Basic Maths in Physics and Vector New

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1.1 ELEMENTARY ALGEBRA
1.1.1 Degree or index of a polynomial
The highest power appearing in polynomial is called its degree. For example, ƒ(x) = x3 + 8x + 3 is a
polynomial of degree 3.
1.1.2 Quadratic Equations
A quadratic equation in the variable x is an equation of the form ax2 + bx + c = 0, where a, b, c are real
numbers, a ¹ 0.
e.g., 2x2 – 3x + 1 = 0, 4x – 3x2 = 0,1 – x2 = 0 etc.
When we write the terms of a quadratic equation in descending order of their degrees, then we get the
standard form of the equation. i.e. ax2 + bx + c = 0, where a, b, c are real numbers and a ¹ 0 is called the
standard form of a quadratic equation.
Types of quadratic equations
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A quadratic equation can be of the following types :
(i) b = 0, c ¹ 0 i.e. of the type ax2 + c = 0
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(ii) b ¹ 0, c = 0 i.e. of the type ax2 + bx = 0
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(iii) b = 0, c = 0 i.e. of the type ax2 = 0
(iv) b ¹ 0, c ¹ 0 i.e. of the type ax2 + bx + c = 0
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Methods of solving quadratic equations
(a) Solution by factorisation
A
Algorithm
Step-I : Factorise the product of constant term and coefficient of x2 of the given quadratic equation.
Step-II : Express the coefficient of middle term as the sum or difference of the factors obtained in step-
I. Clearly, the product of these two factors will be equal to the product of the coefficient of x2 and constant
term.
Step-III : Split the middle term in two parts obtained in step-II
Step-IV : Factorise the quadratic equation obtained in step-III by grouping method.
(b) Solution by quadratic formula "Sridharacharya's Rule"
Discriminant : If ax2 + bx + c = 0, a ¹ 0 (a,b,c Î R) is a quadratic equation, then the expression b2 – 4ac
is known as its discriminant and is generally denoted by D or D.
– b ± b2 – 4ac
Consider quadratic equation ax2 + bx + c = 0, a ¹ 0, then x =
CBSE-2021\Module\TIM\Physics\9th\01-Basic Maths in Phyiscs And Vector
2a
\ The roots of the equation are
– b + b2 – 4ac – b – b2 – 4ac
x= or
2a 2a
–b+ D –b – D
Þ x= or x = , where D = b2 – 4ac.
2a 2a
Thus, if D = b2 – 4ac ³ 0, then the quadratic equation ax2 + bx + c = 0 has real roots a and b given by
–b+ D –b – D
a= and b =
2a 2a
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Roots of quadratic equation
The solutions to a quadratic equation are called its roots. Roots are those values of a variable such as x for
which the given quadratic equation reduces to zero.
As a rule, a quadratic equation always has two roots, which may or may not be equal.
The roots of a quadratic equation are generally represented by a and b. Let ax2 + bx + c = 0 be a quadratic
equation.
- b + b 2 - 4ac - b - b 2 - 4ac
Its roots are a = , b=
2a 2a
- b ± b 2 - 4ac
Hence, its solution is given by x =
2a
1.1.3 Sum & product of the roots
Let a and b be the roots of the quadratic equation ax2 + bx + c = 0, a ¹ 0.
– b + b2 – 4ac – b – b2 – 4ac
Then a = and b =
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2a 2a
b coefficient of x
\ The sum of roots a + b = – a = –
coefficient of x2
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c constant term
and product of roots = ab = a =
coefficient of x2
Examples
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Example 1 : Solve the following quadratic equation by factorization method :
x2 – 2ax + a2 – b2 = 0
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Solution : Factors of the constant term a2 – b2 are (a – b) & (a + b). Also, coefficient of the middle term
= – 2a = – {(a – b) + (a + b)}.
Þ x2 – 2ax + a2 – b2 = 0
A
Þ x2 – {(a – b) + (a + b)} x + (a + b) (a – b) = 0
Þ x2 – (a – b) x – (a + b) x + (a – b) (a + b) = 0
Þ x {x – (a – b)} – (a + b) {x – (a – b)} = 0
Þ {x – (a – b)} {x – (a + b)} = 0
x – (a – b) = 0 or x – (a + b) = 0
x = a – b or x = a + b
OR
(x2 – 2ax + a2) – b2 = 0
Þ (x – a)2 – (b)2 = 0
Þ (x – a + b) (x – a – b) = 0
Þ x – (a – b) = 0 or x – (a + b) = 0
\ x = a – b or a + b
Example 2 : Solve the quadratic equation x2 – 6x + 4 = 0 by using quadratic formula (Sridharacharya's
Rule).
Solution : On comparing the given equation x2 – 6x + 4 = 0 with the standard form of quadratic equation
ax2 + bx + c = 0, we get a = 1, b = – 6, c = 4.
Hence the required roots are
–(– 6) ± (–6)2 – 4(1)(4) 6 ± 36 – 16 6 ± 20 6 ± 4´5

x= = = =
2(1) 2 2 2
=
(
2 3± 5 )=3± 5
2
Thus the roots of the equation are 3 + 5 and 3 – 5 .
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Example 3 : Find roots of equation 2x2 – x – 3 = 0.
Solution : Compare this equation with standard quadratic equation ax2 + bx + c = 0,
we have a=2, b=–1, c=–3.
- b ± b 2 - 4ac x = - ( -1) ± ( -1)2 - 4 ( 2) (-3)

Now from x = ;
2a 2 ( 2)
1 ± 1 + 24 1 ± 5 6 -4 3
x= = Þx= Þx= Þx= or x = –1
4 4 4 4 2
2 5
Example 4 : Determine whether the given values are the solutions of the given equation or not : – +2
x2 x
1
= 0; x = 5, x =
2
1
Solution : Putting x = 5 and x = in the given equation.
2
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2 5 2 5
– + 2 and 2
– +2
(5)2 5 æ1ö æ1ö
ç ÷ ç ÷
è2ø è2ø
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2 2 5
Þ – 1 + 2 and – +2
25 1 1
4 2
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2
Þ + 1 and 8 – 10 + 2
25
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27
Þ and 0
25
1
i.e. x = 5 does not satisfy but x = satisfies the given equation.
2
A
1 2 5
Hence, x = 5 is not a solution but x = is a solution of 2 – + 2 = 0 .
2 x x
CHECK YOUR LEARNING-1
Elementary Algebra
1. Solve for x :
(i) 10x2 – 27x + 5 = 0 (ii) pqx2 – (p2 + q2) x + pq = 0
2. Solve for x : 15x2 – 7x – 36 = 0

3. Solve for y : 7y2 – 6y – 13 7 = 0
4. Solve for x : 6x2 + 40 = 31x
5. Find the roots of the following quadratic equations by factorisation :
(i) x2 – 3x – 10 = 0 (ii) 2x2 + x – 6 = 0
1
(iii) 2x 2 + 7x + 5 2 = 0 (iv) 2x2 – x + =0
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6. Find the roots of the following quadratic equations, if they exist, by sridharacharya's method :
(i) 2x2 – 7x + 3 = 0 (ii) 2x2 + x – 4 = 0
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TRIGONOMETRY
"Trigonometry is a branch of mathematics used in fields such as astronomy, architecture,
surveying, aviation and navigation. The term 'trigonometry' comes from two Greek words,
trigonos and metron, meaning 'triangle measurement'."
1.2 MEASUREMENT OF ANGLE & RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN DEGREE &
RADIAN
In navigation and astronomy, angles are measured in degrees, but in calculus it is best to use units called
radians because of they simplify later calculations. B
Let ACB be a central angle in circle of radius r, as in the figure
Then the angle ACB or q is defined in radius as - q A
r
C
Arc length »
AB
q= Þq=
Radius r
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If r = 1 then q = AB
1.2.1 System of Measurement of an Angle
Sexagesimal system
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In this system, angle is measured in degrees.
In this system , 1 right angle = 90°, 1° = 60' (arc minutes), 1' = 60'' (arc seconds)
Circular system
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In this system, angle is measured in radian.
if arc = radius then q=1 rad
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Relation between degrees and radian
2p rad = 360°
180°
p rad = 180° Þ 1 rad = = 57.3°
A
p
p
To convert from degree to radian multiply by
180°
180°
To convert from radian to degree multiply by
p
Examples
Example 5 : A circular arc of length p cm. Find angle subtended by it at
the
6cm
centre in radian and degree.
q p cm
arc p cm p 6cm
Solution : q= = = rad=30°
radius 6 cm 6
Example 6 : When a clock shows 4 o'clock, how much angle do its minute and hour needles make?
12
p 11 1
(1) 120° (2) rad
3
10 2
2p q
(3) rad (4) 160° 9 3
3
2p 8 4
Solution : From diagram angle q = 4 ´ 30° = 120° = rad
3 7 5
6
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1.3 TRIGONOMETRIC RATIOS (T-RATIOS)
l Sine and Cosine of an angle
In right DABC, the sine of ÐA, which is written "sin A", is given by
s e B
nu leg
length of leg opposite to ÐA a p ot e c
sin A = = hy a opposite
length of hypotenuse c ÐA
A C
and the cosine of ÐA, which is written b
leg adjacent to ÐA
"cos A", is given by
length of leg adjacent to ÐA b

cos A = =
length of hypotenuse c
l Tangent of an angle
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In addition to the sine and cosine ratios, you can use the tangent ratio to find the measures of the sides and
angles of a right triangle.
In right DABC, the tangent of ÐA, which is written "tan A", is given by
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length of leg opposite to ÐA a
tan A = =
b
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length of leg adjacent to ÐA
l Cosecant, secant and cotangent
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In DABC, let ÐB = 90° and let ÐA be acute.
C
For ÐA, we have;
Perpendicular
se
enu
Base = AB, Perpendicular = BC and Hypotenuse = AC. Then ot
A
H yp
Hypotenuse (H) AC
(i) Cosecant A = = , written as cosec A.
Perpendicular (P) BC
A B
Base
Hypotenuse (H) AC
(ii) Secant A = = , written as sec A.
Base (B) AB
Base (B) AB
(iii) Cotangent A = = , written as cot A.
Perpendicular (P) BC
Thus, there are six trigonometrical ratios based on the three sides of a right angled triangle.
1.3.1 Reciprocal relations
Clearly, we have :
1 1 1
(i) cosec q = sin q (ii) sec q = cos q (iii) cot q = tan q
Thus, we have :
(i) sin q.cosec q = 1 (ii) cos q. sec q = 1 (iii) tan q.cot q = 1
1.3.2 Quotient relations
Consider a right angled triangle in which for an acute angle q, we have :
Perpendicular P Base B
sin q = = ; cos q = =
Hypotenuse H Hypotenuse H
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P
sin q P H P
Now, = H = × = = tan q (by def.)
cos q B H B B
H
B
cos q B H B
and = H = × = = cot q (by def.)
sin q P H P P
H
sin q cos q
Thus, tan q = and cot q =
cos q sin q
1.3.3 Trigonometric Identities
2 2
æ Pö æ Bö 2 2
In figure , P + B = H
2 2 2
Divide by H , ç ÷ + ç ÷ = 1 Þ sin q + cos q = 1
2
è Hø è Hø
N
2 2
æ Pö æ Hö 2 2
Divide by B , ç ÷ + 1 = ç ÷ Þ 1 + tan q = sec q
2
è Bø è Bø
E
2 2
æBö æHö
Divide by P , 1 + ç ÷ = ç ÷ Þ 1 + cot2 q = cosec2 q
2
P
è ø èPø
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1.3.4 T-ratios of Complementary angles
Two angles are said to be complementary, if their sum is 90°.
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Thus, q° and (90° – q) are complementary angles.
T-ratios of complementary angles
Consider DABC in which ÐB = 90° and ÐA = q°.
\ ÐC = (90° – q).
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Let AB = x. BC = y and AC = r.
y x y
Then, sin q = , cos q = and tan q = .
r r x
When we consider the T-ratios of (90° – q), then
Base = BC, Perpendicular = AB and Hypotenuse = AC.

