Cite this article Research Article Keywords: climate change/field testing

Mawlood YI and Hummadi RA Paper 1800236 & monitoring/foundations

Reversible and irreversible deformations of expansive clays. Received 03/12/2018;
Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers – Geotechnical Engineering, Accepted 28/01/2019
https://doi.org/10.1680/jgeen.18.00236
ICE Publishing: All rights reserved

Geotechnical Engineering

Reversible and irreversible deformations

of expansive clays
&
1 Yousif Ismael Mawlood MSc &
2 Rizgar Ali Hummadi PhD
Lecturer, Department of Civil Engineering, College of Engineering, Assistant Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, College of
University of Salahaddin–Erbil, Iraq (corresponding author: Engineering, University of Salahaddin–Erbil, Iraq
yousif.mawlood@su.edu.krd, yousifism68@gmail.com) (Orcid:0000-0002-0277-0960)
(Orcid:0000-0002-6459-6320)

1 2

The aim of this study was to investigate the size effect of reversible and irreversible components of volume change
behaviour of highly expansive and moderately expansive soils experimentally. The soil deformations of small-, large-
and extra-large-scale samples were measured during wetting and drying cycles. Accurate dial gauges were used for
measuring vertical deformation, and digital image correlation techniques were adopted for measuring horizontal
desiccation cracks using a microcrack measuring device. Wetting and drying cycles that rely on seasonal moisture
content variations in the subsoils were performed on an extra-large field model of a highly expansive soil. Results were
compared with those of standard swelling tests to estimate vertical swelling and shrinkage-induced soil deformations
that are expected in practice under public infrastructures. The field model, which represents reconstituted soil samples,
presented a free swelling of 3·61% in the first cycle. In the second cycle, reversible free swelling increased by 7·68%
over the first cycle given the irreversible components of shrinkage caused by lateral desiccation cracks. Irreversible
deformations were observed during the drying processes through a network of microcracks and macrocracks. The
reversible and irreversible deformations during the first drying process were 45·7% and 54·3%, respectively.

Notation
A activity of clay
e void ratio
Gs specific gravity
S shrinkage deformation in the first drying cycle (mm)
Si initial degree of saturation
εR percentage of reversible swell after first drying cycle (%)
εIR percentage of irreversible strain in the first drying
cycle (%)
1. Introduction
Expansive soils exhibit a large volume change that depends
on variations in water content, bulk unit weight and methods
for applying pressure under the seasonal alteration in climate
within active zones. Several researchers have conducted one-
dimensional (1D) swell–shrink tests to estimate the volume fluc-
tuation behaviour of the soil during wetting and drying cycles.
These tests can be classified into two categories, namely,
soaking and drying tests (Lin and Cerato, 2013; Lyu et al.,
2015; Tripathy and Rao, 2009; Wang and Wei, 2014) and
cyclic suction-control tests (Alonso et al., 2005; Erzin, 2007;
Fattah et al., 2017; Fredlund, 1967; Jaksa et al., 2002; Rao
et al., 2011; Tu, 2015; Tu and Vanapalli, 2016). The field vol-
umetric shrinkage of expansive soils during the drying stage
occurs due to the vertical strain of the ground surface and the
lateral shrinkage of the soil, which leads to the formation of
desiccation cracks (Julina and Thyagaraj, 2019). The major
shrinkage is correlated with vertical deformations (settlement).
Only approximately one-third of the total shrinkage is related
to desiccation cracks (Sanchez et al., 2013). In recent years,
digital camera images have been used successfully in measuring
crack patterns through the vernier calliper method (Julina and
Thyagaraj, 2018). Tu and Vanapalli (2016) studied the vari-
ations in swelling pressure and 1D heave of expansive soils and
concluded that cracks and fissures considerably influence the
swelling potential of natural and reconstituted expansive soil
samples; moreover, these authors suggested that the swelling
potential that considers cracks and fissures with large-scale oedo-
meter tests should be investigated in future studies. Variations in
swelling pressure induce heaving, cracking and breaking up of
building foundations and slab-on-grade members (Das, 2016).
Fattah et al. (2017) explored the effects of a variation in soil
suction on swelling pressure at different initial moisture contents
and dry densities using small-scale oedometer tests and a large-
scale model (700
700
650) mm; these researchers obtained
a higher free swell (FS) from the large-scale model than from
the traditional small-scale oedometer test results for the same
soil. Estabragh et al. (2015) investigated wetting and drying
of expansive soil samples using conventional oedometer tests

