................................................ 28

2.5 Double Wishbone suspension system ...................................................................... 29

2.5.1 Roll Center height ............................................................................................. 29

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 2.5.2 Ackerman’s definition ...................................................................................... 29

2.6 Motor ........................................................................................................................ 29

2.7 Motor Torque Calculations ...................................................................................... 30

2.7.1 Rolling Resistance ............................................................................................ 30

2.7.2 Grade resistance ................................................................................................ 30

2.8 Power Input. ............................................................................................................. 32

2.8.1 Solar Cells ......................................................................................................... 32

2.8.2 Power Trackers ................................................................................................. 32

2.9 Energy Storage ......................................................................................................... 33

2.9.1 Battery Selection ............................................................................................... 33

2.9.2 Battery Equalization.......................................................................................... 33

2.10 Battery Electric Vehicle (BEV)................................................................................ 34

2.11 Uses of these electric powered cars.......................................................................... 36

2.12 Component selection ................................................................................................ 36

2.12.1 Motor/ Gearbox ................................................................................................. 36

2.12.2 Batteries: ........................................................................................................... 37

2.13 Vehicle Mass ............................................................................................................ 37

2.14 Vehicle Performance ................................................................................................ 38

2.15 Energy Costs and carbon emissions ......................................................................... 40

Chapter 3

Design Methodology

3 Design Methodology....................................................................................................... 41

3.1 Chassis design .......................................................................................................... 41

3.1.1 Roll cage ........................................................................................................... 41

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 3.1.2 Supporting members ......................................................................................... 42

3.1.3 Design advantages ............................................................................................ 42

3.1.4 Material properties of Chassis design ............................................................... 42

3.2 Suspension design .................................................................................................... 43

3.2.1 Design of Wishbones ........................................................................................ 43

3.3 Design of spring ....................................................................................................... 45

3.4 Center of Gravity (CG) point of SOLIS ................................................................... 46

3.5 Importance of CG ..................................................................................................... 46

3.5.1 CG point of SOLIS ........................................................................................... 47

3.6 Driveline ................................................................................................................... 48

3.7 Solar Panels .............................................................................................................. 48

3.7.1 Solar panels requirement for SOLIS ................................................................. 49

3.8 Electric Vehicle Motor ............................................................................................. 49

3.8.1 Electric Motor vehicle for SOLIS ..................................................................... 49

3.9 Batteries for SOLIS .................................................................................................. 49

Chapter 4

Quantitative analysis and Performance analysis

4 Quantitative analysis and Performance analysis ............................................................. 51

4.1 Chassis analysis ........................................................................................................ 51

4.1.1 Material selection for Chassis ........................................................................... 51

4.2 Pugh’s Concept ........................................................................................................ 51

4.2.1 Comparison of Materials................................................................................... 51

4.3 Suspension analysis .................................................................................................. 53

4.3.1 Determination of Roll Centre............................................................................ 53

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 4.3.2 Analysis of Wishbone ....................................................................................... 54

4.3.3 Analysis of spring ............................................................................................. 55

4.3.4 Simulation of the Suspension System ............................................................... 56

4.4 Calculations for CG .................................................................................................. 57

4.5 Electric Vehicle Motor calculations ......................................................................... 58

4.6 Calculations for Battery ........................................................................................... 59

4.7 Calculations for Solar Panels ................................................................................... 61

4.7.1 Atmosphere of the Earth ................................................................................... 61

4.7.2 Particles present in the atmosphere ................................................................... 61

4.7.3 Location ............................................................................................................ 62

4.7.4 Angle of incidence of radiation on surface ....................................................... 63

4.7.5 Earth’s position with respect to sun .................................................................. 63

4.7.6 Insolation........................................................................................................... 63

4.7.7 Optimum tilt of the collector surface ................................................................ 64

4.8 Final Design of SOLIS ............................................................................................. 65

Chapter 5

Conclusion and future directions

5 Conclusion and future directions .................................................................................... 67

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 List of Figures

Figure 1-1 Water Pollution ..................................................................................................... 14

Figure 1-2 Air Pollution .......................................................................................................... 15
Figure 1-3 Land Pollution ....................................................................................................... 16
Figure 1-4 Green Fuel ..............................................................Error! Bookmark not defined.
Figure 1-5 Solar Buses ............................................................................................................ 17
Figure 1-6 Solar Boat .............................................................................................................. 18
Figure 2-1 Efficiency Comparison.......................................................................................... 25
Figure 2-2 Well-to-wheel efficiency....................................................................................... 26
Figure 2-3 Solar Panels ........................................................................................................... 27
Figure 2-4 Efficiencies of different componenets .................................................................. 35
Figure 2-5 Vehicle Performance ............................................................................................. 39
Figure 2-6 Fuel Cost ............................................................................................................... 40
Figure 3-1 Roll cage design .................................................................................................... 42
Figure 3-2 Roll cage analysis .................................................................................................. 53
Figure 3-3 Lower Wishbone ................................................................................................... 44
Figure 3-4 Upper Wishbone.................................................................................................... 45
Figure 3-5 Analysis of Wishbone ........................................................................................... 55
Figure 3-6 Analysis of spring ................................................................................................. 55
Figure 3-7 Suspension system on Lotus Shark ....................................................................... 56
Figure 3-8 Suspension system on Lotus Shark (View 2) ........................................................ 56
Figure 3-9 Right car is more stable ......................................................................................... 47
Figure 3-10 CG Calculations .................................................................................................. 57
Figure 3-11 Sun Path diagram for Pakistan ............................................................................ 62
Figure 3-12 Effect of atmosphere on Solar Radiation ............................................................ 62
Figure 3-13 Angle of Incidence .............................................................................................. 63
Figure 3-14 Tilt angle for different seasons ............................................................................ 64
Figure 3-15 Deep cycle lead-acid battery ............................................................................... 50
Figure 4-1 Rear View.............................................................................................................. 65

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Figure 4-2 Bearings and Rear Wheels .................................................................................... 66
Figure 4-3 Full view SOLIS ................................................................................................... 66

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 1 INTRODUCTION

1.1 Introduction to Solar Powered Vehicles

A solar vehicle, as the name suggests, is the vehicle which runs on Solar Energy. It has the
Solar panels which convert solar energy into electric energy which is stored in the battery. This
energy is then used to drive the electric motor [1].

1.2 Advantages of Solar Powered Vehicles

1.2.1 Environment friendly

A solar vehicle contains no IC Engine hence it has no harmful combustion products. It uses
Electric Motor for its drive which has almost no sound as it has no compression and expansion
of gases [2].

1.2.2 Energy Availability and cost

Solar cars use energy from the Sun which is always readily available without any cost. The
sun is the ultimate and free source of energy.