C
AB x
\ sin (90° – q) = = = cos q.
AC r
(90°–q)
BC y r
y
cos (90° – q) = = = sin q.
AC r
AB x q
tan (90° – q) = = = cot q. A B
BC y x
1 1
\ cosec (90° – q) = = = sec q.
sin (90 – q) cos q
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1 1
sec (90° – q) = = = cosec q.
cos (90o – q) sin q
1 1
cot (90° – q) = = = tan q.
tan (90 – q) cot q
o
(ii) cos (90° – q) = sin q

(iii) tan (90° – q) = cot q
(v) sec (90° – q) = cosec q (vi) cot (90° – q) = tan q
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1.3.5 Four Quadrants and ASTC Rule
In first quadrant, all trigonometric ratios are positive.
In second quadrant, only sinq and cosecq are
positive. In third quadrant, only tanq and cotq are
positive. In fourth quadrant, only cosq and secq are
positive
1.3.6 Trigonometrical Ratios of General
Angles (Reduction Formulae)
(i) Trigonometric function of an angle 2np + q
where n=0, 1, 2, 3,.... will remain same.
æ np ö
(ii) Trigonometric function of an angle ç + q÷
è 2 ø
will remain same if n is even and sign of
trigonometric function will be according to value
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of that function in quadrant.
æ np ö
(iii) Trigonometric function of an angle ç + q÷ will be changed into co-function if n is odd and sign of
è 2 ø
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trigonometric function will be according to value of that function in quadrant.
(iv) Trigonometric function of an angle – q (negative angles)
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sin(–q)=–sinq cos(–q)=+cosq tan(–q)=–tanq
T-ratios of Allied Angles
sin ( -q ) = - sin q cosec ( -q ) = - cosecq
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cos ( -q ) = cos q sec ( -q ) = sec q
tan ( -q ) = - tan q cot ( -q ) = - cot q
sin ( 90° - q ) = cos q cosec ( 90° - q ) = sec q
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cos ( 90° - q ) = sin q sec ( 90° - q ) = cosec q
tan ( 90° - q ) = cot q cot ( 90° - q ) = tan q
sin ( 90° + q ) = cos q cosec ( 90° + q ) = sec q
cos ( 90° + q ) = - sin q sec ( 90° + q ) = - cosec q
tan ( 90° + q ) = - cot q cot ( 90° + q ) = - tan q
sin (180° - q ) = sin q cosec (180° - q ) = cosec q
cos (180° - q ) = - cos q sec (180° - q ) = - sec q
tan (180° - q ) = - tan q cot (180° - q ) = - cot q
sin (180° + q ) = - sin q cosec (180° + q ) = - cosecq
cos (180° + q ) = - cos q sec (180° + q ) = - sec q
tan (180° + q ) = tan q cot (180° + q ) = cot q

sin ( 270° - q ) = - cos q cosec ( 270° - q ) = - sec q
cos ( 270° - q ) = - sin q sec ( 270° - q ) = - cosec q
tan ( 270° - q ) = cot q cot ( 270° - q ) = tan q
sin ( 270° + q ) = - cos q cosec ( 270° + q ) = - sec q
cos ( 270° + q ) = sin q sec ( 270° + q ) = cosec q
tan ( 270° + q ) = - cot q cot ( 270° + q ) = - tan q
sin ( 360° - q ) = - sin q cosec ( 360° - q ) = -cosec q
cos ( 360° - q ) = cos q sec ( 360° - q ) = sec q
tan ( 360° - q ) = - tan q cot ( 360° - q ) = - cot q
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Values of Trigonometrical Ratios of Some Standard Angles
angle q 0° 30° 37° 45° 53° 60° 90° 120° 135° 150° 180° 270° 360°
1 3 1 4 3 3 1 1
sin q 0 1 0 -1 0
2 5 2 5 2 2 2 2
3 4 1 3 1 1 1 3
cos q 1 0 - - - -1 0 1
2 5 2 5 2 2 2 2
1 3 4 1
tan q 0 1 3 ¥ - 3 -1 - 0 -¥ 0
3 4 3 3
Examples
Example 7 : The two shorter sides of right angled triangle are 5 cm and 12 cm. Let q denote the angle
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opposite to the 5 cm side. Find sinq, cosq and tanq.
P 5cm 5
Solution : sin q = = =
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H 13cm 13
c m
13 H
5 cm
2 =
B 12cm 12 12
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5+ P
2
cos q = = =
H 13cm 13
q B
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P 5cm 5 12 cm
tan q = = =
B 12cm 12
Example 8 : Find x, y and perimeter of the triangle
A
5cm
53°
y
x
y 4 x 3
Solution : = sin 53° = Þ y = 4 cm and = cos 53° = Þ x = 3 cm
5 5 5 5
Perimeter of the triangle = x + y + 5 =3 + 4 + 5 = 12 cm

1 1
Example 9 : The values of sin q1, cos2 q2 and tan q3 are given as ,– and 3 (not in order), for some
2 2
angles q1, q2 and q3. Choose incorrect statement.
1
(1) The value of tanq3 could be – (2) The value of sinq1 can not be 3.
2
1
(3) The value of cos2q2 can't be – (4) The value of cos2q2 could be 3.
2
Solution : Option (4) is correct.
-1 £ sin q1 £ 1 , 0 £ cos2 q2 £ 1 , -¥ < tan q3 < ¥
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1.3.7 Some Important Trigonometric formula
1. (a) sin2 q + cos2 q = 1
(b) 1 + tan2 q = sec2 q
(c) 1 + cot2q = cosec2q
2. Addition and subtraction formulae
(a) sin (A ± B) = sin A cos B ± cos A sin B
(b) cos (A ± B) = cos A cos B ± sin A sin B
tan A ± tan B
(c) tan (A ± B) =
1 m tan A tanB
3. Multiple formulae
(a) sin 2A = 2 sin A cos A (b) cos2A = cos2A – sin2A
2 tan A
(c) cos2A = 1 – 2 sin2A = 2 cos2A – 1 (d) tan 2A =
1 - tan2 A
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Examples
Example 10 : Find the value of :
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(i) sin 74° (ii) cos 106° (iii) sin 15° (iv) cos 75°
æ 3 ö æ 4 ö 24
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Solution : (i) sin 74° = sin (2× 37°) = 2 sin 37 cos 37° =2 çè ÷ø çè ÷ø =
5 5 25
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2 2
æ 3ö æ 4ö 9 - 16 7
(ii) cos 106° = cos (2×53°) = cos2 53° – sin2 53° = ç ÷ - ç ÷ = =-
è 5ø è 5ø 25 25
A
1 3 1 1 3 -1
(iii) sin 15° = sin (45°–30°) = sin 45° cos 30° – cos 45° sin 30° = ´ - ´ =
2 2 2 2 2 2
1 3 1 1 3 -1
(iv) cos 75° = cos (45°+30°) = cos 45° cos30° – sin 45° sin 30° = ´ - ´ =
2 2 2 2 2 2
Example 11 : Evaluate :
sin 18°
(i)
cos 72°
tan 26°
(ii)
cot 64°
(iii) cos 48° – sin 42°
(iv) cosec 31° – sec 59°
sin 18° sin 18° sin 18°

Solution : (i) = = =1 {Q cos (90° – q) = sin q}
cos 72° cos (90° – 18°) sin 18°
tan 26° tan (90° - 64°) cot 64°

(ii) = = =1
cot 64° cot 64° cot 64°
(iii) cos 48° – sin 42° = cos (90° – 42°) – sin 42°
= sin 42° – sin 42° = 0
(iv) cosec 31° – sec 59°
= cosec (90° – 59°) – sec 59°
= sec 59° – sec 59° = 0
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Example 12 : Evaluate :
(i) cos240°
(ii) sec300°
(iii) sin270°
(iv) tan330°
(v) cos720°
(vi) sin405°
1
Solution : (i) cos240° = cos(270° – 30°) = – sin30° = -
2
(ii) sec300° = sec(360° – 60°) = sec60° = 2
(iii) sin270° = sin(180° + 90°) = –sin90° = –1
1
(iv) tan330° = tan(360° – 30°) = –tan30° = -
3
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(v) cos720° = cos(360° × 2 + 0°) = cos0° = 1
E
(vi) sin405° = sin(360° + 45°) = sin45° =
2
1.3.8 Small Angle Approximation
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If q is small (say < 5°) then sin q » q, cos q » 1 and tanq » q
Note : here q must be in radian.
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Examples
Example 13 : Find the approximate values of (i) sin 1° (ii) tan 2° (iii) cos 1°.
A
æ p ö p p æ p ö p p
Solution : (i) sin1° = sin çè1° ´ = sin » (ii) tan2° = tan çè 2° ´ = tan »
180° ÷ø 180 180 180° ÷ø 90 90
æ p ö p
(iii) cos1° = cos ç 1° ´ = cos =1
è 180° ÷ø 180
1.3.9 Maximum and Minimum Values of Some useful Trigonometric Functions
• -1 £ sin q £ 1 • -1 £ cos q £ 1 • - a2 + b2 £ a cos q + b sin q £ a2 + b2
Examples
Example 14 : Find maximum and minimum values of y :
(i) y = 2 sinx (ii) y = 4 – cosx (iii) y = 3sinx + 4 cosx
Solution : (i) ymax =2(1)=2 and ymin=2(–1)=–2 (ii) ymax = 4 – (–1)=4+1=5 and ymin = 4–(1)=3
(iii) ymax = 32 + 42 =5 and ymin = – 32 + 42 = – 5

