Core Ch 17 Movement in humans

17.1 The human skeleton

17.1.1 Components of our skeleton

A. Bones
-made up of living cells, minerals (calcium phosphate)
-contain proteins and water
-blood vessels run along the bones (blood supplies oxygen & nutrients to bone cells
and removes waste from them)

Two types of bones:

(i) Compact bones (forms the outer shell of all bones and shafts in limb bones)
-dense and strong to provide great strength for supporting the weight of the
body
-shafts in limb bones are filled with a fatty tissue—yellow bone marrow

(ii) Spongy bones (found at the heads of limb bones)

-poroushelp absorb shock & resist stress
-cavities of spongy bone are filled with red bone marrow, which produces
blood cells

B. Cartilage
-made up of living cells but contains fewer minerals than bonessofter & more
elastic
-present at the end surfaces of bonesreduces friction between two bones when
they move against each other
-gives shape and support to structures (pinna, trachea, nose)

17.1.2 General plan of our skeleton

1. Axial skeleton (lies on the central axis—mainly for support and protection of
internal organs)

(i) Skull
-consists of the cranium & jaw bones
-protects the brain and some sense organs
 (ii) Vertebral column
-made up of 33 vertebrae
-supports our body weight
-its S-shape acts as a spring to absorb shock during movement
-provides surfaces for muscle attachments to maintain our body upright
-protects the spinal cord
-adjacent vertebrae are separated by compressible intervertebral disc
(cartilage)allow bending of the vertebral column & act as a shock absorber

(iii) Rib cage

-consists of 12 pairs of ribs, the sternum and the vertebral column
-protects the lungs & heart
-helps bring about breathing actions

2. Appendicular skeleton (lies on both sides of the body—mainly for movement)

(i) Limb bones

-bones of the arms and legs
-allow movement

(ii) Girdles
-pectoral girdles form the shoulders; pelvic girdle forms the hip
-attach the limbs to the axial skeleton

17.1.3 Functions of our skeleton

1. Support our body weight
-skeleton & muscles work together to allow the body to stand upright
-they also give shape to our body

2. Allow movement
-skeleton provides surfaces for muscle attachments
-bones & muscles work together to bring about movement

3. Protect organs
-skull protects the brain, eyes and ears
-vertebral column protects the spinal cord
-rib cage protects the lungs & the heart
4. Produce blood cells
-red bone marrow produces blood cells (RBC, WBC, blood platelets)

5. Store minerals
-bones store minerals (calcium & phosphorus)

17.2 Joints

17.2.1 Structure of a movable joint

1. Ligament
-hold the bones in position
-bind bones together
-prevent dislocation during movement
-elastic fibresallow the bones to move

2. Cartilage
-absorb shock
-reduce friction between the bones during movement
-prevent bones from wearing away

3. Synovial membrane
-secretes synovial fluid:
-reduces friction between bones during movement
-nourishes cartilage cells
*Types of movable joints
(i) Hinge joint
-allow movement of bones in one plane only
-examples: elbow joint, knee joint

(ii) Ball-and-socket joint

-allow movement of bones in many plants
-examples: shoulder joint, hip joint

17.3 Muscles

-Skeletal muscles:
-muscles that are attached to the skeleton
-consists of bundles of muscle fibres held together by connective tissues (each muscle
fibre is a single muscle cell with many nuclei)
-contain striations of light bands and dark bands
-attached to bones by tendons, which are tough & inelasticeffectively transmit the
pulling force generated by muscle contraction to the bones
**(ligaments are elasticprovide flexibility to joints)

17.4 Movement of the body

A. Action of opposing muscles

-Opposing muscles (antagonistic muscles):
a pair of muscles that causes opposite actions in a movement, e.g. biceps (flexor)
and triceps (extensor)
-When a flexor contracts (extensor relaxes)limb bends
-When an extensor contracts (flexor relaxes)limb straightens

B. Lever principle of movement

-Lever: bones
-Fulcrum: joint
-Load: weight of the bone & other weight to be moved
-Effort: force generated by muscle contraction
 17.5 Initiation of muscle contraction

-arrival of nerve impulses at the motor nerve ending triggers the release of
neurotransmitters into the neuromuscular junction
-these neurotransmitters diffuse across the synapse
-bind to the receptor sites on the membrane of the muscle fibre
-the muscle fibre generates an electrical impulse that triggers muscle contraction

Question bank 

1. Give two structural features of the backbone which allow it to bend to a smooth and
curved shape.
-the backbone is made up of many vertebrae (1)
-there are compressible cartilage discs (intervertebral discs) between the vertebrae
(1)

2. State how the vertebrae help to maintain the upright posture of a person.
-vertebrae are linked together by ligaments to form a column
-they allow the attachment of muscles for maintaining the posture

3. Briefly describe how ligament and tendon work together to bring about movement
at the joint.
-ligament binds bones together (1)
-and prevents the dislocation of bones during movement (1)
-tendon attaches muscles to bones (1)
-and transmits the pulling force generated by muscle contraction to the bones (1)

Support and Movement (★★★+)

1. Support in Plant
{DSE 15 P1-9, DSE 14 P1-4, DSE 12 P1-3, CE 01-3(c)}
2. Support in animals
{DSE 17 P1-1, DSE 13 P1-2, CE 98-2(c)}
3. Neuromuscular junction {DSE 15 P1-5, AL 04 PIA-6}