1
Geotechnical Engineering Reversible and irreversible deformations
of expansive clays
Mawlood and Hummadi

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under different surcharge pressures and concluded that reversible
and irreversible swelling and shrinkage occur during wetting
and drying cycles; these authors also attained an equilibrium
condition after approximately four or five cycles. Fattah and
Salman (2006) examined heave in an active zone of expansive
soils and determined that the most important factor that affects
heave is the initial void ratio; these researchers confirmed that
heave and excess pore water pressure increase significantly with
the decrease in void ratio.
The present study primarily focused on the FS, reversible and
irreversible deformation of wetting and drying cycles for recon-
stituted soil samples in California bearing ratio (CBR) moulds
and an extra-large field model. Standard laboratory test results
were presented and discussed in terms of FS tests and revers-
ible and irreversible amounts. The accuracy and extent of
the high laboratory FS test results could be generalised and
practically applied for designing the foundation of lightweight
buildings. The factors that cause these differences were clarified
and identified for further investigation and study.
2. Properties of the investigated soils
Expansive soils collected from the Zanko campus (soil A) and
32-Park (soil B), Erbil, Iraq were used in this study. Tests were
conducted on natural undisturbed soil samples to obtain the
field characteristics of the study area, to be used for preparation
of the reconstituted soil samples. The samples were extracted
from pits of 1–3 m deep. Sufficient quantities of the selected
soils were collected. Soil A (latitude 36·11012053, longitude
44·04243222) is a highly expansive soil, and Figure 1 illustrates
its shrinkage desiccation cracks and building cracks in the drying
season. Soil B (latitude 36·19727013, longitude 43·95878829) is
a moderately expansive soil. The basic properties of expansive
soils are listed in Table 1. The chemical compositions of the

(a)

(b) (c)

Figure 1. Shrinkage cracks that have occurred due to expansion and shrinkage of soil A: (a) exterior cracks in a building near study area;
(b) interior cracks in a building near study area; (c) surface cracks during drying season

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Geotechnical Engineering Reversible and irreversible deformations
of expansive clays
Mawlood and Hummadi

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Table 1. Properties of the expansive soils used in the study

Soil type Soil A Soil B Specification

Specific gravity (Gs) 2·74 2·75 ASTM D854-02 (ASTM, 2002)

Atterberg limits Liquid limit: % 52 46·2 ASTM D4318-10 (ASTM, 2010a)
Plastic limit: % 24·7 23·7 ASTM D4318-10 (ASTM, 2010a)
Plasticity index: % 27·3 22·5 ASTM D4318-10 (ASTM, 2010a)
Linear shrinkage: % 14·3 12·5 BS 1377-2:1990 (BSI, 1990)
Gravel: % >4·75 mm 0·7 0·3 ASTM D422 (ASTM, 2007)
Sand: % 4·75 mm to 0·075 mm 3·9 3·3 ASTM D422 (ASTM, 2007)
Silt: % 0·075 to 0·005 49·4 31·4 ASTM D422 (ASTM, 2007)
Clay: % <0·005 mm 46·0 65·0 ASTM D422 (ASTM, 2007)
<0·002 mm 25·0 40·0 ASTM D422 (ASTM, 2007)
<0·001 mm 14·0 28·0 ASTM D422 (ASTM, 2007)
Laboratory MDD: kN/m3 16·2 16·2 ASTM D698 (ASTM, 2012)
OMC: % 20·6 20·3 ASTM D698 (ASTM, 2012)
Swell potential classification High Medium Pincus et al. (1993)
Field total unit weight: kN/m3 19·1 19·6 ASTM D7263-09 (ASTM, 2009)
Field water content: % 14·8 13·5 ASTM D2216-10 (ASTM, 2010b)
Void ratio (e) at field unit weight 0·671 0·604 ASTM D7263-09 (ASTM, 2009)
Soil symbols according to USCS CH CL ASTM D2487-11 (ASTM, 2011)
Soil group name according to USCS Fat clay Lean clay ASTM D2487-11 (ASTM, 2011)
Free swelling: % 9·215 7·303 ASTM D4546-14 (ASTM, 2014)
Clay’s activity 0·679 0·9 Das (2016)
Swelling index 0·0448 0·0221 ASTM D4546-14 (ASTM, 2014)
Depth of active zone: m 1·5 2·0 Das (2016)
Soil colour (value) Light reddish brown (6/4) Very pale brown (7/3) Munsell Color (MCSL, 2000)

