GIST OF LESSONS TAUGHT BETWEEN 22ND October to 23rd December

Class – X

Biology

Chapter: - Reproduction

REPRODUCTION is a process by which organisms produce one of its own kind.

Reproduction is not a life process because it is not essential for the survival of an individual.

Purpose of reproduction -

1.increase in number

2. continuation of species

3.genetic variation

4.evolution
A basic event in reproduction is the creation of a DNA copy. Cells use chemical reactions to
build copies of their DNA. This creates two copies of the DNA in a reproducing cell, and they
will need to be separated from each other. DNA copying is accompanied by the creation of
an additional cellular apparatus, and then the DNA copies separate, each with its own
cellular apparatus. Effectively, a cell divides to give rise to two cells.

no bio-chemical reaction is absolutely reliable. therefore, it is only to be expected that the

process of copying the dna will have some variations each time. as a result, the DNA copies
generated will be similar, but may not be identical to the original. This inbuilt tendency for
variation during reproduction is the basis for evolution or formation of new species.

Slight New
variation character
DNA copies
Drastic
Death
variation

Variation is important because if a population of reproducing organisms were suited to a particular

niche and if the niche were drastically altered, the population could be wiped out. however, if some
variations were to be present in a few individuals in these populations, there would be some chance
for them to survive.
ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION

Asexual reproduction is a type of reproduction which does not involve the fusion of gametes.It is
unipA

The different types of asexual reproduction are-

Fission-For unicellular organisms, cell division, or fission, leads to the creation of new individuals.
Many different patterns of fission have been observed.eg

Binary fission-Many bacteria and protozoa simply split into two equal halves during cell division.

In organisms such as Amoeba, the splitting of the two cells during division can take place in any
plane.

Fragmentation -Some organisms simply break up into smaller pieces upon maturation. These pieces
or fragments grow into new individuals.
Regeneration -If an individual is somehow cut or broken up into many pieces, many of these pieces
grow into separate individuals.

Regeneration is carried out by specialised cells. These cells proliferate and make large numbers of
cells. From this mass of cells, different cells undergo changes to become various cell types and
tissues. These change stake place in an organized sequence referred to as development.
Budding-In Hydra, a bud develops as an outgrowth due to repeated cell division at one specific site
(Fig. 8.4). These buds develop into tiny individuals and when fully mature, detach from the parent
body and become new independent individuals.

VEGETATIVE PROPAGATION

In this process, parts like the root, stem and leaves develop into new plants under appropriate
conditions.

Eg.Bryophyllum reproduces with the help of leaf buds

Sugarcane, roses or grapes reproduce by layering

ADVANTAGES OF VEGETATIVE PROPAGATION

 Plants raised by vegetative propagation can bear flowers and fruits earlier than those
produced from seeds.

 Such methods also make possible the propagation of plants such as banana, orange, rose
and jasmine that have lost the capacity to produce seeds.

 Another advantage of vegetative propagation is that all plants produced are genetically
similar enough to the parent plant to have all its characteristics.

Spore formation-In Rhizopus, tiny blob-on-a-stick structures are involved in reproduction.

The blobs are sporangia, which contain cells, or spores, that can eventually develop into new
Rhizopus individuals (Fig. 8.6). The spores are covered by thick walls that protect them until
they come into contact with another moist surface and can begin to grow.
 TISSUE CULTURE

In tissue culture, new plants are grown by removing tissue or separating cells from the growing
tip of a plant. The cells are then placed in an artificial medium where they divide rapidly to form
a small group of cells or callus. The callus is transferred to another medium containing hormones
for growth and differentiation. The plantlets are then placed in the soil so that they can grow
into mature plants. Using tissue culture, many plants can be grown from one parent in disease-
free conditions. This technique is commonly used for ornamental plants.

SEXUAL REPRODUCTION

It is the mode of reproduction where two organisms are involved in producing an offspring. In case
of plants sperm produced by pollen grain unites with the egg from the female plant to form a
zygote. In case of animals, sperm from the male unites with the egg from the female to form a
zygoteThis union is called fertilization. the cells taking part in fertilization are called gametes.

