2/24/22, 9:46 AM Nondestructive testing - Wikipedia

Nondestructive testing
Nondestructive testing (NDT) is any of a wide group of
analysis techniques used in science and technology industry to
evaluate the properties of a material, component or system
without causing damage.[1]
The terms nondestructive
examination (NDE), nondestructive inspection (NDI),
and nondestructive evaluation (NDE) are also commonly
used to describe this technology.[2]
Because NDT does not
permanently alter the article being inspected, it is a highly
valuable technique that can save both money and time in
product evaluation, troubleshooting, and research. The six X-ray vault used in Radiography
most frequently used NDT methods are eddy-current,
magnetic-particle, liquid penetrant, radiographic, ultrasonic,
and visual testing.[3] NDT is commonly used in forensic engineering, mechanical engineering,
petroleum engineering, electrical engineering, civil engineering, systems engineering, aeronautical
engineering, medicine, and art.[1] Innovations in the field of nondestructive testing have had a
profound impact on medical imaging, including on echocardiography, medical ultrasonography,
and digital radiography.

NDT methods rely upon use of electromagnetic radiation, sound and other signal conversions to
examine a wide variety of articles (metallic and non-metallic, food-product, artifacts and
antiquities, infrastructure) for integrity, composition, or condition with no alteration of the article
undergoing examination. Visual inspection (VT), the most commonly applied NDT method, is
quite often enhanced by the use of magnification, borescopes, cameras, or other optical
arrangements for direct or remote viewing. The internal structure of a sample can be examined for
a volumetric inspection with penetrating radiation (RT), such as X-rays, neutrons or gamma
radiation. Sound waves are utilized in the case of ultrasonic testing (UT), another volumetric NDT
method – the mechanical signal (sound) being reflected by conditions in the test article and
evaluated for amplitude and distance from the search unit (transducer). Another commonly used
NDT method used on ferrous materials involves the application of fine iron particles (either
suspended in liquid or dry powder – fluorescent or colored) that are applied to a part while it is
magnetized, either continually or residually. The particles will be attracted to leakage fields of
magnetism on or in the test object, and form indications (particle collection) on the object's
surface, which are evaluated visually. Contrast and probability of detection for a visual
examination by the unaided eye is often enhanced by using liquids to penetrate the test article
surface, allowing for visualization of flaws or other surface conditions. This method (liquid
penetrant testing) (PT) involves using dyes, fluorescent or colored (typically red), suspended in
fluids and is used for non-magnetic materials, usually metals.

Analyzing and documenting a nondestructive failure mode can also be accomplished using a high-
speed camera recording continuously (movie-loop) until the failure is detected. Detecting the
failure can be accomplished using a sound detector or stress gauge which produces a signal to
trigger the high-speed camera. These high-speed cameras have advanced recording modes to
capture some non-destructive failures.[4] After the failure the high-speed camera will stop
recording. The captured images can be played back in slow motion showing precisely what
happened before, during and after the nondestructive event, image by image.

Contents
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nondestructive evaluation and metallurgy tests. The

American Welding Society (AWS) has a Certified Welding
Inspector Certification (https://www.aws.org/certificatio
n/page/certified-welding-inspector-2) for professional
welders performing NDT inspections.

Structural mechanics

Structure can be complex systems that undergo different

loads during their lifetime, e.g. Lithium-ion batteries.[6]
Some complex structures, such as the turbo machinery in a
liquid-fuel rocket, can also cost millions of dollars.
Engineers will commonly model these structures as
coupled second-order systems, approximating dynamic
structure components with springs, masses, and dampers. 1. Section of material with a
The resulting sets of differential equations are then used to surface-breaking crack that is
not visible to the naked eye.
derive a transfer function that models the behavior of the
system. 2. Penetrant is applied to the
surface.
In NDT, the structure undergoes a dynamic input, such as 3. Excess penetrant is removed.
the tap of a hammer or a controlled impulse. Key 4. Developer is applied, rendering
properties, such as displacement or acceleration at the crack visible.
different points of the structure, are measured as the
corresponding output. This output is recorded and
compared to the corresponding output given by the transfer function and the known input.
Differences may indicate an inappropriate model (which may alert engineers to unpredicted
instabilities or performance outside of tolerances), failed components, or an inadequate control
system.

Reference standards, which are structures that intentionally flawed in order to be compared with
components intended for use in the field, are often used in NDT. Reference standards can be with
many NDT techniques, such as UT,[7] RT[8] and VT.

