Parts of Speech

PARTS OF SPEECH

1. Noun
A noun is a part of speech that identifies a person, place, thing, idea or events. Nouns are the
simplest among the 8 parts of speech. In a sentence, nouns can play the role subject, direct
object, indirect object, subject complement, object complement, appositive, or adjective as
depending on the necessity.

Types of Nouns

 Proper Noun: It refers to specific entities. It can be the name of a specific person, place or
thing.
Example – Ben, Philippines
 Common Noun: Common nouns refer to general and unspecific categories of entities.
They can be the name of common things or class of objects.
Example – men, chair, girls
 Collective Noun: They are nouns that refer to a group of something in a specific manner
or the collection of some persons or things and represented as a singular noun.
Example – jury, herd, flock
 Abstract Noun: Denotes something that cannot be seen, touched, etc. and signifies a
quality. More ethereal, theoretical concepts use abstract nouns to refer them.
Example – manners, promise, fear, energy, love
 Materialistic Noun: Material nouns refer to materials or substances from which things are
made.
Example – cotton, rice, pepper

Further Classifications

 Countable Nouns: These are the nouns that can be counted are considered as individual
and separable items. To the linguist, these countable nouns can occur in both single and
plural forms. They can be modified by numerals and can co – occur with quantificational
determiners like many, most, more, several, etc.
Example – pens, tables
 We can use countable nouns with the indefinite articles a and an, which indicate
one person or thing.
Example – three men, several mangoes, 12 apples
 Uncountable Nouns: Nouns which cannot take an indefinite article (a/an), nor can they be
made plural. They are also called as Mass Nouns. Examples are as follows:
 Incorrect – Would you like a coffee?
Correct – Would you like coffee?
 Incorrect – I have an information.
Correct – I have some information.
 Incorrect – The mischiefs conducted by the kids are unpardonable.
Correct – the mischief conducted by the kids are unpardonable.
 Incorrect – A lot of luggage are lying in the drawing room.
Correct – A lot of luggage is lying in the drawing room.

Other Classifications

 Masculine – Ramesh, tiger, war

 Feminine – cow, moon, earth
 Neuter – mansion, table

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Parts of Speech

Noun as Part of Speech Function As:

1. The subject of a clause or sentence – The subject in a sentence or clause is the person or
thing doing, performing the action of the verb.
Example – The dog ran after the scooter.
Manisha skips lunch every day.
2. An object of a verb Objects – Objects in grammar have three grammatical roles as
follows:
o The direct object of a verb
o The indirect object of a verb
o The object of a preposition
 Direct Objects – Those objects which receive the action of the verb in a sentence
or clause.
Example – The dog ran after the scooter.
Manisha skips lunch every day.
 Indirect Objects – An incident object is a person or thing that receives the direct
object of the verb.
Example – Kindly give Asha the documents.
 Object of the Preposition – Nouns are also used after a preposition to create
prepositional phrases. When a noun is a part of a prepositional phrase; it is known
as the object of the preposition.
Example – Your laptop is on the table.

Few Additional Information about Nouns as Parts of Speech

1. There are some nouns which seem to be plural but are singular, such as Mathematics,
Physics, gymnastics, series, and news.
2. There are some nouns which seem to be singular but exist in plural. For instance,
children, cattle, people, police and infantry.
3. There are some nouns which are plural and exist in form but cannot be converted into the
singular form.
Example – scissors, trousers
4. When in a sentence there is a numerical adjective with a noun, we cannot use the plural
of that noun if there is another noun after it.
Example – She is a three years old toddler.
She is a three year old toddler.
5. After the phrase, some of/each of/either of/neither/any of/none of, a plural form of a noun
is used.
Example – Neither of the boys is rich.
Mumbai is one of the biggest cities in India.
6. There are some nouns which exist both in singular and plural form. The nature of the
verb depends upon the sense of sentence and noun.
Example – The audience are humbly requested to be seated in their seats.
o Here, individual members of the audience are being talked about.

The audience is quiet.

o Here, the audience has been treated as a single unit.
7. The ‘apostrophe’ and ‘s’ (‘s) cannot be used with non – living things to show possession.
Example:
Incorrect – The chair’s arms were broken.
Correct – The arms of the chair were broken.
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Parts of Speech

2. Pronouns
Pronouns as part of speech are the words which are used in place of nouns like people,
places, or things. They are used to avoid sounding unnatural by reusing the same noun in a
sentence multiple times.

Categories of Pronouns

1. Personal Pronouns
Personal pronouns are used for the first person (the speaker – I) and the second person
(the person spoken to – you). We use he, she, it and they to refer to other people and
things (third person) when it is clear from the context what we are referring to.
Example – Hina isn’t coming with us. She has to finish homework.
 Like nouns, pronouns can function as subjects as well as objects. Additionally,
there is a possessive case. As the name implies, it marks possession of a personal
pronoun. The possessive case can further be divided into two as follows:

Possessive determiners: They function grammatically like adjectives,

modifying a noun or nouns. However, they cannot function as nouns in a
sentence.

Example – My father’s house is being sold off. (My modifies father to show
his relation to the speaker.)

Possessive Pronouns: They are personal pronouns in the possessive case

which have the grammatical function of nouns.

Example – Those shoes are mine.

