Quiz date: 11-10-2021

Individual essay: 29-11-2021

Dr. Ruth Dehui Zhou
Group report: 13-12-2021

Counselling & Psychology Department,

Hong Kong Shue Yan University
Objectives
◦ Master major of human motivation and learning .
theories and concepts
◦ Apply theoretical knowledge in motivation and learning
to the analysis of media and daily events
◦ Apply theoretical knowledge to reflecting one’s own
personal control and self-regulation
◦ Explore the use of motivation and learning in
counselling setting or in empirical studies

2
 Overview of the course

Introduction to
motivation (Chp. 1 & 2)
Agenda • Definitions
• Grand theories and
contemporary theories

Physiological needs
(Chp. 4)
OVERVIEW OF
THE COURSE

4
Reference books

◦ Reeve, J. (2008). Understanding motivation

and emotion (5th ed). Hoboken, NJ: John
Wiley & Sons.
◦ Miltenberger, R. G. (2016). Behavior
modification: principles and procedures (6th
ed., Int’l ed). Australia ; Belmont, CA:
Wadsworth Cengage Learning.
◦ Extra readings: academic journals
Notes

◦ Not everything in the reference book will be covered in the lectures and
tutorials. You need to read the chapters by yourself
◦ Not everything to be discussed in the lectures and tutorials will be found in
the reference book (esp. the examples!). *You may need to come to every
class, pay attention and take notes

◦ Do make appointments with the lecturer to discuss anything or any of your

problem in studying this course!
Assessment task Weighting

Class participation 10%

(both lectures and tutorials)

Individual essay 35%

Group presentation 20%

Group report 15%

Mid- term quiz 20%

ASSESSMENT
◦ 2000 words
◦ Part 1: reflection of your university
learning experience
◦ Part 2: devise a learning plan which
helps to enhance your learning Individual
performance in the future essay (30%)
* apply theories and concepts that your
learnt from the course
** make sensible evaluations and
suggestions based on the theories
◦ Turn your presentation into a report!
◦ + 1 more section: suggestion of an
updated modification plan Group report
◦ APA format, 8- 10 pages (20%)
◦ add in any visual aid that helps to
elaborate your plan effectively
◦ Design a behavior modification plan with
a target behavior (1 week)
eg. Aim at increasing the self- study hours
per week/ implement a group reading Group
schedule for a week/ sports schedule
◦ Daily record of behaviors (quantifiable
presentation
measures) (20%)
◦ Present your plan, results, and evaluation
of the plan to your classmates, 20-25 mins
for the presentation
◦ 5-6 students in a group
◦ The quiz covers teaching
content from Week 1 to
Week 5 and will be in
multiple- choice- question Quiz (20%)
format.
◦ Quiz date: 11th October
WHAT IS MOTIVATION?
 What is motivation?

◦ Motivation derives from the word MOTIVE

MOTIVE = desire, need, want, willingness,
wishes or necessities of an individual

Between different people, motivation varies

Motivation
involves those processes that give behavior its energy and direction.

Behavior is relatively strong,

Intense, and persistent.

Behavior is aimed toward achieving a particular purpose or goal.

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Picture resource： https://hk.sports.yahoo.com/news/ （08/08/2021）
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Why do we need to study motivation?

As different roles In different fields

• Students • Education
• Educational • Work/ Business
psychologists • Sports and
• Counselors exercise
• Educators • Therapy
• Parents
Why do we need to study motivation?

◦ Motivation benefits adaptation

◦ Motives direct attention and prepare action
◦ Motives vary over time
◦ Types of motivations exist
◦ Motivation includes both approach and avoidance
tendencies
◦ Motivation study reveals what people want
Why do you select the
course, motivation and
learning this semester?

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 Table 1.1 Motivational Reasons to Exercise
Source of
Why Exercise? Motivation Illustration

Fun, enjoyment Intrinsic motivation Children exercise spontaneously—they run and

jump and chase, and they do so simply for the sheer fun of it.
Personal challengeFlow Athletes get “in the zone” when their sport
optimally challenges their skills.
Forced to do so External regulation Students exercise because their coach tells them to do so.

Paid to do so Extrinsic Motivation A coach or instructor is paid to exercise and to help others exercise.

Accomplish a goal Goal Runners see if they can run a mile in 6 minutes or less.

Value its health Value People exercise to lose weight or to strengthen the benefits strengthen
the heart.
Inspired to do so Possible self People watch others exercising and becomes inspired to do the same.

A standard of Achievement Snow skiers race to the bottom of the mountain trying to beat their
excellence strivings previous best time.

