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Practical Magnetotellurics

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DOI: 10.1017/CBO9780511614095

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Cambridge University Press
0521817277 - Practical Magnetotellurics
Fiona Simpson and Karsten Bahr
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Practical Magnetotellurics

The magnetotelluric (MT) method is a technique for probing the

electrical conductivity structure of the Earth to depths of up to 600
km. Although less well known than seismology, MT is increasingly used
both in applied geophysics and in basic research. This is the first book
on the subject to go into detail on practical aspects of applying the MT
technique.
Beginning with the basic principles of electromagnetic induction in
the Earth, this introduction to magnetotellurics aims to guide students
and researchers in geophysics and other areas of Earth science through
the practical aspects of the MT method: from planning a field cam-
paign, through data processing and modelling, to tectonic and geody-
namic interpretation. The book contains an extensive, up-to-date
reference list, which will be of use to both newcomers to MT and
more experienced practitioners of the method. MT is presented as a
young and vibrant area of geophysical research with an exciting poten-
tial that is yet to be fully realised.
The book will be of use to graduate-level students and researchers
who are embarking on a research project involving MT, to lecturers
preparing courses on MT and to geoscientists involved in multi-
disciplinary research projects who wish to incorporate MT results into
their interpretations.

FIONA SIMPSON has held the position of assistant professor of experimental

geophysics and geodynamics at Göttingen University where she teaches
courses on pure and applied geophysics, and rheology of the Earth, since
2002. Dr Simpson has conducted MT fieldwork in Africa, Australia,
Europe and New Zealand, and her research interests in addition to MT
include deformation processes in the lithosphere and in the sub-lithospheric
mantle.

KARSTEN BAHR has been a professor of geophysics at Göttingen University

since 1996, and teaches courses on plate tectonics and exploration geo-
physics, electromagnetic depth sounding, mixing laws, and introduction
to geo- and astrophysics. Professor Bahr’s research interests in addition to
MT include percolation theory and conduction mechanisms. He has been
an editor of Geophysical Journal International since 1997.

© Cambridge University Press www.cambridge.org

Cambridge University Press
0521817277 - Practical Magnetotellurics
Fiona Simpson and Karsten Bahr
Frontmatter
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Practical Magnetotellurics
Fiona Simpson
and
Karsten Bahr
Georg – August – Universität,
Göttingen

© Cambridge University Press www.cambridge.org

Cambridge University Press
0521817277 - Practical Magnetotellurics
Fiona Simpson and Karsten Bahr
Frontmatter
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PUBLISHED BY THE PRESS SYNDICATE OF THE UNIVERSITY OF CAMBRIDGE

The Pitt Building, Trumpington Street, Cambridge, United Kingdom
CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS
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# F. Simpson and K. Bahr 2005

This book is in copyright. Subject to statutory exception

and to the provisions of relevant collective licensing agreements,
no reproduction of any part may take place without
the written permission of Cambridge University Press.

First published 2005

Printed in the United Kingdom at the University Press, Cambridge

Typeset in Times New Roman Family 10/13pt. System Advent 3B2 [PND]

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library

Library of Congress Cataloguing in Publication data

Simpson, Fiona, 1969–

Practical magnetotellurics / Fiona Simpson and Karsten Bahr.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 0 521 81727 7 (hardback)
1. Magnetotelluric prospecting. I. Bahr, Karsten, 1956– II. Title.

TN269.S5332 2005
6220 .153–dc22

ISBN 0 521 81727 7 hardback

The publisher has used its best endeavours to ensure that the URLs for external
websites referred to in this book are correct and active at the time of going to press.
However, the publisher has no responsibility for the websites and can make no
guarantee that a site will remain live or that the content is or will remain appropriate.

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Fiona Simpson and Karsten Bahr
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There are two possible outcomes: If the result confirms the

hypothesis, then you’ve made a measurement. If the result is
contrary to the hypothesis, then you’ve made a discovery.

