MODULE 5

DURABILITY CONCEPT

• A durable concrete is one that performs satisfactorily in the working environment

during its anticipated exposure conditions during service (IS 456-2000)
• Durability of concrete is its ability to resist weathering action, chemical attack, abrasion
or any other process of deterioration (American Concrete Institute).
• When exposed to environment durable concrete is likely to retain its original form,
quality and serviceability during its lifetime.
• Durable Concrete considers limits for maximum water-cement ratio, minimum cement
content, cover thickness, type of cement used and presence of amount of chloride and
sulphates in concrete.

Consequences of Inadequate Durability in concrete are:

• Loss of strength of concrete
• Concrete liable to be easily affected by deterrents
• Corrosion of reinforcement
• Loss of serviceability
• Unpleasant appearance
• Danger to persons and property
• Expensive repair costs

FACTORS AFFECTING DURABILITY

• The Environment: Durability depends on the environment conditions to which the

concrete is subjected to. If concrete is placed in highly acidic or highly alkaline or harsh
conditions then durability of concrete will be less
• Type and quality of constituent materials: Using good quality materials will boost the
durability of concrete
• Cement content and w/c ratio of concrete: using low w/c ratio will give a high strength
concrete and thus a durable concrete
• Processes involved in manufacture of concrete: If all the processes are carried out as
per the specifications and in the correct manner then a durable concrete is obtained
• Workmanship especially in compaction and curing: Good workmanship will lead to a
good quality concrete which in turn gives a durable concrete
• Cover provided to embedded steel: Provide sufficient cover to reinforcement so as to
avoid corrosion in steel
 REINFORCEMENT CORROSION

• Corrosion is an electro-chemical process which requires an anode, cathode and

electrolyte
• Due to corrosion the reinforcement corrodes and bond strength between steel and
concrete reduces
• No corrosion takes place if the concrete is dry or probably below relative humidity of
60% because enough water is not there to promote corrosion.
• If concrete is fully submersed into water corrosion does not take place because
diffusion of oxygen does not take place into the concrete.
• Probably the optimum relative humidity for corrosion is 70 to 80%.

Basic Mechanism :
• Different areas of the same steel bar become anode and cathode.
• The electrical connection is being maintained by pore water, which acts as electrolyte
• At the anode, steel releases electron and takes the ionic form
- 2+
Fe → 2e + Fe
• At the cathode, water in presence of oxygen and the released electron forms hydroxyl
ions (OH)-
- -
O + 2H O + 4e → 4(OH)
2 2

Factors affecting Corrosion:

1. Quality of concrete: A good quality concrete corrodes less as it is dense and
impermeable
2. Cover thickness: If adequate cover is provided then reinforcement does not come
in contact with water or air. Hence corrosion can’t take place
3. Condition of reinforcement: Already corroded reinforcement corrodes more
4. Porosity of concrete: If concrete is porous then water enters into it and corrosion
takes place as water acts as electrolyte
5. High thermal stresses: High temperatures causes cracks in concrete and water enters
into it and corrosion takes place as water acts as electrolyte
6. Freezing and thawing conditions: Due to freezing and thawing cycles, concrete
cracks and water enters into it

Methods of Controlling Corrosion:

• Limit the chlorides in water, cement, superplastizers, etc to acceptable levels
• Provide proper cover as per IS norms
• Cover blocks also need to be of good quality
 • Concrete should be properly compacted
• Have protective coatings wherever suitable
• Ensure proper & timely maintenance of structures

FIRE RESISTANCE

• Concrete does not require additional fire protection

• Concrete in itself is a non-combustible material and has a slow rate of heat transfer
• This property of concrete is due to the concrete’s constituent materials which have very
low thermal conductivity
• Effect of temperature on the strength of concrete is not much upto a temperature of
about 250 degree celsius
• Above 300 degree celsius definite loss of strength takes place.
• Serious reduction in strength occurs at a temperature of about 600 degree celsius.
• The decomposition of concrete takes place only at a very high temperature of 900
degree Celsius. Limestone is considered as a good fire resistant aggregate.