Note: MDD, maximum dry density; OMC, optimum moisture content; USCS, Unified Soil Classification System

soils used were analysed using Oxford Instruments by the Table 2. Chemical compositions, soil pH and organic content of
Hawler Construction Laboratory – Chemical Department, and the soils used in the study
the results are summarised in Table 2. Chemical compositionsa Soil A: % Soil B: %

Sodium oxide (Na2O) 0·029 0·047

3. Experimental programme Magnesium oxide (MgO) 2·568 2·696
Aluminium oxide (Al2O3) 10·585 10·854
3.1 Standard FS test
Silicon dioxide (SiO2) 27·665 28·306
The FS is the percentage swelling under a pressure of 1 kPa Phosphorus pentoxide (P2O5) 0·115 0·103
(ASTM, 2014). In the present study, soil A and soil B were Sulfur trioxide (SO3) 0·428 0·417
used, and soil specimens 2·0 cm high with 5·0 cm dia. were Potassium oxide (K2O) 0·86 1·02
prepared. The desired density was obtained by controlling the Calcium oxide (CaO) 21·797 21·454
Manganese oxide (MnO) 0·128 0·137
mass and volume. In this test, the soil passing a no. 10 sieve
Ferric oxide (Fe2O3) 7·152 7·208
(2·00 mm) was mixed with the desired amount of water (in situ pH 8·3 8·4
water content of the active zone) and then placed in a standard Organic 0·255 0·11
oedometer mould in two equal layers to a predetermined
volume for each layer, in accordance with item number 9.1.1, a
Analyses were done with Oxford instruments by the Hawler construction
ASTM D4546-14 (ASTM, 2014); the sample was then used for laboratory – chemical department

the 1D swell test. A piston with a scarified surface was applied

to compact the first layer, whereas a piston with a polished
surface was used for compacting the second layer. Figure 2
depicts a soil sample extruder that was modified for compact-
ing the soils in the oedometer cells to obtain uniformly com-
pacted specimens.
3.2 Large-scale FS
Large soil specimens (15·24 cm (6 in) dia. and 17·78 cm (7 in)
high) were prepared by compacting soil A and soil B at the
desired (field) density in a CBR mould. Soil fractions passing
the no. 10 sieve (2·00 mm) were used to prepare reconstituted
specimens. The field water content and density were dupli-
cated, and the strain-controlled rate of 20 mm/min was used
for static compaction; Reddy and Jagadish (1993) reported
that no recommendations are suitable from the literature for
strain rates, which may vary from 1·25 to 65 mm/min. The
desired density was obtained by mass and volume control. The
measured masses of the soil were placed in three layers and
compacted to a pre-determined volume for each layer. Figure 3
demonstrates the large-scale CBR model used in the present
study. The amount of shrinkage (S) with respect to FS as a
percentage from the first wet–dry cycle is considered as the

3
Geotechnical Engineering Reversible and irreversible deformations
of expansive clays
Mawlood and Hummadi

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(a) (b) (c)

(d)

Figure 2. Soil mixer and tools were used for preparing oedometer soil samples: (a) mixer; (b) modified soil sample extruder to obtain
uniform compacted soil specimens; (c) oedometer cell after compacting the first layer; (d) scarified and polished surface piston

reversible swell (εR) in the next wetting cycle, whereas the FS  S

2: εIR ¼
100
remaining amount of FS that was not reversed during the first FS
drying shrinkage to its original state before inundation is con-
sidered as the irreversible strain (εIR). The results of the revers-
ible and irreversible FS of the large-scale model were used for
comparison with those of the standard oedometer tests, which 3.3 Extra-large-scale field model
is explained in the following formulas. Figure 4 shows the field model, which consists of the
following parts.
S
1: εR ¼
100 & A soil container consisted of a cylinder with an 89 cm inner
FS
diameter, a height of 120 cm and a thickness of 1·8 cm

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Geotechnical Engineering Reversible and irreversible deformations
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Mawlood and Hummadi

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(a) (b) (c) (d)

Figure 3. Large-scale free swell: (a) static compacting machine; (b) prepared specimen; (c) during swelling; (d) after swelling