1.2.3 Comfort driving

Electric Solar vehicles are usually light weight having no sound and smooth drive. Hence,
these vehicles are good for luxury and comfort.

1.3 Pollution - A global problem

Pollution is defined as the contamination of the natural world with harmful contaminants which
are dangerous for the life on earth. Pollution can be many types. Some of the most common
types of pollution are:

1) Air Pollution
2) Land Pollution

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 3) Water Pollution

Figure 1-1 Water Pollution

Among these types, the most dangerous is the Air Pollution. Air Pollution is the cause of many
incurable diseases. Some of the key effects of Air Pollution are:

1) Acidification
2) Eutrophication
3) Ground level ozone
4) Particulate Matter

These major problems are explained as follow:

1.3.1 Acidification

The chemical compounds present in the air due to air pollution can combine with the
water in the atmosphere and create acidic compounds. Because of the sulphur dioxide
and nitrogen dioxide present in the air due to air pollution, the rain becomes acidic
which affects the plants and cause skin cancer in humans

14
 Figure 1-2 Air Pollution

1.3.2 Eutrophication

The acid rain can cause the soil to become infertile. They can also cover the surfaces
of the leaves and hinder their growth. This can lead to decreased in the activity of the
plants to make oxygen and absorb Carbon Dioxide [3].

1.3.3 Particulate matter

Air pollution is very harmful as it is actually in the form of particles in the air. These
particles can lead to many diseases such as eye infection, lung diseases, skin cancer etc.
Short-term effects include irritation to the eyes, nose and throat, and upper respiratory
infections such as bronchitis and pneumonia. Others include headaches, nausea, and
allergic reactions. Short-term air pollution can aggravate the medical conditions of
individuals with asthma and emphysema. Long-term health effects can include chronic
respiratory disease, lung cancer, heart disease, and even damage to the brain, nerves,
liver, or kidneys. Continual exposure to air pollution affects the lungs of growing
children and may aggravate or complicate medical conditions in the elderly.

15
 Figure 1-3 Land Pollution

1.4 Causes of Air Pollution

Some of the main causes of Air pollution are:

1) Lung diseases like Asthma

2) Irritation in the eyes
3) Some chemicals in the air act as growth inhibitors in plants
4) Pre-mature deaths in the children living in the urban areas.

1.5 Solution

One potential solution for all these problems is using green vehicles. Solar and electric vehicles
do not have internal combustion engines and hence operate only on the electricity having no
harmful emissions.

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1.6 Types of Solar Powered Vehicles

1.6.1 Solar Buses:

Solar transports are propelled by solar powered vitality, all or part of which is gathered from
stationary sun based board establishments. The Tin do transport is a 100% solar powered
transport that works as free open transport benefit in Adelaide City as an activity of the City
Gathering. Transport administrations which utilize electric transports that are halfway
controlled by solar panels introduced on the transport rooftop, planned to decrease vitality
utilization and to draw out the existence cycle of the rechargeable battery of the electric
transport, have been set up in China [4].

Figure 1-4 Solar Buses

1.6.2 Rail

Railroad introduces a low moving obstruction alternative that would be valuable of arranged
voyages and stops. PV boards were tried as APUs on Italian moving stock under EU venture,
PV-Train. PV-Train presumed that the most enthusiasm for PV in rail transport was on cargo
autos, where on board electrical power would permit new usefulness:

17
 1) GPS or other situating gadgets, in order to enhance its utilization in armada
administration and effectiveness.
2) Electric locks, a video screen and remote control framework for autos with sliding
entryways, in order to lessen the danger of burglary for important merchandise.
3) ABS brakes, which would raise the greatest speed of cargo autos to 160 km/h,
enhancing efficiency.

1.6.3 Water boats

Solar powered boats have principally been restricted to waterways and channels, however in
2007 a test 14m sailboat, the Sun21 cruised the Atlantic from Seville to Miami, and from that
point to New York. It was the primary intersection of the Atlantic controlled just by sunlight
based [5].

Figure 1-5 Solar Boat

Japan's greatest delivery line Nippon Yusen KK and Nippon Oil Company said sun oriented
boards equipped for creating 40 kilowatts of power would be set over a 60,213 ton auto
transporter ship to be utilized by Toyota Engine Partnership [6].

The low power thickness of current solar panels constrains the utilization of solar moved
vessels, anyway water crafts that utilization sails (which don't produce power dissimilar to
burning motors) depend on battery control for electrical apparatuses, (for example,
refrigeration, lighting and interchanges). Here solar panel have turned out to be mainstream

18
for reviving batteries as they don't make clamor, require fuel and regularly can be flawlessly
added to existing deck space.

1.6.4 Air Solar Vehicles

Solar ships can allude to sunlight based controlled carriers or half and half airships. There is
extensive military enthusiasm for unmanned airborne vehicles (UAVs); solar power would
empower these to stay over top for a considerable length of time, turning into a significantly
less expensive methods for doing a few undertakings done today by satellites. In September
2007, the primary effective trip for 48h under consistent intensity of a UAV was accounted
for. This is probably going to be the primary business use for photovoltaic in flight [7].

Numerous exhibit sun oriented airplane have been assembled, a portion of the best known by
‘AeroVironment’.

1.6.5 Manned solar aircraft

Some Manned Solar Aircraft used in the history are:

1) Gossamer Penguin [8]

2) Solar Challenger - This air ship flew 163 miles (262 km) from Paris, France to
Britain on sun oriented power.
3) Sun seeker [1]
4) Solar Motivation – two single-situate flying machine, the second circumnavigated
the Earth. The primary flying machine finished a 26-hour dry run in Switzerland on
8-9 July 2010. The flying machine was traveled to a tallness of about 28,000 feet
(8,500 meters) by Andre Borschberg. It flew medium-term utilizing battery control.
The second flying machine, somewhat bigger and all the more intense, took off
from Abu Dhabi in 2015, flew towards India and after that eastbound crosswise
over Asia. Be that as it may, in the wake of encountering battery overheating, it was
compelled to stop in Hawaii over the winter. In April 2016, it continued its
excursion, and finished its circumnavigation of the globe, coming back to Abu
Dhabi on 26 July 2016 [9].

19
 5) SolarStratos – Swiss stratospheric 2-seater sun oriented plane expects to move into
space.