Factors affecting fire performance of concrete:

• w/c ratio: lower the w/c ratio better the fire performance of concrete
• Water content: higher the water content lower will be the performance of concrete
when subjected to fire
• Type of aggregate used: Higher the specific gravity of aggregate better will be the
performance of concrete when subjected to fire
• Usage of supplementary cementitious materials: Using fly ash and blast furnace slag
cement has shown better fire resistance
• Addition of Fibres: Adding fibres like steel fibre, glass fibre, etc improves the fire
resistance of concrete
• Cover to reinforcement: If cover is less then steel in concrete catches fire easily and
deteriorates the concrete

FROST DAMAGE

• The freezing and thawing while the concrete is wet i.e, water is filled in pores by 91%
• Deterioration is caused by freezing of water and subsequent expansion in the paste, the
aggregate particles or both.
• Due to alternate freezing and thawing cycles, water present in gel pores in concrete
freezes and thaws. Freezing of water causes volume expansion and thawing causes
reduction of that frozen volume of water in concrete
• This repeated cycles of expansion and contraction of concrete causes the concrete to
crack and deteriorate.
• With the addition of an air entrainment admixture, concrete is highly resistant to
freezing and thawing
• Air-entrained concrete with a low water-cement ratio and an air content of 5 to 8% will
withstand a great number of cycles of freezing and thawing without distress

Factors affecting frost damage:

• w/c ratio: lower the w/c ratio higher the resistance to frost damage
• Temperature conditions: Freezing conditions will promote frost damage
• Type of aggregate: using strong and hard aggregates show better frost resistance
• Type of cement: Using a quick setting cement will reduce the chances of frost damage
• Usage of admixtures: Using accelerators will reduce the setting time of concrete hence
reduce the chances of frost damage

SULPHATE ATTACK

• Most soils contain sulphate in the form of calcium, sodium, potassium and
magnesium. They occur in soils or ground water.
• Sulphates present in solution form can attack concrete by reacting with hydrated
compounds in the hardened cement paste
• In fresh concrete C A reacts with water to form calcium aluminate hydrate (C-A-H)
3
as the product of hydration.
• In hardened concrete, calcium aluminate hydrate (C-A-H) can react with sulphate salt
from outside. Product of reaction is calcium sulphoaluminate( Ettringite), this can
cause an increase in volume up to 227%. This is called Sulphate Attack
• Sulphate attack denotes an increase in the volume of cement paste in concrete or
mortar due to chemical action between the products of hydration of cement and
solution containing sulphate, and also sodium, magnesium and Chlorides.

Factors affecting Sulphate Attack

• Cement type and content: Cements with low C A content are less vulnerable to sulfate
3
attack.
• Presence of amount of sulphate in water or soils: Higher content of sulphate will
promote sulphate attack
• Badly proportioned mix: The voids will be more and concrete will be permeable thus
allowing water to enter into concrete
Methods of controlling sulphate attack
• Use SRC (sulphate resisting cement): C A content will be less hence less formation of
3
ettringite
• Use Quality concrete - low w/c ratio, well proportioned and well compacted concrete
will make concrete impermeable thus preventing entry of sulphate ions
• Use of air-entrainment: Improves workability, reduces segregation and bleeding hence
gives good quality concrete
• Use of pozzolana: Calcium hydroxide causes leaching in concrete. By pozzolanic
action the pozzolanic material reacts with leachable Calcium hydroxide to form non-
leachable cementitious products.
• High pressure steam curing: By high pressure steam curing, calcium aluminate hydrate
(C-A-H) is turned into a less reactive compound and also Calcium hydroxide is
removed by reaction of silica
• Use of high alumina cement: Using high alumina cement causes formation of a
protective film on surface of concrete thus preventing entry of sulphate ions

ALKALI-SILICA REACTION(ASR) / ALKALI-AGGREGATE

REACTION(AAR)

• The alkali–silica reaction (ASR) is a reaction which occurs over time in concrete
between the highly alkaline cement paste and reactive non-crystalline (amorphous)
silica, which is found in many common aggregates.
• Alkali from cement, reacts with reactive silica in aggregates to form alkali-silica gel
of unlimited swelling type.
• The continuous growth of silica gel exerts osmotic pressure within the concrete.
• This manifests into cracking and bulging of concrete
• This is called Alkali-Silica Reaction

Mechanism of ASR
a. Siliceous content of aggregates enter into solution in the ionic forms
-
b. Surface of aggregate is attacked by hydroxyl ions (OH)
- -
c. Silanol groups (Si-OH) on surface are broken down by (OH) into SiO molecules
-
d. Released SiO molecules attract alkali cations in pore solution, forming an alkali-silica
gel around the aggregate.
e. Alkali-silica gel takes in water, expanding and exerting an osmotic pressure against
the surrounding paste or aggregate.
 f. When the expansionary pressure exceeds the tensile strength of the concrete, the
concrete cracks.
g. When cracks reach the surface of a structure, “map cracking” results.