Relation to medical procedures

Several NDT methods are related to clinical procedures, such as

radiography, ultrasonic testing, and visual testing. Technological
improvements or upgrades in these NDT methods have migrated over
from medical equipment advances, including digital radiography (DR),
phased array ultrasonic testing (PAUT), and endoscopy (borescope or
assisted visual inspection).

Notable events in academic and Chest radiography

indicating a peripheral
industrial NDT bronchial carcinoma.

1854 Hartford, Connecticut – A boiler at the Fales and Gray Car

works explodes,[9][10] killing 21 people and seriously injuring 50. Within a decade, the State of
Connecticut passes a law requiring annual inspection (in this case visual) of boilers.
1880–1920 – The "Oil and Whiting" method of crack detection[11] is used in the railroad
industry to find cracks in heavy steel parts. (A part is soaked in thinned oil, then painted with a
white coating that dries to a powder. Oil seeping out from cracks turns the white powder

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2008 – Academia NDT International has been officially founded and has its base office in
Brescia (Italy) www.academia-ndt.org
2012 – ISO 9712:2012 ISO Qualification and Certification of NDT Personnel (https://www.iso.o
rg/standard/57037.html)
2020 – Indian Society for Non-destructive Testing (ISNT) (https://isnt.in) Accreditation
Certification from NABCB for Qualification and Certification of NDT Personnel as per ISO
9712:2012

ISO 9712:2012 (https://www.iso.org/standard/57037.ht

ml) — Non-destructive testing — qualification and
certification of NDT personnel
This International Standard specifies requirements for principles for the qualification and
certification of personnel who perform industrial non-destructive testing (NDT).

The system specified in this International Standard can also apply to other NDT methods or to
new techniques within an established NDT method, provided a comprehensive scheme of
certification exists and the method or technique is covered by International, regional or national
standards or the new NDT method or technique has been demonstrated to be effective to the
satisfaction of the certification body.

The certification covers proficiency in one or more of the following methods: a) acoustic emission
testing; b) eddy current testing; c) infrared thermographic testing; d) leak testing (hydraulic
pressure tests excluded); e) magnetic testing; f) penetrant testing; g) radiographic testing; h) strain
gauge testing; i) ultrasonic testing; j) visual testing (direct unaided visual tests and visual tests
carried out during the application of another NDT method are excluded).

Methods and techniques

NDT is divided into various methods of nondestructive testing,
each based on a particular scientific principle. These methods
may be further subdivided into various techniques. The various
methods and techniques, due to their particular natures, may
lend themselves especially well to certain applications and be
of little or no value at all in other applications. Therefore,
choosing the right method and technique is an important part
of the performance of NDT.

Acoustic emission testing (AE or AT)

Acoustic microscopy
Blue etch anodize (BEA) An example of a 3D replicating
Dye penetrant inspection or liquid penetrant testing (PT or technique. The flexible high-
LPI) resolution replicas allow surfaces to
Electromagnetic testing (ET) or electromagnetic inspection be examined and measured under
(commonly known as "EMI") laboratory conditions. A replica can
be taken from all solid materials.
Alternating current field measurement (ACFM)
Alternating current potential drop measurement (ACPD)
Barkhausen testing
Direct current potential drop measurement (DCPD)
Eddy-current testing (ECT)
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Raman Spectroscopy
Optical microscopy
Positive material identification (PMI)
Radiographic testing (RT) (see also Industrial radiography and Radiography)
Computed radiography
Digital radiography (real-time)
Neutron imaging
SCAR (small controlled area radiography)
X-ray computed tomography (CT)
Resonant inspection
Resonant acoustic method (RAM)[18]
Scanning electron microscopy
Surface temper etch (Nital Etch)
Ultrasonic testing (UT)
Acoustic resonance technology (ART)
Angle beam testing
Electromagnetic acoustic transducer (EMAT) (non-contact)
Laser ultrasonics (LUT)
Internal rotary inspection system (IRIS) ultrasonics for tubes
Phased array ultrasonics (PAUT)
Thickness measurement
Time of flight diffraction ultrasonics (TOFD)
Time-of-flight ultrasonic determination of 3D elastic constants (TOF)
Vibration analysis
Visual inspection (VT)
Pipeline video inspection
Weight and load testing of structures
Corroscan/C-scan
3D computed tomography
Industrial CT scanning
Heat Exchanger Life Assessment System
RTJ Flange Special Ultrasonic Testing

