2014 Electrical Power, Electronics, Communications, Controls, and Informatics Seminar (EECCIS)

Inverse Kinematics of a Two-Wheeled Differential

Drive an Autonomous Mobile Robot
Eka Maulana M. Aziz Muslim Akhmad Zainuri
Department of Electrical Department of Electrical Department of Electrical
Engineering Engineering Engineering
Brawijaya University Brawijaya University Brawijaya University
Malang, Indonesia Malang, Indonesia Malang, Indonesia
ekamaulana@ub.ac.id muhazizm2@gmail.com zen354@gmail.com

Abstract—In this research, an inverse kinematic model for

automatic mobile robot has been experimental designed by direct
controlling of two-wheeled differential drive method. An
orientation of the robot toward lined track is observed to
evaluate the right position by controlling the speed differences
between the rears two-wheeled separately. The angular speed of
the rear wheels calculated according to the desired linear speed
of the robot and an error occurs to the angle of the robot
orientation affected by of radius of the rear wheel, distance
between the two driven rear wheels, and the curvature of turn
movement the mobile robot. Two font-wheels were designed
flexible as a free wheel mechanism to follow the lined track. A
system performance was analyzed to obtain the robot
characteristic response.

Keywords—two-wheeled differential drive; inverse kinematic;

tracker sensor;

I. INTRODUCTION
Autonomous mobile robot has been widely implemented to
handle human tasks with high risk, monotonous, and extreme
conditions. This platform has potential applications in
industrial applications, militaries, and land appliances. Mobile
robots have been applied for transporting goods in industrial or
office. Design of the mobile robot is chosen due to its operation
relative simple and quite stable by following lined track
autonomously. Control system strategy has been developed to
improve the robot performance. Difference simulation and
research study assess different aspect of modeling, design, and
control of the mobile robot. Differential drive mobile robot
controlled by simulation of dynamic and kinematic model [1]
and some consideration regarding mathematical models and
control solution for two-wheel differential drive mobile robots
were introduced [2]. The most used structures and simplest
mobile robot drives by two-wheeled differentially placed in
front or rear part of mobile robot chassis. Modeling and control
of two-wheeled mobile robot using active castor wheel has
been investigated [3]. A single free wheel additionally used for
tree-wheeled and four-wheeled mobile robot to ensure the
robot equilibrium [4]. Each castor wheel is independently
mounted on a vertical not drive axis of the body and it is
automatically and free aligned on the route as result of the
forces developed by the two drive wheels [5]. The drive system
of independent speed is controlled differentially, the motor
drive was developed base on H-bridge driver circuit [6].
Fig. 1. Coordinate system of the mobile robot
Theoretical aspect in wheeled mobile robot control has
been proposed by utilized mechanical structure, mathematical
model and control solutions. Then the closed loop control
diagram for position control and direction in tracing along
imposed trajectory was analyzed [7]. A review of models and
structures for prototype of Wheeled Mobile Robots (WMR) to
move in response as input commands is essential for feedback
control design and many navigation tasks such as path
planning, guidance, and obstacle avoidance was designed [8].
Stabilization of robot was analyzed to improve performance by
solution of dynamic model of a mobile robot with two active
wheels and the design an optimal control [9]. Other methods
using complaint linkage was used to control and design of
kinematic of multi-degree-of-freedom mobile robots [10]. The
robot orientation to track line while movement should be
control and adjust automatically by mathematical model or
applied specified controller, such as observed using PID, fuzzy,
and inverse kinematic model. In this paper, an inverse
kinematic model of two-wheeled mobile robot is proposed and
applied by design of mathematical model regarding to the
mechanical structure. A correction of the mobile robot
orientation to the desired track line was closed loop control

978-1-4799-6947-0/14/$31.00 ©2014 IEEE 93

 2014 Electrical Power, Electronics, Communications, Controls, and Informatics Seminar (EECCIS)

using sensor array of line tracer applied in front of the robot




(5)
chassis.