Factors promoting ASR

• High alkali content in cement (more than 0.6%)
• Reactive silica in aggregate
• Availability of moisture

Control of ASR
• Use non-reactive aggregates from alternate sources
• Use low-alkali cement
• Reduce cement content in concrete
• Use of pozzolana, slag or silica fume
• use low water to cement ratio
• monitor curing conditions
• use admixtures to minimize water content

CONCRETE IN SEA WATER

• The concrete structures built in marine conditions are always exposed to seawater either
directly or indirectly.
• The coastal and offshore structures are always in contact with seawater and there are
number of physical and chemical deterioration processes that takes place.
• Seawater contains 3.5 per cent of soluble slats by weight. The ionic concentration of
Na+ and Cl- are maximum in seawater, normally 11,000 and 20,000 mg/litre
respectively.
2+ 2-
• Seawater also contains Mg and SO about 1400 and 2700 mg/litre respectively. The
4
pH of seawater fluctuates between 7.5 and 8.4
• The constituents of seawater reacts chemically with constituents of cement concrete
which results in damage to the concrete structure in several ways.

Action Mechanism
1) Effect of expansion
• The magnesium sulfate present in seawater reacts with calcium hydroxide of
cement and forms calcium sulfate as well as magnesium hydroxide
 • Magnesium sulfate also reacts with hydrated calcium aluminate and forms calcium
sulpho aluminate (Ettringite). This causes volume expansion of concrete by 227%
and concrete deteriorates

2) Effect of leaching
• Sulfates attack the concrete and cause expansion but due to the presence of
chlorides in seawater the swelling of concrete retards. Hence, erosion and loss of
concrete takes place without showing much Expansion.
• Calcium hydroxide and Calcium sulfate are soluble in seawater this will result in
increased leaching action

3) Effect of Abrasion
• Seawater may carry sand and silt especially at the shallow end of the sea.
• When it forcibly contacts the concrete surface abrasion occurs. Abrasion also
occurs due to mechanical force of wave action.

4) Effect of Corrosion
• Concrete is not 100% impervious.
• When seawater enters into the pores of concrete and reaches the reinforcement then
corrosion will occur.
• This causes spalling of concrete

STATISTICAL QUALITY CONTROL OF CONCRETE

• Concrete when tested has certain variations in test results.

• This is due to the materials and constructional method used.
• The variation in result will vary from concrete batch to batch
• Thus it becomes difficult to evaluate the exact strength of the concrete subjected to
testing.
• It is not possible to have a large number of destructive tests for evaluating strength,
as it is costly and causes wastage of material.
• This lead to sampling testing and the results are accepted only if the test values falls
within in a permissible range or limit.
• This is called Quality control and its aim is to limit the variability in test results as much
as possible.
• Therefore, Statistical Quality Control provides a scientific basis of acceptance of test
results by considering the variability in materials and construction methods
Terms used in Statistical Control
• Mean Strength: It is the average strength obtained by dividing the sum of strength
of 4 consecutive test results by the no. of observations
ẍ= (∑x) /n
• Variance: It is the measure of variability or difference of any observation from
mean strength
• Standard Deviation: It is the root mean square deviation of all the results and is
denoted by s or σ
∑(x−ẍ)2
σ=√
𝑛−1
• Co-efficient of variation: It is an alternative method for expressing the variation in
results and is given by
ν = (s/ ẍ) x 100

ACCEPTANCE CRITERIA as per BIS

• The test results are evaluated to ascertain whether they conform to the specifications.
Evaluation is done by considering mainly two criteria – Compressive Strength and
Flexural Strength.
1) For Compressive Strength
• Concrete is said to comply with strength requirements when the flowing conditions
are met
a) Mean strength determined from 4 consecutive test results complies with appropriate
limits given below
ẍ ≥ fck + 0.825 s or
ẍ = fck + 3 N/mm2, whichever is greater
b) Individual test result complies with appropriate limits given
x ≥ fck – 3 N/mm2

2) For Flexural Strength

• Concrete is said to comply with flexural strength requirements when the flowing
conditions are met
a) Mean strength determined by 4 consecutive test results exceeds the specified
characteristic strength by atleast 0.3 N/mm2 i.e., ẍ ≥ fck + 0.3 N/mm2
b) Individual strength value from test result is not less than specified characteristic
strength by 0.3 N/mm2 i.e., x ≥ fck – 3 N/mm2
 NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING

• Non-destructive testing in the broad sense refers to methods whereby internal

characteristics of solid structures can be examined without permanently affecting the
structure.
• Nondestructive testing (NDT) is the process of inspecting, testing or evaluating
materials, components or differences in characteristics without destroying the
serviceability of the member or system.
• In other words, when the inspection or test is completed the member can still be used

Purposes of conducting NDT:

1) Assessment of existing structures in the absence of drawings.
2) Quick assessment of the structure.
3) Measurement of Elastic Modulus of concrete
4) Detection of cracks, voids and other imperfections
5) Estimation of homogeneity and uniformity of concrete

I) SURFACE HARDNESS

• Can be measured using a Rebound Hammer

• A Rebound hammer is pressed against the concrete surface. The hammer rebounds and
the rebound of elastic mass depends on hardness of surface
• The rebound hammer can provide a fairly accurate estimate of concrete compressive
strength by using rebound number obtained from the test.
• The concrete should be minimum 14 to 56 days old
• The surface of the concrete at the point tested must be smooth, dry, and free of
honeycombing. Otherwise, rebound readings will be low indicating a weaker concrete
• The concrete to be tested must be at least four inches thick

Procedure:
i. Press the plunger end against a hard surface to release the plunger from the locked
position.
ii. Position hammer horizontally with plunger end against wall at a point.
iii. Slowly apply pressure until hammer fires. Do not press the lock button during this
step.
 iv. With the hammer still pressed against the wall, read the rebound number off the
scale provided on the hammer. If it is necessary to move the hammer before reading,
press the lock button. The rebound number should be read to two significant figures.
v. Repeat the above procedure at different points around the wall until a total of ten
readings has been taken

II) ULTRASONIC PULSE VELOCITY

• This is based on the principle that the velocity of an ultrasonic pulse through any
material depends upon the density.
• Comparatively higher velocity is obtained when concrete quality is good in terms of
density, uniformity etc.
• Pulse Velocity measurements can be used to assess the presence of cracks, voids etc.,
quality of concrete relative to standard requirements.
• There are three possible ways of measuring pulse velocity.
i) Direct transmission
ii) Semi direct transmission
iii) Indirect transmission (surface probing)
• Out of the three methods, the direct transmission method is considered to be the best

Procedure:
i) DIRECT TRANSMISSION :
• Pulse velocity will be measured in concrete by placing transducers across the member
exactly opposite to each other.
• This is the most appropriate & reliable method of testing to ascertain the quality /
strength of concrete.
ii) SEMI-DIRECT TRANSMISSION :
• Pulse velocity will be measured in concrete by placing transducers in planes
perpendicular to each other.
• This is a moderately reliable method of testing to ascertain the quality / strength of
concrete.
iii) INDIRECT TRANSMISSION :
• Pulse velocity will be measured in concrete by placing transducers on the same plane
of members.
• This is the least reliable method of testing
 III) PENETRATION RESISTANCE / WINDSOR PROBE TEST

• Penetration resistance tests on concrete offers a means of determining relative strengths

of concrete in the structure
• Windsor Probe is a penetration resistance measurement equipment which consists of a
i. gun powder actuated driver
ii. Probe of hardened alloy
iii. loaded cartridges
iv. depth gauge for measuring depth of penetration
• In this technique a gunpowder actuated driver is used to fire a hardened alloy probe
into the concrete.
• During testing, it is the exposed length of probe which is measured by a calibration
depth gauge
• The probe has a diameter of 6.3mm, length of 73mm.
• As the probe penetrates into the concrete damages in the form of cracking may be
caused to slender members.
• A minimum member thickness of 150mm is required.
• It is important to leave 50mm distance from the reinforcement present in the member
since the presence of reinforcing bars within the zone of influence of penetrating probe
affects the penetration depth
Procedure:
• Place the probe facing the specimen pointing the gun perpendicular to surface of
concrete
• Fire the gun
• The probe penetrates the concrete and measure this depth of penetration using the depth
gauge

IV) PULL-OUT TEST

• The fundamental principle behind pull out testing is that the test equipment designed to
a specific geometry will produce pull-out forces that closely correlate to the compressive
strength of concrete.
• This correlation is achieved by measuring the force required to pull a steel disc or ring,
embedded in fresh concrete, against a circular counter pressure placed on the concrete
surface concentric with the disc/ring.
• Types of Pull Out Tests: Depending upon the placement of disc/ring in fresh concrete,
pull out test can be divided into 2 types,
i. LOK test
ii. CAPO test (Cut and Pull out Test)