Example 15 : The position of a particle moving along x-axis varies with time t according to equation
x= 3 sinwt – coswt where w is constants. Find the region in which the particle is confined.
Solution : Q x = 3 sin wt - cos wt
( 3) ( 3)
2 2
+ ( -1) = 2 and x min = + ( -1) = -2
2 2
\ xmax =
Thus, the particle is confined in the region -2 £ x £ 2
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Trigonometry
5
1. If sec q = , find all the other T-ratios.
3
2. Find the values of :
(i) tan(–30°) (ii) sin120° (iii) sin135° (iv) cos150° (v) sin(–270°) (vi) cos270°
3. Find the values of :
(i) tan135° (ii) tan150° (iii) sin225° (iv) sec210° (v) tan240° (vi) tan120°
(vii) cosec315° (viii) cos330° (ix) cot210°
1.4 CALCULUS
N
Calculus is the study of how things change. In this we study the relationship between continuously varying
functions.
Quantity : Anything that can be measured is called a quantity.
E
Constants and Variables : A quantity whose value remains constant throughout the mathematical operation
is called a constant, e.g., integers, fractions, p, e etc. On the other hand, a quantity which can have any
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numerical value within certain specific limits is called a variable. A variable is usually represented by u, v, w,
x, y, z etc.
Dependent and independent variables : A variable which can have any arbitrary value within specific
L
limits is called an independent variable whereas a variable whose value depends upon the numerical values
assigned to the independent variable is defined as a dependent variable.
Function
A
Function is a rule of relationship between two variable in which one is assumed to be a dependent variable
and the other independent variable
Example : The interest paid on a cash investment depends on the length of time the investment is held.
Here time is the independent and interest is the dependent variable.
In each of the above Example, value of one variable quantity (dependent variable), which we might call y,
depends on the value of another variable quantity (independent variable), which we might call x. Since the
value of y is completely determined by value of x, we say that y is a function of x and are represent in
mathematically as y = f(x). Here f represents the function, x the independent variable, and y the dependent
variable.
All possible values of independent variable (x) are called domain of function. All possible value of dependent
variable (y) are called range of function.
Think of a function f as a kind of machine that produces an output value f(x) in its range whenever we feed
it an input value x from its domain (fig.)
x f f(x)
Input Output
(Domain) (Range)
We usually denote functions in one of the two ways :
(1) By giving a formula such as y = x2 that uses a dependent variable y to denote the value of the function.
(2) By giving a formula such as f(x) = x 2 that defines a function symbol f to name the function.
Strictly speaking, we should call the function f and not f(x), y = sin x. Here the function is sine and x is the
independent variable.
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Examples
Example 16 : A function f(x) is defined as f(x) = x2 + 3. Find f(0), f(1), f(x2), f(x + 1) and f(f(1)).
Solution : f(0) = 02 + 3 = 3
f(1) = 12 + 3 = 4; f(x)2 = (x2)2 + 3 = x4 + 3
f(x + 1) = (x + 1)2 + 3 = x2 + 2x + 4
f(f(1)) = f(4) = 42 + 3 = 19
1.5 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS

The purpose of differential calculus to study the nature (i.e., increase
or decrease) and the amount of variation in a quantity when another
quantity (on which first quantity depends) varies independently.
N
1.5.1 Average rate of change
Let a function y = f(x) be plotted as shown in figure. Average rate
of change in y w.r.t. x in interval [x1, x2] is
E
change in y D y y 2 - y 1
Average rate of change = change in x = D x = x - x
L
2 1
= slope of chord AB.
L
1.5.2 Instantaneous rate of change
It is defined as the rate of change in y with x at a particular value
of x. It is measured graphically by the slope of the tangent drawn
to the y-x graph at the point (x,y) and algebraically by the first
A
derivative of function y =f(x).
dy
Instantaneous rate of change = = slope of tangent = tanq
dx
1.5.3 Secant and Tangent to a Curve
Secant : A secant to a curve is a straight line, which intersects the curve at any two points.
y
q
Secant
p
x
Tangent : A tangent is straight line, which touches the curve a particular point. Tangent is limiting case of
secant which intersects the curve at the two overlapping point.
In the figure shown, if value of Dx is gradually reduced then the point Q will y+Dy Q
move nearer to the point P. If the process is continuously repeated value of
Dx will be infinitely small and secant PQ to the given curve will become a Dy
tangent at point P. y P q
Dx R
æ Dy ö dy
Therefore ç ÷=
Dx ® 0 è D x ø
= tan q
x
dx x+Dx
æ dy ö
we can say that differentiation of y with respect to x, i.e. ç ÷ is equal to slope of the tangent at point P (x,
è dx ø
dy
y) or tan q = (From fig. the average rate of y from x to x + Dx is identical with the slope of secant PQ)
dx
12
Physics
ALLEN
1.5.4 First Derivatives of Commonly used Functions
dy dy dy
• y = constant Þ =0 • y = xn Þ = nxn-1 • y=ex Þ = ex
dx dx dx
dy dy dy
• y = sinx Þ = cosx • y = cosx Þ = –sinx • y = tan x Þ = sec2 x
dx dx dx
dy dy dy
• y = cotx Þ = –cosec2x • y = secx Þ = secxtanx • y = cosecx Þ = –cosecxcotx
dx dx dx
1.5.5 Method of Differentiation or Rules of Differentiation
dy
Function multiplied by a constant i.e., y = kf(x) Þ = kf ¢ ( x )
dx
Examples
N
Example 17 : Find derivatives of the following functions :
E
(i) y = 2x3 (ii) y = (iii) y = 3ex (iv) y = 5 sin x
x
dy 4 dy 4
L
Solution :
3
(i) y = 2x Þ = 2 éë3x 3 -1 ùû = 6x 2 (ii) y = = 4x -1 Þ = 4 éë( -1) x -1-1 ùû = - 2
dx x dx x
L
dy dy
x
(iii) y = 3e Þ = 3e x (iv) y = 5 sin x Þ = 5 ( cos x ) = 5 cos x
dx dx
1.5.6 Sum or Subtraction of Two functions
A
dy
i.e., y = f(x) ±g(x) Þ = f¢ ( x ) ± g¢ ( x )
dx
Examples
Example 18 : Find differentiation of y w.r.t x.
(i) y = x2 – 6x (ii) y = x5 + 2ex
dy dy
Solution : (i) = 2x2 -1 - 6 (1) = 2x - 6 (ii) = 5x5 -1 + 2e x = 5x 4 + 2e x
dx dx
1.5.7 Product of two functions : Product rule

dy
y = f(x) · g(x) Þ = f ( x) × g¢ ( x) + f¢ ( x) × g ( x)
dx
Examples
Example 19 : Find first derivative of y w.r.t. x. (i) y = x2 sin x (ii) y =4(ex)cos x
dy
Solution : (i) = x2 ( cos x ) + ( 2x )( sin x ) = x 2 cos x + 2x sin x
dx
dy
(ii)
dx
( ) ( )
= 4 éë e x ( cos x ) + e x ( - sin x ) ùû = 4e x [ cos x - sin x ]
13
TIM BATCH : IX
ALLEN
1.5.8 Division of Two Functions : Quotient Rule
f ( x) dy f ¢ ( x ) g ( x ) - f ( x ) g ¢ ( x )
y= Þ =
g ( x) dx éëg ( x ) ùû
2
Examples
sin x 4x3
Example 20 : Find differentiation of y w.r.t. x. (i) y = (ii) y =
x ex
Solution : (i) Here f(x) = sinx, g(x) = x So f'(x) = cos x,, g'(x) =1
dy ( cos x )( x ) - ( sin x )(1) x cos x - sin x

Therefore = =
dx x2 x2
(ii) Here f(x) = 4x3, g(x) = ex So f ¢ ( x ) = 12x 2 ,g ¢ ( x ) = e x
N
2 x 3
dy 12x e - 4x e
=
x
=
( )
12x2 - 4x3 ( )
E
Therefore,
( )
2
dx ex ex
L
1.5.9 Function of Functions : Chain rule
Let f be a function of x, which in turn is a function of t. The first derivative of f w.r.t. t is equal to the product
L
df dx df df dx
of and Therefore = ´
dx dt dt dx dt
Examples
A
Example 21 : Find first derivative of y w.r.t. x. :
2
- 2x
(i) y = e–x (ii) y = 4 sin 3x (iii) y = 4ex
dy dy dz
Solution : (i) y = e- x = e z where z = –x so = ´
dx dz dx
( )
= ez ( -1) = -ez = - e- x
dy dy dz
(ii) y = 4 sin 3x = 4 sinz where z = 3x so = ´ = 4 ( cos z )( 3) = 12 cos 3x
dx dz dx
dy dy dz
= 4 ( z ) (2x - 2) = ( 8x - 8 ) e x -2 x
2
= ´
2
(iii) y = 4e x -2 x
= 4e z where z = x2 – 2x so
dx dz dx
Example 22 : The position of a particle moving along x-axis varies with time t as x=4t –t2 +1. Find the time
interval(s) during which the particle is moving along positive x-direction.
Solution : If the particle moves along positive x-direction, its x-coordinate must increase with time t.
dx
x-coordinate will increase with time t if >0.
dt
dx
= 4 - 2t
dt
dx
> 0 Þ 4 - 2t > 0 Þ t < 2
dt
Hence, the particle moves in positive x-direction during time-interval 0 < t < 2.
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1.5.10 Double Differentiation
If f is differentiable function, then its derivative f' is also a function, so f' may have a derivative of its own,
denoted by (f')' = f". This new function f" is called the second derivative of f because it is the derivative of the
derivative of f. Using Leibniz notation, we write the second derivative of y = f(x) as
d æ dy ö d 2 y
ç ÷=
dx è dx ø dx 2
Another notation is f"(x) = D2f(x).
Examples
Example 23 : If f(x) = x cos x, find f"(x).
Solution : Using the product rule, we have
d d
f' (x) = x (cos x) + cos x (x) = –x sin x + cos x
N
dx dx
To find f"(x), we differentiate f'(x) :
E
d
f"(x) = (–x sin x + cos x)
dx
L
d d d
= –x (sin x) + sinx (–x)+ (cos x)
dx dx dx
L
= –xcos x – sin x – sin x = –x cos x – 2 sin x
y
1.5.11 Maximum and Minimum value of a Function
Suppose a quantity y depends on another quantity x and a manner shown in
A
figure. It becomes maximum at x1 and minimum at x2. At these points the tangent
to the curve is parallel to the x-axis and hence its slope is tan q = 0. Thus, at a
maxima or a minima slope x
x1 x2
dy
Þ =0
dx
y
Maxima : Just before the maximum the slope is positive, at the maximum
3 4
dy q22 q4
it is zero and just after the maximum it is negative. Thus, decrease at 1 5
dx q1 q5
dy slope = m1 = tanq1
a maximum and hence the rate of change of is negative at a maximum m1 > m2 > (m3 = 0) > m4 > m5
dx
x
d æ dy ö d æ dy ö For maxima, as x increases
i.e., ç ÷ < 0 at maximum. The quantity dx çè dx ÷ø is the rate of change
dx è dx ø the slope decreases