Forms of Personal Pronouns as Part of Speech

Possessive Possessive
Subject/Nominative Object
Determiners Pronouns
I
1st Person Me My Mine
You
2nd Person You Your Yours
3rd Person
He/She Him/Her His/Her His/Her
singular
3rd Person
It It Its
impersonal
1st person plural We Us Our Ours

2nd person plural You You Your Yours

3rd Person plural They Them Their Theirs

2. Reflexive & Emphatic Pronouns

We use reflexive pronouns as object of the verb when it refers to the same thing as the
subject. Reflexive pronouns are formed by adding “-self” (singular) or “-selves” (plural)
to the end of my, your, our, him, her, it, or them (as well as the indefinite pronoun one).

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Parts of Speech

Example:
I treated myself with a cookie.
She imagined herself as the heroine of the movie.
They introduced themselves to the captain of the team.
One should conduct oneself properly.

Pronoun Reflexive Pronoun

He/Her/It Himself/Herself/Itself
They Themselves
I Myself
You Yourself
We Ourselves
One Oneself

 Exceptions: Transitive verbs like keep, stop, bathe, turn, rest, qualify, hide, etc.
do not use reflexive pronouns.

Consider the following:

Incorrect – You should keep yourself away from intoxicating substances.

Correct – You should keep away from intoxicating substances.

Incorrect – He qualified himself in the competitive exams.

Correct – He qualified in the competitive exams.

3. Demonstrative Pronouns
They are used to indicate specific people or things and signify whether they are
singular/plural and whether they are close or far from the speaker. Some of the
demonstrative pronouns are this, that, these and those.

Consider the following examples:

This is my pen. (Singular + close by)
Fetch me that. (Singular + not close)
These are really tasty. (Plural + close by)
I want those books right now. (Singular + not close)

4. Indefinite Pronouns
The Indefinite Pronoun is used in place of a noun that is not being specified in the
sentence. They are used depending upon whether the nouns being represented are person
or thing and whether the noun is singular or plural. Some of the indefinite pronouns are
any, somebody, none, whatever, all and many.

Example:
Somebody is knocking at the door. (Person + Singular)
None of these apples are rotten. (Thing + Plural)

5. Distributive Pronouns
They are the pronouns in which members of a group are considered separately, rather
than collectively. Some of the distributive pronouns are each, every, neither, etc.

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Parts of Speech

Example:
Each ate his own apple. (Pronoun)
Each boy ate his own apple. (Determiner)

6. Reciprocal Pronouns
These pronouns are used when two or more people act as the subject of a verb and both
individually and equally receive the verb’s action. Some of the reciprocal pronouns are
each other, one another, etc.
Example – Mary and I love each other.

7. Relative Pronouns
These are used to connect relative clauses (or adjective clauses) to the main clause in a
sentence. Some of the relative pronouns are who, which, what, whose, etc.

Example:
That’s the man who extorted money from me.
The letter that I wrote has reached its destination.

8. Interrogative Pronouns
Interrogative Pronouns are used to ask questions. There are only five of these which are
who, whose, whom, which and what,

Example:
Who is your class teacher?

Rules to use Pronouns as Part of Speech and Tips to remember them

 Use a subject pronoun, not only as the subject of a sentence but after to be verbs (is, are,
was, were, will be, maybe, may have been, etc. when the pronoun renames the subject.
Do not use object pronouns following to be verbs.

Examples:
1. She is my wife. (She is the subject, therefore use subject pronoun after to be verb.)
2. It is me who whispered. (Incorrect as ‘me’ is an objective pronoun and should not
come after to be verb ‘is’)
It is I who whispered. (Correct as ‘I’ should come after to be verb and renames the
subject ‘it’. Therefore, use subject pronoun.)
3. It could have been them. (Incorrect)
It could have been they. (Correct)

 When who refers to a personal pronoun (I, you, he, she, we, they), it takes the verb
that agrees with the pronoun.
Examples
1. It is I who is wrong. (Incorrect)
It is I who am wrong. (Correct)
2. It is you who is right. (Incorrect)
It is you who are right. (Correct)

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Parts of Speech

 Use an object pronoun when the pronoun is the direct object, the indirect object, or
the object of the preposition
3. Verbs
Verbs as part of speech are used to signify the actions, processes, conditions, or states of being
of people or things. It is basically a word that characteristically is the grammatical center of a
predicate and expresses an act, occurrence, or mode of being, that in various language is
inflected for agreement with the subject, for tense, for voice, for mood, or for aspect, and that
typically has full descriptive meaning and characterizing quality in it.

Examples:
 Priya cleaned the table.
 Here, cleaned is the verb as it shows the action performed by Priya.
 Maya is an intelligent girl.
 Here, though no action is being action is being performed, the state of being is
expressed through the verb is.

Classification of Verbs as Part of Speech

1. Finite and Non – Finite Verbs

Finite Verb – A finite verb is the main verb of a sentence and has a direct relationship to
the subject of a sentence or clause. A sentence with a finite verb does not require another
verb in the sentence in order to be grammatically correct.
Examples:
1. I play every day.
2. She skips many classes.
3. She cried for hours.
 All the verbs are finite verbs as they express actions directly related to the subject of
the sentence. The only verbs that can be said to be finite are those in their base form
(eat, play, read – all the infinitive form without to), their past tense form, or their third
– person singular form (eats, plays, reads).

Infinite Verb – Verb forms that are never considered finite and are known as non – finite
verbs are gerunds, infinitives, and participles (both past and present).