1.6.6 Unmanned aerial vehicles

Some examples of Unmanned Aerial Vehicles are [10]:

1) Pathfinder and Pathfinder- This UAV exhibited that a plane could stay up high for
a broadened timeframe energized simply by sunlight based power.
2) Helios - Got from the Pathfinder-Additionally, this sun based cell and energy
component fueled UAV set a world record for trip at 96,863 feet (29,524 m).
3) Zephyr - worked by QinetiQ, this UAV set the informal world record for longest
length unmanned trip at more than 82 hours on 31 July 2008. Only 15 days after
the solar impulse flight said above, on 23 July 2010 the Breeze, a lightweight
unmanned ethereal vehicle designed by the Unified Kingdom barrier firm QinetiQ,
asserted the continuance record for an unmanned aeronautical vehicle. It flew in the
skies of Arizona for more than two weeks (336 hours). It has additionally taken off
to more than 70,700 feet (21.5 km).

1.6.7 Solar powered spacecraft

Solar energy is regularly used to supply control for satellites and shuttle working in the inward
close planetary system since it can supply vitality for quite a while without abundance fuel
mass. An Interchanges satellite contains various radio transmitters which work ceaselessly
amid its life. It is uneconomic to work such a vehicle (which might be on-circle for quite a long
time) from essential batteries or power devices, and refueling in circle isn't commonsense.
Solar power isn't for the most part used to alter the satellite's position, nonetheless, and the
valuable existence of a correspondences satellite will be restricted by the on-board station-
keeping fuel supply [11].

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1.6.8 Planetary exploration

Maybe the best solar impelled vehicles have been the "rovers" used to investigate surfaces of
the Moon and Mars. The 1977 Lunokhod program and the 1997 Mars Pathfinder utilized sun
powered capacity to move remote controlled vehicles. The working existence of these
meanderers far surpassed the points of confinement of perseverance that would have been
forced, had they been worked on ordinary fuels.

1.7 Applications of Solar Power in Automobile Industry around the Globe

Some of the applications of solar powered vehicle in the Industry are [12]:

1) The Venturi Astrolabe in 2006 was the world's first business electro-solar crossover
auto, and was initially due to be discharged in January 2008.
2) In May 2007 an organization of Canadian organizations drove by Hi-motion
changed a Toyota Prius to utilize solar cells to produce up to 240 watts of electrical
power in full daylight. This is accounted for as allowing up to 15 km additional
range on a bright summer day while utilizing just the electric engines.
3) An innovator from Michigan, USA manufactured a road legitimate, authorized,
guaranteed, solar charged electric bike in 2005. It had a best speed controlled at
somewhat more than 30 mph, and utilized overlay out sun based boards to charge
the batteries while stopped.
4) Photovoltaic modules are utilized industrially as assistant power units on traveler
autos with a specific end goal to ventilate the auto, diminishing the temperature of
the traveler compartment while it is stopped in the sun. Vehicles, for example, the
2010 Prius, Apteral 2, Audi A8, and Mazda 929 have solar sunroof choices for
ventilation purposes.
5) The region of photovoltaic modules required to control an auto with traditional plan
is too expansive to be carried on board. A model auto and trailer has been
constructed Solar Taxi. As indicated by the site, it is fit for 100 km/day utilizing
6m2 of standard crystalline silicon cells. Power is put away utilizing a nickel/salt
battery. A stationary framework, for example, a housetop solar panel, nonetheless,
can be utilized to charge customary electric vehicles.

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 6) It is likewise conceivable to utilize solar panels to broaden the scope of a half breed
or electric auto, as consolidated in the Frisker Karma, accessible as an alternative
on the Chevy Volt, on the hood and top of "Predetermination 2000" changes of
Pontiac Fierro,
7) On 9 June 2008, the German and French Presidents declared an arrangement to
offer a credit of 6-8g/km of CO2 outflows for autos fitted with innovations "not yet
thought about amid the standard estimating cycle of the emanations of an auto".
This has offered ascend to hypothesis that photovoltaic boards may be broadly
embraced on cars sooner rather than later
8) It is additionally in fact conceivable to utilize photovoltaic innovation, (particularly
thermos photovoltaic (TPV) innovation) to give thought process capacity to an
auto. Fuel is utilized to warm a producer. The infrared radiation produced is
changed over to power by a low band PV cell (e.g. GaSb). A model TPV cross
breed auto was even manufactured.
9) The "Viking 29" was the World's first thermos photovoltaic (TPV) fueled car,
composed and worked by the Vehicle Exploration Foundation (VRI) at Western
Washington College. Proficiency would should be expanded and fetched
diminished to make TPV focused with power devices or inward burning motors.

1.8 Electric vehicle with solar assist

A Swiss venture, called "Solar-taxi" [13], has circumnavigated the world. This is the first run
through in history an electric vehicle (not independent sunlight based vehicle) has
circumvented the world, covering 50000 km in year and a half and intersection 40 nations. It
is a street commendable electric vehicle pulling a trailer with sun powered boards, conveying
a 6 m² estimated sun powered exhibit. The Solar-taxi has Zebra batteries, which allow a scope
of 400 km without reviving. The auto can likewise keep running for 200 km without the trailer.
Its greatest speed is 90 km/h. The auto measures 500 kg and the trailer weighs 200 kg. As
indicated by initiator and visit chief Louis Palmer, the auto in large scale manufacturing could
be delivered for 16000 Euro. Solar-taxi has visited the World from July 2007 till December
2008 to demonstrate that answers for stop an unnatural weather change are accessible and to
support individuals in seeking after other options to non-renewable energy source. Palmer

22
proposes the most prudent area for solar panels for an electric auto is on building housetops
[14].

1.9 Limitations

There are limits to using photovoltaic (PV) cells for vehicles [15]:

1.9.1 Power density

Power from a solar array is restricted by the extent of the vehicle and region that can be
presented to daylight. This can likewise be overwhelmed by including a flatbed and associating
it to the auto and this gives more zone for boards for controlling the auto. While vitality can be
gathered in batteries to bring down pinnacle request on the cluster and give task in sunless
conditions, the battery adds weight and cost to the vehicle. As far as possible can be alleviated
by utilization of ordinary electric autos provided by solar (or other) control, reviving from the
electrical network.

1.9.2 Cost

While daylight is free, the production of PV cells to catch that daylight is costly. Expenses for
solar panels are relentlessly declining (22% cost decrease for each multiplying of generation
volume).

1.10 Design considerations

Despite the fact that daylight has no life expectancy, PV cells do. The lifetime of a solar module
is around 30 years. Standard photovoltaics regularly accompany a guarantee of 90% (from
ostensible power) following 10 years and 80% following 25 years. Versatile applications are
probably not going to require lifetimes insofar as building incorporated PV and sunlight based
parks. Current PV boards are generally intended for stationary establishments. Be that as it
may, to be fruitful in versatile applications, PV boards should be intended to withstand
vibrations. Likewise, solar panels, particularly those fusing glass, have noteworthy weight. All
together for its expansion to be of significant worth, a sun oriented board must give vitality
proportionate to or more noteworthy than the vitality devoured to push its weight.