(6)
Substitution of linear velocity (4) to the component
velocities (5) and (6) imply that function of angular velocities
to be:











(7)













(8)

Equation (9) and (10) indicate of the component

accelerations of the mobile robot
and
to reference
coordinate system.











(9)













(10)

Fig. 2. Notations of the TWD mobile robot Fig. 2 shows the different robot position to the track line.
Since the robot coordinate system are [xMR1, yMR1] for the first
mobile robot position, and [xMR2, yMR2] for the second mobile
robot position, the angle mobile robot orientation
is the
different between yMR2 and yMR1. A track curvature or length of
track line the robot movement LT is a function of left arc LL and
right LR:
(a) (b)








(11)

While the angle of orientation
was linear to the (LT, LR,

LL) divided by radius of movement RT, the
can be described
to be:





(12)









(13)







Fig. 3. Position of the robot to the track line. (a) start position (b) setpoint






(14)





II. MODEL AND EXPERIMENTAL METHOD

A. Mathematical Model Both of left LL and right LR can be obtained by defining the
radius of movement RT, LMR and the angle of the robot
Two-Wheeled Differential (TWD) drive mobile robot orientation
according to (13) and (14).
model refer to the mechanical design and robot movement.



Coordinate system of mobile robot to the track line is shown in








(15)
Fig. 1. Linear velocities both of rear driven wheels vR and vR

can be calculated refer to the wheel radius R and angular



(16)
velocity

each wheel and:

Substitution of (15) and (16) produce angel of the robot

(1)
orientation

. The relation of
to length LL, LR, and distance of






(2) two-driven wheel LMR is determined by:






A linear velocity
for the mobile robot calculated by

(17)



average of the angular velocity of right and left driven wheel. It
called by direct kinematic model of TWD linear velocity. Angular velocity
of the mobile robot turning is the





different both of right velocity vR and left linear velocity vL to


(3) the distance of two driven wheels axis LMR.
















(4)

(18)





Component of linear velocities
and

derived from the

coordinate system consist of x and y position.

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 2014 Electrical Power, Electronics, Communications, Controls, and Informatics Seminar (EECCIS)

A direct kinematic model of angular velocity of the mobile
robot turning defined as a function of angular speed each
driven wheel (

and

), wheel radius R and LMR is:











(19)



Equation (32) is called an inverse kinematic model of TWD
mobile robot. The angular speed both of right and left wheels
can be determined by linear velocity of the robot movement.
The sign of “
” indicate the turn of robot to the track line. This
sign is vice versa when

and

applied in opposite turn.

The angular velocity of the robot turning described as a

function of angle derivation with respect time. This derivation
is formed into two part, these are dθ/dL and dL/dt.


 




(20)

 



Since the dθ/dL is 1/RT and the linear velocity v is equal to

dL/dt, equation (20) can be modified as:




(21)

(22)
The angular velocity of the both right and left wheel, can be
reconstruct by derivation of









(23)












(24)


Fig. 4. Mechanical design of the mobile robot.
According to the derivation of (15) and (16) to the
difference time, these would be linear velocities of right

and
left

wheel, respectively. Then (23) and (24) are modified to
be:















(25)

















(26)

Refer to (21), equation of (25) and (26) can be expand to Fig. 5. System implementation by inverse kinematic model
be:

B. System Architecture













(27) The autonomous mobile robot is an integrated design of





mechanical, electrical and software engineering. This design









configuration is considered on the function of this mobile





(28) robot, it used an autonomous mobile robot for waste





management systems based on line tracer. The sensor positions
Modification (27) and (27) by multiplied RT, those are in front of the mobile robot are used of an array of line tracer
expressed by: sensor shown in Fig. 3. The distance between sensor and the



center of different two free wheels axis led an angle θm. The







(29)




eight sensors (A-H) of photodiode-based were applied to detect



robot position to track the line. Fig. 3a shows the robot position







(30)




to the track line defined by θm while the sensor A is only on to
The notation of “+” and “
” inside the bracket of (29) and the lined track. Fig. 3b shows the robot position when the
(30) indicate the direction of robot turning. The robot will be sensor D and E are on the track line, this condition was called
turn left if the notation of

and

are “+” and “
”, byθ7. The detailed condition of this sensor position to the lined
respectively. Simplification (29) and (30) is track was described in Table 1. A 3 cm of line width was used
as a lined track.