d2y
of the slope. It is written as . Conditions for maxima are :
dx 2
y slope = m1 = tan q1
dy d2y m1 > m2 > (m3 = 0) > m4 < m5
(a) = 0 (b) <0
dx dx 2
q1
q2 q5
Minima : Similarly, at a minimum the slope changes from negative 1 5
to positive, Hence with the increasing that means the rate of change 2 4 q4
3 q3= 0
of slope with respect to x is positive.
d æ dy ö x
Hence ç ÷>0 For minima, as x increases
dx è dx ø
slope, increases
15
TIM BATCH : IX
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Conditions for minima are :
dy d2y
(a) =0 (b) >0
dx dx 2
Quite often it is known from the physical situation whether the quantity is a maximum or a minimum. The
d2y
test on may then be omitted.
dx 2
Examples
Example 24 : The minimum value of y = 5x2 – 2x + 1 is :
1 2 4 3
(1) (2) (3) (4)
5 5 5 5
dy 1
Solution : For maximum/minimum value = 0 Þ 5 ( 2x ) - 2 (1) + 0 = 0 Þ x =
N
dx 5
1 d2 y 1
Now at x= , =10 which is positive so minima at x = .
5 dx2 5
E
2
æ 1ö æ 1ö 4
Therefore y min = 5 ç ÷ - 2 ç ÷ + 1 =
L
è 5ø è 5ø 5
Example 25 : The radius of a circular plate increases at the rate of 0.1 cm per second. At what rate does the
L
5
area increase when the radius of plate is cm ?
p
(1) 1 cm2/s (2) 0.1 cm2/s (3) 0.5 cm2/s (4) 2 cm2/s
A
Solution : Area of disk, A = pr (where r = radius of disk)
2
dA æ dr ö dr dA 5
= p ç 2r ÷ = 2pr so = 2p ´ ´ 0.1 = 1 cm 2 / s
dt è dt ø dt dt p
Example 26 : A particle moves along the curve 12y = x3. Which coordinate changes at faster rate at x=10 ?
(1) x–coordinate (2) y–coordinate
(3) Both x and y–coordinate (4) Data insufficient
2
dy æ x ö æ dx ö
Solution : 12y = x3 Þ 12dy = 3x2dx Þ =
dt çè 2 ÷ø çè dt ÷ø
2
æ xö
Therefore for ç ÷ >1 or x >2, y– coordinate changes at faster rate.
è 2ø
Example 27 : Water pours out at the rate of Q from a tap, into a cylindrical vessel of radius r. The rate at which
the height of water level rises when the height is h, is
Q Q Q Q
(1) (2) (3) (4)
prh pr 2 2pr 2 pr 2 h
dV dh dV dh Q
Solution : Q Volume : V = pr2h \ = pr 2 But = Q so = 2
dt dt dt dt pr
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Physics
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Example 28 : If y = 3x4 – 8x3 – 6x2 + 24x. Find values of x where function is maximum or minimum.
Solution : To find values of x for maximum & minimum.
dy
=0
dx
dy
= 12x 3 - 24 x 2 - 12x + 24
dx x =1 ù
3 2
= 12(x – 2x – x + 2) x = -1úú
= 12(x – 1) (x + 1) (x – 2) = 0 x = +2úû
d2y
To check maxima / minima = (+) Þ minima or (–) Þ maxima
dx 2
d2y
at x = –1 = 12(3 + 4 - 1) = (+) minima
dx 2
N
d2y
at x = 1 2
= 12(3x 2 - 4x - 1) = 12(3 – 4 – 1) = (–) maxima
dx
E
d2y
at x = +2 = 12(12 - 8 - 1) = (+) minima
dx 2
If surface area of a cube is changing at a rate of 5 m2/s, find the rate of change of body diagonal
L
Example 29 :
at the moment when side length is 1 m.
L
5 5
(1) 5 m/s (2) 5Ö3 m/s (3) 3 m/s (4) m/s
2 4 3
Solution : Surface area of cube S=6a2 (where a = side of cube)
A
Body diagonal l = 3a . Therefore S=2l2
dS dl dl 1 dS 5
Differentiating it w.r.t. time = 2 ( 2l ) Þ = = m/s
dt dt ( )
dt 4 3a dt 4 3

Differential Calculus
dy
1. Find for the following :
dx
(i) y = x7/2 (ii) y = x–3
(ii) y=x (iv) y = x5 + x3 + 4x1/2 + 7
(v) y = 5x4 + 6x3/2 + 9x (vi) y = ax2 + bx + c
1 ds
(vii) y = 3x5 – 3x – (viii) Given s = t2 + 5t + 3, find .
x dt
1 2 ds
(ix) If s = ut + at , where u and a are constants. Obtain the value of .
2 dt
(x) The area of a blot of ink is growing such that after t seconds, its area is given by
A = (3t2+7) cm2 . Calculate the rate of increase of area at t=5 second.
(xi) The area of a circle is given by A = p r2 , where r is the radius. Calculate the rate of increase of area
w.r.t. radius.
17
TIM BATCH : IX
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2. Obtain the differential coefficient of the following :
(i) (x – 1) (2x + 5) (ii) (9x3 – 8x + 7) (3x5 + 5)
1 3x + 4 x2
(iii) (iv) (v)
2x + 1 4x + 5 x +1
3
1.6 INTEGRAL CALCULUS

Integration is the reverse process of differentiation. By help of integration we can find a function whose
derivative is known. Consider a function F(x) whose differentiation w.r.t. x is equal to f(x) then
ò f ( x ) dx = F ( x ) + c
here c is the constant of integration and this is called indefinite integration.
Few basic formulae of integration are :
N
x n +1
ò x dx = n + 1 + c ò sin xdx = - cos x + c
n
E
ò sec ò cos xdx = sin x + c
2
xdx = tan x + c
( ax + b)
n +1
L
ò (ax + b) dx = a (n + 1)
n
+c
ò e dx = e
x x
+c
L
- cos ( ax + b) sin ( ax + b)
ò sin ( ax + b) dx = a
+c ò cos ( ax + b) dx = a
+c
tan ( ax + b) e ax + b
ò sec ( ax + b) dx = ò e dx =
2 ax + b
+c +c
A
a a
Examples
Example 30 : Integrate the following w.r.t. x :
(i) 4x3 (ii) cos (4x+3) (iii) cos2x
æ x 3 +1 ö 4x4
(i) ò 4x dx = 4 çè 3 + 1÷ø + c = 4 + c = x + c
3 4
Solution :
sin ( 4x + 3)
(ii) ò cos ( 4x + 3) dx = +c
4
2cos2 x (1 + cos2x )dx = 1 dx + 1 cos2xdx

(iii) ò cos2 xdx = ò dx = ò
2 2 2ò 2ò
x 1 sin 2x x 1
= + + c = + sin2x + c
2 2 2 2 4
1.6.1 Definite Integration

When a function is integrated between a lower limit and an upper limit, it is called a definite integral.
Consider a function F(x) whose differentiation w.r.t. x is equal to f(x), in an interval a £ x £ b then
ò f ( x) dx = F ( b) - F ( a )
a
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Physics
ALLEN
1.6.2 Area Under a Curve and Definite Integration y
y=F(x)
Area of small shown element = ydx = f(x) dx
If we sum up all areas between x=a and x= b then

y
ò f ( x ) dx = shaded area between curve and x-axis. x

a x=a x=b
x
dx
Examples
5
ò x dx
2
Example 31 : The integral is equal to :
1
N
125 124 1
(1) (2) (3) (4) 45
3 3 3
E
5 5
é x3 ù é 5 3 13 ù 125 1 124
ò1
2
Solution : x dx = ê3ú = ê - 3ú= 3 -3= 3
ë û1 ë 3 û
L
1.6.3 Average value of a continuous function in an interval
Average value of a function y = f(x), over an interval a £ x £ b is given by
L
b b
ò ydx ò ydx
y av = a
= a
b
b-a
ò dx
A
a
Examples
Example 32 : Determine the average value of y = 2x +3 in the interval 0 £ x £ 1.
(1) 1 (2) 5 (3) 3 (4) 4
ò ydx 1
é æ x2 ö ù
1
Solution : y av = 0
= ò ( 2x + 3) dx = ê 2 ç ÷ + 3x ú = 12 + 3 (1) - 0 2 - 3 ( 0 ) = 1 + 3 = 4
1- 0 0 ë è 2ø û0
Velocity(m/s)
Example 33 : The velocity-time graph of a car moving along a
straight road is shown in figure. The average

20
velocity of the car is first 25 seconds is :
(1) 20 m/s
(2) 14 m/s
(3) 10 m/s
0 Time(s)
(4) 17.5 m/s 10 20 25
Solution : Average velocity
25
ò vdt Area of v-t graph between t=0 to t = 25 s 1 éæ 25 + 10 ö ù

= = = ÷ ( 20) ú = 14 m/s
0
ç
25 - 0 25 25 êëè 2 ø û
19
TIM BATCH : IX
ALLEN
Integral Calculus
1. Evaluate the following integrals :
ò ò cos (4x + 3) dx
15
ò ò x - 2 dx
3
(i) x15 dx (ii) (iii) 15x dx (iv)
2. Evaluate the following integrals

¥ GMm r2 q 1 q2 v ¥ -1
òR ò ò u Mv dv ò0 x
2
(i) dx (ii) -k dx (iii) (iv) dx
x2 r1 x
2
p p p p
(v) ò0 2
sin x dx (vi) ò0 2
cos x dx (vii) ò- 2
p
2
cos x dx (viii) ò
0
2
( sin x + cos x ) dx
N
1.7 GRAPHS
Some Standard graphs and their equations
E
l
y y A y
-c
Straight line
L
c
x
x+
m
q
=m
=
O x
y
y = mx y
c Straight line
L
Straight line
c
q x q x
O O
A
y
y y
2
y = - mx + c x = ky x = -ky
2
Straight line x
x
O O
Parabola
q Parabola
x
O
y y Hyperbola
y O 1
x x y
Parabola
y = -kx2
y = kx2 xy = constant
Parabola
x x
O O
y Ellipse y x 2 y2
2 2 2 + =1
x+y=a a2 b 2
b
O a x
x O
Circle
a a = semi major axis
b = semi minor axis
20
Physics
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1.8 MENSURATION
1.8.1 Formulae for determination of area
1. Area of a square = (side)2
2. Area of rectangle = length × breadth
1
3. Area of a triangle = base × height
2
1
4. Area of trapezoid = (distance between parallel side) × (sum of parallel side)
2
5. Area enclosed by a circle = p r2 (r = radius)
6. Surface area of a sphere = 4p r2 (r = radius)
7. Area of a parallelogram = base × height
N
8. Area of curved surface of cylinder = 2p rl (r = radius and l = length)
9. Area of ellipse = p ab (a and b are semi major and semi minor axes respectively)
E
10.Surface area of a cube = 6(side)2
11.Total surface area of cone = pr2 + prl where prl = pr r2 + h2 = lateral area
ea
L
12.Area of ellipse = pab (a = semi major axis and b = semi minor axis)
1.8.2 Formulae for determination of volume
L
1. Volume of a rectangular slab = length × breadth × height = abt t
2. Volume of a cube = (side)3 a
A
b
4
3. Volume of a sphere = p r3 (r = radius)
3
4. Volume of a cylinder = p r2l (r = radius and l is length)
1 2
5. Volume of a cone = pr h (r = radius and h is height)
3
22 1
Note : p = = 3.14 ; p2 = 9.8776 » 10 and = 0.3182.
7 p
Examples
4
Example 34 : Calculate the shaded area.
3
Solution : Shaded area = Area of ellipse = pab
2
Here a = 6 – 4 = 2 and b = 4 – 3 = 1
1
Area = p × 2 × 1 = 2p units
2 4 6
Example 35 : Calculate the volume of given disk.
R=1m
t=1mm
Solution : Volume = pR2t = (3.14) (1)2 (10–3) = 3.14 × 10–3 m3
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ALLEN
1.9 VECTORS
1.9.1 Scalar Quantities
A physical quantity which can be described completely by its magnitude only and does not require a direction
called scalar.
It obey the ordinary rules of algebra.