Four dial gauges for vertical deformation Tank for supplying water

Three steel wings 14 mm thick 89 cm inner diameter 45 cm dia.

were welded for attaching dial
gauges

Four canalisations 2 cm thick,

6 cm wide, and 100 cm deep
2 mm plate thickness, were
provided with two perforation
of 2 mm dia. at 3 cm depth,
which was filled with sand
and provided with four lateral
nozzles with inner diameter of
12·5 mm for inundation
14·3 cm empty for FS
Four nozzles with inner diameter
of 12·5 mm for inundation
through the four canalisations

Three manholes of
Welded steel wings at opposite 51 mm dia.
sides for handling and unloading monitor to water
Nozzle with inner diameter of content
12·5 mm for inundation base
95·7 cm of the model
filter 10 cm thick
were filled with soil A to
100 cm × 100 cm steel metal represent field swelling
footing 5 mm thick supported by 10 cm sand filter
two steel beams of channelled
section for relocating the system

Figure 4. Extra-large field model containing soil A

(1·2 cm steel plate protected by 0·6 cm of fibreglass and field property of the selected area to investigate the in situ
sealant insulation materials). This extra-large model was behaviour during wetting and drying cycles.
used to simulate the field performance. A highly expansive & Only 95·7 cm of the model was filled with soil A. The
soil (soil A) was compacted in the model that simulated the height of the specimen should be less than the height of

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Geotechnical Engineering Reversible and irreversible deformations
of expansive clays
Mawlood and Hummadi

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the cylinder to ensure that the specimen remains laterally
confined while it swells.
& The field system involved four vertical perforated
canalisations (2 cm thick, 6 cm wide and 100 cm high) in
addition to a horizontal sand filter of 10 cm at the entire
base, which provided for inundation of the specimen from
the base.
& The model provided by a 0·5 cm thick steel metal footing
was supported by two steel beams of a channelled section
for relocating the system.
& Four dial gauges were attached to three arms on the sides,
which were made of steel wings 1·4 cm thick, welded
on the top of the cylindrical model. These dial gauges
were adjusted at the top of a bearing plate of 45 cm dia.
that was horizontally laid on the soil surface to
transfer the vertical deformation to the dial gauges
and provide the required pressure during the FS
measurement in accordance with ASTM D4546-14.
One dial gauge was adjusted at the centre of the plate
load, while the others were distributed at an equilateral
triangle around the centroid. The centres of the plate
load and the cylindrical soil container coincided with
each other.
& The middle height of the perimeter of the cylindrical
pipe was provided with four feedwater nozzles of
1·25 cm dia. for the inundation of the four vertical
perforated canalisations distributed uniformly on the
inner diameter of the cylindrical pipe. Another nozzle
of 1·25 cm dia. exceeded 5 cm on the base of the
system for feeding water to the 10 cm horizontal base
sand filter.
& Three manholes of 5·1 cm dia. were placed at heights of
20, 60 and 100 cm from the bottom of the system to
monitor the moisture content during different stages of the
wetting and drying.
3.4 Active zone
Moisture content changes at the zone of seasonal moisture
fluctuation at the ground surface because of climatic changes.
In the active zone, negative pore water pressures exist (i.e.
unsaturated zone); however, if excess water is added to the
surface then water contents increase and heave will occur.
Migration of water through the zone is also influenced by the
temperature and consequently shrinkage will occur. Thus it is
important to determine the depth of the active zone during a
site investigation (Eric, 2012). The measurement of the swelling
potential using oedometer test methods assumes that the soil
sample is fully saturated in the oedometer apparatus.
Therefore, the prediction methods consider the worst case (full
saturation). Furthermore, in situ expansive soils are typically
in an unsaturated state and seldom reach the fully saturated
state. The heave and swelling pressure in expansive soils
increase with the degree of saturation associated with water
infiltration (Tu, 2015). In situ monitoring of water content or
soil suction profiles has been performed in numerous investi-
gations to determine the depth of active zones (Das, 2016;
Jaksa et al., 2002; Nelson, 2015; Ng et al., 2003). The depth of
an active zone depends on the type of soil and the location
(Das, 2016). Figure 5 displays Erbil City’s typical active zone
depths, which can reach 2 m. The figures present the measured
in situ data of a liquidity index of two locations in Erbil City.

