 A common belief that lime is inferior to cement is not totally right.

For lean concrete (characteristic strength < 15 MPa) and

for plasters and mortars where the strength requirements are often as low as 3 Mpa, lime is an ideal and more efficient
material.
 Moreover, addition of lime to convert mortar increases the workability and slows down the initial setting, consequently mortar
can be used for a longer period after its preparation.
 The quick lime so obtained is very unstable and if left exposed it reacts with carbon dioxide from atmosphere and reverts back
to calcium carbonate. This necessitates stabilization of quick lime at the earliest. This is achieved by sprinkling water over
quick lime, known as Slaking. Slaking of lime converts the quick lime to calcium hydroxide, known as hydrated lime, which
is in powered form.
 Pure Limestone is called calcite and that containing magnesite is called dolomitic limestone. The mineral containing calcium
carbonate and magnesium carbonate in equimolecular quantities is called dolomite.
 Stone Lime is almost pure lime obtained by calcination of limestone and is used for making lime sand mortar for
superstructures; lime-surkhi mortar for substructures and: lime terracing and flooring. Stone lime has hydraulic properties.
 Kankar Lime is an impure lime obtained by calcination of kankars dug out from underground sources. These occur in the
form of nodules and compact blocks. It is suitable for making lime sand mortars for substructures. It is commonly used for
making hydraulic lime.
 Shell Lime is very pure lime obtained by calcination of shells of sea animals and corals. It is used for lime punning, white
wash and colour wash, soil stabilization and glass production.
 Magnesian Lime is manufactured from dolomite and contains magnesia more than 5 per cent. It is used for making mortar
and plaster.
 Quick Lime (CaO) Pure lime, generally called quick lime, is a white oxide of calcium. Much of commercial quick lime,
however, contains more or less magnesium oxide, which gives the product a brownish or grayish tinge. Quick lime is the lime
obtained after the calcination of limestone. It is also called caustic lime. It is capable of slaking with water and has no affinity
for carbonic acid. The specific gravity of pure lime is about 3.40.
 Fat Lime has high calcium oxide component and, sets and hardens by the absorption of CO₂ from atmosphere. It is
manufactured by burning marble, white chalk, calcareous tufa, pure limestone, sea shell and coral.
 Hydraulic Lime contains small quantities of silica, alumina, iron oxide in chemical combination with calcium oxide
component. These are produced from carboniferous limestones and magnesian limestone. It has the property to set and harden
under water.
 Hydrated Lime When quick lime is finely crushed, slaked with a minimum amount of water, and screened or ground to form
a fine homogeneous powder the product is called hydrated lime.
 Lump Lime is the quick-lime coming out of the kilns.
 Milk Lime is a thin pourable solution of slaked lime in water.
 Characteristics of Lime
1. Lime possesses good plasticity and is easy to work with.
2. It stiffens easily and is resistant to moisture.
3. The excellent cementitious properties make it most suitable for masonry work.
4. The shrinkage on drying is small because of its high water retentivity.
 Uses of lime = In construction slaked lime is mainly used to make mortar for laying masonry and plastering. When so used
quick lime should be completely hydrated by slaking from 3 to 14 days, depending upon the kind of lime, temperature, and
slaking conditions. Hydrated lime, although immediately usable, is usually improved by soaking overnight or longer.
Hydrated lime is often added to Portland cement mortar in proportions varying from 5 to 85 per cent of the weight of the
cement to increase plasticity and workability. Most of the historical buildings had been plastered in lime. Lime punning-about
3 mm thick shell lime layer to improve the plastered surfaces and to give a shining appearance is used very commonly now-a-
days in the new structures. Some of the other uses of lime are manufacture of lime bricks, artificial stones, paints, glass; as
stabilizer for soils and as a flux in metallurgical processes.
 Impurities in limestone
1. Magnesium Carbonate = Limestones contain magnesium carbonate in varying proportions. Presence of this constituent
allows the lime to slake and set slowly, but imparts high strength. Further, the production of heat and expansion are low.
The magnesium limestones are hard, heavy and compact in texture. In burning limestone, the magnesium carbonate is
converted to magnesium oxide at a much lower temperature whereas calcium carbonate is oxidised at a little higher
temperature. By the time calcium carbonate is oxidised most of the magnesium oxide formed is over burnt. Magnesium
limestones display irregular properties of calcination, slaking and hardening. Up to 5 per cent of magnesium oxide
imparts excellent hydraulic properties to the lime.
2. Clay = It is mainly responsible for the hydraulic properties of lime. It also makes lime insoluble in water. The percentage
of clay to produce hydraulicity in lime stones usually varies from 10 to 30. If, it is in excess, it arrests slaking whereas, if
in small quantities the slaking is retarted. Thus, limes containing 3-5% of clay do not display any hydraulic property and
do not set and harden under water. Whereas, when clay is present as 20-30% of lime, the latter exhibits excellent
hydraulic properties and is most suitable for aqueous foundations.
3. Silica = In its free form sand has a detrimental effect on the properties of lime. Limes containing high percentage of free
silica exhibit poor cementing and hydraulic properties. Limes containing 15-20% of free silica are known as poor limes.
 4. Iron Compounds = Iron occurs in small proportions as oxides, carbonates and sulphides. They are converted into Fe 2O, at
lower temperatures of calcination. At higher temperatures iron combines with lime and silicates and forms complex
silicate compounds. Pyrite or iron sulphide is regarded to be highly undesirable. For hydraulic limes 2-5% of iron oxide is
necessary.
5. Carbonaceous Matters = Carbonaceous matters in lime are seldom present. Its presence is an indication of the poor
quality of lime.
6. Sulphates = Sulphates, if present, slow down the slaking action and increase the setting rate of limes.
7. Alkalis = When pure lime is required the alkalis are undesirable. However, up to 5 per cent of alkalis in hydraulic limes
do not have any ill effect, but they improve hydraulicity.
 HARDENING OF LIME = Depending on the kind of lime and its hardening conditions, distinction is made of three patterns
of hardening-carbonate, hydrate and hydro-silicate hardening.
1. Carbonate Hardening = Two simultaneous processes take place in lime mortars or concrete from slaked lime.
a. The mixed water evaporates and calcium oxide hydrate crystallizes out of its saturated water solution.
b. Calcium carbonate in formed in accordance with the reaction.