Enrico Fermi

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Fiona Simpson and Karsten Bahr
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Contents

Preface page xi
Symbols xii

1 Introduction 1
1.1 Magnetotellurics as a passive electromagnetic exploration
method and its relation to active electromagnetic and
geoelectric methods 1
1.2 Problems for which EM studies are useful: a first overview
of conduction mechanisms 5
1.3 An historical perspective 10
1.4 MTnet 14
1.5 Books that cover other aspects of EM 14

2 Basic theoretical concepts 15

2.1 Assumptions of the MT method 16
2.2 Time invariance as a consequence of the plane wave
assumption 16
2.3 Why EM speaks volumes: MT as a vector field method 18
2.4 The concepts of transfer function and penetration
depth 21
2.5 Induction in a layered half-space: the concept of apparent
resistivity and phase 23
2.6 Induction at a discontinuity: a simple two-dimensional
(2-D) world and the concept of E- and B-polarisation 28
2.7 Adjustment length 31
2.8 Induction arrows 32
2.9 The impedance tensor and a preview of
three-dimensionality 34

3 Planning a field campaign 37

3.1 Target depths and choosing the right sensors and
equipment 37
3.2 Target area and spatial aliasing 47

vii

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Fiona Simpson and Karsten Bahr
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viii Contents

3.3 Arrays versus profiles: further considerations of

dimensionality 48
3.4 Resolving power and the duration of a campaign 49
3.5 Sources of noise external to the Earth and a preview of
processing schemes 50
3.6 Economic considerations 53
3.7 Suggested checklist of field items 54
3.8 A step-by-step guide to installing an MT station 54

4 From time series to transfer functions:

data processing 58
4.1 Fourier transformation, calibration and the spectral matrix 59
4.2 Least square, remote reference and robust estimation of
transfer functions 65
4.3 ‘Upwards’ and ‘downwards’ biased estimates 71
4.4 Displaying the data and other deceptions 74
4.5 Through data interpolation to pseudosections 76
4.6 Pseudosections versus Cartesian graphs 78

5 Dimensionality and distortion 79

5.1 The discontinuity revisited: the concept of static shift 80
5.2 Rotating the impedance tensor 81
5.3 A parade of general models and their misfit measures 83
5.4 Problems with decoupling E- and B-polarisations:
farewell to the 2-D world 98
5.5 Decomposition as an hypothesis test: avoiding
the black-box syndrome 101
5.6 How many strike directions are there? 102
5.7 The concepts of anisotropy, skew bumps, and
strike decoupling 106
5.8 Static shift, the long and the short of it: ‘correcting’ or
modelling? 111
5.9 Current channelling and the concept of magnetic
distortion 115

6 Numerical forward modelling 117

6.1 Why forward modelling, and which scheme? 117
6.2 Practical numerical modelling: gridding rules, boundary
conditions, and misfits revisited 119
6.3 From computed electric and magnetic fields to
transfer functions 125
6.4 Avoiding common mistakes 126

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Fiona Simpson and Karsten Bahr
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Contents ix

7 Inversion of MT data 130

7.1 Forward, Monte Carlo and inverse modelling
schemes 131
7.2 D+ optimisation modelling versus least-structure
philosophy, or a treatise on the difference between the
mathematical and the physical viewpoint 133
7.3 Artefacts of inversion 137
7.4 Introducing a priori information 142
7.5 Forward modelling versus inversion 142
7.6 Avoiding common mistakes 143

8 The general link to other geosciences: conduction

mechanisms 146
8.1 Laboratory measurements under in-situ conditions 147
8.2 How field measurements and laboratory measurements
can or cannot be combined 152
8.3 Multi-phase systems and mixing laws: interdependence
of mixing ratios and connectivity 155
8.4 Bulk conductivity versus direction-dependent
conductivity 159
8.5 Scaling, random resistor networks and
extreme heterogeneity 161