Example:

The teacher is teaching the French Revolution.

 Here, the present continuous verb ‘is teaching’ has been used. Note that ‘teaching’ is
present participle form is considered as a non – finite verb. The finite verb in the
sentence is the auxiliary verb ‘is’.

Consider the following:

a.) The teacher is – ‘is’ is finite as it has a direct relationship with the subject and can
form innumerable complete sentences:
 The teacher is smiling.
 The teacher is angry.
 The teacher is pretty.
b.) The teacher teaching – The present participle ‘teaching’ as given cannot make
sentences as made by the finite verb ‘is’. Sentences like The teacher teaching English
will be incorrect. Therefore, it is called a non – finite verb.

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Parts of Speech

Refer to the table below:

Finite Non - Finite

You write Gita kept reading
It was Eager to finish
Someone will sing They left the unattended
vehicle

You are imitating

The journalists were active

2. Transitive and Intransitive Verbs

Transitive Verb – This describes an action that is happening to someone or something.
This person or thing is known as the direct object of the verb.
Examples:
 He is holding a pen.
 Here the action of holding is happening to a pen.
 I borrowed the book from the library.
 Here the action of the borrowed is happening to the book.
 I was reading an interesting book last night.
 Here, the action reading is happening to an interesting book.
 Moreover, transitive verbs can also take indirect objects, which are the people or
things receiving the direct object.

Examples:
I nailed the draft to my boss.
 Here, my boss receives the draft through the action of mailing.

Transitive Verbs – These verbs do not have objects, i.e., no one/nothing is receiving
their action.

Examples:

 Meera runs.
 Here, there is no object receiving the action of running.

 I cannot believe that the riots broke out.

 Here, there is no object receiving the action of broke out.

 The morbid scenes in the movie made the puke.

 Here, there is no object receiving the action of puke.

 Do not disturb while the children sing.

 Here, there is no object receiving the action sing.

Intransitive Verbs – These verbs do not have objects, i.e. no one/nothing is receiving
their action.

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Parts of Speech

Examples

 Meera runs.
 Here, there is no object receiving the action of running.
 I cannot believe that the riots broke out.
 The morbid scenes in the movie made me puke.
 Do not disturb while the children sing.

3. Regular and Irregular Verbs

As each verb is either transitive or intransitive, each one is either regular or irregular.

Regular Verbs – They are those to whose base from “-d” or “-ed” can be added to form
both the past simple tense and past participle forms.

Examples

Base Form Simple Past Past Participle

I bake cookies. I baked cookies. I had baked cookies.
They mint coins. They minted coins. They had minted coins.
We play chess. We played chess. We had played chess.

Irregular Verbs – They are those verbs whose past tense and past participle forms are
usually completely different from one another. And since they do not follow any
predictable pattern, one has no other option but to learn each one separately

Examples

Base Form Simple Past Past Participle

I do yoga. I did yoga. I had done yoga.
I see a cat. I saw a cat. I had seen a cat.
I drive slowly. I drove slowly. I had driven slowly.

Forms of Verbs as Part of Speech

1. Tenses: The different forms of verbs show different meanings with respect to time. Such
forms are known as tenses and there are three types of tenses: Present, Past, Future.

2. Auxiliary Verb: They are also called as helping verbs; auxiliary verbs are used to
complete the meaning of other primary or “main” verbs in a sentence. The different tense
forms of ‘be’, ‘have’ and ‘do’ verbs form the auxiliary verb.
Examples
 I am working on the assignment.
 She does not teach anymore.
 Have you seen Gita?
 Maya is singing a song.

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Parts of Speech

3. Modal Verbs: It expresses the possibility, likelihood or a future intention. These are can,
could, will, would, shall, should, must, may, and might. They are only followed by a verb
in its base form.
Examples
 May I sit down? (Permission)
 I can study the whole night. (Ability)
 I may be late for the party. (Possibility)
 You must finish the homework on time. (Obligation)
 You should reach on time. (Advice)
 Would you mind reading? (Request or offer)

4. Phrasal Verbs: These are the verbs which pair with prepositions to form unique
meanings. Most of the meanings are idiomatic expressions.
Examples
 Ultimately she gave up.
 I have been looking for my spectacles since an hour.
 He has been looking after his neighbor’s pet.

5. Causative Verbs: These are the verbs which are used to indicate that a person or thing is
causing another action or an event to happen. They are generally followed by a noun or
pronouns and an infinitive verb that is not causative.
Examples
 She let her hair loose.
 The hearing aid enabled Maya to listen clearly.

Subject – Verb Agreement

For the complete understanding of the verbs, one needs to get acquainted with the
concept of Subject – Verb Agreement. In any sentence, the use of verb according to the number
of subjects or the persons is called verb agreement.

Examples

 Maya sings a song.

 The students sing a song.

Singular Verb Plural Verb

is are
was were
has have
V+s/es (sings, makes, plays, etc.) V – s (sing, make, play, etc.)

Keep the following in mind for Subject – Verb Agreement

1. If two subjects are connected with the conjunction ‘and’, use the plural form of the verb.
Ex. Sita and Gita are dancing.

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Parts of Speech

2. If several nouns or adjectives are used for a single subject, use the singular verb.
Ex. My friend, philosopher and guide has come.