Liquidity index Liquidity index

0·6 0·4 0·2 0 –0·2 –0·4 –0·6 0 –0·2 –0·4 –0·6 –0·8 –1·0 –1·2
0 0

0·5 0·5

1·0 1·0

1·5 1·5
Depth: m

Depth: m

2·0 2·0

2·5 2·5

3·0 3·0

3·5 3·5
Soil A Soil B
Summer Summer
4·0 4·0
winter winter
4·5 4·5
(a) (b)

Figure 5. Active zone in Erbil City by way of liquidity index profile based on O’Neill and Poormoayed (1980): (a) soil A; (b) soil B

6
Geotechnical Engineering Reversible and irreversible deformations
of expansive clays
Mawlood and Hummadi

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4. Surface crack measurement

4.1 Macrocrack measurement
The captured images from a digital camera for measuring
macrocracks on the surface area of the field model showed sub-
stantial heterogeneity in the widths of individual cracks. Digital
camera images with an effective pixel count of 13 MP and Area = 167 160·1780,

Autodesk AutoCAD 2018 were used for measuring the macro- Perimeter = 2740·7179
crack area on the surface of the field model. To obtain proper (a)
images, the digital camera was held at a suitable distance above
the surface of the field model. Figure 6 illustrates the captured
images at the end of the drying cycle to measure the actual
size of macrocracks; two metal millimetre rulers as a scale factor
of the images were placed on the surface of the model test
system to convert images into actual dimensions during analysis
and the measurement of the macrocrack areas by Autodesk Area = 5903·7927,

AutoCAD 2018. From an image, a semi-sector of the circular Perimeter = 1418·4757

surface area of the field model was selected and divided into (b)
four zones to measure the macrocrack area accurately. The crack
areas from the four images were combined to represent the total
macrocracks of the analysed area depicted in Figure 6(a). The
total selected area was 167 160·1780 mm2, and the summation
of macrocracks in the four zones was 30 402·9350 mm2, an
18·19% macrocrack area ratio. The depth of the cracks ranged
Area = 12 078·7655,
between a few centimetres for narrow cracks to about 48 cm for
Perimeter = 2731·0585
the widest cracks; this was measured during emptying of the soil
specimen from the extra-large-scale model. (c)

4.2 Microcrack measurement

The captured images from the electronic crack-measuring
device, namely, RCD-W, were used for measuring the micro-
crack area. The device was manufactured for accurate crack
detection in bridges, buildings, tunnels, concrete pavement and Area = 7858·7455,
other surfaces. The system could automatically capture the Perimeter = 2681·9517
image of cracks and display crack images and their width data
in real time. The image data could be saved automatically as a (d)
jpeg file. Crack images could be saved quickly with a snapshot
button. The powerful post-processing software could effectively
manage the crack measurement data and images and print the
measuring reports conveniently. The crack width test range
was determined as between 0·01 mm and 6·5 mm; the crack
width test accuracy was 0·02 mm; the working temperature Area = 9046·9483,
was −10°C to +50°C; and the magnification was
60. Perimeter = 1862·2271

Figure 7 demonstrates the three images of the surface micro-
cracks captured by RCD-W at the end of the drying cycle
before and after measuring the cracks using Autodesk
AutoCAD to obtain the microcrack area ratio. The images
were enlarged
100 from the original size to measure the
microcrack area using Autodesk AutoCAD 2018. The average
of microcrack-to-area ratio from the three images was deter-
mined to represent the total microcracks of the analysed area;
the average ratio of microcracks for the selected area was
16·23%, which was equal to 13·28% of the total study area and
approximately 73% of the macrocrack ratio. The combination
(e)
Figure 6. Surface digital camera images and computing area of
macrocracks by AutoCAD 2018 at the end of the drying cycle
of macrocracks together with the microcrack area equals
31·47% of the total selected area.
5. Results and discussion
The large-scale field model with 89 cm inner diameter and
120 cm high was reconstituted by 95·7 cm of soil A, thus

7
Geotechnical Engineering Reversible and irreversible deformations
of expansive clays
Mawlood and Hummadi

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(a)

(b) (c) (d)

Area = 4 217 591·8951, Perimeter = 31 632·6911 Area = 6 283 614·1116, Perimeter = 79 610·1357 Area = 5 273 263·6828, Perimeter = 74 188·9629

(b1) (c1) (d1)