(31)




Fig. 4 shows the mechanical design of the autonomous
mobile robot. The total AMR dimension of length, width, and
If we set RT as a constant to the turning movement of the
high are 100cm, 40cm, and 55cm, respectively. The distance
mobile robot, equation (31) can be manipulated by (12) to be
between two driven wheels LMR is 36 cm and the radius of





wheel R is 6 cm. The robot chassis designed using aluminum









(32)




material and acrylic body as consideration for minimum robot

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 2014 Electrical Power, Electronics, Communications, Controls, and Informatics Seminar (EECCIS)

weight. This weight was 5 kg. The two driven wheels on the ω L(rad/s
θm θ (°) condition
)
ω R(rad/s) Turn
rear of AMR driven by two identical Brushless DC motors
(NC-5475, Nisca®) of 3200 rpm at 0.33A no load condition 9 -11.36 EF 1.96 1.37 Right
and 2300 rpm rated with 2.5A maximum current supplied by 10 -15.94 F 2.08 1.25 Right
24 volts. The starting torque and current of the motor are
392.3mN.m and 9A, respectively. 11 -20.12 FG 2.19 1.14 Right

12 -22.83 G 2.26 1.07 Right

13 -26.51 GH 2.36 0.97 Right

14 -29.87 H 2.44 0.89 Right

Fig. 6. Angular speed of two-wheeled drive AMR

Fig. 8. Response characteristic of the robot at PWM 100 cm

Fig. 7. Response characteristic of the robot at 10 cm LT

TABLE I. SENSOR POSITIONS AND ANGULAR SPEED

ω L(rad/s Fig. 9. Response characteristic at 50ms sampling time periods
θm θ (°) condition
)
ω R(rad/s) Turn

0 29.87 A 0.89 2.44 Left C. Control Implementation Method

1 26.51 AB 0.97 2.36 Left
Implementation of inverse kinematic model TWD (32) was
applied in control system implementation. Fig. 5 shows the
2 22.83 B 1.07 2.26 Left implementation of system refer to the inverse kinematic
zss
20.12 BC 1.14 2.19 Left
model. The angular speed of two-wheeled (ωR and ωL) as a
3 function of the linear speed v and the angle of robot
4 15.94 C 1.25 2.08 Left orientation θ on the lined track while the. Both of TWD
angular speed (rad/s) converted in to rpm then it forced by
5 11.36 CD 1.37 1.96 Left
PWM drive to obtain presentase of PWM duty cycles.
6 8.06 D 1.46 1.88 Left Mechanism of the angular speed drives for the right and left
7 0 DE 1.67 1.67 forward
DC motor coupled by mechanical gear. The angular speed of
two-wheel drive and the correlation of the sensor posistion are
8 -8.06 E 1.88 1.46 Right shown in Table 1 This data calculated based on apllied of
inverse kinematic model in this system by desired linear