Satisfaction from Perceived competence As exercisers make progress, they feel more competent, more effective.
a job well done
An emotional kick Opponent process Vigorous jogging can produce a runner’s high (a rebound to the pain).

Good mood Positive affect Beautiful weather can pick up exercisers’ moods and invigorate exercise
spontaneously, as they skip along without knowing why.
Alleviate guilt Introjection People exercise because they think that is what they should, ought to, or
have to do to feel good about themselves.
Relieve stress Personal control After a stressful day, people go to the silence depression gym, which they
see as a structured, controllable environment.
Hang out with friends Relatedness Exercise is often a social event, a time simply to enjoy hanging out with
friends. 19
(Reeve, 2009 : 4)
 Two Perennial Questions

What causes behavior? Why does behavior

vary in its intensity?

“Why does a person behave one way

“Why did she divorce her husband?” in a particular situation at one time
“Why do people do what they do?” yet behave in a different way at
another time?”

“What are the motivational

differences among individuals, and
how do such differences arise?”

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 Hierarchy of the Four Sources of Motivation

Motivation

Internal Motives External Motives

內在動機：純粹為了了快樂樂樂樂⽽而做某項活動的⾏行行為
外在動機：使⽤用外部獎勵或懲罰
來來⿎鼓勵學⽣生完成作業，在教育中
通常被描述為良好教學的敵⼈人

Needs Cognition Emotions

Needs Cognitions Emotions
Essential and Mental events- Subjective
necessary for the thoughts, beliefs, psychological
maintenance of life , expectations, self- functional expressive
growth and well- concepts phenomena
being Eg. Plans and goals Eg. Impulse buying
(Reeve, 2013: 9)
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 Measuring Motivation:
Expressions of Motivation

Brain &
Behavior Engagement Physiology Self-report
Activations

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 Attention

Effort

Latency

Behavioral Persistence
Expressions
of Motivation
Choice

Probability of response

Facial expressions

Bodily gestures

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 Four Interrelated Aspects of engagement

Engagement

Behavioral Emotional Cognitive

Voice
Engagement Engagement Engagement

•Interest •Sophisticated •Offers Suggestions

•Attention
•Enjoyment Learning Strategies •Makes
•Effort
•Low Anger •Active Self- Contributions
•Persistence
•Low Frustration Regulation •Asks Questions

Figure 1. 3 Four interrelated aspects of engagement

(Reeve, 2009 : 12)
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 Motives vary over time & Influence
The Ongoing Stream of Behavior
Motivation is a dynamic process-always changing, always rising and falling—
rather than a discrete event or static condition.
Table 1.4 How Motives Influence Behavior for a Student Sitting at a Desk
(Reeve, 2009 : 15)

Aroused Motive-Relevant Motive’s Urgency

Motive Course of Action Attention-Getting Status
Book Interest Read chapter. *
Cola Thirst Drink beverage. *
Familiar Voices Affiliation Talk with friends. Environmental
Event
Headache Pain avoidance Take aspirin. *****
Lack Of Sleep Rest Lie down, nap. *
Upcoming Achievement Practice skill. **
Competition

Note: The number of asterisks in column 4 represents the intensity of the aroused motive. One asterisk denotes
the lowest intensity level, while five asterisks denote the highest intensity level. 25
Types of Motivations

單⼀一
If it is unitary, we ask

• How can I foster more motivation in…?

If motivation has different types, we ask

• How can I generate other type of motivation with

better quality?

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 The Grand Theories & Mini- Theories of Motivation
Philosophical Origins of Motivational Concepts
1st: ⾏行行為是深思熟慮合選擇的結果
➢ The First Grand Theory: Will 2nd: 指我們並非由意志驅動，⽽而是由本
能或是指導我們⾏行行為的動物性衝動驅
動。
➢ The Second Grand Theory: Instinct - 控制本能的⼒力力量量較⼩小

➢ The Third Grand Theory: Drive •Freud’s Drive Theory

•Hull’s Drive Theory

⽭矛盾
刺刺激
➢ The Fourth Grand Theory: Incentive, Arousal, Discrepancy

•The Active Nature of the Person

•The Cognitive Revolution
Rise of the Mini-theories •Applied Socially Relevant
Research
Contemporary Era
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 GRAND THEORIES
All- encompassing theory that seeks to explain the full range of motivated action—why
we eat, drink, work, play, compete, fear certain things, read, fall in love, and so on.