Personnel training, qualification and certification

Successful and consistent application of nondestructive testing techniques depends heavily on
personnel training, experience and integrity. Personnel involved in application of industrial NDT
methods and interpretation of results should be certified, and in some industrial sectors
certification is enforced by law or by the applied codes and standards.[19]

NDT professionals and managers who seek to further their growth, knowledge and experience to
remain competitive in the rapidly advancing technology field of nondestructive testing should
consider joining NDTMA, a member organization of NDT Managers and Executives who work to
provide a forum for the open exchange of managerial, technical and regulatory information critical

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Canada also implements an ISO 9712 central certification scheme, which is administered by
Natural Resources Canada, a government department.[33][34][35]

The aerospace sector worldwide sticks to employer based schemes.[36] In America it is based
mostly on the Aerospace Industries Association's (AIA) AIA-NAS-410 [37] and in the European
Union on the equivalent and very similar standard EN 4179.[23] However EN 4179:2009 includes
an option for central qualification and certification by a National aerospace NDT board or
NANDTB (https://www.bindt.org/NANDTB/) (paragraph 4.5.2).

Levels of certification

Most NDT personnel certification schemes listed above specify three "levels" of qualification
and/or certification, usually designated as Level 1, Level 2 and Level 3 (although some codes
specify Roman numerals, like Level II). The roles and responsibilities of personnel in each level are
generally as follows (there are slight differences or variations between different codes and
standards):[25][23]

Level 1 are technicians qualified to perform only specific calibrations and tests under close
supervision and direction by higher level personnel. They can only report test results. Normally
they work following specific work instructions for testing procedures and rejection criteria.
Level 2 are engineers or experienced technicians who are able to set up and calibrate testing
equipment, conduct the inspection according to codes and standards (instead of following
work instructions) and compile work instructions for Level 1 technicians. They are also
authorized to report, interpret, evaluate and document testing results. They can also supervise
and train Level 1 technicians. In addition to testing methods, they must be familiar with
applicable codes and standards and have some knowledge of the manufacture and service of
tested products.
Level 3 are usually specialized engineers or very experienced technicians. They can establish
NDT techniques and procedures and interpret codes and standards. They also direct NDT
laboratories and have central role in personnel certification. They are expected to have wider
knowledge covering materials, fabrication and product technology.

Terminology
The standard US terminology for Nondestructive testing is defined in standard ASTM E-1316.[38]
Some definitions may be different in European standard EN 1330.

Indication
The response or evidence from an examination, such as a blip on the screen of an
instrument. Indications are classified as true or false. False indications are those caused by
factors not related to the principles of the testing method or by improper implementation of
the method, like film damage in radiography, electrical interference in ultrasonic testing etc.
True indications are further classified as relevant and non relevant. Relevant indications are
those caused by flaws. Non relevant indications are those caused by known features of the
tested object, like gaps, threads, case hardening etc.
Interpretation
Determining if an indication is of a type to be investigated. For example, in electromagnetic
testing, indications from metal loss are considered flaws because they should usually be
investigated, but indications due to variations in the material properties may be harmless and
nonrelevant.
Flaw
A type of discontinuity that must be investigated to see if it is rejectable. For example,
porosity in a weld or metal loss.
Evaluation
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4. Bridges, Andrew. "High Speed Cameras for Non-Destructive Testing" (http://www.techbriefs.co