The zygote gives rise to a multicellular organism by repeated cell division

Gametes are haploid reproductive cells which are formed by meiosis

During meiosis the chromosome number becomes half.this ensures that after fertilization the
chromosome number of a species is restored Each new variation is made in a DNA copy that already
has variations accumulated from previous generations. Thus, two different individuals in a
population would have quite different patterns of accumulated variations. Since all of these
variations are in living individuals, it is assured that they do not have any really bad effects.
Combining variations from two or more individuals would thus create new combinations of variants.
Each combination would be novel, since it would involve two different individuals. The sexual mode
ofreproduction incorporates such a process of combining DNA from two different individuals during
reproduction

PARTS OF A FLOWER

The four whorls of a flower are

calyx- consisting of sepals

corolla – consisting of petals

androecium- consisting of stamens

gynoecium- consisting of carpel

Types of flowers-

complete flower- consists of all four whorls

incomplete flower- at least one of the floral whorls is absent

irregular flower- the members of a floral whorl are not equal in shape and size

regular flower- all the members of a floral whorl are equal in shape and size
unisexual flower – has either stamen (male) or carpel (female)

bisexual flower – HAS BOTH STAMEN AND CARPEL IN THE SAME FLOWER

MALE AND FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE PARTS OF A FLOWER

INTERNAL STRUCTURE OF POLLEN AND EMBRYO SAC

POLLINATION- The transfer of pollen grains from anther to stigma. It is of two types- self and cross.

If this transfer of pollen occurs in the same flower, or another flower of the same plant, it is referred
to as self-pollination (A and B)
On the other hand, if the pollen is transferred from one flower to another borne by a different plant,
it is known as cross-pollination (C)

This transfer of pollen from one flower to another is achieved by agents like wind, water or animals.

DOUBLE FERTILIZATION

• After the pollen lands on a suitable stigma, it has to reach the female germ-cells which are in
the ovary.

• For this, a tube grows out of the pollen grain with the help of the tube nucleus and travels
through the style to reach the ovary

• Once near the ovary the generative nucleus divides to form two male gametes

• One of the male gametes fertilize with the egg cell to form the zygote while the other
fertilize the central nuclei to form the endosperm nucleus.

• The zygote gives rise to the plant while the endosperm nucleus gives rise to the food storing
tissue endosperm
•
POST FERTILIZATION CHANGES

After fertilization, the zygote divides several times to form an embryo within the ovule. The
ovule develops a tough coat and is gradually converted into a seed. The ovary grows rapidly
and ripens to form a fruit. Meanwhile, the petals, sepals, stamens, style and stigma may
shrivel and fall off. The seed contains the future plant or embryo which develops into a
seedling under appropriate conditions. This process is known as germination.

REPRODUCTION IN HUMAN BEINGS

All of us know that our bodies change as we become older. Our height increases, we acquire
teeth, we even lose the old, so-called milk teeth and acquire new ones. All of these are
changes that can be grouped under the general process of growth, in which the body
becomes larger. But in early teenage years, a whole new set of changes occurs that cannot
be explained simply as body enlargement. Instead, the appearance of the body changes.
Proportions change, new features appear, and so do new sensations.

CHANGES DURING PUBERTY IN MALE AND FEMALE

In girls, breast size begins to increase, with darkening of the skin of the nipples at the tips of
the breasts. Also, girls begin to menstruate at around this time.
 Boys begin to have new thick hair growth on the face and their voices begin to crack.
Further, the penis occasionally begins to become enlarged and erect, either in day dreams or
at night.

PRIMARY AND SECONDARY REPRODUCTIVE ORGANS IN HUMAN BEINGS

PRIMARY REPRODUCTIVE ORGANS are those which are responsible for direct production of male or
female gametes. for example testis and ovary.

SECONDARY REPRODUCTIVE ORGANS help in the transfer of these gametes, their union and
development of the zygote.

MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

TESTES: The formation of germ-cells or sperms takes place in the testes. These are located outside
the abdominal cavity in scrotum because sperm formation requires a lower temperature than the
normal body temperature. The testes also secretes the hormone, Testosterone. In addition to
regulating the formation of sperms, testosterone brings about changes in appearance seen in boys
at the time of puberty.

VAS DEFERENS: The sperms formed are delivered through the vas deferens which unites with a tube
coming from the urinary bladder.

URETHRA: The urethra forms a common passage for both the sperms and urine.

ACCESSORY REPRODUCTIVE GLANDS: Along the path of the vas deferens, glands like the prostate
and the seminal vesicles add their secretions so that the sperms are now in a fluid which makes their
transport easier and this fluid also provides nutrition.
STRUCTURE OF THE HUMAN SPERM

The structure of the human sperm consists of :

A HEAD : The head consists of primarily the haploid nucleus with a little bit of cytoplasm.