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1.11 Importance of designing efficient solar powered vehicle

A solar powered vehicle must be made as more efficient as possible. Because the efficiency of
Solar Panels is very less that is approximately 20%. This less efficiency of Solar Panels must
be countered by an efficient design to reduce the losses. This efficient design includes a Chassis
that has reduced air resistance, an efficient motor and a light weight.

1.12 Design Efficiency in SOLIS

In SOLIS, we have tried to make our chassis as light as possible to reduce the losses and
making it streamlined to reduce the drag. Furthermore, the Electric Motor used in SOLIS is of
Permanent Magnet and brushless type which is 90% efficient.

To make our car more stable, the CG point is made closer to the ground. This has made our
vehicle more stable on the road during turning. Moreover, the suspension design is of Double
Wishbone type which is the most stable and efficient suspension available for four wheeler
buggy type vehicle.

1.13 Applications of SOLIS

1) SOLIS is designed for commercial use, it can be efficiently used in Industry and
educational institutions for fast and efficient locomotion
2) SOLIS can be used by the Army for border patrolling as it can carry the load of
approximately 200 kg.
3) SOLIS can be used by the local population for day to day small activities like grocery
shopping etc.

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 2 LITERATURE AND BACKGROUND STUDY

2.1 Efficiency

Electric Vehicles are highly efficient. To measure the performance of an electric vehicle, we
need to compare it with other cars. For this, we need to find the energy per unit mass the vehicle
uses for its performance [16]. This process is called as Well-to-wheel efficiency method. Every
type of fuel can be described in terms of energy per unit mass and hence electricity in case of
electric cars can be described in such method too [17].

2.1.1 Petrol Cars

To calculate the well to wheel efficiency of petrol operated or gasoline cars, we first need to
take the energy per unit mass of the fuel. For gasoline, the energy content value is approx. 50
MJ/kg. Now, we need to determine how much of this energy is converted into gas and other
waste products and how much is actually used [18]. For the most efficient gasoline car, the
maximum efficiency achieved is approx. 40%.

2.1.2 Hybrid cars

Hybrid cars are more efficient than gasoline vehicles because of the simple fact that they waste
less and the electric part of the vehicle is more efficient. Moreover, due to regenerative braking
introduced in the hybrid cars, they have become more efficient as the lost energy is now used
to generate more power. The efficiency of Hybrid cars reaches about 46-50%. They are 20-
30% more efficient then the gasoline cars [19].

Figure 2-1 Efficiency Comparison

25
2.1.3 Electric Cars

Electric cars are most efficient because electricity is the highest quality of energy available.
Electricity can be efficiently converted into work without most losses. Hence the electric cars
are more efficient than the other cars. For example, TESLA Roadster consumes only 0.40 MJ
for 1 km. Their efficiency reaches about 55% [20].

During the last years, the interests of the people have increased towards the solar electric cars
because of its advantages over other gasoline vehicles.

Figure 2-2 Well-to-wheel efficiency

2.2 Advantages of Solar car

1) It is more efficient then the gasoline vehicles having efficiency greater than 25%
2) It is harmless to the environment as it does not have any emissions that cause Air
Pollution
3) It does not require any fuel as it is solely powered by sun energy [8].

2.3 Solar panel specifications

The amount of solar energy incident on the earth every year is:

26
 1) Equivalent to 160 times the energy stored in the world’s proven reserves of fossil fuels
2) Equivalent to more than 15000 times the world’s annual use of fossil and nuclear fuels
and hydropower

Solar cells nowadays are widely used in electronic equipment as a source of energy. Solar cells
are actually made up of special semi-conductor materials which convert solar energy into the
movement of electrons. These semi-conductors absorb the heat energy from the sun and
electrons are knocked out. These electrons move and this motion of electrons is actually the
electricity [21].

Solar cars use special type of light and thin solar panels to power the vehicle. These solar
panels collect the solar energy and charge the batteries installed in the solar car.

Figure 2-3 Solar Panels

Most of the solar cars use 100W or 50W solar panels as shown below:

Flexible Solar Voltage Current N/W Dimensions

Panel
100W 21.6 5.97 1.80 1050x540x3

27
 50W 21.20 3.05 0.90 545x535x3

2.4 Suspension system

Suspension system is very crucial for every car as it absorbs the shocks from the bumps of the
roads to protect the passengers from injury and also protect the components of the vehicle from
the damage [9].

Types of suspension system

Suspension systems are divided into two main types:

1) Dependent Suspension system

2) Independent suspension system

2.4.1 Dependent suspension system

Dependent suspension system is such that any movement of one wheel is transmitted to the
other wheel as this system is just like a rigid beam. Examples of dependent suspension system
include:

1) Leaf Spring Suspension

2) Watt’s linkage

2.4.2 Independent suspension system

In independent suspension system, the wheels of the vehicle move independently without
causing any effect on other wheels. These types of suspension systems are widely used in
modern vehicles. This type of suspension system includes [22]:

1) Swing Axle Suspension system

2) Double wish bone suspension system
3) Transverse leaf suspension system

Most of the buggy type vehicles use ‘Wish bone suspension system’ which will be explained
in detail here.

28
2.5 Double Wishbone suspension system

The design of independent suspension system is a tedious task which requires to take into
account all the dynamic factors while designing. Steering behavior of the vehicle must also be
taken into account. The key factors which must be defined for designing the suspension system
are as follow [22]:

1) Roll center height

2) Degree of Freedom
3) Ackerman’s definition
4) Center of Gravity

The explanation of above terms are as follow:

2.5.1 Roll Center height

Roll center is that point in the body where the rotational forces act during the turning of the
vehicle. It is very important design factor for the stability of the vehicle. Its location depends
upon the suspension design and the design of the chassis system.

2.5.2 Ackerman’s definition

Ackerman’s definition prevent the steering of the tires during turning by providing the
configuration to the tires in such a way that they all are rotating with respect to a common
Instantaneous center. This helps the tire to achieve different angular velocity as shown in the
figure:

2.6 Motor

Motor is the driving part of a solar car. It receives energy from a battery and move the vehicle.
The type of motor used in SOLIS is Permanent DC motor which has a permanent magnet and
operates on DC current as shown in the figure:

29
2.7 Motor Torque Calculations

Using Electric cars as an alternative to fuel based cars have an advantage that they save fuel
costs. All the Electric cars include a DC motor to provide the wheels torque which drives the
vehicle. These motors come in different specification, example speed, size, torque, method of
operation. From these, torque is the actual force that drives the car, hence the following part
of the report shows one method to calculate torque for an electric car [23].