Will Instinct Drive

The ancient philosophers Physiological analysis of Drive theory view that

understood motivation
within the two themes:
➢ good, rational,
immaterial, and active
(i.e., the will)
➢ primitive, impulsive,
biological, and reactive
(i.e., bodily desires).
motivation by focusing on
the mechanistic.
The appeal of instinct
doctrine was its ability
to explain unlearned
behavior that had
energy and purpose
(i.e., goal-directed
biological impulses).
behavior was motivated
to the extent that it
served the needs of the
organism and restored
a biological
homeostasis.
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 A SUMMARY OF FREUD’S DRIVE THEORY

Drive’s Drive’s Drive’s Drive’s

Source Impetus Object Aim

A bodily deficit occurs The intensity of the Seeking to reduce If the environmental
bodily deficit grows & anxiety & satisfy the object successfully
(e.g., blood sugar emerges into bodily deficit, the satisfies the bodily
drops & a sense of consciousness as a person searches out & deficit, satisfaction
hunger emerges). psychological consumes a need occurs & quiets
discomfort, which is satisfying anxiety, at least for a
anxiety. environmental object period of time.
(e.g., food).

(Reeve, 2009 : 31)

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Drive theory view that behavior was motivated to the extent that it served the
needs of the organism and restored a biological homeostasis.
-Psychological drive motivates us to engage in behavior

-Freud's Drive Theory: believed that all behavior was motivated and that the
purpose of behavior was to serve the satisfaction of biologically based bodily
needs. More psychological. Drive is seen as an "emergency warning system"
that action needed to be taken. Behavior served the body's needs, anxiety
(drive) ensured that the need servicing behavior occurred when needed.

-Hull's Drive Theory: Drive was a pooled energy source composed of body
deficits/disturbances. High/Low motivation could be predicted before it
occurred. Habit, not drive, directed behavior. Behavior guiding habits came
from learning, and learning was a consequence of reinforcement.Without
drive and habit there was no behavior.

-Problems: Some motives emerged without any biological need, external

sources can motivate behavior not just biological ones, learning occurring
without drive reduction.

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Post-Drive Theory Years

Third,
the field focused
on applied,
socially relevant
problems.

First,
motivation study
rejected its commitment
to a passive view of Second,
human nature and motivation turned
adopted a more active decidedly cognitive
portrayal of human and somewhat
beings. humanistic.

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 Rise of the Mini-Theories
1. Motivational phenomenon
(e.g.., the flow experience)

Unlike grand theories 2. Particular circumstances that affect motivation

that try to explain the full (e.g., failure feedback)
range of motivation,
mini-theories limit
their attention:
3. Groups of people
(e.g., extraverts, children, workers)

4. Theoretical questions
(e.g., what is the relationship between cognition & emotion?)

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Abbreviated list of the mini-theories

Achievement motivation theory (Atkinson, 1964)

Attributional theory of achievement motivation (Weiner, 1972)

Cognitive dissonance theory (Festinger, 1957)

Effectance motivation (White, 1959; Harter, 1978)

Expectancy x value theory (Vroom, 1964)

Goal-setting theory (Locke, 1968)

Intrinsic motivation (Deci, 1972)

Learned helplessness theory (Seligman, 1975) …

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 The Many Voices in Motivation Study
➢ Motivation’s new
範例例 paradigm is one in
which behavior is
energized and directed
not by a single grand
cause but, instead, by a
multitude of multi-level
and co-acting
influences.
➢ As expressed in Box 2,
most motivational
states can be (and
indeed need to be)
understood at multiple
levels—from a
neurological level, a
cognitive level, a social
level, and so on.
(see Reeve, 2009 : 43)
Box 2
__________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Perspective: Motives emerge from…
_______________________________________________________________________
___________________________________
Behavioral Environmental incentives
Neurological Brain activations
Physiological Hormonal activity
Cognitive Mental events and thoughts
Social-cognitive Ways of thinking guided
by exposure to other people
Cultural Groups, organizations, and
nations
Evolutionary Genes and genetic
endowment
Humanistic Encouraging the human
potential
Psychoanalytical Unconscious mental life
_______________________________________________________________________
___________________________________
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 Physiological
Needs

⾼高中⽣生（玩⼿手機、晚睡、不上課）例例⼦子：
- 在學習⽅方⾯面 Low confidence —— so 玩⼿手機
- low safety
- physiological needs : 睡眠不⾜足
Picture source :
https://www.japantimes.co.jp/news/2020/05/28/national/science-
health/masks-helped-fight-coronavirus/ 36
Physiological needs
Involves the biological systems
Growth
Well- being
Physiological deprivations and
deficits (eg. Lack of water, food and
sleep) create biological needs
◦ Homeostasis
➢The body’s tendency to maintain a stable internal
state
What are some of the indicators of homeostasis?
✓Water
✓Temperature
✓Sugar
✓Salt
✓Oxygen
✓Acidity
✓Fats
◦ Negative feedback
Homeostasis’ physiological stop system
Signal satiety well before the physiological need is
fully replenished (Adolph, 1980)

That’s why you don’t eat or drink forever!