m/subscribe-footer-67/23-ntb/features/feature-articles38/17720-high-speed-cameras-for-non-d
estructive-testing?showall=1&limitstart=). NASA TechBriefs. Retrieved 1 November 2013.
5. Blitz, Jack; G. Simpson (1991). Ultrasonic Methods of Non-Destructive Testing. Springer-
Verlag New York, LLC. ISBN 978-0-412-60470-6.
6. Waldmann, T. (2014). "A Mechanical Aging Mechanism in Lithium-Ion Batteries". Journal of the
Electrochemical Society. 161 (10): A1742–A1747. doi:10.1149/2.1001410jes (https://doi.org/1
0.1149%2F2.1001410jes).
7. "EDM Notch Reference Standards » PH Tool" (https://customers.phtool.com/custom-reference-
standards/edm-notch-reference-standards-gallery/). customers.phtool.com.
8. "Radiography (RT) Reference Standards » PH Tool" (https://customers.phtool.com/custom-refe
rence-standards/radiography-rt-reference-standards/). customers.phtool.com.
9. "Connecticut Digital Archive | Connect. Preserve. Share" (https://collections.ctdigitalarchive.or
g/islandora/object/40002:20791). collections.ctdigitalarchive.org. Retrieved 2019-08-18.
10. "Today in History – Fales & Gray Explosion Underscores Need for a Hartford Hospital |
Connecticut History | a CTHumanities Project" (https://connecticuthistory.org/today-in-history-fa
les-gray-explosion-underscores-need-for-a-hartford-hospital/). Retrieved 2019-08-17.
11. "History of PI" (https://web.archive.org/web/20090823041613/http://www.ndt-ed.org/Education
Resources/CommunityCollege/PenetrantTest/Introduction/history.htm). www.ndt-ed.org.
Archived from the original (http://www.ndt-ed.org/EducationResources/CommunityCollege/Pen
etrantTest/Introduction/history.htm) on 2009-08-23. Retrieved 2006-11-21.
12. Singh S, Goyal A (2007). "The origin of echocardiography: a tribute to Inge Edler" (https://www.
ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2170493). Tex Heart Inst J. 34 (4): 431–8. PMC 2170493 (h
ttps://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2170493). PMID 18172524 (https://pubmed.ncbi.
nlm.nih.gov/18172524).
13. U.S. Patent 3,277,302, titled "X-Ray Apparatus Having Means for Supplying An Alternating
Square Wave Voltage to the X-Ray Tube", granted to Weighart on October 4, 1964, showing
its patent application date as May 10, 1963 and at lines 1-6 of its column 4, also, noting James
F. McNulty’s earlier filed co-pending application for an essential component of invention
14. U.S. Patent 3,289,000, titled "Means for Separately Controlling the Filament Current and
Voltage on a X-Ray Tube", granted to McNulty on November 29, 1966 and showing its patent
application date as March 5, 1963
15. Ahi, Kiarash (2018). "A Method and System for Enhancing the Resolution of Terahertz
Imaging" (https://www.researchgate.net/publication/326183918). Measurement. 138: 614–619.
doi:10.1016/j.measurement.2018.06.044 (https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.measurement.2018.06.0
44). S2CID 116418505 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:116418505).
16. ASTM E1351: "Standard Practice for Production and Evaluation of Field Metallographic
Replicas" (2006)
17. BS ISO 3057 "Non-destructive testing - Metallographic replica techniques of surface
examination" (1998)
18. "Fundamentals of Resonant Acoustic Method NDT" (2005)
19. "ICNDT Guide to Qualification and Certification of Personnel for NDT" (http://www.ndt.net/new
s/files/ICNDTGuidelinesJuly2012.pdf) (PDF). International Committee for NDT. 2012.
20. John Thompson (November 2006). Global review of qualification and certification of personnel
for NDT and condition monitoring. 12th A-PCNDT 2006 – Asia-Pacific Conference on NDT.
Auckland, New Zealand.
21. Recommended Practice No. SNT-TC-1A: Personnel Qualification and Certification in
Nondestructive Testing, (2006)
22. ANSI/ASNT CP-189: ASNT Standard for Qualification and Certification of Nondestructive
Testing Personnel, (2006)

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EN 1330: Non-destructive testing. Terminology. Nine parts. Parts 5 and 6 replaced by

equivalent ISO standards.
EN 1330-1: Non-destructive testing. Terminology. List of general terms (1998)
EN 1330-2: Non-destructive testing. Terminology. Terms common to the non-destructive
testing methods (1998)
EN 1330-3: Non-destructive testing. Terminology. Terms used in industrial radiographic
testing (1997)
EN 1330-4: Non-destructive testing. Terminology. Terms used in ultrasonic testing (2010)
EN 1330-7: Non-destructive testing. Terminology. Terms used in magnetic particle testing
(2005)
EN 1330-8: Non-destructive testing. Terminology. Terms used in leak tightness testing
(1998)
EN 1330-9: Non-destructive testing. Terminology. Terms used in acoustic emission testing
(2009)
EN 1330-10: Non-destructive testing. Terminology. Terms used in visual testing (2003)
EN 1330-11: Non-destructive testing. Terminology. Terms used in X-ray diffraction from
polycrystalline and amorphous materials (2007)
ISO 12706: Non-destructive testing. Penetrant testing. Vocabulary (2009)
ISO 12718: Non-destructive testing. Eddy current testing. Vocabulary (2008)

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