Before calculating the torque required we need to know the forces that oppose the motion of
this car i.e. which will cause the need of an increased torque.

1) Rolling Resistance
2) Grade Resistance

Acceleration force will also be needed as we have to calculate the maximum required torque

2.7.1 Rolling Resistance

Rolling Resistance opposes the motion of a car. This resistance occurs between the wheels and
the surface of the road or surface on which the car is moving. This resistance depends on a
number of factors such as the material that the tires are made of and the texture of the surface
on which the car is running [23].

2.7.2 Grade resistance

Grade Resistance depends on the gravitational force. This force pulls a upward moving car, at
an inclination, down [23].

30
1. Acceleration force
The force that accelerates a car to a certain speed is the acceleration force. Higher
torque means less time will be needed by a vehicle to reach a specific speed [7].

2. Total Tractive Force.

This is the total force that is required to propel a car in the direction desired.

3. The Actual Required Torque calculation

The torque produced by the motor is the same at the drive wheel. This can be calculated:

As the fossil fuels started to become scarce more and more development started on
designing an electric vehicle. These electrical systems were broken down into 3 parts
namely Power input, Energy storage and Power conversion [24].
The first can be further divided into solar cell arrays and power trackers. The second,
Energy storage consists of a battery. The third part, Power conversion, consists of a
motor and its controls.

31
 The figure shows the electrical components of the system.

2.8 Power Input.

2.8.1 Solar Cells

The top part of the car is designed to be mostly flat. This enables the solar cells to cover most
of the surface for maximum area. The output of the cell directly depends on the amount of
light each cell receives [25].

The cells are divided into modules which are separated from each other. If any of the cell in
the module is not illuminated properly the current in the whole module would drop.

Another output drop could be if a strong cell is connected to a weak cell in series. This would
reduce the conversion of energy of the complete module. For this reason each cell is tested.

2.8.2 Power Trackers

A very important consideration in the design of the battery charging system is the success of
the power control device.

This is because maximum power output is always desired to the battery.

32
A system for complete dc-dc boost conversion is installed in every tracker for over and under
voltage. Using its ripple, duty ratio is calculated for the converter. Using this value a power is
calculated, which is the maximum power. These trackers are designed in such a way that they
are fit for the input requirements of the battery. The outputs are connected to the battery in
parallel [26].

The Figure below shows how a Power Tracker works.

2.9 Energy Storage

2.9.1 Battery Selection

12V batteries are connected in series. They are lithium Ion batteries; these are suited well for
this purpose [27].

2.9.2 Battery Equalization

While the batteries are charging or discharging it is very important that they remain at the same
voltage level. If these are not at the same level problems will arise while charging the batteries.
If one battery is fully charged and others are not; these will remain not charged. The uncharged
batteries will not work efficiently and there lifetime will be reduced [28].

A second case is if we charge the lowest potential battery completely this will overcharge all
the other batteries. This will reduce the battery life of all the other batteries.

33
The Third of this system is the energy conversion.

1) Main Drive Motor.

The drive motor has to be selected in such a way that it provides the necessary
acceleration to the car to reach the required speed at a level ground or an inclined
surface and that it compatible with the battery output.

2) Motor Control.

The drive interface board is the controller which is used for the control of the dc electric
motor. This controller converts the input on the pedal by the driver to a power command
to the motor.

The Conclusion that we get from these calculations and theoretical study is that electric
vehicles can be used for transport in various ways. These ideas must be further
implemented to evolve this system into one which performs most efficiently and is of
great ease.

2.10 Battery Electric Vehicle (BEV)

In BEV all the energy required to movie the vehicle is provided by the battery and because of
this the design engineers have to design it differently. The performance of these vehicles
greatly differs from the performance of diesel or petrol based cars [1].
Petrol has a kWh/kg value of 12.1 with an efficiency of 18% and that of diesel is 11.8 kWh/kg
with an efficiency of 22%. Keeping these in mind we can see that the KWH/kg value of electric
batteries is very low (0.03 kWh/kg at 80% efficiency for Lead Acid battery)

From this we know that if we want the output to be 10kWH at the wheels of a vehicle we
require:

1) 55.6 kWh from petrol. This means we require 4.6kg of petrol.

2) 45.56 kWh from Diesel. This means we require 3.9kg of diesel.

3) 12.5 kWh from Lead acid battery. This means we require 520kg of Lead Acid battery.
34
 A formula relates the battery capacity to the equivalent volume of petrol required. This is given
below:

This Equation can be used to show the battery capacity converted to liters of petrol [29].

The Figure below shows the efficiencies of different processes from the panels to the wheels.

Figure 2-4 Efficiencies of different components

So when comparing the Battery with petrol or diesel we can say that [2]:

1) Using a Battery is more efficient (80% vs 20%).

35
2) The battery will be a lot heavier compared to diesel or fuel to give the same output. This means
the battery has a very low energy density.
3) Battery powered cars are suitable for small range drives.
4) Recharge time is slow compared to diesel or petrol

From all these observations we can clearly see that it is not possible to replace IC engines with
these electric batteries. But with the growing market for electric battery cars, these cars still
have their own importance and use [30].

2.11 Uses of these electric powered cars

1) These cars can be used in small Countries which are very densely populated as there
will rarely be any distant travel.
2) Countries where there is no culture for fast driving. For example Netherlands has a max
speed limit for 80km/hr. on most roads.
3) The average drive per day for petrol cars is 30km. This is well within range for a electric
battery powered car.
4) Air and noise pollution are greatly reduced.

2.12 Component selection

2.12.1 Motor/ Gearbox

Investigating gear ratios, the benefits of multiple gears were seen on efficiency and
performance (increased). Test drives done on electric cars with multi gear showed that they
weren’t smooth gear shifts and the seamless experience wasn’t present while accelerating [11].

For the cooling of motor it is recommended to use water cooling method over air cooling.
Doing so will enable the system to have smaller components and a better heat removal from
the system.

36
2.12.2 Batteries:

To calculate the required battery capacity two factors are taken into consideration:
1) A charging time that is not too long
2) Maximum Range that the vehicle might have to travel [12].

First a rough estimate is made for the maximum battery capacity using these 2 factors, followed
by calculations.

Requirements for battery selection that are also very important to be taken into account:

1) Power output of the battery should be enough to accelerate the car at the required rate.
2) The Voltage output should be as required by the motor.
3) Mass should stay as low as possible

2.13 Vehicle Mass

In a test, VW Lupo IC Engine power terrain was replaced with a Battery electric system and
their mass was compared. No extra space was added to the car.

The comparison is shown below for this test:

37
The results show an increase in mass of 190Kgs. This increase in mass is mostly because of
the batteries that have to be carried along.