3. If two subjects are connected by “as well as”, “with”, “along with”, “together with”, “and
not”, “in addition to”, “but”, “besides”, “except”, “rather than”, “accompanied by”,
“like”, “unlike”, “no less than”, “nothing but”, then the verb should agree with the first
subject.
Ex. Priya as well as Shriya is going to the concert.
My younger son unlike the older one is naughty.

4. If an article is used only with the first subject, it means that only one person or thing is
being referred to. So in this case, a singular verb has to be used.
Examples
 A black and white photograph was taken by her.
 Ashoka was a great king and warrior of his time.

However, if an article is used before every subject, it implies that different subjects and
objects are there; therefore plural has to be used.

Example – The doctor and the mentor have come.

5. If two subjects are connected with “neither … nor”, “either…or”, “not only…but also”,
“nor”, “or” and “none – but”, the verb will be according to the latter subject.
Example – Neither Maya nor Sita has arrived yet.
Either you or your friends should leave.

6. The verb should agree with the main verb. Be careful not to place it in accordance with
the nearest subject.
Example – The quantity of oranges is less.
Ramya, not her friends is at fault.

7. If a Relative Pronoun (who, which, that, etc.) is used to connect a subject and a verb, then
the verb would be according to that subject which precedes that Relative Pronoun.
Example – She is one of the oldest women that (relative pronoun) have ever walked on
earth.
I am one of those who (relative pronoun) will trust everyone who they meet.

Rules to use Verbs as Part of Speech

1. If two subjects used in a sentence do not have the same number, use separate auxiliaries
for both of them.
Examples
Five apples sold and one were purchased. (Incorrect)
Five apples were sold and one was purchased. (Correct)

2. A single verb should be used for a subject only when the form of the verb is same for
both the subjects.
Examples
I am intelligent and my sister creative. (Incorrect)
I am intelligent and my sister is creative. (Correct)

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Parts of Speech

Maya is sixteen and Tushita is twenty. (Correct)

3. A Past Tense in the main clause should be followed by a Past Tense in the subordinate
clause.
Example
Pratima failed because she misses the classes. (Incorrect)
Pratima failed because she missed the classes. (Correct)

4. A Past Tense in the main clause can be followed by a Present Tense in the subordinate
clause when the subordinate clause expresses a universal truth.
Example
We were told that the Earth moved round the sun. (Incorrect)
We were told that the Earth moves round the sun. (Correct)

5. Modal auxiliaries are not used together, but they can be connected by a conjunction.
Example
You should must come. (Incorrect)
You should and must come. (Correct)

4. Adverbs
An adverb is a word that is used to change or qualify the meaning of an adjective, a verb, a
clause, another verb, or any other type of word or phrase with the exception of determiners
and adjectives that directly modify nouns. The adverbs are broadly classified into types as
follows:

1. Adverb of Time
It describes when for how long something happens and answers the question ‘when’
through words like soon, early, late, now, before, still, yet, later, tomorrow, etc. In an
interrogative sense, when and how long function as the adverb of time.

Examples
 The show will resume soon.
 We are preparing for dinner now.
 How long had you been hiding in the bushes.
 When did you arrive?

2. Adverb of Place
Describe the direction, distance, movement, or position involved in the action of a verb
and thus answers the question ‘where’ through the words like here, there, everywhere,
north, south, forward, downward, behind, etc. In an interrogative sense, where functions
as adverb of place.
Examples
 The boat was moving downstream.
 Where are you going?
 They say that God is present everywhere.

3. Adverb of Manner
It describes how something happens or someone does something. It actually answers the
question ‘how’ or in ‘what manner’ through words like beautifully, wonderfully, smartly,

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Parts of Speech

badly, bravely, etc. In an interrogative sense, how functions as adverb of manner.

Usually, the adverb of manner is formed from adjectives.

Examples

 The lion moved slowly toward its prey.

 How did she behave in the party?
 Maya behaved badly in the get together.

4. Adverb of Degree or Quantity

It describes the degree or extent of the verb, adjective, or adverb they are modifying. It
answers the question ‘how far’ through words like very, quite, almost, fairly, truly, pretty,
somewhat, etc. In an interrogative sense, how far and how much, function as adverb of
degree or quantity.

Examples

 You are pretty close to the correct answer.

 How far do you think they can go with this attitude?
 It took us quite a long time to reach the destination.

5. Adverb of Frequency (or Number)

It describes how frequently or how often something happens. Words like always, usually,
twice, firstly, daily, monthly, etc. are adverbs of frequency.
Examples
 Twice did I land up in jail.
 Preeti rarely skips her meals.
 I am usually awake by 7 o’clock in the morning.

6. Adverb of Reason
It describes ‘why’ something happens or is the case. Words like therefore, thus, hence,
consequently, etc. are adverbs of reason.
Example
Pratima has never behaved so oddly. We must therefore conclude that something is
wrong.

7. Adverb of Focus
It is used to focus on a particular word or phrase, such as also, exclusively, just, mostly,
notably, primarily, especially.
Examples
 Priya gets gifts for all, even for her distant cousins.
 Primarily, the research focuses on human behavior in adverse circumstances.
 I don’t like kids, especially the cranky ones.

8. Adverb of Viewpoint
It is used to express that a particular idea is being looked at from a certain point of view,
or to specify what aspect of something is being talked about. Words like personally, in
my point of view, according to you, scientifically, biologically, etc., are adverbs of view
point.
Examples

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Parts of Speech

 Logically speaking, completing this task within the given time frame is next to
impossible.
 According to Parth, the ship should have sunk by now.

