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Environmental impact assessment in developing countries: What are the

problems?

Article  in  Impact Assessment · March 1983

DOI: 10.1080/07349165.1983.9725942

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 Impact Assessment

ISSN: 0734-9165 (Print) (Online) Journal homepage: http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/tiap19

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT ASSESSMENT IN

DEVELOPING COUNTRIES: WHAT ARE THE
PROBLEMS?

G. K. Sammy & L. W. Canter

To cite this article: G. K. Sammy & L. W. Canter (1983) ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT ASSESSMENT
IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES: WHAT ARE THE PROBLEMS?, Impact Assessment, 2:1, 29-43, DOI:
10.1080/07349165.1983.9725942

To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/07349165.1983.9725942

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 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT ASSESSMtNT
IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES: WHAT ARE THE PROBLEMS?*
G.K. Sammy** and L.W. Canter***

There is an old saying that the road to hell is

paved with good intentions. Proof of this can
readily be found. When overfarming produces dust-
bowls (Council on Environmental Quality, 1981), when
irrigation spreads waterborne diseases (Diamant,
1980), and when industrialization pollutes land,
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air, and water, the "good intentions'' of the devel-

oper result in environmental "hell" for the general
population. However, in all countries there is
continuing need to develop, industrialize, and in-
crease agricultural output. This is particularly so
in developing nations where the facts of history and
geography have made overpopulation, starvation, and
an absence of adequate services a way of life. In
many of these countries, the risk of environmental
degradation is the lesser evil when compared to the
price of continued underdevelopment.
Fortunately, there are means of development
without automatic environmental destruction. One
approach involves the assessment o f potential envi-
ronmental impacts of projects before they are irnple-
mented. Environmental impact assessment (EIA) does

*Presented at the First Annual Meeting of the Inter-

national Association for Impact Assessment, Wash-
ington, D.C., January 4-5, 1982.
**Research Assistant, School of Civil Engineering
and Environmental Science, University of Oklahoma,
Norman, Oklahoma.
***Professor of Civil Engineering and Environmental
Science and Co-Director, National Center for Ground
Water Research, University of Oklahoma, Norman,
Ok 1 ahoma .
29
 not, by itself, preclude adverse effects of pro-
jects. However, it does present a framework within
which intelligent choices may be made.
The objective of this paper is to delineate
some of the problems associated with the conduct of
EIA studies in developing countries, particularly
with reference to selection of methodologies. This
topic is timely due to increasing incountry EIA
legislation and regulations, and the requirements o f
international funding agencies for incountry pro-
jects. Topics to be addressed include definitions
of developing countries, types of EIA methodologies,
and special considerations of EIA studies.
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Developing Countries
The terms "poor countries," "the Third World,"
"developing countries and "underdeveloped nations''
,I'

are used frequently but assume different shades o f

meaning depending on context. As a result, it was
necessary to assemble a list of "developing" and
"industrialized" nations for the purpose of this
paper. Categorization criteria came from sources,
including a report entitled "Basic Human Needs"
(McHale and McHale, 1977), the membership list of
the United Nation's (UN) "Group of 77" (Faby, 1981),
and the World Bank's "1980 World Development Report"
(World Bank, 1980). In these three documents a
total of 186 countries are identified. Only 39 of
the countries are considered to be industrialized.
The geographical distribution of the industri-
alized and developing countries is summarized as
follows. In Africa and the Middle East, 66 coun-
tries are classified as developing, and only one,
Israel, is industrialized. In the Americas, only
Canada and the USA are classified as industrialized,
and 37 are developing. However, in Europe, only 4
of the 35 countries are considered developing. The
vast majority of the developing countries lie south
of the Tropic of Cancer. Further, the bulk of the
industrialized nations are situated in Europe and
30
 North America.
The countries classified as "developing" are a
very diverse group; therefore, attempts to find
common characteristics shared by all would be fu-
tile. However, the following indicators would hold
true in the majority of the developing countries
(World Bank, 1980):
- The Gross National Product (GNP) per capita is
much lower than in industrialized countries.
- The average annual growth rate ( % ) of GNP is
slower than in industrialized countries.
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- The life expectancy at birth is lower than in

industrialized countries.
- The adult literacy rate is lower than in indus-
tria 1 i zed countries.
- The country is currently, or was recently, a
colony.
- There is a large food import, with only subsis-
tance farming locally.
Based on the above, it can be seen that devel-
oping countries face a dire need to improve the lot
o f their people quickly. As a result, projects
being implemented are of a much larger scale (in
proportion to the country's size) than in the indus-
trialized world. It is because of the magnitude and
importance of such projects that careful EIA studies
become critically important.