2.14 Vehicle Performance

Constant speed Energy consumption:

A comparison of energy consumption by a diesel and Electric cars, running at constant speed,
was carried out. The figure below shows this comparison [31].

38
 Figure 2-5 Vehicle Performance

Where F is given by:

𝜌 = 𝐷𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝐴𝑖𝑟

𝐴 = 𝐹𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎

𝐶𝐷 = 𝐷𝑟𝑎𝑔 𝐶𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡

39
2.15 Energy Costs and carbon emissions

In Pakistan the average cost to run a diesel car is about

99rps/liter while a unit of electricity costs only 3.24
rupees (3.24rps/kWh) [14].

At low speeds electric cars have an advantage; there is

very little energy consumption when compared to diesel
or petrol cars. But at higher speeds these values are
almost equal.

The Graph on the right shows the energy consumption for

diesel cars and electric cars in Europe.

Vehicle Range: Figure 2-6 Fuel Cost

The vehicle range can be calculated using this formula:

Where:

𝐶𝑏𝑎𝑡𝑡 = 𝐵𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑦 𝐶𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦

40
 3 DESIGN METHODOLOGY

The total analysis of the SOLIS is divided into four sections:

1) Chassis design and analysis

2) Suspension design and analysis
3) CG calculations
4) Driveline

Each section is explained in detail below.

3.1 Chassis design

The Chassis design for SOLIS is simple. The design is based on a buggy type vehicle consisting
of two main parts:

3.1.1 Roll cage

This part consists of the outer ring of the chassis. A roll cage is a specially engineered and
constructed frame built in the passenger compartment of a vehicle to protect its occupants
from being injured in an accident, particularly in the event of a rollover [23].

41
 Figure 3-1 Roll cage design

3.1.2 Supporting members

The members which do not take direct load but help brace the members and also diffuse
impact effects are called supporting members.

3.1.3 Design advantages

The chassis design of the SOLIS has following advantages:

1) It is an off-road buggy design and can be used efficiently for day to day transportation
2) It is stable as we have made the CG point closer to the ground (Explained in CG
Calculations).
3) It is strong and having no stress points (Explained in Stress analysis).

3.1.4 Material properties of Chassis design

Material used for making the Chassis is Mild Steel having following properties:

Yield Strength 247 MPa

42
 Ultimate Tensile Strength 841 MPa

The properties of the chassis are as follow:

Mass 60 kg

3.2 Suspension design

Suspension System is defined as those components which reduce the movement that is
vibrations of the vehicle when the vehicle is passed through a bumpy road. This system include
springs, shock absorbers and the linkage system that connect these. It is a very important part
of any vehicle.

Another advantage of good suspension system is that it maintains the vehicle in a good
condition by avoiding the damage resulting from vibrations. Moreover, it also keep the wheel
alignment in proper condition by maintain and providing the necessary camber, caster and toe
angles. It does so by separating the movement of the wheel from the movement of the chassis.
Therefore, it is necessary to consider all the factors, static or dynamic, while designing a good
suspension system. Along with these factors, some other factors like cost, weight, ease of
manufacturing etc. are also important.
Suspension design involves the following:
1) Design of Wishbones
2) Design of Spring

3.2.1 Design of Wishbones

Double Wishbone Suspension consists of following parts:
1) Wishbones
2) Spring

43
Designing the wishbones is the first and main step in designing the suspension system. It
consists of the following steps:

1) First of all, the material of the wishbone is selected using some standard technique. One
such technique is the Pugh’s Concept of optimization.
2) After the selection of material, from the values of allowable stress and other material
properties are determined.
3) The wishbones are designed and optimized using simulation software like CREO,
ANSYS etc.
4) The geometric properties of the vehicle such as roll center, CG and other properties
also help in designing the Wishbones.

Figure 3-2 Lower Wishbone

44
 Figure 3-3 Upper Wishbone

3.3 Design of spring

A spring is a Mechanical component which is used to store energy. The energy stored in the
spring is called ‘Elastic Potential Energy’. The springs are an important part of suspension
system as they store energy from the bumps and prevent the movement of the chassis.

The specifications for the spring are as follow:

Parameters Values
Spring Displacement 105.156
Spring Rate 14.26 N/mm
Wheel Rate 67.39 N/mm
Wire Diameter 7.5 mm
Coil mean diameter 62 mm

45
 Figure 3-4 Spring Design of SOLIS

3.4 Center of Gravity (CG) point of SOLIS

Center of gravity is defined as that point in the body on which all the mass of the body appears
to be acting. If the body is supported at its center of gravity, it will remain still without any
rotation. And the forces producing torque will cancel out.

Center of gravity location can be defined as:

‘The point in the body on which the whole mass of the body appears to be acting’

3.5 Importance of CG

1) During the analysis of the vehicle, the forces are applied around the Center of gravity.
These forces tend to rotate the vehicle about the center of gravity. Any force acting
through the center of gravity has no power to rotate the vehicle.
2) The center of mass gravity is also responsible for the stability of the vehicle. It is a
common fact that the trucks are less stable and sports cars more stable on the road. This
is only because of the location of the center of gravity. In sports cars, the position of
center of gravity is closer to the road whereas in trucks, its location is away from the
road. Hence, the closer the center of gravity to the road, the more stable is the vehicle.

46
 Figure 3-5 Right car is more stable

3.5.1 CG point of SOLIS

Figure 3-6 CG point of SOLIS

Mass without driver (m) 150 kg

Wheel base (L) 135 cm
Distance from rear axle (b) 80 cm
Wheel Radius 15 cm
Height of CG h=?

47
We know that:

𝐻
𝜃 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 ( )
𝐿

𝑅𝑓1
ℎ = {𝑏 − 𝐿 ( )} × 𝑐𝑜𝑡𝜃 + 𝑟
𝑊

𝒉 = 𝟒𝟓 𝒄𝒎

This ‘h’ is the required CG of SOLIS.

3.6 Driveline
In Solar-electric vehicles, the driveline is the components that are required to deliver the energy
from the sun to the turning of the tires. These components include:

1) Solar Panels
2) Batteries
3) Electric Motor
4) Electric Controller
5) Tires

These components designed for SOLIS are as explained in detail as follow.

3.7 Solar Panels

Solar Energy incident on the surface of the Earth varies with respect to the location on the
Earth. This is because the Earth’s rotation is tilted by about 23.45 degrees with respect to the
sun. To calculate the amount of solar radiation incident on SOLIS, we first have to look for the
factors which affect the solar radiation. The solar radiation on a surface depends on the
following factors:

1) Atmosphere of the Earth

2) Particles in the atmosphere like dust and water vapors
3) Location of the country
4) Incidence angle on the surface

48
 5) Position of the Earth with respect to sun

3.7.1 Solar panels requirement for SOLIS

SOLIS is using 2 Solar panels:

1) One Solar panel at the top to provide 100W

2) One at the rear side which is tilted to provide 50W

Hence, Solar panels provide a total of 150W to charge the batteries.