9 The special link to other geosciences 165

9.1 EM and seismics 166
9.2 EM and seismology 167
9.3 EM and geodynamics 170
9.4 The oceanic mantle: ocean-bottom and island studies 172
9.5 Oceanographic applications 176
9.6 Industrial applications and environmental studies 177

10 Other EM induction techniques 181

10.1 Magnetometer arrays and magnetovariational
studies 182
10.2 Equivalence relations revisited in spherical co-ordinates:
introduction to induction by the daily magnetic variation
and the Z/H technique 183
10.3 The horizontal gradient technique and
inhomogeneous sources at high- and low-latitudes 188
10.4 Vertical gradient techniques 190
10.5 Active induction techniques 191

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Fiona Simpson and Karsten Bahr
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x Contents

Appendix 1 Theorems from vector calculus 193

Appendix 2 The transfer function in the
wavenumber-frequency domain and
equivalence transfer functions 195
Appendix 3 Probability distributions 199
The normal (Gaussian) distribution 199
Samples 200
The chi-squared (
2 ) distribution function 201
The Fisher F-distribution 201
Appendix 4 Linear regression 203
Bivariate regression 205
Appendix 5 Fourier analysis 208
Appendix 6 Power and cross spectra 212
Glossary 214
References 229
Index 246

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0521817277 - Practical Magnetotellurics
Fiona Simpson and Karsten Bahr
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Preface

This book was written for students and researchers in geophysics,

geology, and other Earth sciences, who wish to apply or understand
the magnetotelluric (MT) method. It is intended to be an introduction
to the subject, rather than an exhaustive treatise. At the same time, we
do not shirk raising controversial issues, or questions for which there
are no easy answers, as we do not wish to give the impression that all
of the interesting problems have been solved. MT is very much a
dynamic, evolving science.
We acknowledge a bias towards long-period MT studies of the
deep crust and mantle. Just as one cannot drink the water from the
bottom of a glass until one has drunk the water from the top (unless
one has a drinking straw), electromagnetic waves cannot penetrate
the deep crust or mantle without being influenced by overlying
crustal structures. Hence, longer-period electromagnetic waves,
which penetrate deeper into the Earth than shorter-period waves,
will necessarily image a higher level of complexity than shorter-
period waves. The student who has understood long-period MT
sounding should, therefore, have no problem applying their know-
ledge to audiomagnetotellurics (AMT) and shallow crustal studies.
We have organised the chapters according to the sequence of
steps most likely to be encountered by a student embarking on
an MT project: from theory to field campaign, to data processing
and modelling, through to tectonic and geodynamic interpretation.
Some mathematical tools and derivatives are included in the
Appendices.
All subjects of a scientific or technical nature have a tendency to
spawn jargon, and MT is no exception. Words or phrases that may
be deemed jargon are highlighted in italics, and are explained in a
Glossary.
No man (or woman) is an island. We extend special thanks to
Rainer Hennings who helped with illustrations.

xi

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Symbols

Symbols for which no units are given refer to dimensionless para-

meters. Note that this list does not include symbols used in the
Appendices. We have endeavoured to use the symbols most com-
monly assigned to common parameters. Occasionally, this results in
a symbol having more than one meaning. Where ambiguity occurs,
the chapter in which a symbol has a different meaning than the
meaning that occurs more frequently in the book is noted in
parentheses.