9. Adverb of Affirmation
Expresses what the speaker knows about the truth of the statement. Words like perhaps,
certainly, undoubtedly, clearly, allegedly, etc. are adverbs of affirmation.
Example – You have certainly fallen prey to greed.

10. Adverb of Negation

It is used to modify the meaning of a verb, adjective or another adverb in a negative way
with words such as not, hardly, barely, never, seldom.
Example – I do not work on holidays.

11. Relative Adverbs

It joins two clauses by relating itself to a noun and indicates time, place, reason or
manner.
Examples
 I don’t know the house where he lives.
 I don’t know the time when the function begins.
 I don’t know why he left the room.

Order of Adverbs as Part of Speech

If more than adverb is used to describe a verb, a specific order should be maintained while
placing them in a sentence, so that the sentence sounds smooth. Place multiple adverbs in the
following order:

Adverb of Manner
Adverb of Place
Example
Adverb of
Frequency  I have to run quickly (manner) to the hospital (place) everyday
Adverb of Time (frequency) after breakfast (time) in order to see my patients
Adverbs of Purpose (purpose).

Comparison of Adverbs

Like adjectives, there are three degrees of comparison in adverbs: the positive, the comparative
and the superlative. The adverbs from their comparatives and superlatives using – er and – est
and more and most. Some adverbs have comparative and superlative degrees completely
different from their positive forms:

Positive Comparative Superlative

Near Nearer Nearest

High Higher Highest

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Parts of Speech

Angrily More angrily Most angrily

Gladly More gladly Most gladly

Much More Most

Little Less Least

Forms of Adverbs as Part of Speech

 Adverbs formed by adding –ly to an adjective:

He had a quick run to save the child from an accident. (Adjective)
He ran quickly to save the child from an accident. (Adverb)

 Adverbs that are identical to adjectives:

Neeraj owns a fast and powerful bike. (Adjective)
Please do not drive too fast. (Adverb)

 Adverbs such as even, how, never, next, now, rather, so, soon, still, then, too, etc. are
not derived from an adjective or any other word.
Are you still hiding the truth?
She does not even know our situation.

Few Tips to Use Adverbs as Part of Speech

1. The sentence based on too…to format can only be replaced with so…that, if ‘cannot’ is
also added while conversion.

Examples

 The box is too heavy to lift.

 The box is too heavy that one cannot lift it. (Incorrect)
 The box is so heavy that one cannot lift it. (Correct)

2. Two negatives cancel each other. So avoid using double negatives unless we make an
affirmation.

Examples

 I have not done nothing wrong. (Incorrect)

 I have not done anything wrong. (Correct)

3. The adverbs ‘hard’ and ‘hardly’ carry completely different meanings. The former means
‘diligently’, ‘intensely’, while the latter means ‘scarcely at all’. Therefore, be careful
while using them.

Examples

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Parts of Speech

 They work hardly in the fields. (Incorrect)

 They work hard in the fields. (Correct)
4. The sentences which begin with seldom, never, hardly, scarcely or rarely, have the
following structure: Adverb + Verb + Subject.

Examples

Seldom we have gathered together. (Incorrect)

Seldom have we gathered together. (Correct)

5. Adjectives
Adjectives are words that describe or modify a noun or a pronoun in the sentence. The
adjectives are easy to spot because they come immediately before the nouns they modify. They
are used to identify or quantify individual people and unique things and are usually positioned
before the noun or pronoun that they modify. Some sentences also contain multiple adjectives.

Examples
 Priya is an obedient girl. (obedient describes what kind of girl Priya is, therefore it is an
adjective)
 Many birds are flying in the sky. (Many describes the quantity of birds flying in the sky.)

A group of words with a subject and a verb can also function as an adjective. In such cases, the
group of words is called an adjective clause.

Example

 My mother, who works at the department store, is an admirable woman.

The clause in bold modifies the noun “mother” and is called an adjective clause.

Types of Adjectives as Part of Speech

1. Adjectives of Quality
They describe the kind, quality or characteristic of a noun or a pronoun they are referring
to.
Examples
o Parth is clever.
o Jigisha is a voracious reader.
o Mitali’s gestures are amazing.
2. Adjectives of Quantity
They indicate how much of a thing is meant in indefinite terms, or it answers the
question How much? These adjectives are mostly used with uncountable nouns. Some
of these adjectives are many, much, some, little, great, any, enough, etc.

Examples
o Can I have some water?
o I had enough rest for the day.

3. Adjectives of Number

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Parts of Speech

They indicate how many people or things are meant and it answers the question How
many? It can also demonstrate a noun’s position or place in a certain order.
Adjectives of number are used with countable nouns. The adjective of number are of
three types:

1. Definite Numeral Adjective: It denotes the exact number of nouns or their exact
position like one, two, three, first, second, third, etc.
Example – The class consists of forty – five students.

2. Indefinite Numeral Adjective: These adjectives indicate an approximate amount

like several, few, many, some, etc.
Example – Several books are torn.

3. Distributive Numeral Adjective: refers to individual nouns within the whole amount
like each, every, either, neither, etc.
Example – Every student is required to participate.

4. Demonstrative: These adjectives point out at pronouns and nouns and always come
before the words that they are referring to: these, that, those.
Examples
o I used to wear these types of trousers.
o Those bangles are what you were looking for.