THE MIDDLE PIECE: It is the middle portion of the sperm that has spirally arranged mitochondria
providing energy for movement.

THE TAIL: The tail is a flagella which helps in swimming movement of the sperm. It derives energy for
movement from the mitochondria.

FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

OVARY: There are two ovaries present one on either side of the uterus. It produces the egg.

FALLOPIAN TUBE: The fallopian tubes carry the egg from the ovaries. This is where fertilization
occurs.

UTERUS: The uterus is a muscular triangular structure inside which the zygote develops. The wall is
made up of muscles known as myometrium. A temporary layer of blood vessels and connective
tissue develops every month inside the myometrium. This is known as the endometrium. The uterus
has three parts the fundus, the body and the cervix.

VAGINA: The cervix of the uterus opens into a muscular tube known as the vagina. This is where
sperms are discharged during coitus.

VULVA: The external genitalia is known as the vulva.

OVULATION
When a girl is born, the ovaries already contain thousands of immature eggs. On reaching puberty,
some of these start maturing. One egg is produced every month by one of the ovaries.The process
of release of the immature egg or ova from the ovary is known as ovulation. The egg is picked up by
the fimbrae of the Fallopian tube and directed into the Fallopian tube. The egg travels through the
Fallopian tube and waits for the sperm in the ampulla region of the Fallopian tube.

The egg can survive for 2 to 5 days in the Fallopian tube.

FERTILIZATION IN HUMAN BEINGS

Sperm is discharged into the vaginal tract during coitus.

These sperms travel through the vagina and enter the uterus through the cervix.

From the uterus they travel to the Fallopian tubes in one of which the egg is present.

During this process of transfer a number of sperms are killed and only one finally meets and unites
with the egg.

CHANGES INSIDE THE UTERUS

The mother’s body is designed to undertake the development of the child. Hence the uterus
prepares itself every month to receive and nurture the growing embryo. The lining thickens and is
richly supplied with blood to nourish the growing embryo.

This layer is known as the ENDOMETRIUM which develops under the influence of oestrogen and
progesterone.

FORMATION OF EMBRYO AND IMPLANTATION

After fertilization, the zygote that is formed starts cell division.

By repeated cell division it forms the embryo.

While division of the zygote continues, the embryo starts moving through the Fallopian tube
towards the uterus.

By the time the embryo is in 16 celled stage the embryo reaches the uterus and gets attached to the
endometrium. A process known as implantation.

Attachment through placenta

The embryo gets nutrition from the mother’s blood with the help of a special tissue called placenta.
This is a disc which is embedded in the uterine wall. It contains villi on the embryo’s side of the
tissue. On the mother’s side are blood spaces, which surround the villi. This provides a large surface
area for glucose and oxygen to pass from the mother to the embryo. The developing embryo will
also generate waste substances which can be removed by transferring them into the mother’s blood
through the placenta.
GESTATION

Gestation period of 9 months is the period during which the foetus develops in the mother’s uterus.
After the gestation period, the baby is born as a result of rhythmic contraction of the muscles in the
uterus. The process of childbirth is known as PARTURATION.

MENSTRUATION

If the egg is not fertilized, it lives for about one day. Since the ovary releases one egg every month,
the uterus also prepares itself every month to receive a fertilized egg. Thus its lining becomes thick
and spongy. This would be required for nourishing the embryo if fertilization had taken place. Now,
however, this lining is not needed any longer. So, the lining slowly breaks and comes out through the
vagina as blood and mucous. This cycle takes place roughly every month and is known as
menstruation. It usually lasts for about two to eight days

The menstrual cycle is a 28 days cycle during which changes occur in the uterus and ovary which
helps in pregnancy. The different phases of menstrual cycle are:

THE FOLLICULAR PHASE during which the egg develops in the ovary inside follicles and the
endometrium develops inside the uterus.

THE OVULATORY PHASE during which ovulation takes place and the endometrium is fully developed
to receive the ovum.
THE LUTEAL PHASE during which the debris of the ovarian follicle forms corpus luteum. The corpus
luteum secreted progesterone. Progesterone maintains the endometrium.

THE MENSTRUAL PHASE during which the corpus luteum degenerates and the endometrium is shed
off in the form of menstrual blood.

REPRODUCTIVE HEALTH

Sexually transmitted diseases

During sexual intercourse, certain diseases can be transmitted from one person to the other.

For example gonorrhoea, syphilis, AIDS etc can be prevented by use of condoms,
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