A local anisotropy operator


A, B, C, E impedance commutators V2 A2
B magnetic field, magnetic induction
 
2
Tesla ðTÞ ¼ V s m
Bx , By , Bz components of B in Cartesian co-ordinates ½T
Br , B# , Bl components of B in spherical co-ordinates ½T
C Schmucker–Weidelt transfer function ½km
C local scatterer distortion tensor (Chapter 5)
c11 ; c12 ; c21 ; c22 elements of C
d distance ½km

D electric displacement
C m2 ¼ A s m2
D1; D2 ; S1 ; S2 modified impedances V A1
dt sampling interval

½s
E electric field Vm1
Ex ; Ey components

 of E in Cartesian components
Vm1
~
E electric east–west

component in the frequency
domain Vm1
f frequency ½Hz
g scalar galvanic factor (Chapter 5)
g i , ge spherical harmonic expansion coefficients
(internal and external parts) ½T
gik spectral window weight (Chapter 4)
h surface-layer thickness ½km

xii

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Symbols xiii


H magnetic intensity A m1
I current ½A

j current density
1 A m2
k wavenumber
m 
K capacitance F ¼ A s V1
l layer thickness ½km
MR model roughness
N~ electric north–south
component
 in the fre-
quency domain V m1
p skin depth, penetration depth ½km
Pmn ð# Þ associated Legendre polynomials
q inverse homogenous

 half-space model transfer
function km1

1
Q magnetic field

distortion  tensor A V
R resistance  ¼ V A1
r; #; l spherical co-ordinates


S sensitivity mVnT1

S1 ; S2 ; D1 ; D2 modified impedances V A1
S local shear operator (Chapter 5)
t time ½s
T period ½s
T local twist operator (Chapter 5)
Tx; Ty induction arrow components

U scalar potential of B (Chapter 1) Vs m1
U general field vector (Chapter 6)
U voltage (Chapters

 3 and 8) ½V
n velocity m s1
wð f Þ frequency-dependent convolution function
describing sensor sensitivity (Chapter 4)
wi weight of the ith frequency in a robust proces-
sing scheme
W perturbation matrix (Chapter 10)
x; y; z Cartesian co-ordinates (z positive downwards)
~;Y
X ~;Z ~ magnetic north, east and vertical

components in
the frequency domain A m1
z depth ½km

Z impedance V A1
Zn impedance
of the nth layer of a layered-Earth
model V A1

1
Z impedance tensor
V A

Zxx; Zxy; Zyx; Zyy elements of Z V A1
ZV ; ZD upwards, downwards

 biased estimate of the
impedance V A1

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xiv Symbols

 rotation angle ½ 
 smoothing constant in the non-dimensional
weight function (Equation 7.7) used to
parameterise model roughness in 2-D RRI
inversion (Chapter 7)
 probability
 rotation matrix


2 Groom–Bailey misfit measure of the 2-D model
with local scatterer
 electrical connectivity
 phase difference between the elements in one
column of Z ½ 

E electric noise (Chapter 4) V m1
 phase difference between the principal polari-
sations of Z ½  (Chapter 5)
"; "0 electrical permittivity,

electrical permittivity
 of
free space A s V1 m1 ¼ F m1
"2 model misfit measure
"2 residuum (Chapters 3, 4)

f electric

charge density (Chapter 2)
C m3 ¼ A s m3

misfit measure for the 2-D model with local
scatterer (phase-sensitive skew)

constant in the non-dimensional weight func-
tion (Equation 7.7) used to parameterise
model roughness in 2-D RRI inversion
(Chapter 7)

porosity (Chapter 8)
#; l; r spherical co-ordinates
 2-D model misfit measure (Swift skew)
l wavelength ½m
; 0 magnetic permeability,

magnetic permeability

of free space Vs A1 m1 ¼ H m1
 misfit measure of the layered-Earth model with
local scatterer (Chapter 5)
number of
degrees of freedom 
 resistivity O m ¼ V
mA1 
1
a
1 O m ¼1V m1A
apparent resistivity
 conductivity Sm ¼ A V m
 variance (Chapters 4 and 5)
 layered-Earth
misfit measure

 conductance S ¼ A V1

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Symbols xv

 relaxation time (Chapter 8, Section 8.1)

 magnetotelluric phase ½ 
 volume fraction of the conductive phase in two-
phase media (Chapter

 8)
! angular frequency s1
coherence

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