5. Interrogative: The interrogative adjectives are used to ask questions and are always
followed by a noun: which, what, who, etc.
Examples
o Which song should I sing?
o What date is it?

6. Exclamatory: The exclamatory adjectives indicate strong emotions and are used with
the noun.
Examples
o What an idea!
o What a beautiful flower it is!

7. Possessive: They show ownership or possession and always come before the noun:
my, your, his, her, its, our, your, their, etc.
o This is her camera.

Degree of Adjectives

There are three degrees of adjectives, also known as degrees of comparison, namely, positive,
comparative, and superlative.

 Positive Degree – When you talk about or describe only a single person, place, or thing,
you should use the positive degree.

Examples

Ana is an intelligent lady.

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Parts of Speech

The indoor game was interesting.

 Comparative Degree – When two persons, places, or things are compared, the
comparative degree of the word is used. Normally, “-er” is added at the end of the word
do not take to transform the word into its comparative form. Some words do not take “-
er” as a suffix. So, the word “more” is put before them. Also, the word “than” should be
added after the adjective in the comparative degree.

Examples
Joy is more intelligent than Ana.
The outdoor game was more interesting than the indoor game.

 Superlative Degree – When two or more things are compared, the superlative form of
the adjectives should be used and the word “the” should be added before the adjective. In
order to transform the adjective into its superlative form, the suffix “-est” or the word
“most” should be added before the word.

Example
I think this is the best movie that I ever watched in my life.
This is the most expensive bicycle available.

Order of Adjectives as Part of Speech

We often use multiple adjectives to describe/modify the same noun or pronoun. Each of these
adjectives works independently to modify the same word. To avoid inappropriate – sounding
sentences when we use more than one adjective, they are required to be put in a specific order
according to the type of description they provide. This is known as the order of adjectives which
are stated below:

1. Determiner – An article (a, an, the), a number or amount, as possessive adjective (my,
his, her, its, your, our, their), or a demonstrative (this, that, these, those).
2. Opinion – good, bad, strange, lovely
3. Size – big, small, tiny, huge
4. Shape – curved, straight, round, square
5. Quality – wet, dry, clean, sad, happy
6. Age – old, young, new, ancient
7. Color – red, yellowish, transparent, blue
8. Pattern – checked, striped, plaid, flowered
9. Origin – American, British, eastern, western
10. Material – wooden, plastic, steel, cloth
11. Type – human, chemical, domestic, electronic, money (problems), etc.
12. Purpose – sleeping, shopping, work, gardening

Consider the following examples:

 A new cloth bag. (Article + age + material)

 A Canadian IT company. (Article + origin + type)
 Three small square brown plates. (Number + size + shape + color)

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Parts of Speech

Rules to Use Adjectives as Part of Speech

1. There are some adjectives which denote absolute positions and of which comparative and
superlative degrees remain the same. Some of the words are complete, perfect, excellent,
chief, ulterior, ideal, major, superior, junior, posterior, etc.

Examples

Let’s discuss the most major problem first. (Incorrect)

Let’s discuss the major problem first. (Correct)

Success is the chiefest motive of my life. (Incorrect)

Success is the chief motive of my life. (Correct)

2. There are some adjectives which use ‘to’ instead of ‘than’ while making comparisons.
These adjectives end in “-ior”: superior, inferior, ulterior, exterior, posterior, junior, etc.
Examples
 He is junior than you. (Incorrect)
 He is junior to you. (Correct)

3. If two adjectives are separated by ‘and’, then they must be in the same degree.
Example
Bea is the most progressive and the wisest member of the union.

4. Possessive adjectives are different from possessive pronouns.

Example
This is my (possessive adjective) notebook and this is yours (possessive pronoun).

5. Its and there are possessive adjectives.

Examples
 Its appearance is beautiful.
 Their dog is barking.

6. It’s, they’re, and there are not possessive adjectives. It’s is a contraction of it is or it has;
they’re is a contraction of they are; there is an adjective of place.

Examples
 It’s not your camera. - - - It is not your camera.
 They’re my enemies. - - - They are my enemies.
 Kindly go there. (adverb)

7. When two qualities of the same person or thing are compared, the comparative in “-er”
form is not used. Instead ‘more’ is used for this purpose.
 She is braver than intelligent. (Incorrect)
 She is more brave than intelligent. (Correct)

8. Articles (a, an, the) are the words that combine with a noun. Articles are actually
adjectives because they describe the nouns that they precede.

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Parts of Speech

 An apple a day keeps the doctor away.

 The Himalayas cover the northern part of India.

9. Sometimes, a word that is normally used as a noun can function as an adjective,

depending on its usage.

Example
The history teacher asked us to work on a project. (History is a noun, but in the sentence,
it modifies teacher.)

 Similarly, some words that are normally adjectives can function as nouns.
Example
Rica is associated with an organization that works for the poor. (Poor is usually
used as an adjective, but here it functions as a noun with the article ‘the’
preceding it)

 Therefore, note that the terms “adjective” and “noun” are not only about a word’s
form but also about its function.

6. Prepositions
A preposition is a word placed before a noun or a pronoun to indicate some relation between
the noun or pronoun and some other word. The noun or pronoun that is connected by the
preposition is known as the object of the preposition. Some common prepositions are in, on,
for, of, with about, etc.

Example: The notebook is kept on the table. (‘The table’ is the object of the preposition
‘on’.)