Ex : Distance, mass, time, speed, density, volume, temperature, current etc.
1.9.2 Vector Quantities
A physical quantity which requires magnitude and a particular direction, when it is expressed.
Ex. : Displacement, velocity, acceleration, force etc.
N
Representation of vector :
E
Tail Head
Length
(magnitude)
L
A vector is represented by a line headed with an arrow. Its length is proportional to its magnitude.
r
A is a vector..
L
Y
Q
® ® A
A = PQ
q
A
P
® ®
Magnitude of A =|A|or A X
Angle between two vectors :

Angle between two vectors means smaller of the two angles between the vectors when they are placed tail
to tail by displacing either of the vectors parallel to itself (i.e. 0 £ q £ p).
B B
B
Þ
q
q
q
A
A A
n Types of vector
l Like vectors : Vectors having same directions are called like vectors. The may have different or
equal magnitudes.
l Unlike vectors : Vectors having opposite directions are called unlike vectors. The may have different
or equal magnitudes.
l Equal vector : Two vectors are said to be equal if they have equal magnitude and same direction
and should represent same physical quantities.
r r r r r r
If vector a = b , then, | a | =| b | ; direction of a = direction of b .
} All equal vectors are like vectors but all like vectors are not equal.
22
Physics
ALLEN
l Negative of a vector : Negative of a given vector is a vector having direction just ropposite to the
given vector
r and but having magnitude equal to the given vector. Negative of a vector a is represented
by – a .
a a a a
b b b –a
Like vectors Unlike vectors Equal vectors Negative of a vector
l Null vector : A vector whose initial point and final point are same is called a null vector or zero
vector. A null vector has
r
zero magnitude with no particular direction. Basically, it is a point in space.
It is represented as 0 .
l Collinear vectors or parallel vectors : The vectors acting along same straight line or along the
parallel straight lines are called collinear vectors. They may be like or unlike vectors i.e., they
may have same direction or opposite direction.
l Coplanar vectors : Vectors that lie in the same plane or parallel to the same plane are called coplanar
N
vectors.
} Two vectors are always coplanar as two vectors or lines always make a plane.
E
a b a d
L
b
c d
c
Collinear or parallel vectors
L
Coplanar vectors
l Coinitial vectors : Vectors having same initial point are called coinitial vectors.
l Coterminous vectors : Vectors having same final point or terminal point are called coterminous
A
vectors.
a b a
b
c
d
c
d
Coinitial vectors Coterminous vectors

r
l Reciprocal of a vector : A vector having the same direction as that of a given vector a but magnitude
r uuur
equal to the reciprocal of the given vector is called reciprocal of vector a . It is represented as a –1 .
r uuur 1
If | a | = a , then | a –1 | = .
a
l Unit vector : A vector whose magnitude is unity (i.e., one) is called a unit vector. It is represented
as a$ (pronounced as 'a cap') and | a$ | = 1 .
} Unit vectors along positive x, y and z axes are represented as $i , $j , k$ respectively. Thus, unit
vector along negative x, y and z axes are –i$ , –j$ , –k$ .
} Significance of unit vector : A unit vector represents the direction of a given vector.
r
r
} Formula for unit vector a$ in the direction of a given vector a is | a$ | = ar .
|a|
r r
} Let a$ is the unit vector in the direction of a vector a . Then a vector in the direction of a having
magnitude k will be k a$ .
23
TIM BATCH : IX
ALLEN
1.9.3 Addition of two vectors
l Triangle Law of Addition of Two Vectors
If two vectors are represented by two sides of a triangle in same order then their sum or 'resultant vector'
is given by the third side of the triangle taken in opposite order of the first two vectors.
Steps for vector addition
(i) Keep vectors such that tail of one vector coincides with tail of other.
®
(ii) Shift one vector ( B ), without changing its direction, such that its tail coincide with head of the other
®
vector ( A ).
® ®
(iii) Now complete the triangle by drawing third side, directed from tail of A to head of B
® ®
(it is in opposite order of A and B vectors).
(iv) This new vector is the sum of two vecotrs. (also called resultant)
N
B B B +B
A
R=
E
B
q a
A A A A
step (i) step (ii)
L
® ® ®
(v) Sum of two vectors is also called resultant vector of these two vectors. Resultant (R ) = A + B
L
R
Bsinq
B
a q
A
A Bcosq
1.9.4 Parallelogram Law of Addition of Two Vectors
D C
If two vectors are represented by two adjacent sides of a parallelogram
b
which are directed away from their common point then their sum (i.e. +B
resultant vector) is given by the diagonal of the parallelogram passing away
B
R =A
b
through that common point.
q a
Steps for vector addition A B
A
(i) Keep two vectors such that there tails coincide.
(ii) Draw parallel vectors to both of them considering both of them as sides of a parallelogram.
(iii) Then the diagram drawn from the point where tails coincide represents the sum of two vectors, with its
tail at point of coincidence of the two vectors.
D A
C
B
B B uuur r r
(a) (b) (c) B AC = A + B
A A B
A A
uuur r r uuur r r r r r r
Note : AC = A + B and AC = B + A thus A + B = B + A [Commutative law]
Note : Angle between 2 vectors is the angle between their positive directions.
24
Physics
ALLEN
r r
Suppose angle between these two vectors is q, and A = A, B = B
In triangle AED
BE = Bcosq, DE = Bsinq A
C
D
(AD)2 = (AE)2 + (DE)2
= (AB + BE)2 + (DE)2 B
B
A+ B
= (A + B cos q)2 + (B sin q)2 q q
a
A
= A + B cos q + 2AB cosq +b sin q
2 2 2 2 2
A B E
= A2 + B2 + 2AB cosq
r r
Thus, AD = A 2 + B 2 + 2AB cos q or A+B = A 2 + B 2 + 2AB cos q
N
angle a with vector A is
DE B sin q
tan a = =
E
AE (A + B cos q)
here q =a + b
L
b =q - a
tan b = tan ( q - a )
L
tan q - tan a
tan b =
1 + tan q tan a
B sin q
A
tan q -
tan b = A + B cos q
B sin q
1 + tan q
A + B cos q
sin q B sin q
-
tan b = cos q A + B cos q A sin q
sin q B sin q Þ tan b =
1+ B + A cos q
cos q A + B cos q
1.9.5 Addition and Subtraction in Component Form :
Suppose there are two vectors in component form. Then the addition and subtraction between these two are
r
A = A xî + A yˆj + A z kˆ
r
B = B xî + B yˆj + B z kˆ
r r
A ± B = (A x ± B x )iˆ + (A y ± B y )jˆ + (A z ± B z )kˆ
Also if we are having a third vector present in component form and this vector is added or subtracted from
the addition or subtraction of above two vectors then
r
C = C xî + C yˆj + C z kˆ
r r r
A ± B ± C = (A x ± B x ± C x )iˆ + (A y ± B y ± C y )jˆ + (A z ± B z ± C z )kˆ
25
TIM BATCH : IX
ALLEN
Examples
r r r r
Example 36 : Obtain the magnitude of 3A + 2B if A = î + ˆj - 2kˆ and B = 2iˆ + ˆj + kˆ
r r
Solution : ˆ + 2(2iˆ + ˆj + k)
3A + 2B = 3(iˆ + ˆj - 2k) ˆ
= 3iˆ + 3jˆ - 6kˆ + 4iˆ + 2jˆ + 2kˆ
= 7iˆ + 5ˆj - 4kˆ
r r
Magnitude of 3A + 2B = (7) 2 + (5)2 + ( -4)2
= 49 + 25 + 16 = 90
r r r r
N
Example 37 : Two vectors A and B are shown in the figure. Find angle between A and B .
E
30°
A
B
30°
L
x
Solution : To find the angle between two vectors we connect the tails of the
L
r r r A
two vectors. We can shift B such that tails of A and B are
30°
connected as shown in figure. x
30°
r r
A
Now we can easily observe that angle between A and B is 60°. B
Example 38 : Two forces of magnitudes 3N and 4N respectively are acting on a body. Calculate the resultant
force if the angle between them is :
(i) 0° (ii) 180° (iii) 90°
Solution : (i) q = 0°, both the forces are parallel, R = A + B
\ Net force or resultant force R = 3 + 4 = 7N

Direction of resultant is along both the forces
(ii) q = 180°, both the forces are antiparallel, R = A – B
\ Net force or resultant force R = 4 – 3 = 1N

Direction of net force is along bigger force means along 4N.

(iii) q = 90°, both the forces are perpendicular
then R = A2 + B 2 + 2AB cos90o
= A 2 + B2 = 32 + 42 = 5N
3 -1 æ 3 ö o
tan a = or a = tan çè ÷ø = 37
4 4
magnitude of resultant is 5N which is acting at an angle of 37° from 4N force.
26
Physics
ALLEN
Example 39 : Two vectors having equal magnitude of 5 units, have an angle of 60° between them. Find the
magnitude of their resultant vector and its angle from one of the vectors.
Solution : a = 5 unit and q = 60°
R = a + a + 2a.a cos 60o = a 3 = 5 3 unit

2 2
3
a sin 60o 1
tan a = = 2 = = tan 30o \ a = 30o
a + a cos 60 o
3 3
2
® ®
Example 40 : A vector A and B make angles of 20° and 110° respectively with the X-axis. The magnitudes
of these vectors are 5 and 12 respectively. Find their resultant vector.
N
® ®
Solution : angle between the A and B = 110°– 20° = 90°
E
2 2 o 2 2 = 13m R
R = A + B + 2AB cos90 = 5 + 12
B
L
® ®
Let angle of R from A is a
L
° A
o 110 20°
B sin q 12 sin 90 X-axis
tan a = = o
A + Bcos q 5 + 12 cos90
A
12 ´ 1 12
= =
5 + 12 ´ 0 5
12 ®
or tan -1( )
a= with vector A or (a + 20°) with X-axis
5
® ® ®
Example 41 : Figure shows a parallelogram ABCD. Prove that AC + BD = 2 BC
® ® ® ® ® ®
Solution : AC = AB+ BC BD = BC+ CD [applying triangle law of vectors]
D C
® ® ® ® ® ® ® ® ®
Now AC + BD = AB + BC + BC + CD = AB + 2BC + CD
® ® ® ® ® ® ® ®
But CD = - AB \ AC + BD = AB + 2BC - AB = 2BC A B
Example 42 : Two forces each numerically equal to 10 dynes are acting as shown in the figure, then find
resultant of these two vectors.
Solution : The angle q between the two vectors is 120° and not 60°.
ne
dy
10
\ R = (10)2 + (10)2 + 2(10)(10)(cos120 o )

60° 10 dyne
= 100 + 100 - 100 = 10 dyne
27
TIM BATCH : IX
ALLEN
POINTS TO REMEMBER
l Vector addition is commutative ® ® ® ®