The crystallisation process of calcium oxide hydrate is very slow. Evaporation of water causes fine particles of Ca(OH) 2,
to stick together and form large Ca(OH)2, crystals which in turn grow. together and form a carcass that encloses sand
particles. The rate of CaCO3, formation is significant only in the presence of moisture. A film of calcium carbonate
appearing on the surface of the mortar during the initial period of hardening, prevents the penetration of carbon dioxide.
into the inside layers. Because of this the carbonisation process, which is very intensive in the i presence of a sufficient
amount of carbon dioxide stops almost entirely. The more intensive is the evaporation of water, the quicker is the
crystallisation of calcium oxide. Therefore, hardening of lime requires an above zero temperature and a low humidity of
the surrounding medium. Pure lime paste cracks as a result of considerable shrinkage during drying: this can be prevented
by adding 3.5 parts (by volume) of sand. The introduction of a prescribed amount of aggregate is advisable not only from
the economic but also from the engineering stand point, as it improves hardening and reduces drying shrinkage. The
strength of mortar from slaked lime is low: after a month of hardening the compressive strength becomes 0.5-1 N/mm²,
rising to 5-7 N/mm2 after several decades. This is due not only to greater carbonization of mortar or concrete, but also to
a certain interaction of silicate and carbonate aggregates with calcium oxide hydrate. High strength concretes and mortars
(30 to 40 N/mm²) can be obtained by artificial carbonization. Concretes from ground unslaked lime with addition of up to
0.2 per cent (by weight) of lime which speeds up carbonization and increases strength are particularly effective.