Categories of Prepositions as Part of Speech

Prepositions can broadly be divided into the following categories:

1. Simple Prepositions
a. Preposition of Time – at, in, on, for, during, by, since, until, before, after, to, past,
etc.
Examples
 I go to my school at 7:30 a.m. every day. (Indicates a definite point of time.)
 I play football in the evening. (Denotes a specific time, period, month, and year;
however, ‘at noon’ is an exception.)
 He got admitted on the 9th of June. (Used with days and dates)
 We will have tea break by 4 p.m. (refers to the latest time by which an action will
be over)
 I have been working in the company for the last 10 years. (Denotes a period of
time to say how long something continues)
 I haven’t seen May since last Tuesday. (Shows the point of time)
 Jake will join us from the 2nd of May. (Refers to the starting point of an action)
b. Preposition of Place – at, in, on, by/near/close to, next to/beside, between, behind, in
front of, above/over, below/under, among, amongst, etc.
Examples
 Sheila lives at the Chinese restaurant. (Refers to an exact point)

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Parts of Speech

 Sheila lives in Manila. (Refers to a big place)

 The competition was between the Mandaue and Talisay City. (Used for two
people or things)
 The gifts are to be distributed among the pupils. (Used for more than two people
or things)
 Mother asked to divide the sweets amongst others. (Used for more than two
people or things and is always used before a vowel)

c. Preposition of Direction or Movement – to, from, over, under, along, around,

across, though, into, out of, toward(s), away from, onto, off, up, down, etc.
Examples
 I go to the gym every morning. (Used to indicate movement from one place to
another)
 The predator moved towards the prey. (Points out at a particular direction)
 The doctor entered into the operation theater. (Indicate a movement inside
something)
 The flight took off on time. (Refers to separation)

d. Preposition of instrument or device – by, with, by means of, etc.

Examples
 A long journey by bus is quite exhausting.
 I write with a pen.

e. Preposition of Reason or Purpose – for, though, because of, on account of, from,
etc.
Examples
 I couldn’t reach on time because of the rain.
 I have bought the stationery for the project work.

f. Preposition of Connection – of, to, with, etc.

Examples
 In the end, Kate decided to leave with Jane.
 I will write a letter to the editor of the journal.

g. Preposition of Origin – of, from

Examples
 My grandfather was of British descent.
 We are from the USA.

2. Compound Prepositions
It has got parts and not just one word. For instance, ‘in front of’, which is used as a single
word, instead of a prepositional phrase followed by another preposition. In simple words,
it is a combination of a prepositional word and a preposition.
Examples
 I am standing in front of the mall.
 The market is close to the temple.

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Parts of Speech

3. Double Prepositions
It is formed by combining two simple prepositions such as from behind, out of, from
beneath, etc.
Examples
 Are you out of your mind?
 Famela suddenly appeared from behind the curtain and surprised the audience.

4. Participle Preposition
When a participle functions as a preposition, it is called a participle preposition. Some of
these are notwithstanding, concerning, pending, considering, assuming, etc.
Examples
 Everyone barring infant were allowed on the boat.
 Anything concerning the sales report should be brought to my notice.

Rules to use Prepositions as Part of Speech and Tips to remember them

1. A preposition ought to have an object.

Examples
 The car is in the garage. (The preposition ‘in’ has the object ‘garage’)
 You may come in. (‘in’ is the adverb which qualifies the verb ‘come’)
 She stood before me. (The preposition ‘before’ has object ‘me’)
 Have I seen you before? (‘before’ is the adverb which qualifies the verb ‘seen’)

2. A pronoun following a preposition should be in its objective form.

 The issue is between him and she. (Incorrect)
 The issue is between him and her. (Correct)

3. Difference between to preposition and to infinitive – Infinitives such as to run, to play, to

sing, are different from to me, to Manila, etc., which use the preposition to.
Examples
 I often drive to work. (Preposition of direction)
 I often take the flyover to avoid traffic. (Infinitive)

4. A preposition is never followed by a verb.

5. On, in, and at are not used before today, tomorrow, yesterday, the following day, the next
day, etc.
Examples
 I went to the church on yesterday. (Incorrect)
 I went to the church yesterday. (Correct)

7. Conjunctions
Conjunctions are used to link different clauses together, and to join words, phrases and
sentences. By using conjunctions, we can make complex sentences that show a connection
between actions and ideas. Examples: and, but, so, although, or, etc.

Three Types of Conjunctions

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Parts of Speech

1. Coordinating Conjunctions
- join words, phrases, and independent clauses of equal grammatical rank in a sentence.
These include and, but, or, yet, for, so, nor, etc.

Examples
 Are you an atheist or an agnostic? (‘Or’ joins individual words)
 I will have a mango and a banana. (‘and’ joins individual words)
 I like the actor’s performance on stage but dislike his movies. (‘but’ joins two phrases)
 Mica has been appreciated for both her spontaneity and the ability to tackle tough
situations. (‘and’ joins two phrases)
 I went to the market, but I did not purchase vegetables. (‘but’ joins two independent
clauses)
 It was already dark, so I took the cab. (‘so’ joins two independent clauses)

2. Subordinating Conjunctions
- join independent and dependent clauses. Some of these are because, since, as, though,
while, in spite of, whereas, etc. Often a subordinating conjunction indicates a cause – and –
effect relationship or contrast.