Types of EIA Methodologies

Whether in an industrialized or developing
country, several activities are required in the
conduct of an environmental impact study, including
impact identification, preparation of a description
31
 of the affected environment, impact prediction and
assessment, and selection o f the proposed action
from a set of alternatives being evaluated to meet
identified needs. The objectives o f the various
activities differ as go the useable methodologies
for accomplishing the activities. The term "metho-
dology" is used to refer to structured approaches
for achieving one or more o f the basic activities.
Environmental impact methodologies can be categor-
ized into interaction matrices and checklists, with
networks and energy system diagrams representing
variations of interaction matrices. Impact predic-
tion methodologies include mathematical models for
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environmental media, empirical index calculations,

structured habitat approaches, and socio-economic
projection techniques. Table 1 identifies four
activities and useful methodologies. It is not
necessary to use a methodology in entirety in an
environmental impact study; it may be instructive to
use portions of methodologies for certain requisite
activities.
The methodologies listed in Table 1 have dif-
fering requirements in terms of requisite baseline
data, and extent and level of technical input; and
they exhibit differing adaptability to projects and
geographical locations. Table 2 summarizes the
requirements and adaptability of the methodologies
in terms o f the different EIA activities. Based on
these comparisons, some of the more cost-effective
methodology types are as follows:
- Impact identification -- simple matrix
- Describing affected environment -- descriptive
check1 ist
- Impact prediction and assessment -- empirical
index calculations and structured habitat ap-
proaches

32
 Table 1
Applications o f Methodologies i n EIA Process

Activity Useful Methodologies

ImDact Identification Matrices - simple

- stepped
Networks
Energy system diagrams
Checklists - simple
- descriptive
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Describing Affected Environment Matrices - simple

- stepped
Networks
Energy system diagrams
Checklists - simple
- descriptive

Impact Prediction and Assessment Mathematical models - air

- water
- ground water
Empirical indices
Structured habitat approaches
Socio-economic projections
Energy system diagrams
Checklists - descriptive
- scaling/ranking

Selection of Proposed Action Matrices -

simple
-
stepped
Checklists - descriptive
- scaling/ranking
- weighting/scaling
- weighting/ranking

33
 Table 2
Comparison of Types of Methodologies

Adaptabi 1i t y t o
Baseline Data Technical l n p u t Different Projects
Needs Requirements and Locations
Method (a) (b) (C)

Sinple matrices

I I* m m 3
DAE M M 3
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SPA M M 3
Stepped matrices
I1
.. m m 3
DAE E M 3
SPA E E 3
Networks

I1 m m 2
DAE E M 2
Energy system diagrams
I 1.
. M E 2
DAE E E 1
I PA E E 1

Simple c h e c k l i s t s

I1 m m 3
DAE M M 3
Descriptive checklists

11 m m
DAE M M
I PA M M
SPA M M

Mathematical models

I PA E E 3

34
 Table 2, continued
Comparison o f Types o f Methodologies

Adaptability to
Baseline Data Technical Input Different Projects
Needs Requirements and Locations
Method (a) (b) (C)

Empirical indices
I PA M M 3
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Structured habitat approaches

I PA E E 2

Socio-economic projections
I PA E M 2

Scaling/ranking checklists
I PA M M 2
SPA M M 2
Weighting-scaling checklists
SPA M E 2

Weight ing-ranking check1ists

SPA M E 2

*: I1 = impact identification; DAE = description of affected environ-

ment; IPA = impact prediction and assessment; SPA = selection of pro-
posed action.
a: m denotes minimal baseline data needed; M denotes moderate; and E
denotes extensive.
b: m denotes minimal technical expertise needed; M denotes moderate;
and E denotes extensive and high-level expertise needed.
c: 3 denotes method can be readily adapted; 2 denotes adaptation IS
possible; and 1 denotes extensive modification would be necessary.