A+ B = B+ A
® ® ® ® ® ®
l Vector addition is associative A+ ( B + C) = ( A+ B ) + C
l Resultant of two vectors will be maximum when they are parallel i.e. angle between them is zero.
® ® ® ® ® ®
2
R
max
=| A + B |
max = A2 + B2 + 2AB cos 0 = (A + B) = A + B or |A+ B|
max
=| A |+| B |
l Resultant of two vectors will be minimum when they are antiparallel angle between them is 180°.
® ®
Rmin =| A + B | = A2 + B2 + 2ABcos180o = (A - B)2 = A – B (Bigger — smaller)
N
® ® ® ® ® ®
or R min =| A |- | B | or | A + B |min =| A |-| B |
E
l Resultant of two vectors of unequal magnitude can never be zero.
l If vectors are of unequal magnitude then minimum three coplanar vectors are required for zero resultant.
L
l Resultant of two vectors of equal magnitude will be at their bisector.
® ® ® ®
If |A|=|B| But if |A|>|B| then angle b > a
L
B
B
A+
+B
B R=
A
A
q
R=
q a
A A
®
R will incline more towards the vector
of bigger magnitude.
® ®
l If two vectors have equal magnitude i.e. |A|=|B| = a and angle between them is q then resultant will be at
® ® q
the bisector of A and B and its magnitude is equal to 2acos
2
|B
q/2
|=
® ® ® q a
cos
|R|=|A + B| = 2acos
2
2a
120o
R=
Special Case : If q = 120° then R = 2a cos =a q/2

2 q/2 |A|=a
® ® ® ® ®
i.e. If q = 120° then |R|=|A + B|=|A|=|B|= a
l If resultant of two unit vectors is another unit vector then the angle between them (q) = 120°.
or
If the angle between two unit vectors (q) = 120°, then their resultant is another unit vector.
l To a vector, only a vector of same type can be added that represents the same physical quantity and the
resultant is also a vector of the same type.
l The resultant of three non-coplanar vectors can never be zero, or minimum number of non coplanar vectors
whose sum can be zero is four.
28
Physics
ALLEN
1.9.6 Addition of More Than Two Vectors (Law of Polygon) D D
If some vectors are represented by sides of a
C +D
polygon in same order, then their
C
B+
C
+B +
resultant vector is represented by the
C
A+
closing side of polygon in the opposite
R=A
order. B
B A+
® ® ® ® ® B
R = A+ B+ C+ D A
A
POINTS TO REMEMBER
l In a polygon if all the vectors are in same order then their C

resultant is a null vector. D
® ® ® ® ® ®
N
A+ B + C+ D+ E = 0
E B
l If n vectors of equal magnitude are arranged at equal angles of A
separation then their resultant is always zero.
E
1.9.7 Subtraction of two vectors
L
® ® ® ® ®
Let A and B are two vectors. Their difference i.e. A – B can be treated as sum of the vector A and
L
® B
vector (– B ).
® ® ® ®
A - B = A + (- B )
A
q A
® ® ®
To subtract B from A , invert the direction of B and add to a
® –B
A
vector A according to law of triangle.

–B
® ®
|A - B|= A 2 + B 2 - 2AB cos q –B
® ®
q the angle between A and B .
® B sin q
Let angle of difference vector from vector A is a then tana =
A - B cos q
POINTS TO REMEMBER
® ® ®
l If three vectors A , B and C are represented both in magnitude and direction by the sides of a triangle
taken in the same order, then g
S B
A B C
= = a
Q
sin a sin b sin g
® ® C
A
a = angle between B and C .
® b
® P
b = angle between C and A .
® ®
g = angle between A and B
29
TIM BATCH : IX
ALLEN
® ® ® ®
l The vector subtraction doesn't follow commutative law i.e. A – B ¹ B – A
l The vector subtraction doesn't follow associative law i.e.
r r r r r r
( )
A-B -C ¹ A- B-C ( )
® ®
l If two vectors have equal magnitude, i.e. |A|=|B|= a and q is the angle between them, then
® ® q
2 2 2
|A - B| = a + a - 2a cos q = 2a sin
2
q ® ® ® ®
Special case : If q = 60o then 2a sin = a i.e. |A - B|=|A|=|B|= a at q = 60°
2
l If difference of two unit vectors is another unit vector then the angle between them is 60° or
If two unit vectors are at angle of 60°, then their difference is also a unit vector.
l In physics whenever we want to calculate change in a vector quantity, we have to use vector subtraction.
® ® ®
N
For example, change in velocity (D V ) = V - V
2 1
l If two vectors are such that their sum and their difference vectors have equal magnitude then angle
® ® ® ®
between the given vectors (q) = 90°. |A + B| = |A - B|
E
or A2 + B2 + 2AB cos q = A2 + B2 – 2AB cos q or cos q = 0 or q = 90°
® ® ® ® ® ®
l If A + B = A - B then B = 0 ( null vector)
L
1.9.8 Resolution of vectors into rectangular components
L
When a vector is splitted into components which are at right angle to each other then the components are
called rectangular or orthogonal components of that vector.
® ® Y
(i) Let vector a = OA in X - Y plane, makes a angle from X-axis. (j)
A
Draw perpendiculars AB and AC from A on the X-axis and Y- C A
axis respectively.
® a
asina
(ii) The length OB is called projection of OA on X-axis or component

® a (i)
of OA along X-axis and is represented by ax. Similarly OC is O acosa X
® B
the projection of OA on Y-axis and is represented by ay.
According to law of vector addition.
® ® ® ®
a = OA = OB+ OC
r
Thus a has been resolved into two parts, one along OX and the other along OY, which are mutually
perpendicular.
OB
In DOAB, = cos a or OB = OA cos a or ax = a cos a
OA
AB
and = sina or AB = OA sin a = OC or ay = a sin a
OA
\
If $i and $j denote unit vectors along OX and OY respectively then
® ®
OB = a cos a $i and OC = a sin a $j
So that according to rule of vector addition
® ® ® ® ®
OA =OB + OC or a = a x $i + a y $j or a = a cos a $i + a sin a $j
ay
( a x )2 + ( a y )
2
a= and a = tan -1
ax
30
Physics
ALLEN
1.9.9 Rectangular Components of a Vector in Three Dimensions
r ®
(i) Consider a vector a represented by OA , as shown in figure. Consider O as origin and draw a rectangular
parallelopiped with its three edges along the X, Y and Z axes.
Y
r
(ii) Vector a is the diagonal of the parallelopiped whose projections on x, C
r r r ay
y and z axis are a x , a y and a z respectively. These are the three
r
A
rectangular components of A .
® ® ® a
Using triangle law of vector addition OA =O E+ EA
ax B
® ® ® O
Using parallelogram law of vector addition OE = (OB+ OD) X
D az
® ® ® ®
\ OA = (O B+ OD) + EA E
Z
® ® ® ® ® ®
EA = OC \ OA = OB + OD + OC
N
® ® ® ® ® ®
Now ˆ \
OA = a , OB = a xî, OC = a yˆj and OD = a z K a = a x $i + a y $j + a z k$
Also (OA)2 = (OE)2 + (EA)2 But (OE)2 = (OB)2 + (OD)2
E
and EA = OC \ (OA)2 = (OB)2 + (OD)2 + (OC)2
2 2 2
or a2 = a x + a y + a z
L
2 2 2
a = a x + a y + az
Directional Cosines
L
r
Let A makes angle : a with x axis, b with y axis and g with z axis
Y
Ax
cos a = Ax = A cos a
A
A A
Ay b
cos b = Ay = A cos b
A a
g X
A Z
cos g = z Az = A cos g
A
cos a, cos b and cos g are directional cosines of the vector.
Putting the value of Ax, Ay and Az in eq. (1) we get
A2 = A2 cos2 a + A2 cos2 b + A2 cos2 g
or or ( 1 - sin2 a ) + ( 1 - sin2 b ) + ( 1 - sin2 g ) = 1

or 3 - (sin2 a + sin2 b + sin2 g ) = 1 or sin2 a + sin2 b + sin2 g = 2
POINTS TO REMEMBER
l A vector can be resolved into maximum infinite number of components.
For example 10$i = $i + $i + $i............10 times
$i $i $i
= + + ............20 times
2 2 2
l Maximum number of rectangular components of a vector in a plane is two. But maximum number of
rectangular components in space (3-dimensions) is three which are along X, Y and Z axes.
l A vector is independent of the orientation of axes but the components of that vector depends upon the
orientation of axes.
l The component of a vector along its perpendicular direction is always zero.
31
TIM BATCH : IX
ALLEN
Examples
® ®
Example 43 : If P = 3$i + 4$j + 12k$ then find magnitude and the direction cosines of the P .
® 2 2 2
Solution : magnitude P is = Px + Py + Pz = 32 + 42 + 122 = 169 = 13
Px 3 Py 4 Pz 12
cos a = = , cosb = = , cos g = =
P 13 P 13 P 13
Example 44 : Find out the angle made by ( $i + $j ) vector from X and Y axes respectively.
2 2 Y
a = a x + a y = 12 + 12 = 2
i+ Ù
Solution :
j
= Ù
N
a
ax 1
°
= 5°
45
cos a = \ a = 45° =4
b=
a 2 a
E
X
ay 1
cos b = = \ b = 45° $i + $j is at bisector of X and Y axes.
a 2
L
®
Example 45 : Find out the angle made by A = $i + $j + k$ vector from X, Y and Z axes respectively.
L
2 2 2
Solution : Given Ax = Ay = Az = 1 so A= Ax + Ay + Az = 1 + 1 + 1 = 3
Ax = 1 1
A
cos a = or a = cos -1
A 3 3
Ay 1 1
cos b = = or b = cos -1
A 3 3
Az 1 1
cos g = = or g = cos -1
A 3 3
Example 46 : A force of 4N is inclined at an angle of 60° from the vertical.
Find out its components along horizontal and vertical directions.