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 2014 Electrical Power, Electronics, Communications, Controls, and Informatics Seminar (EECCIS)
velocity v of AMR, LT, R, and, LMR are 10m/s, 20 cm, 6cm,
and 36cm, respectively.
Fig. 6 shows the comparation of the angular speed TWD
(ωR and ωL) in rpm and the absolut differences of both TWD
(δω). The angular speed is transformed into PWM duty cycle
to calculate the normalized percentage of difference speed
between ωR and ωL. Different condition of LT can be adjusted
and set in different value as a parameter constat of robot
turned movement. Variations of desired acr line LT determined
to characterize the AMR of 10cm, 20cm, 30cm, and 40cm.
Fig. 10. System performance characteristic according different LT
Fig. 11. System performance due to difference PWM duty cyclde.
97
Fig. 12. System performance with different sampling time periods.
A different PWM duty cycle was applied to the mobile
robot of the second method while the paramaters (LT, v, LMR,
and R) of the inverse kinematic model are constant, the
variation of percentage duty cycles are 25%, 50%, 75%, and
100% refer to the maximum applied speed. In this
experimental method to evaluate the characteristic, the
sampling time periods of control software implementation
were also varied. The variation of the sampling time periods
on the third method of 10ns, 50ns, and 100ns were choosen to
identify the system performances. Some parameters include
rise time (Tr), peak time (Tp), maximum overshoot (Mp),
settling time (Ts) and number of ocsillation (Nosc) of the
response signal were analyzed while the robot track form
position θ7 to the set point orientation θ0. The data during the
robot turn and moving are recorded to the computer via serial
USB converter to be observed and analyzed.
III. EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
According to the experimental data, response signals of the
autonomous mobile robot were observed. The automatic
mobile robot was design by R = 6cm and LMR = 36 cm. The
parameter input of inverse kinematic are choosen to obtain
first experiment include linear velocity v , sampling time
periode, and LT are 10m/s, 10ms, and 10cm. Fig. 7 shows the
experimental response of the mobile robot with LT of 10 cm.
Refer to the response, system performance characteristic was
observed of Tr, Tp and Mp are 0.7s, 1.2s and 4 steps (57%),
respectively. Different arc length of the robot turnings LT were
also observed to obtain the response characteristic, the rise
time Tr depend on the LT variation of 20cm, 30, and 40 cm are
1.12s, 1.43s, and 1.5s respectively. Peak time data were also
obtained for different LT of 1.84s, 2.55s, and 2.65s. The
maximum overshoot are 4 steps, 4 steps, and 6 steps,
respectively. The settling time of LT 10cm can be obtain 6.64s
after three times of the number oscillation reached.
Comparation of the normalized parameters abserved from this
setup with various LT are shown in Fig. 10. This setup imply
that by increasing of LT effects the rise time Tr and the peak
time Tp will also increase, but the oscillation number Nosc will
decrease. Then the rise time will be reached faster on the LT
was 10cm legth.
The second method was applied by variation of PWM duty
cycles are 25%, 50%, 75% and 100%. Fig. 8 shows the system
response characteristic according the 50% PWM duty cycle
with the control parameter are R, LMR, v, and LT fixed as
independ constant. Length of the lined track was 3 cm long.
Since the v is set 10m/s and LT is 20cm, the rise time Tr, peak
time Tp, and settling time Ts are 1.5s, 2.5s, and 7.2s,
respectively. Detailed comparation of different percentage of
PWM duty cylces show in Table II. Fig. 11 shows the
normalized system performance parameters captured by the
second method with 50% PWM duty cycles. This graph
indicates the rise time, peak time, and settling time will be
faster when the PWM duty cycle was increased. The
parameter of overshot is proper and these Mp occur at the
same condition of 4 steps (57%).
 2014 Electrical Power, Electronics, Communications, Controls, and Informatics Seminar (EECCIS)

percentage of PWM duty cycle, and variation of time sampling

periods experimental evaluated to obtain characterization of the
TABLE II. PERFORMANCE CHARACTERISTIC RESPONSE BASED ON robot performance. Increasing of the track curvature impacts
DIFFERENT PWM DUTY CYCLES
the increasing rise time and peak time. The decreasing rise
PWM (%) Tr (s) Tp (s) Mp % Ts (s)
time, peak time and settling time can be obtained by percentage
of PWM duty cycles. Variation of the sampling time periods
25 1.93 3 57 (4 steps) 39 affect the parameter of system performance, the larger
50 1.5 2.5 57 (4 steps) 7.2
sampling times period increase the rise time, peak time,
maximum overshoot, and number of response signal
75 1.12 1.8 57 (4 steps) 5 oscillation.
100 0.85 1.4 57 (4 steps) 4
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
TABLE III. PERFORMANCE CHARACTERISTIC RESPONSE BASED ON
We would like thank to BPP and Department of Electrical
DIFFERENT SAMPLING TIME PERIODS engineering of Engineering Faculty, Brawijaya University for
supporting this research grant in 2013-2014.
Sampling time
Tr (s) Tp (s) Mp (%)
periods (ms)
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