LOK Test:
• The LOK-TEST system is used to obtain a reliable estimate of the in-place strength of
concrete in newly cast structures
Procedure
• A steel disc, 25 mm in diameter at a depth of 25 mm, is pulled centrally against a 55 mm
diameter counter pressure ring bearing on the surface.
• The force F required to pullout the insert is measured. The concrete in the strut between
the disc and the counter pressure ring is subjected to a compressive load. Therefore the
pullout force F is related directly to the compressive strength

CAPO test (Cut and Pull out Test)

• The CAPO-TEST permits performing pullout tests on existing structures without the
need of preinstalled inserts like in LOK test
• CAPO-TEST provides a accurate on-site estimates of compressive strength
• When selecting the location for a CAPO-TEST, ensure that reinforcing bars are not
within the failure region.
Procedure:
• The surface at the test location is ground using a planing tool and a 18.4 mm hole is
made perpendicular to the surface using a diamond-studded core bit.
• A recess (slot) is cut in the hole to a diameter of 25 mm and at a depth of 25 mm
• A split ring is expanded in the recess and pulled out using a pull machine reacting against
a 55 mm diameter counter pressure ring.
• The force F required to pullout the insert is measured

V) CHEMICAL TESTING FOR CARBONATION

• The measurement of carbonation depth is done using phenolphthalein solution.

• The colourless acid-base indicator (phenolphthalein solution) monitors the carbonation
depth by capturing the depth at which the pH is about 9.2.
• It indicates the boundary at which the carbonated concrete meets with the uncarbonated
concrete i.e.,where concrete is alkaline
Procedure:
• Spray the indicator on the split surface of the concrete member.
• The solution becomes a pink colour if carbonation has occurred in concrete.
• Carbonation depth upto an accuracy of 5mm can be identified with the naked eye

CHEMICAL TESTING FOR CHLORIDE

• Achieved by Rapid Chloride Permeability Test (RCPT)

• Apply an electrical potential across the test specimen.
• Measure the penetration depth of chloride ions, to determine the "Chloride Migration
Coefficient"
• This co-efficient is used to estimate the chloride diffusion coefficient for calculation of
service life of member

VI) CORE CUTTING

• The test should be taken at points where minimum strength and maximum stress are
likely to coincide.
• But, at the same time, the core cutting causes some damage to the member and may
impair the future performance of the member.
• Therefore, in slender members, the core should be taken away from the critical section.
• For compression testing, the diameter of the core should be at least three times the
nominal maximum aggregate size.
• Core Cutter is used to cut the core from the existing concrete structure for testing the
physical properties of the concrete like compressive strength, density, water absorption,
crack depth and chemical test like depth of carbonation and chloride content etc. It can
alsobe used to inspect the interior region of the structural members.
Procedure:
• In this method concrete cores of sizes raging from 20 mm to 150 mm in diameter and
50 mm to 500 mm long are drilled out by a diamond cutters.
• The recommended diameters are 100 to 150 mm, but if the drill depth is insufficient as
in of case slabs , then smaller diameters may be used but not less than three times
nominal aggregate size
• The core diameter to length ratio shall be normally between 1.0 to 2.0 (preferably 2.0)
The core diameter shall be at least three times the nominal maximum size of aggregate.
• Reinforcement shall be avoided in the core. At least three cores shall be tested for
acceptable accuracy. These cylindrical concrete cores are then made smooth at both
ends and then tested against required criteria.

VII) MEASURING REINFORCEMENT COVER

• Used for locating, mapping and thickness gauging of cover provided for embedded
rebars in concrete.
• Equipment used is called Profometer, which works on electromagnetic principles.
• The equipment consists of display unit coupled with probes of different types
• Electric currents when passed in a coil winding, generate a magnetic field which
propagates through the concrete and will interact with any buried metal present, such
as reinforcing steel
• Coils in the probe are periodically charged by current pulses
• On the surface of any electrically conductive material, which is in the magnetic
field, eddy currents are produced.
• They induce a magnetic field in opposite directions. The resulting change in voltage
can be utilized for the measurement.
• Rebars that are closer to the probe or of larger size produce a stronger magnetic field.
• Advanced signal processing supports not only the localization of rebars but also the
determination of the cover and the estimation of the bar diameter.