Figure 7. Surface microcrack measurement by electronic crack-measuring device at end of drying cycle: (a) RCD-W photograph;
(b), (c) and (d) actual images; (b1), (c1) and (d1) after measuring area of microcracks by AutoCAD

simulating the field properties in terms of water content and
density. The model represents the in situ performance and
behaviours of the expansive soil for 622 d, which involved two
cycles of wetting and drying. Figure 8 exhibits the relation
between the vertical strain and the time required for swelling
and shrinkage during the wetting and drying of the reconsti-
tuted soil A in an extra-large-scale model. The vertical defor-
mation is expressed as a percentage of the initial height of the
sample at the beginning of the first swell–shrink cycle. From
the plot of the vertical strain of the two cycles, the percentage
deformation in height of the sample can be observed during
the swelling and shrinkage cycles under 1 kPa surcharge press-
ures, with an initial moisture content of 14·8%.
5.1 Vertical and horizontal deformations
Figure 8 displays that the FS in the first cycle was 3·61% for
152 d, and the reversible and irreversible deformations during
the first drying process were 45·7% and 54·3% in comparison
with the FS, correspondingly. These results indicate that a part
of the reversible field volumetric shrinkage of the reconstituted

8
Geotechnical Engineering Reversible and irreversible deformations
of expansive clays
Mawlood and Hummadi

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4·0

3·5

3·0
Deformation: %

2·5

2·0
Swelling and shrinkage curve
1·5 First cycle FS is 3·61% during 152 d
Second cycle FS is 3·88 during 17 d
First cycle reversible swelling 45·7%
1·0 First cycle irreversible swelling 54·3%
Shrinkage first cycle during 138 d
Shrinkage second cycle in 304 d
0·5 Second cycle reversible increased by 7·68%
Second cycle irreversible
0
0 30 60 90 120 150 180 210 240 270 300 330 360 390 420 450 480 510 540 570 600 630
Time: d

Figure 8. Vertical deformation plotted against time during swelling and shrinkage of soil A

expansive soil during the drying stage occurred as a result of
the vertical shrinkage, whereas the remaining part of the volu-
metric shrinkage is an irreversible strain and compensated by
the lateral shrinkage of the soil that resulted in macrocracks
and microcracks in the first drying cycle. This phenomenon
reported by Estabragh et al. (2015) indicated that the vertical
FS upon the first swelling cycle is greater than the correspond-
ing vertical FS during the subsequent cycles for surcharge
pressures of 1 kPa. The second swelling cycle occurred for only
17 d. In addition, for the reversible FS, an upturn of 7·68% in
comparison with the first cycle was observed. These dramatic
changes in time and the noticeable increase in FS could be due
to the shrinkage process at the end of the first drying cycle,
which resulted in a high number of desiccation cracks. These
cracks are illustrated in Figures 6 and 7 as areas of macro-
cracks and microcracks; their ratios were 13·28% and 18·19%
of the total study area, respectively, and the sum is 31·47%.
The inundation of field soils typically occurs at the surface
cracks during rainy seasons. Consequently, the swelling process
second drying process was approximately the same as that in the
first one. The fluctuation of field deformation was expected to
continue similarly to the second swell–shrink cycle, and this
behaviour has been verified by traditional oedometer tests per-
formed by other researchers (Alonso et al., 2005; Estabragh
et al., 2015; Tripathy et al., 2002).
5.2 Reversible and irreversible deformations
For the same soil type, water content and density, the bar
chart presented in Figure 9 compares the amount of defor-
mation caused by increasing the height and diameter of soil
samples under a 1 kPa surcharge pressure. The x-axis denotes
10
9
8
Deformation: %

starts initially at the top layer of the soil and quickly near the 7
surface cracks that cause trapping air and water from the voids 6
5
in the bottom layers of the cracked zones. These trapped voids 4
lead to an additional increase (7·68%) in swelling in the second 3
wetting cycle in comparison with the first wetting cycle; similar 2
1 Soil A Soil B
behaviour was reported by (Osipov et al., 1987). Zhang et al. 0
1 2 3 4 5
(2006) stated that the swelling potential and shrinkage are Soil sample height: cm 95·68 17·53 2·00 17·78 2·00
reduced by increasing the number of wetting and drying cycles. Soil sample diameter: cm 89·00 15·24 5·00 15·24 5·00
Sridharan and Allam (1982) stated that the wetting and drying Reversible: % 1·65 2·22 5·51 3·10 5·74
cycles of expansive soils leads to the aggregation of clayey soil Irreversible: % 1·96 5·24 3·71 3·32 1·56
Free swelling: % 3·61 7·45 9·22 6·42 7·30
particles and the cementation of calcium (Ca), magnesium (Mg)
and iron (Fe), and thus these aggregates behave similarly to
Figure 9. Vertical deformation during cycle of wetting and drying
coarse-grained soils during wetting and increase their resistance of reconstituted soil A and soil B in different mould sizes
to compression. Moreover, the reversible shrinkage in the

