Semantic Network

A semantic network is a graphical knowledge representation technique. This

knowledge representation system is primarily on network structure. The semantic
networks were basically developed to model human memory. A semantic net
consists of nodes connected by arcs. The arcs are defined in a variety of ways,
depending upon the kind of knowledge being represented.

The main idea behind semantic net is that the meaning of a concept comes, from
the ways in which it is connected to other concepts. The semantic network
consists of different nodes and arcs. Each node should contain the information
about objects and each arc should contain the relationship between objects.
Semantic nets are used to find relationships among objects by spreading
activation about from each of two nodes and seeing where the activation met this
process is called intersection search.

Jerry is a cat.

Jerry is a mammal

Jerry is owned by Priya.

Jerry is brown colored.

All Mammals are animal.

In the above diagram, we have represented the different type of knowledge in
the form of nodes and arcs. Each object is connected with another object by some
relation.

Drawbacks in Semantic representation:

Semantic networks try to model human-like memory (Which has 1015 neurons
and links) to store the information, but in practice, it is not possible to build such
a vast semantic network.
Semantic networks do not have any standard definition for the link names.
These networks are not intelligent and depend on the creator of the system.

Advantages of Semantic network:

Semantic networks are a natural representation of knowledge.
Semantic networks convey meaning in a transparent manner.
These networks are simple and easily understandable.
 Frame

• Frames can also be regarded as an extension to Semantic nets.

• Indeed it is not clear where the distinction between a semantic net and

a frame ends.

• Initially, semantic nets were used to represent labelled connections

between objects. As tasks became more complex, the representation

needs to be more structured. The more structured the system, the

more beneficial to use frames.

• A frame is a collection of attributes or slots and associated values that

describe some real-world entity.

• frame systems are a powerful way of encoding information to support

reasoning.

• Each frame represents:

Ø a class (set), or

Ø an instance (an element of a class)

• Instead of properties a frame has slots. A slot is like a property, but

can contain more kinds of information, sometimes called facts of

the slot:

ØThe value of the slot

ØA procedure that can be run to compute the value (and if needed,

procedure)
ØProcedures to be run when a value is put into the slot or removed

ØData type information constraints on possible slot fillers

ØDocumentation

Syntax of a frame

Properties

1. Frames implement semantic networks.

2. They add procedural attachment.

3. A frame has slots and slots have values.

4. A frame may be generic, i.e. it describes a class of objects.

 5. A frame may be an instance, i.e. it describes a particular object.

6. Frames can inherit properties from generic frames.

Advantages of frame representation:

 The frame knowledge representation makes the programming easier by
grouping the related data.

 The frame representation is comparably flexible and used by many

applications in AI.

 It is very easy to add slots for new attribute and relations.

 It is easy to include default data and to search for missing values.

 Frame representation is easy to understand and visualize.

Disadvantages of frame representation:

 In frame system inference mechanism is not be easily processed.

 Inference mechanism cannot be smoothly proceeded by frame

representation.

 Frame representation has a much generalized approach.

Script
A script is a structured representation describing a stereotyped sequence of events
in a particular context. Scripts are used in natural-language understanding
systems to organize a knowledge base in terms of the situations that the system
should understand.

Scripts use a frame-like structure to represent the commonly occurring experience

like going to the movies eating in a restaurant, shopping in a supermarket

Scripts are beneficial because:

 Events tend to occur in known runs or patterns.

 A casual relationship between events exist.

 An entry condition exists which allows an event to take place.

 Prerequisites exist upon events taking place.

Components of a script

1. Entry condition: These are basic condition which must be fulfilled before
events in the script can occur.

2. Results: Condition that will be true after events in script occurred.

3. Props: Slots representing objects involved in events

4. Roles: These are the actions that the individual participants perform.

5. Track: Variations on the script. Different tracks may share components of

 the same scripts.

6. Scenes: The sequence of events that occur.

Conceptual Dependency
It is another knowledge representation technique in which we can represent any
kind of knowledge. It is based on the use of a of a limited number of primitive
concepts and rules of formation to represent any natural language statement.
Conceptual dependency theory is based on the use of knowledge representation
methodology was primarily developed to understand and represent natural
language structures. The conceptual dependency structures were originally
developed by Roger C SChank in 1977.

If a computer program is to be developed that can understand wide phenomenon

represented by natural languages, the knowledge representation should be
powerful enough to represent these concepts. The conceptual dependency
representation captures maximum concepts to provide canonical form of meaning
of sentences. Generally there are four primitives from which the conceptual
dependency structure can be described.

Six primitive conceptual categories provide building blocks which are the set of
allowable dependencies in the concepts in a sentence:

PP

-- Real world objects.

ACT

-- Real world actions.

PA

-- Attributes of objects.

AA

-- Attributes of actions.

-- Times.

LOC

-- Locations.

First Order Predicate Calculus

First-order logic
first-order functional calculus

What is meant by first order predicate calculus?

First-order logic is symbolized reasoning in which each sentence, or statement, is

broken down into a subject and a predicate. The predicate modifies or defines the
properties of the subject. ... First-order logic is also known as first-order predicate
calculus or first-order functional calculus.
 1. First-order logic is another way of knowledge representation in artificial
intelligence. It is an extension to propositional logic.

2. FOL is sufficiently expressive to represent the natural language statements

in a concise way.

3. First-order logic is also known as Predicate logic or First-order predicate

logic. First-order logic is a powerful language that develops information
about the objects in a more easy way and can also express the relationship
between those objects.

4. First-order logic (like natural language) does not only assume that the world
contains facts like propositional logic but also assumes the following things
in the world:

 Objects: A, B, people, numbers, colors, wars, theories, squares, pits,

wumpus, ......

 Relations: It can be unary relation such as: red, round, is adjacent, or n-any
relation such as: the sister of, brother of, has color, comes between

 Function: Father of, best friend, third inning of, end of, ......

As a natural language, first-order logic also has two main parts:

Syntax Semantics

https://www.javatpoint.com/first-order-logic-in-artifici
al-intelligence
https://www.javatpoint.com/ai-resolution-in-first-order
-logic
Unification is a key technique in proofs by resolution.

https://www.javatpoint.com/rules-of-inference-in-artifi
cial-intelligence
In the field of artificial intelligence, an inference engine is
a component of the system that applies logical rules to
the knowledge base to deduce new information. The first
inference engines were components of expert systems.
The typical expert system consisted of a knowledge base
and an inference engine.

A Horn clause is either a definite clause or an integrity

constraint. That is, a Horn clause has either false or a
normal atom as its head. Integrity constraints allow the
system to prove that some conjunction of atoms is false
in all models of a knowledge base - that is, to prove
disjunctions of negations of atoms.
A Horn clause is a clause containing at most one

positive literal.

A definite clause contains exactly one positive

literal.

Examples of a Horn Clause

[¬Child, ¬Mail, Boy]
Not a Horn Clause
[Rain, Sleet, Snow]

Horn Clauses (Cont)

p1 ∧ ... ∧ pn → q
[¬p1,..., ¬pn, q]
Positive Horn Clause
Negative Horn Clause

Definite clause: A clause which is a disjunction of literals

with exactly one positive literal is known as a definite
clause or strict horn clause.

Horn clause: A clause which is a disjunction of literals

with at most one positive literal is known as horn clause.
Hence all the definite clauses are horn clauses.

Example: (¬ p V ¬ q V k). It has only one positive literal k.

It is equivalent to p ∧ q → k.