Solution : Vertical Component = 4 cos 60° = 2N
Horizontal component = 4 sin 60° = 2 3 N
Example 47 : A force is inclined at an angle of 60° from the horizontal. If the horizontal component of the force
is 40N, calculate the vertical component.
Solution : Ax = 40N, Ay = ?, q = 60°
A
Q Ax = A cosq \ 40 = A cos 60° = or A = 80N
2
A 3 80 3
Now Ay = A sin 60° = = = 40 3 N = 40 × 1.732 = 69.28 N
2 2
32
Physics
ALLEN
®
Example 48 : Determine that vector which when added to the resultant of P = 2$i + 7$j - 10k$ and
®
Q = $i + 2$j + 3k$ gives a unit vector along X-axis.
® ® ®
Solution : Resultant R = P + Q = (2$i + 7$j - 10k$ ) + ($i + 2$j + 3k$ ) = 3$i + 9$j - 7k$
®
But R + required vector = $i
®
or required vector = $i – R = $i - (3$i + 9$j - 7k$ ) = -2$i - 9$j + 7k$
Example 49 : Resolve a weight of 20 N in two directions which are parallel and perpendicular to a slope
inclined at 30° to the horizontal.
Solution : Component perpendicular to the plane
N
W^ = W cos30°
30°
W||
E
3
= ( 20 ) = 10 3 Ans. W^
2 W=20N
and component parallel to the plane 30°
L
æ1ö
W|| = W sin 30° = (20 ) ç ÷ = 10N
è2ø
L
®® ® B Y
Example 50 : Add vectors A , B and C which have equal magnitude of A
A
50 unit and are inclined at angles of 45°, 135° and 315°
5°
respectively from x-axis. 13 45°
18 X
0°
® ®
Solution : Angle between B and C =315°-135°= 180°
They balance each other C
\
®
so sum these three is A = 50 unit at 45° from X-axis
Example 51 : The sum of three vectors shown in figure, is zero. C

®
(i) What is the magnitude of vector OB ? D 45° B
®
O
(ii) What is the magnitude of vector OC ?
® A = 10N
Solution : Resolve OC into two rectangular components.
OD = OC cos 45° and OE = OC sin 45°
For zero resultant OE = OA or OC sin 45° = 10N
1 C E
OC ´ = 10N or OC = 10 2N
2
45° B
and OD = OB or OC cos 45° = OB
D O
1
or 10 2 ´ = OB or OB = 10N
2 A = 10N
\ OC = 10 2N and OB = 10N
33
TIM BATCH : IX
ALLEN
Addition of Vectors
r r r
1. Two vectors a and b inclined at an angle q w.r.t. each other have a resultant c which makes an angle b
r r r
with a . If the directions of a and b are interchanged, then the resultant will have the same :
(1) Magnitude (2) Direction
(3) Magnitude as well as direction (4) Neither magnitude nor direction
2. The resultant of two vectors of magnitudes 2A and 2 A acting at an angle q is 10 A . Find the value of
q?
3. Two vectors acting in the opposite directions have a resultant of 10 units. If they act at right angles to each
other, then the resultant is 50 units. Calculate the magnitude of two vectors.
N
4. The following sets of three vectors act on a body, whose resultant can not be zero :
(1) 10, 10, 10 (2) 10, 10, 20 (3) 10, 20, 20 (4) 10, 20, 40
5. The vector sum of 6 coplanar forces, each of magnitude F, when each force is making an angle of p/3 with
E
the preceding it, is :
(1) F (2) 6F (3) 3F/2 (4) zero
L
6. Which of the following sets of displacements might be capable of returning a car to its starting point ?
(1) 4, 6, 8 and 15 km (2) 10, 30, 50 and 120 km
L
(3) 5, 10, 30 and 50 km (4) 40, 50, 75 and 200 km
1.9.10 Multiplication or Division of a Vector by a Scalar

®
A
® ® ® ® A
If there is a vector A and a scalar K and if B = KA and C = then
K
(a) In multiplication of a vector by a scalar the magnitude becomes K times while the direction remains same.
® ®
So that angle between A and B is zero.
(b) In division of a vector by a scalar, the magnitude becomes (1/K) times and the direction remains same.
® ®
So that angle between A and C is zero.
POINTS TO REMEMBER
l A scalar or a vector, can not be divided by a vector.

l Vectors of different types can be multiplied to generate new physical quantities which may be a scalar or a
vector. If, in multiplication of two vectors, the generated physical quantity is a scalar, then their product is
called scalar or dot product and if it is a vector, then their product is called vector or cross product.
1.9.11 Scalar Product of Two Vectors

Definition
The scalar product (or dot product) of two vectors is defined as the product of their magnitudes with cosine
of the angle between them.
® ®
Thus if there are two vectors A and B having angle q between them then their scalar product is written as
® ®
A . B = AB cos q
34
Physics
ALLEN
POINTS TO REMEMBER
l It is always a scalar, which is positive if angle between the vectors is acute (i.e.q < 90°) and negative if angle
between them is obtuse (i.e. 90° < q < 180°).
®® ®®
l It is commutative A. B = B.A
® ® ® ®® ®®
l It is distributive A .( B + C ) = A . B + A . C
®®
l According to definition A . B = AB cos q B
A.B = AB cos q
é® ®ù q
-1 A .B ú
The angle between the vectors q = cos ê X
ê AB ú A
ë û
l Scalar product of two vectors will be maximum when cos q = max =1, i.e. q =0°,
®®
i.e, vectors are parallel. (A. B) = AB
N
max
l Scalar product of two vectors will be zero when cos q = 0, i.e. q =90°
®®
( A . B ) =0
E
if the scalar product of two nonzero vectors is zero then vectors are orthogonal or perpendicular to each
other.
L
l In case of orthogonal unit vectors $i, $j and k$
$i. $j = $j. k$ = k$ . $i = 1 ´ 1 ´ cos 90o = 0
L
l The scalar product of a vector by itself is termed as self dot product and is given by
®® ® ® ®
A . A = A A cos0o = A2 Þ | A| = A . A
A
l In case of unit vector n$
n$ . n$ = 1 ´ 1 ´ cos 0o = 1 so n$ . n$ = $i . $i = $j . $j = k$ . k$ = 1
l In terms of components
®® ˆ ˆ
A . B = (A xî + A yˆj + A z k).(B xî + B yˆj + B z k) = (A x B x + A y By + A z Bz )
rr
l Work W = F.d
rr
l Power P = F.v
1.9.12 Vector Product of Two Vectors

Definition C =A× B Ù
n
Ù
The vector product or cross product of two vectors is defined as n
a vector having magnitude equal to the product of their

magnitudes with the sine of angle between them, and its A B
direction is perpendicular to the plane containing both the q
vectors according to right hand screw rule or right hand thumb

rule.
® ®
If A and B are two vectors, then their vector product
® ® ® ® ® ®
i.e. A × B is a vector C defined by C = A ´ B = AB sin q n
ˆ
Here q is the angle between the vectors and the direction of the thumb gives the direction of n̂ .
35
TIM BATCH : IX
ALLEN
Right Hand Thumb Rule
® ®
Place the vector A and B tail to tail.
® ®
Now place stretched fingers and thumb of right hand perpendicular to the plane of A and B such that the
® ®
fingers are along the vector A . If the fingers are now closed through smaller angle so as to go towards B ,
® ® ®
then the thumb gives the direction of A ´ B i. e. C
Right Hand Screw Rule
® ® ®
The direction of A ´ B i.e., C is perpendicular to the plane containing vectors A×B
® ®
N
A and B and towards the advancement of a right handed screw rotated from
® ®
A (first vector) to B (second vector) through the smaller angle between them.
E
Thus, if a right handed screw whose axis is perpendicular to the plane formed by
® ® ® ® A B
A and B is rotated from A to B through the smaller angle between them,
L
q
® ®
then the direction of advancement of the screw gives the direction A ´ B .
L
Example of Vector Product
® ® ® ® ®
(i) Velocity v = w ´ r (ii) Acceleration a = ®
a´ r
A
® ® ®
Here r is position vector and w and a are angular velocity and angular acceleration respectively.
1.9.13 Geometrical Meaning of Vector Product of Two Vectors
® ® ® ®
(i) Consider two vectors A and B which are represented by OP and OQ and ÐPOQ = q
(ii) Co mplete t he parallelo gram OPR Q. Join P with Q. H ere OP = A and O Q = B.
Draw QN ^ OP.
® ®
(iii) Magnitude of cross product of A and B Q R
® ®
|A ´ B | = AB sin q B
= (OP) (OQ sin q)

q
= (OP) (NQ) (Q NQ = OQ sin q) O N
P
A
= base × height
= Area of parallelogram OPRQ
base ´ height (OP) (NQ) 1 ® ®

Area of DPOQ = = = | A ´ B|
2 2 2
® ®
\ Area of parallelogram OPRQ = 2[area of D OPQ] = | A ´ B|
36
Physics
ALLEN
Formulae to Find Area
® ® 1 ® ®
If A and B are two adjacent sides of a triangle, then its area = | A ´ B|
2
® ® ® ®
If A and B are two adjacent sides of a parallelogram then its area =| A ´ B |
® ® 1 ® ®
If A and B are diagonals of a parallelogram then its area = | A ´ B |
2
POINTS TO REMEMBER
l Vector product of two vectors is always a vector perpendicular to the plane containing the two vectors, i.e.,
® ®
orthogonal (perpendicular) to both the vectors A and B
N
A×B=C
l Vector product of two vectors is not commutative i.e.

B
E
® ® ® ® ® ® ® ® A
A´ B ¹ B ´ A But |A ´ B| = |B ´ A|= AB sin q
L
® ® ® ®
Note : A´ B = - B ´ A
B
A
L
® ® ® ®
i.e., in case of vectors A ´ B and B ´ A magnitudes are equal
B × A = –C
but directions are opposite [See the figure]
The vector product is distributive when the order of the vectors is strictly maintained, i.e.
A
l
® ® ® ® ® ® ®
A ´( B + C ) = A´ B + A´ C
® ®
l According to definition of vector product of two vectors A ´ B = A B sin qn
ˆ
é ® ® ù
® ® -1 ê | A ´ B | ú
So |A ´ B|= A B sin q i.e. q = sin ê® ® ú
ê|A|| B |ú
ë û
l The vector product of two vectors will be maximum when sin q = max. = 1, i.e., q =90°
® ®
|A ´ B|max = ABsin90o = AB
i.e. vector product is maximum if the vectors are orthogonal (perpendicular).
l The vector product of two non-zero vectors will be zero when sinq = 0,
® ®
i.e. q = 0° or 180° and |A ´ A|= 0
Therefore if the vector product of two non-zero vectors is zero, then the vectors are collinear.
l The self cross product, i.e., product of a vector by itself is a zero vector or a null vector.
® ® ®
i.e. A ´ A = (AA sin0o )n
ˆ= 0
37
TIM BATCH : IX
ALLEN
r r
l In case of unit vector n$ ˆ = 1 ´ 1 ´ sin 0o ˆn = 0
ˆń
n so that î ´ î = ˆj ´ ˆj = ˆk ´ kˆ = 0
l In case of orthogonal unit vectors $i, $j and k$ ; according to right hand thumb rule
î ´ ˆj = kˆ , ˆj ´ ˆk = î , kˆ ´ î = ˆj and ˆj ´ î = -kˆ , ˆk ´ ˆj = -î , î ´ ˆk = -ˆj
j j
k i
i
k
(A) (B)
l In terms of components
N
î ˆj kˆ
® ® Ax Ay Az ˆ B -A B )
= î(A y B z - A z B y ) - ˆj(A x B z - A z B x ) + k(A
E
A´ B = x y y x
Bx By Bz
L
® ®
® ® A´ B
l Unit vector perpendicular to A as well as B is n̂ = .
® ®
|A´ B|
L
® ® ®
If A , B and C are coplanar, then ® ® ®
A .( B ´ C ) = 0 .
A
Angle between (® ® ® ® o
A + B ) and ( A ´ B ) is 90 .
Examples
® ® ® ® ® ®
Example 52 : If | A + B| = | A - B|, then find the angle between A and B .
Solution : Q |® ® ® ®
A + B| =| A - B| Þ A2 + B2 + 2AB cos q = A2 + B2 - 2AB cos q
or A2 + B2 + 2AB cos q = A2 + B2 – 2AB cos q or cos q = 0 \ q = 90°
® ® ® ®
Example 53 : If A = 4$i + nj$ - 2k$ and B = 2$i + 3$j + k$ , then find the value of n so that A ^ B .
®®
Solution : Dot product of two mutually perpendicular vectors is zero A . B = 0
\ ˆ ˆ + 3ˆj + k)
(4iˆ + njˆ - 2k).(2i ˆ =0 Þ (4 ´ 2) + (n ´ 3) + (-2 ´ 1) = 0
Þ 3n = – 6 Þ n = – 2
® ®
Example 54 : If F = (4î - 10ˆj) and r = (5iˆ - 3j)
ˆ , then calculate torque.
Solution : Here ® and ®