35
 - Selection of proposed action -- weighting-rank-
ing checklist

Special Considerations
Special problems shared by many Third World
countries include unfilled basic human needs, few
trained personnel, limited available data, and so-
cial factors. Of the many social factors which may
be considered, three will be highlighted -- public
participation, cultural diversity, and skepticism of
the objectives of EIA. Each of these problems will
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be discussed, and its effect on the choice of EIA

methodologies wi 11 be indicated. Table 3 summarizes
the problems and their influence on methodology
selection.
Basic human needs include air, water, food,
shelter, health care, and employment. With the
exception of clean air, these necessities are in
scarce supply in the Third World when compared to
industrialized nations (McHale and McHale, 1977).
Until the standard of living of suffering millions
can be lifted above marginal existence, such consid-
erations as preservation of scenic vistas seem spur-
ious. However, even in the most deprived of situa-
tions EIA has a role to play. An attitude of "de-
velop at any cost" may serve short-term ends but
will create long-term problems. The leaders of
developing countries cannot afford to adopt a "tun-
nel vision" approach where they see only immediate
goals and neglect undesirable side effects of pro-
jects. Even when the do-nothing alternative is
rejected because of existing conditions, the use of
EIA in establishing environmental interrelation-
ships, selecting alternative plans, and identifying
mitigating measures is desirable.
A second problem facing many developing coun-
tries is a scarcity of trained personnel. Technolo-
gists are far less available in underdeveloped coun-
tries than in developed nations. Efforts to improve
this situation have been severely hampered by the
36
 Table 3
Summary o f Developing-Country Problems
Relative to EIA Methodologies

Influence on Selection of ElA Methodologies

-

Category
Problem of Activity* Comments on Selection
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Unfulfilled basic SPA Adjust methodologies to reflect

human needs importance o f socio-economic
factors.

Scarcity of 1 1 , DAE, IPA, Use methodologies with minimal

trained personnel SPA requirements for trained per-
sonnel.

Lack of environ- DAE, IPA, SPA Use methodologies with minimal

mental baseline baseline data inputs.
data

Public partici- SPA Use methodologies with good dis-

pation play of results.

Cultural diversity 1 1 , DAE, IPA, Use methodologies which focus on

SPA cultural features and impacts.

* I1 = impact identification; DAE = description of affected environment;

IPA = impact prediction and assessment; SPA = selection of prGpOSed
action.

37
 northward migration of experts -- the brain drain
(Williams, 1968). The solution to the problem is
not simply to import experts, since foreign exchange
is unavailable to many developing areas. Further,
local input is desirable in E I A studies. Therefore,
assuming that the EIA is to be done wholly or in
part by local technologists, uti 1 ized methodologies
would have t o be only moderately complex. This does
not mean that these countries would be limited to
using second-rate technology. It does, instead,
require recognition of the fact that methodological
complexity, of itself, does not signify improvement.
Related to the problem of limited trained per-
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sonnel is the lack of environmental baseline data.

One of the demerits of colonial status is that data
are compiled that would benefit the colonizer, not
necessarily the colony. Further, environmental
baseline data are generally expensive to generate
(World Bank, 1975). As a result, this lack of data
dictates the use of simpler E I A methodologies, at
least for the present. It also requires great en-
terprise on the part of Third World technologists,
since extant data must often be sought in unlikely
places.
Because of the twin problems of lack of trained
personnel and environmental base1 ine data, only
basic E I A methodologies are useable in the Third
World at the present time. In countries which have
frequently complained of being the dumping ground
for worn-out technology, great maturity will be
required to accept this situation. Use of more
advanced methodologies would require the input of
extrapolated or coined data and the employment of
foreign technologists. The former would yield ques-
tionable results, and the latter may result in in-
sensitivity to local mores and conventions. Thus
the preferable course would be use of simpler meth-
odologies at present, while at the same time working
to eliminate the problems of limited expertise and
lack of data.
In every country, industrialized or developing,
social factors affect the work of the E I A technolo-
38
 gist. Factors such as public participation, cul-
tural diversity, and EIA skepticism must be recog-
nized if plans are to be accepted by the public at
large. In the United States, public participation
has been a very useful part of the EIA process
(Canter, 1977; Erickson, 1979). In developing
countries, public participation in decisionmaking is
a new and often radical-sounding idea. Thus, it is
not surprising that the majority of developing-
country citizens are prepared to leave planning to
the experts. Public participation therefore must be
actively sought, not passively awaited. To aid in
this, the output of the assessment methodology must
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be readily understood by the general population.