 Thirst- Physiological
Regulation

When will you drink?

When will you stop drinking?
 Thirst- Environmental influences

◦ Why do you drink bubble tea?

➢Taste
➢Drinking behavior changes when
taste is changed
➢Sweet taste/ taste you like offer a
high incentive value for drinking
 Relative Pleasantness of Four Taste Solutions

The incentive
values for four
tastes appear in
Figure 4.6:

▪sweet,
▪sour,
▪salty,
▪bitter,

represented at
various stimulus
intensities.
Hunger- Physiological regulation

Short- term physiological models

• Immediate available energy (blood glucose)

Long- term physiological models

• Stored energy (fat mass)

Cognitive- social- environmental models

 Environmental Influences Self-Regulation Motivation
•Food variety, appearance
•Situational pressures

Hunger Eating
(Appetite) (Energy Intake)

Fat Stores
(Body Weight)

Comprehensive
Physical Activity
Model of Hunger (Energy Expenditure)
Regulation
Exercise Motivation
 Hunger- cognitive Regulation
Why is dieting so difficult?

Successful dieting requires:

1. the dieter to decline his/ her responsiveness to internal
cues (ie. The physiological need)
2. To assert conscious cognitive controls for unconscious
physiological needs
The problem
Cognitive controls Does NOT feature a
negative feedback system
Sex- physiological Regulation
Some facts:
◦ Sexual behavior is influenced, but not determined by
hormones (male: androgens; female: estrogens)
◦ Sexual desire and the hormones decline steadily
beginning in mid- 20s
Male Female
Correlation between physiological arousal & Correlation between physiological arousal &
psychological desire is HIGH psychological desire is LOW

Sexual desire CAN be predicted & explained Sexual desire CANNOT be predicted &
in the context of sexual arousal explained in the context of physiological
need
Sex- physiological Regulation
References

• Atkinson, J. W.(1964). An Introduction to Motivation. New York:

American Book-Van Nostrand-Reinhold.
• Deci, E. L. (1972).The effects of contingent and noncontingent rewards
and controls on intrinsic motivation. Organizational Behavior and
Human Performance, 8, 217-229.
• Festinger, L. (1957). A Theory of Cognitive Dissonance. Stanford, CA:
Stanford University Press.
• Harter, S. (1978). Effectance motivation reconsidered: Toward a
developmental model.Human Development, 1, 34-64.
• Locke, E. A. (1968). Toward a theory of task performance and
incentives. Organizational Behavior and Human Performance, 3, 157-
189.
• Reeve, J. (2009). Understanding motivation and emotion (5th ed.).
Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.
• Seligman, M. E. P. (1975). Helplessness. San Francisco: W. H. Freeman.
• Vroom, V. H. (1964). Work and motivation. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-
Bass.
• Weiner, B. (1972). Theories of motivation. Chicago: Markham.
• White, R. W. (1959). Motivation reconsidered: The concept of
competence. Psychological Review, 66, 297–333.

50
 CLASS ACTIVITIES

➢ Grouping: five students form five groups ; Self-

introduction within your group. Please make your
own slogans or badges that can unite all of you
together and present your group in front of the class.

51
 CLASS ACTIVITIES

➢ Watch the video and try to reply the following

questions.

• Brief https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=89Kq8SDyvfg
• Job Interview https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gHXKitKAT1E
• Cold call https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=emzARZsJntw
• Ending Scene https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=x8-7mHT9edg

Picture source：https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=89Kq8SDyvfg 52
➢ Please answer the following questions
• What choices do people make about
their behavior?
• What is the intensity or level of
involvement in the chosen activity?
• What causes a person to persist or to
give up?
• What is the person thinking and feeling
while engaged in the activity?

53
 Fill UP the Sharing LIst

Picture source： http://everythingneedssharing.blogspot.hk/2012/12/everything-needs-sharing.html

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 CLASS ACTIVITIES

➢ Within your groups, discuss the following topic and

think about an innovative way to share your
discussion in class. You can use the format of
drawing, singing, dancing, drama or any other
possible innovative expressions.

➢ Topic: Think of a time when you felt more

positively about your life. Reflect what make you
felt positively about your life and why.

55