r = 5 î - 3 ˆj + 0kˆ F = 4 î - 10 ˆj + 0 kˆ
î ˆj kˆ
® ® ® = 5 -3 0 ˆ -50 + 12) = -38kˆ
\ t=r´F = î(0 - 0) - ˆj(0 - 0) + k(
4 -10 0
38
Physics
ALLEN
Example 55 : ˆ and (iˆ - ˆj + 2k)
Find a unit vector perpendicular to both the vectors (2iˆ + 3ˆj + k) ˆ .
® ®
Solution : Let A = 2iˆ + 3ˆj + kˆ and B = î - ˆj + 2kˆ
r ® ®
r A´ B
unit vector perpendicular to both A and B is n̂ = ® ®
| A´ B |
î ˆj kˆ
® ® = 2 3 1 = î(6 + 1) - ˆj(4 - 1) + k(
ˆ -2 - 3) = 7iˆ - 3ˆj - 5kˆ
A´ B
1 -1 2
1 ˆ
\ ® ® 2 2 2 unit \ n̂ = (7iˆ - 3jˆ - 5k)
| A ´ B | = 7 + ( -3) + (-5) = 83 83
® ®
Example 56 : The diagonals of a parallelogram are expressed as A = 5iˆ - 4ˆj + 3kˆ and B = 3iˆ - 2jˆ - kˆ .
N
Calculate the magnitude of area of this parallelogram.
r r
Solution : When A and B are the diagonals of a parallelogram, then its
1 ® ®
E
Area = | A ´ B|
2
î ˆj kˆ
L
® ® ˆ -4 3 ˆ 5 3 ˆ 5 -4
A ´ B = 5 -4 3 = i - 2 - 1 - j 3 - 1 + k 3 -2
3 -2 -1
L
= î {(-4)(-1) - (3)(-2)} - ˆj {(5)(-1) - (3)(3)} + kˆ {(5)(-2) - (-4)(3)} = 10iˆ + 14ˆj + 2kˆ
® ®
| A ´ B| = (10)2 + (14)2 + (2)2 = 300 area of parallelogram
A
1 ® ® 1
= | A ´ B|= ´ 10 3 = 5 3
2 2
uur ur
Example 57 : Find angle between A = 3iˆ + 4jˆ and B = 12iˆ + 5ˆj ?
uur ur
A.B ( )(
3iˆ + 4ˆj . 12iˆ + 5ˆj)
Solution : We have cos q = =
AB 32 + 42 122 + 52
36 + 20 56 æ 56 ö
cos q = = q = cos -1 ç ÷
5 ´ 13 65 è 65 ø
r
Example 58 : A physical quantity (m = 3 kg) is multiplied by a vector ar such that F = mar . Find the magnitude
r
and direction of F is
r
(i) a = 2 m/s2 East wards
r
(ii) a = –8 m/s2 North wards
r r
Solution : (i) F = ma = 3 ´ 2ms -2 East wards
= 6 N East wards
r r
(ii) F = ma = 3 ´ ( -8 ) N North wards
= –24 N North wards

= 24 N South wards
39
TIM BATCH : IX
ALLEN
Multiplication of Vectors
r r r r
1. If a = 2iˆ + 3ˆj + 4kˆ and b = 4iˆ + 3jˆ + 2kˆ , find the angle between a and b .
®
If P = 2iˆ - 3jˆ + kˆ and Q = 3iˆ + 2ˆj , then P · Q is :
® ® ®
2.
(1) zero (2) 6 (3) 12 (4) 15
A force F = 3iˆ - 2jˆ + 4kˆ displaces a body from a point A (8, – 2, – 3) to the point B (–2, 0, 6). The work
®
3.
done is :
(1) 1 unit (2) 2 units (3) 3 units (4) 4 units
® ® ® ® ® ®
4. If A = î + ˆj + kˆ and B = 2iˆ + ˆj find (a) A × B (b) A ´ B
N
® ® ® ® ® ®
5. If | A | = 4,|B| = 3 and q = 60º in the figure, find (a) A × B (b) | A ´ B|
E
®
B
L
q ®
A
ur ur ur
L
® ® ®
6. Given : C = A + B Also, the magnitude of A , B and C are 12, 5 and 13 units respectively. The angle
ur ur
between A and B is :
p p
(1) 0º (2) (3) (4) p
A
4 2
40
Physics
ALLEN
ANSWER KEY
CHECK YOUR LEARNING–1
1 5 p q 4 9 13
1. (i) , ; (ii) , 2. - , 3. - 7,
5 2 q p 3 5 7
5 8 3 -5 1 1
4. , 5. (i) 5, –2 (ii) -2, (iii) , - 2 (iv) ,
2 3 2 2 4 4
1 -1 + 33 -1 - 33
6. (i) 3, (ii) ,
2 4 4
N
4 3 4 3 5
1. sinq = , cosq = , tanq = , cotq = , cosecq =
5 5 3 4 4
E
1 3 3
2. (i) - , (ii) , (iii) , (iv) – , (v) 1, (vi) 0
3 2 2 2
L
1 1 -2 3
3. (i) –1 (ii) - (iii) - (iv) (v) 3 (vi) - 3 (vii) - 2 (viii)
3 2 3 2
L
(ix) 3
A
7 5/2 1
1. (i) x , (ii) – 3x– 4, (iii) 1, (iv) 5x4 + 3x2 + 2x–1/2 , (v) 20x3 + 9x1/2 + 9, (vi) 2ax + b, (vii) 15x4 – 3 +
2 x2
(viii) 2t + 5, (ix) u + at, (x) 30 cm s 2 –1,
(xi) 2 pr
2 1 2x - x 4
2. (i) 4x + 3, (ii) 216 x7 – 144 x5 + 105 x4 + 135 x2 – 40, (iii) – , (iv) – , (v)
(2x + 1)2 (4x + 5)2 (x3 + 1)2

x16 15 16 sin ( 4x + 3 )
1. (i) + c, (ii) – 2x –1/2
+c, (iii) x + c (iv) +c
16 16 4
GMm æ 1 1ö 1
2. (i) , (ii) kq1q2 ç - ÷ , (iii) M (v2 – u2), (iv) ¥ , (v) 1, (vi) 1, (vii) 2 (viii) 2
R è r2 r1 ø 2

1. (1) 2. 45° 3. P = 40; Q = 30 4. (4) 5. (4) 6. (1)
-1 æ 25 ö
1. q = cos çè ÷ø 2. (1) 3. (2) 4. éë a = 3, b = -î + 2jˆ - kˆ ùû 5. éëa = 6, b = 6 3 ùû
29
6. (3)
41

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Basic Maths in Physics and Vector New

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Physics

Types of quadratic equations

(i) b = 0, c ¹ 0 i.e. of the type ax2 + c = 0

(iv) b ¹ 0, c ¹ 0 i.e. of the type ax2 + bx + c = 0

(a) Solution by factorisation

–(– 6) ± (–6)2 – 4(1)(4) 6 ± 36 – 16 6 ± 20 6 ± 4´5

Thus the roots of the equation are 3 + 5 and 3 – 5 .

- b ± b 2 - 4ac x = - ( -1) ± ( -1)2 - 4 ( 2) (-3)

CHECK YOUR LEARNING-1

(i) 10x2 – 27x + 5 = 0 (ii) pqx2 – (p2 + q2) x + pq = 0

2. Solve for x : 15x2 – 7x – 36 = 0

3. Solve for y : 7y2 – 6y – 13 7 = 0

4. Solve for x : 6x2 + 40 = 31x

5. Find the roots of the following quadratic equations by factorisation :

(i) x2 – 3x – 10 = 0 (ii) 2x2 + x – 6 = 0

(i) 2x2 – 7x + 3 = 0 (ii) 2x2 + x – 4 = 0

length of leg adjacent to ÐA b

l Cosecant, secant and cotangent

1.3.1 Reciprocal relations

(i) sin q.cosec q = 1 (ii) cos q. sec q = 1 (iii) tan q.cot q = 1

1.3.2 Quotient relations

Consider a right angled triangle in which for an acute angle q, we have :

1.3.3 Trigonometric Identities

Base = BC, Perpendicular = AB and Hypotenuse = AC.

(ii) cos (90° – q) = sin q

sin ( -q ) = - sin q cosec ( -q ) = - cosecq

tan (180° + q ) = tan q cot (180° + q ) = cot q

Example 8 : Find x, y and perimeter of the triangle

Perimeter of the triangle = x + y + 5 =3 + 4 + 5 = 12 cm

-1 £ sin q1 £ 1 , 0 £ cos2 q2 £ 1 , -¥ < tan q3 < ¥

(iv) cosec 31° – sec 59°

sin 18° sin 18° sin 18°

tan 26° tan (90° - 64°) cot 64°

1.3.8 Small Angle Approximation

1.3.9 Maximum and Minimum Values of Some useful Trigonometric Functions

• -1 £ sin q £ 1 • -1 £ cos q £ 1 • - a2 + b2 £ a cos q + b sin q £ a2 + b2

(iii) ymax = 32 + 42 =5 and ymin = – 32 + 42 = – 5

Solution : Q x = 3 sin wt - cos wt

Thus, the particle is confined in the region -2 £ x £ 2

CHECK YOUR LEARNING-2

1.5 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS

= slope of chord AB.

1.5.7 Product of two functions : Product rule

dy ( cos x )( x ) - ( sin x )(1) x cos x - sin x

(ii) Here f(x) = 4x3, g(x) = ex So f ¢ ( x ) = 12x 2 ,g ¢ ( x ) = e x

Another notation is f"(x) = D2f(x).

To find f"(x), we differentiate f'(x) :

dx è dx ø the slope decreases

the height of water level rises when the height is h, is

CHECK YOUR LEARNING-3

(v) y = 5x4 + 6x3/2 + 9x (vi) y = ax2 + bx + c

1.6 INTEGRAL CALCULUS

2cos2 x (1 + cos2x )dx = 1 dx + 1 cos2xdx

1.6.1 Definite Integration

If we sum up all areas between x=a and x= b then

ò f ( x ) dx = shaded area between curve and x-axis. x

straight road is shown in figure. The average

ò vdt Area of v-t graph between t=0 to t = 25 s 1 éæ 25 + 10 ö ù

CHECK YOUR LEARNING-4

2. Evaluate the following integrals

7. Area of a parallelogram = base × height

1.8.2 Formulae for determination of volume

2. Volume of a cube = (side)3 a

4. Volume of a cylinder = p r2l (r = radius and l is length)