3.8 Electric Vehicle Motor

The power and torque of the electric motor required by SOLIS depends on the load it will carry
plus the resistance if faces during moving.

3.8.1 Electric Motor vehicle for SOLIS

SOLIS uses Electric motor of the following specifications:

𝐵𝑟𝑢𝑠ℎ𝑙𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑀𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑒𝑡 𝑡𝑦𝑝𝑒

𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 = 90%

𝑴𝒐𝒕𝒐𝒓 𝑷𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓 𝑹𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒏𝒈 = 𝟐𝟓𝟎𝟎 𝑾

3.9 Batteries for SOLIS

Lead Acid batteries are used in SOLIS because of the following reasons:

1) They are cheap

2) They are readily available in the market

There are two main types of Lead-acid batteries.

1) Automobile Engine Starter batteries

2) Deep cycle Batteries

49
Automobile Engine starter batteries are used in vehicles to start the engine. These batteries
cannot be used to drive the vehicle because they have low capacity and high initial discharge.
Deep cycle lead-acid batteries are used in electric vehicles like Golf carts etc.

Figure 3-7 Deep cycle lead-acid battery

SOLIS has:

1) Two lead acid batteries

2) Each of 12V to make a total of 24 Volts to drive the vehicle.

50
 4 QUANTITATIVE AND PERFORMANCE ANALYSIS

4.1 Chassis analysis

4.1.1 Material selection for Chassis

Material selection is the first step in designing the wishbones. This helps us to determine the
strength and durability of the wishbones and also help us to optimize the design using dynamic
analysis. The material selection depends on the following factors:

1) Cost
2) Availability
3) Material Properties

By doing the market survey, we came across three materials that can be used in designing the
wishbones:

1) AISI 1018 steel

2) AISI 1040 steel
3) AISI 4130 steel

4.2 Pugh’s Concept

Pugh’s concept is used for the selection of material when there are many options available.
Pugh’s concept is based on the evaluation of each material according to the setup criteria. This
scoring method assigns score to the material based on the property value and at the end all the
scores are added. The material whose score is the highest is selected.

4.2.1 Comparison of Materials

The properties of the above mentioned materials which were considered for wishbones are as
follows:

Properties AISI 1018 AISI 1040 AISI 4130

Carbon Content (%) 0.1799 0.3987 0.2998

51
 Tensile Strength 440 620 560
(MPa)
Yield Strength (MPa) 370 415 460
Hardness (BHN) 125 199 215
Cost (Rs./meter) 320 415 650

Selection criteria

Hence, AISI 1040 is selected for wishbones because the net score is highest for AISI 1040.

Stress Calculation

For ductile materials, allowable stress is obtained by the following relationship:

𝑆𝑦𝑡
𝜎=
𝑓𝑠

Assume factor of safety, fs = 1.2 (as AISI 1040 is a ductile material):

415
𝜎=
1.2

𝜎 = 345.83 𝑀𝑃𝑎

52
 The analysis of the Roll cage done CREO is shown as follow. The results of analysis show
that the Roll Cage design has no stress concentration or weak point when the following
force is applied:

Maximum Force applied 20 kN

No displacement points Rear End

Force applied Front End

Figure 4-1 Roll cage analysis

4.3 Suspension analysis

The suspension analysis involves the following parameters:

4.3.1 Determination of Roll Centre

Roll center is defined as that point in the body around which the forces act when the vehicle is
turning. Roll center are actually of two types:

1) Geometric Roll Center

2) Force based Roll Center
53
Roll center is very important in designing the wishbones as this is the factor which determines
the length of the wishbones. There are many methods to determine the roll center of the vehicle
but the method of instantaneous center is most commonly used and is relatively easy.

The method of instantaneous center is based on the concept that all the parts of the double
wishbone suspension that is upper wishbone, lower wishbone and tie rod will have same point
of rotation during turning. Before this method, a method was used to determine the dimensions
of the Wishbones based on the track width and the angle we are required to make. This method
was not reliable as the track width may change and hence our calculations.

To calculate the instantaneous center, a line is drawn from the center of the vehicle. The end
points of the wishbone are made visually clear by joining them with a line as shown in the
figure. When the lines are made from the lower and upper wishbones, they join together at the
Instantaneous center. Another line is drawn from the tires and is extended to intersect the
instantaneous center and further drawn till the vehicle center. This intersection point with
vehicle center is called ‘Roll Center’ of the vehicle.

4.3.2 Analysis of Wishbone

Analysis of the Wishbone is done and the results are shown as follow:

Maximum Stress 320.1450 MPa

Allowable Stress 345.8321 MPa

54
 Figure 4-2 Analysis of Wishbone

4.3.3 Analysis of spring

Analysis of the spring is done and the results are shown in the figure:

Figure 4-3 Analysis of spring

55
4.3.4 Simulation of the Suspension System

For the simulation of the Suspension system, LOTUS Shark is used. It is a vast software which
provides all the tools necessary to simulate and analyze the suspension system of a vehicle.

The suspension system analysis in the Lotus Shark is shown as follow:

Figure 4-4 Suspension system on Lotus Shark

Figure 4-5 Suspension system on Lotus Shark (View 2)

56
4.4 Calculations for CG

As shown in the figure, weight of the vehicle is represented by W which is acting downward
and the reaction of the ground is represented by R as shown in the figure:

Figure 4-6 CG Calculations

Applying summation of forces:

𝑊−𝑅 =0

𝑊=𝑅

The reaction forces acting on the vehicle during its turning are:

57
The longitudinal location of CG is now calculated as:

𝐿 =𝑎+𝑏

And,

𝛴𝐹𝑦 = 0

𝑊 − (𝑅𝑓 + 𝑅𝑅 ) = 0

From the above equation, weight of the car is calculated. From the weight, the longitudinal
location of the CG (b) is calculated as:

𝑅𝑓
𝑏 =𝐿 ×( )
𝑊

And, CG height is given as:

𝑹𝒇𝟏
𝒉 = {𝒃 − 𝑳 ( )} × 𝒄𝒐𝒕𝜽 + 𝒓
𝑾

Where:

𝐻
𝜃 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 ( )
𝐿

4.5 Electric Motor calculations

The power and torque of the electric motor required by SOLIS depends on the load it will carry
plus the resistance if faces during moving. Hence the calculations for electric motor vehicle
are given as follow:

𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑆𝑂𝐿𝐼𝑆 (𝑊𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑑𝑟𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑟) = 200 𝑘𝑔,

𝑘𝑚
𝑉𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 = 𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 60 ,
ℎ𝑟

𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑐ℎ 𝑚𝑎𝑥. 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 = 𝑡 = 90 𝑠,

58
Rolling resistance

𝐹𝑟𝑜𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 = 𝜇𝑅 × 𝑊

𝐹𝑟𝑜𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 = 0.0195 × 1962 = 38.259 𝑁

Aerodynamic drag force

1
𝐹𝐷𝑟𝑎𝑔 = × 𝐶𝐷 × 𝐴𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 × 𝜌 × 𝑉 2
2

𝐹𝐷𝑟𝑎𝑔 = 48 𝑁

Force of Acceleration

16.67
𝐹𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙 = 200 × 𝑁
90

𝐹 𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙 = 55.6 𝑁

Total force is hence calculated as:

𝐹𝑇 = 141.83 𝑁

Total power required is:

𝑃𝑇 = 𝐹𝑇 × 𝑉

𝑃𝑇 = 2.364 𝑘𝑊

Hence, the power rating ration for SOLIS Motor is 2500 kW

4.6 Calculations for Battery

𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 = 2.5 𝑘𝑊

𝑀𝑎𝑥. 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝑐𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟 = 30 𝑘𝑚

𝑘𝑚 𝑚
𝑇𝑜𝑝 𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 = 60 = 16.7
ℎ𝑟 𝑠

We divide the total journey of the SOLIS in three sections:

59
 1) 40% of the journey with maximum speed
2) 40% of the journey with half of the maximum speed
3) 20% of the journey with 20 km/hr.

The battery requirement is given as follow:

Speed Power Journey Motor Energy

Max. speed V = 60 P = 1.5 kW 40% of the journey 0.2874
km/hr.

Half of the max. P = 0.5 kW 40% of the Journey 0.1672

speed V= 30 km/hr.

V = 10 km/hr. P = 0.1078 kW 20% of the Journey 0.065

Total = 0.52

Hence, total energy required is:

𝐸𝑀𝑂 = 0.52 𝑘𝑊ℎ

The efficiencies of various components are:

𝑀𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 = 90%

𝐵𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑦 𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 = 90%

𝐵𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑦 𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 = 90%

𝐷𝑒𝑝𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 = 80%

𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑏𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑦 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 = 24 𝑉

Hence,

𝐸𝑀𝑂
𝐵𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑦 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑑 = = 0.57 𝑘𝑊ℎ
ղ𝑀

𝐵𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑦 𝐶𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 = 𝐶𝑏 = 16.5 𝐴ℎ

60
Battery capacity is assumed to be roughly 3 times higher because of various road conditions:

𝐵𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑦 𝐶𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 = 𝐶𝑏 = 50 𝐴ℎ

4.7 Calculations for Solar Panels

We need to consider the following factors to analyze the Solar panels:

4.7.1 Atmosphere of the Earth

Figure illustrates the effect of atmosphere on solar radiation. The total solar radiation power
(G) entering the Earth’s atmosphere are divided into two types:

The effect of atmosphere on the total radiations falling on the Earth are shown in the figure. If
‘G’ is the total radiation falling on the Earth’s surface, they are further divided into two types
when they enter the Earth’s atmosphere:

1) The radiations which fall directly on the Solar Panel surface which is termed as ‘Beam
Radiation’
2) The radiations which fall on the surface after diffusing from the Earth’s atmosphere
which are termed as ‘Diffused Radiation’.

4.7.2 Particles present in the atmosphere

The radiations entering the Earth’s atmosphere are diffused by the particles present in the
atmosphere such as water vapors and dust particles. Hence, the location receiving more rainfall
is more likely to get more diffused radiation rather than direct radiation.

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 Figure 4-7 Effect of atmosphere on Solar Radiation

4.7.3 Location

The radiations falling on the Earth are not the same throughout the Earth. Somewhere on the
Earth radiations are more than the other. This depends on the location of the country relative
to the radiations.

The latitude angle for Pakistan is:

∅ = 30 𝐷𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑒𝑠 𝑁

Figure 4-8 Sun Path diagram for Pakistan

62
4.7.4 Angle of incidence of radiation on surface

This angle of incidence of solar radiation on the Earth’s surface is influenced by many factors
like latitude angle, time of the day, season of the year etc.

The radiations received by a particular location is further dependent on the angle of incidence
which depends on the seasons, time and location etc.

Figure 4-9 Angle of Incidence

4.7.5 Earth’s position with respect to sun

The position of the Earth with respect to sun is responsible for seasons changing on Earth and
also affects the solar radiation on the surface.

4.7.6 Insolation
‘The solar energy falling on the Earth’s atmosphere per unit area of the surface is called as
Insolation’.

Pakistan has an average solar insolation of 5 kWh per square meter per day.
63
4.7.7 Optimum tilt of the collector surface
Amount of Solar energy incident on a surface depends strongly on the tilt angle values. But
the value of optimum tilt varies in every season.

Pakistan is located in the northern hemisphere. The tilt angle for different seasons is:

Figure 4-10 Tilt angle for different seasons

For June 21st, the tilt angle is required to minimum and is calculated as:

64
 𝑛 = 172,

∅ = 30°

𝑂𝑝𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑇𝑖𝑙𝑡 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 = 𝛽 = 6.55°

For December 21st, the tilt angle is maximum and is calculated as:

𝑛 = 354,

∅ = 30°

𝑂𝑝𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑇𝑖𝑙𝑡 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 = 𝛽 = 50°

To keep our design simple, we are going to use two solar panels:

1) One at the back having the tilt angle of 45 degrees

2) One at the top having zero tilt angle

4.8 Final Design of SOLIS

The final design of the SOLIS is shown as follow:

Figure 4-11 Rear View

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Figure 4-12 Bearings and Rear Wheels

Figure 4-13 Full view SOLIS

66
 5 Conclusion and future directions

To reduce the strain on our environment, it is necessary to reduce the pollution. SOLIS, a solar
powered vehicle, is one step forward to reduce this strain. It is designed to have commercial
design so that it can be used for daily locomotion by the industry and within colonies for day
to day tasks.

The suspension design is stable and precise and is made to reduce the vibrations due to bumps
in the road to protect the driver. The height of CG is such that it remains stable during turning
and moving.

Future directions may include the complete fabrication of the design provided in the analysis
and further improving the design by adapting the following measures:

1) Reducing the weight of the vehicle by making the chassis with Aluminum or Carbon
Fiber
2) Optimizing and redesigning the chassis to further reduce the drag force acting on the
vehicle
3) By installing moveable solar panels to adjust the angle of tilt to maximize the solar
radiation

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