Examples
 Since I was not at home, I couldn’t cook for food.
 Although you have passed the exam, there is room for improvement.
 I went to the doctor in spite of being fit.

3. Correlative Conjunctions
- are pairs of conjunctions that work together to show the relationship between two
things in a sentence. Some of the most common correlative conjunctions are either…or, not
only…but also, no sooner…than, hardly…when, etc.

Examples
 I neither like capsicum nor tomatoes in my soup.
 You can either sign the document or leave immediately.
 Not only did he pass the exam, but also topped it.
 Whether you like it or not, we will attend the gathering this Sunday.
 You are both innocent and kind.

Rules to Use Conjunctions as Part of Speech

1. Until is time oriented and unless is action oriented. Both of these are negative words. So,
not, never, and no cannot be used with the clause containing these words.
Examples
 Wait for me in the auditorium until I return.
 Unless you work hard, you will not succeed.

2. In an affirmative sentence, doubt and doubtful are followed by if/whether. On the other
hand, in a negative or an interrogative sentence, doubt and doubtful are followed by that.
Examples
 I doubt if she will participate in the quiz competition.
 I do not doubt that she will participate in the quiz competition.

3. Both/and connects either two subjects or two objects.

Examples
 Both Jason and Jay enjoyed the match. (Subjects)
 Jay enjoyed both the match and the candyfloss. (Objects)

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Parts of Speech

4. While using a correlative conjunction, the two parts of the conjunction should go before
words of the same kind. For instance, if the noun is used after neither, another noun should
be used after nor.
Examples
 Neither is he a singer nor a dancer. (Incorrect)
He is neither a singer nor a dancer. (Correct)
 Not only does he sing but also dance. (Incorrect)
He not only sings but also dances. (Correct)
Not only does he sing but he also dances. (Correct)

5. When two subjects are joined by neither – nor or either – or, the verb should agree with the
subject (noun or pronoun) closest to the verb. If it is singular, choose the singular verb; if the
noun is plural, choose the plural form of the verb.
Examples
 Neither Megan nor Amy were wearing the desired costume. (Incorrect)
Neither Megan nor Amy was wearing the desired costume. (Correct)
 Neither Pia nor Dina made their presence felt. (Incorrect)
Neither Pia nor Dina made her presence felt. (Correct)

8. Interjection

It is a word used to express emotions or some sudden outburst of feeling. Usually, an interjection
is used in informal language. Though interjections do not relate grammatically to the other parts
of the sentence or help the reader understand the relationship between words and phrases in the
sentence, they express a wide variety of feelings, such as joy, sorrow, surprise, disgust, etc.

Interjections exist in the form of a single word, a phrase, or even a short clause. Moreover, they
are usually, though not always, placed at the beginning of a sentence. They are important as they
convey emotions which may otherwise be overlooked in a sentence. Take for example the
following:

This movie has quite a few morbid scenes.

Ugh! This movie has quite a few morbid scenes.

Undoubtedly, the second sentence adds an emotion to the given sentence.

The Emotions Expressed by Interjections

 Joy: Hurrah! Ha-ha!

 Sorrow: Alas! Ah! Oh!
 Surprise: Oh! What! Ah!
 Appreciation: Bravo! Hear-hear!
 Contempt: Fie! Pooh!
 Calling: Hello! Ho!
 Drawing attention: Look! Listen! Behold!
 Making or becoming silent: Hush!

Examples of Interjections as Part of Speech

 Hooray! You lost, I won.

 Congratulations! You procured the first rank.
 Hello! Can you hear me?
 Hush! Keep quiet! The baby is sleeping.
 Oh no, I can’t believe I woke up late again!
 Um… I think you answer is incorrect.

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Parts of Speech

A noun or phrase, an adjective or a short independent clause can be used as an

interjection in a sentence. Also, there are certain sounds which are used as interjections.

1. Noun or noun phrases that are used as interjection:

Congratulations! You won the match.
Goodbye, see you later.
Hello! How have you been?

2. Adjectives that are used as interjection:

Nice! You achieved your target!
Good! Now we are ready to proceed to the next level!
Fabulous! Our team is the winner!

3. Short Independent Clause can be used as an interjection:

We will have to spend the night in the forest. Oh, the horror!
The baby puked in its food. How awful!

4. Sounds that are used as interjections: Ugh!, Phew!, Uh – oh!, Eww!, etc.

Punctuating Interjections as Part of Speech

 An exclamation mark (!) is used to convey strong emotions such as surprise, excitement,
or anger.

Examples
Ouch! Something pricked me!
Yuck! How awful does it taste!
Hooray! We rock as a team!
Wow! Your performance was impeccable.

 Ellipsis (…) or comma (,) is used for weak emotions.

Examples
Well, what is your opinion on the matter?
Ah, this is a cozy bed.
Um… are you sure?
Yes, I would like to join you to the party.

 Question mark (?) to express uncertainty and disbelief

Examples
Oh, really? Is that what you are trying to say?
Are you kidding me? This report ought to be false!
What? He resigned!

Interjections perform its task by interjecting or interrupting the flow of language, which
becomes quite important when there is need to express feelings. Interjections as part of speech
are significant as they wave emotions into written language. This helps in conveying the
desired meaning of a sentence to the reader.

Sources:

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Parts of Speech

https://www.englishgrammar.org/lessons/
https://testbook.com/blog/parts-of-speech-in-english-grammar-notes-pdf/

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