9
Geotechnical Engineering
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the types of deformation and the y-axis indicates their percen-
tages. From soil A, which has a high expansive potential, the
smallest soil sample, with a height of 2·0 cm and a diameter
of 5·0 cm, has the highest FS and reversible percentages of
9·22% and 5·51%, correspondingly. However, the largest soil
sample, with a height of 95·67 cm and a diameter of 89·00 cm,
has the lowest FS and reversible percentages of 3·61% and
1·65%, respectively. The amounts of FS and reversible percen-
tages decrease with the increase in height and diameter of
the soil samples, whereas the irreversible percentage was
noticeably higher in the large-scale CBR soil sample than in
the small-scale and extra-large soil samples. From soil B,
which has a medium expansive potential, the small-scale oedo-
meter soil sample has noticeably higher FS and reversible
percentages of 7·30% and 5·74%, correspondingly, than the
large-scale CBR soil sample, with 6·42% and 3·10%,
respectively.
In general, despite the soil type, the FS and reversible defor-
mations decrease with the increase in height and diameter of
the soil samples, whereas the irreversible percentage was gener-
ally smaller in the small soil samples than in the large and
extra-large soil samples. First, this phenomenon can be attribu-
ted to the upper layer of the soil causing compression on the
layer underneath it, thereby decreasing the amount of FS.
Second, the change in moisture content decreases with the
increase in depth until it reaches the active zone limit. Finally,
no change in moisture content occurs with the increase in
depth below the active zone. Fattah et al. (2017), however,
stated that the swelling percentage obtained is higher from a
large-scale model than from the traditional small-scale oed-
ometer swelling test for the same soil.
For soil A, the irreversible deformation of the CBR mould
with a height of 17·533 cm and a diameter of 15·240 cm
showed an irreversible percentage of 5·24%, whereas the extra-
large-scale field model had approximately half the value of the
oedometer small-scale mould. Among the samples, the extra-
large-scale simulated field model exhibited the lowest amount,
with only 1·96%. Although the field model is a much larger
model than the CBR and oedometer models, the large-scale
model exhibited a low amount of irreversible deformation.
6. Conclusions
Wetting and drying tests were conducted on different sizes of
expansive soil samples under 1 kPa surcharge pressures. The
following conclusions can be drawn from this study.
(a) Heave potential or FS decreased with the increase in soil
layer depth given the compression of upper layers on the
soil underneath within the active zone.
(b) The effect of heave potential is eliminated if the soil layer
is located below the active zone, or the compression of
the upper layer is dominated by the swelling pressure of
the expansive soil.
10
Reversible and irreversible deformations
of expansive clays
Mawlood and Hummadi
(c) Reversible and irreversible swelling and shrinkage were
observed over the wetting and drying cycles of the same
reconstituted soil of different sized samples.
(d) The oedometer technique overestimated the FS over the
large-scale CBR mould and the extra-large-scale
simulated field model.
(e) The field model showed that the FS in the first cycle was
3·61% for 152 d, representing the reconstituted soil
samples or intact soil specimen in the field without
desiccation cracks; for such soils, the total FS is
recommended to be used for foundation design. In the
second cycle, however, the reversible FS occurred only for
17 d. In addition, an upturn of 7·68% occurred in
comparison with the first cycle, which represents the in
situ behaviour of expansive soils with existing cracks; for
such soils, the reversible FS is recommended to be used
for foundation design.
( f ) The reversible and irreversible deformations during the
first drying process were 45·7% and 54·3% in comparison
with FS, respectively.
(g) The area ratios of macrocracks and microcracks to those
of the total study area were 13·28% and 18·19%,
correspondingly, and the sum was 31·47%, which was the
major factor in the decrease of the amount of reversible
deformation of the reconstituted soil samples.
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