The use of graphic aids and visual presentations is
particularly desirable.
There is cultural diversity in many developing
countries. This results from the fact that the
boundaries of many of these countries were drawn in
Europe without regard for pre-existing native ar-
rangements. In addition, large-scale transplanta-
tion of peoples was also practiced by many colonial
powers. The Biafran conflict in Nigeria and the on-
going struggle in the Horn of Africa are ample
evidence that tribal aff i 1 iations supercede imposed
national boundaries. The continuing racial divi-
sions in Trinidad and Tobago and Guyana are clear
evidence that even transplanted peoples will try to
maintain their cultural heritage. As a result o f
these factors, many Third World countries contain
multiple cultural blocks. In situations such as
those described above, it is important that the
assessor of environmental impacts take careful note
of the diverse cultural backgrounds which may be
represented and the potential project impacts on the
life styles of various cultural groups. Methodolo-
gies oriented toward the cultural attributes within
the area of inference o f a project should be util-
ized or adapted as necessary.
The final social factor is related to skepti-
cism o f the objectives of EIA. There is a school o f
thought that it is in the best interest of the
39
 industrialized world to keep the Third World under-
developed (Chizea, 1976a and b). Many consider the
population program of the past decade as a roadblock
to impede the development o f the Third World. Simi-
larly, present emphasis on environmental protection
is considered an excuse to block important develop-
ment projects. It is beyond the scope of this paper
to verify or negate these assertions. However, it
is important to recognize that these views exist.
In a situation where the skepticism just men-
tioned is widespread, the use of impact assessment
methodologies must be carefully considered. Use of
EIA as a tool to approve or disapprove of projects
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must be de-emphasized. Instead, the benefits of

using EIA to identify the best of several alterna-
tives, and to predict impacts in order to plan
mitigation measures, should be promoted.
Key summary points related to EIA considera-
tions in developing countries are as follows:
a. Because basic needs are as yet unsatisfied in
many Third World countries, and because of skep-
ticism which may exist, EIA in the Third World
should be aimed at choosing best alternatives
and planning mitigation o f detrimental effects.
The action/no action choice is often not appli-
cable.
b. In the past, unforeseen detrimental effects of
projects have outweighed desired benefits. Use
o f EIA to predict impacts generally, and health
effects specifically, can prevent this from
happening again.
C. Because of limited technologists and environmen-
tal background data, only simple EIA methodolo-
gies are useable in the Third World at present.
However, while accepting this limitation for
now, these countries should press on to develop
the expertise and data bases required to use
more advanced methodologies.

40
 d. Particularly when choosing between alternatives,
the numerical values used in methodologies de-
veloped in industrialized countries will have to
be adapted to reflect the values and conditions
in the Third World.
e. The output of the chosen assessment methodology
should be designed to enhance public participa-
tion.

Summary and Future Work

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Special problems must be recognized in the

implementation of E I A in developing countries, par-
ticularly as they relate to selection of technical
methodologies for impact identification, describing
the affected environment, impact prediction and
assessment, and selection of the proposed action.
Special problems include unfulfilled basic human
needs, scarcity of trained personnel, lack of envi-
ronmental baseline data, newness of public partici-
pation opportunities, and wide diversity in cul-
tures. Candidate methodologies which are useable
within these constraints include simple interaction
matrices, descriptive checklists, empirical index
calculations, structured habitat approaches, and
weighting-ranking checklists.
This paper is part of an on-going study o f E I A
in developing countries. The objectives of the
larger study are three-fold:
- to determine the status of EIA in developing
countries,
- to review assessment methodologies developed for
use in industrialized nations, and
- to identify methodologies or salient features of
methodologies which are applicable to E I A in the
Third World.

41
 REFERENCES
Canter, L.W. (1977). Environmental Impact Assess-
ment, McGraw-Hill, New York, New Y o r r
Chizea, D.O. (1976a). Population and Human Resour-
ces: the Neo-Malthusian Argument in Perspective, a
lecture delivered at the Program of Environmental
Education for Students from DeveEping Countries,
'Washington University, St.Louis, Missouri , June
14 - July 23.
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Chizea, D.O. (1976b). The Political Economy of Popu-

lation Control, a lecture delivered at the Program
of Environmental Education -
- for Students from De-
veloping Countries, Washington University , St.
'Louis, Missouri, June 14 - July 23.
Counci 1 on Environmental Qua1 ity (1981). Global
Future: Time to Act, Report to the President on
GlobalRemcec K ironment and Popu 1ati on , U .S.
Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C.
Diamant, B.Z. (1980). Environmental Repercussions of
Irrigation Development in Hot Climates, Energy
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Erickson, P.A. (1979). Environmental Impact Assess-
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Faby, J. (Sept. 29, 1981), Letter to G.K. Sammy.
McHale, 3. and McHale, M. (1977). ---
Basic Human Needs,
Transaction Books, New Jersey.
Williams, E.E. (1968). The Budget Speech (1968),
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Washington, D.C.
42
 World Bank (1980). World Development Report, 1980,
Washington, D.C.
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