2. Hydrate Hardening = It is a gradual conversion of lime mortar and concrete mixes from ground unslaked lime into a rock-
like hard body. This is due to the interaction of lime with water and the formation of calcium oxide hydrate. First, lime
dissolves in water to give a saturated solution, which over-saturates rapidly because water is absorbed by the remaining
unslaked grains. Rapid and strong over-saturation of a mortar, prepared from unslaked lime, results in formation of
colloidal masses. They appear because calcium oxide hydrate formed by mixing lime with water consists of particles very
close in size to those of the colloids. Colloidal calcium hydrate coagulates quickly into a hydrogel which glues the grains
together. As water is partly sucked in by the deeper layers of grains and partly evaporates, the hydrogel thickens and thus
increases the strength of the hardening lime. The hydrogel formed in the process of hardening of slaked lime holds much
water and its adhesiveness is poor. However, it is not so for hardening of unslaked lime. As slaking lime hardens,
crystallization of calcium oxide hydrate increases its strength. Subsequent carbonisation of calcium oxide hydrate
improves the strength of the hardened mortar. Thus, mixing of ground unslaked lime with water brings about a hydration
hardening, which is characteristic of other binding materials as well; it consists of the hydration of calcium oxide and
subsequent formation of colloids and crystallization of the hydration product. Hardening at normal temperature is also
affected by the evaporation of free water in the process of drying and natural carbonization. The conditions which favour
hydration hardening are: rapid and uniform extraction of heat released in the process of hardening, the use of forms to
prevent the increase in volume of the hardening mass, and the introduction of admixtures to retard hydration. The
coagulation structure which appears in the process of hydration hardening is retained and serves as a medium for the
crystallization of new hydrate formation. Should the coagulation structure disintegrate because of a rise of temperature or
increase in volume, the new structure will have no time to appear because of a high hydration rate of the lime, and the
recrystallisation ends inside non-intergrown particles of lime. Hydration hardening may be improved by uniform burning
and grinding of lime.
3. Hydrosilicate Hardening = When lime-sand mixtures are treated by high-pressure steam (8-16 atm) corresponding to
temperatures between 175 and 200°C, lime and silica interact in the autoclave and form calcium hydrosilicate, which
ensures high strength and durability of manufactured items. In the autoclave method of hardening lime-sand materials,
lime does not play the part of a binding material, whose hydration and carbonisation gives rise to a stony body of required
strength at usual temperatures. In the given instance, lime is one of the two components that interact and form calcium
hydrosilicate which is the chief cementing substance. The required strength results not from the physical cohesion of the
binder hydrate formations with the grains of the aggregate, but from chemical interaction between the chief components
of the raw materials, lime and quartz sand. Hardening of autoclave steam-cured lime-silica materials is due to complex
physical and
chemical processes, which takes place in following three stages: -
 a. Formation of crystalline nuclei of hydrosilicates, growth of crystals and increase in their number without any
coalescence taking place.
b. Formation of a crystalline concretion.
c. Failure (weakening) of concretion due to recrystallisation contacts among crystals.

New formations, whose number and composition vary continually harden in the process of hydro-thermal curing of items.

 According to the percentage of calcium oxide and clayey impurities in it, lime can be classified as lean, hydraulic and pure
lime. Since magnesium oxide slakes slowly, an increase in its percentage decreases rate of hydration and so is with clayey
impurities as well.
1. Lean or Poor Lime: It consists of CaO + MgO (80 to 85%) with MgO less than 5% and clayey impurities of about more
than 7 per cent in the form of silica, alumina and iron oxide. It sets on absorbing CO₂ from atmosphere. Slaking requires
more time and so it hydrates slowly. Its expansion is less than that of fat lime. it makes thin paste with water. Setting and
hardening is very slow. The colour varies from yellow to grey. Uses: It gives poor and inferior mortar and is
recommended for less important structures.
2. Hydraulic Lime: It is a product obtained by moderate burning (900-1100°C) of raw limestone which contains small
proportions of clay (silica and alumina) 5-30% and iron oxide in chemical combination with the calcium oxide content
(CaO + MgO 70-80 % with MgO less than 5%). In slaking considerable care is required to provide just sufficient water,
since an excess of water would cause the lime to harden. Depending on the percentage of clay present these are classified
further as, feebly, moderately and eminently hydraulic limes. It sets under water.
A. Feebly Hydraulic Lime has less than 5-10 % of silica and alumina and slakes slowly, after few minutes (5 to 15). The
setting time is 21 days. It is used in damp places and for less important structures.
B. Moderately Hydraulic Lime has 10-20% of impurities, slakes sluggishly after 1-2 hours. The setting time is seven
days. It is used in damp places.
C. Eminently Hydraulic Lime has clayey impurities 20-30% and slakes with difficulty. Its initial setting time is 2 hours
and final setting time is 48 hours. It is used in damp places and for all structural purposes.
3. Pare, Rich or Fat Lime: It is soft lime (CaO + MgO more than 85% with MgO less than 4%) obtained by the calcination
of nearly pure limestone, marble, white chalk, oolitic limestone and calcareous tufa. Also known as white washing lime
should not have impurities of clay and stones, more than 5 per cent. Fat lime is nearly pure calcium oxide and when it is
hydrated with the required amount of water the solid lumps fall to a soft fine powder of Ca(OH) 2, and the high heat of
hydration produces a cloud of steam. It sets on absorbing CO₂ from atmosphere. Slaking is vigorous and the volume
becomes 2-3 times. It sets slowly in contact with air, and hence is not suitable for thick walls or in wet climate. If kept
under water a fat lime paste does not lose its high plasticity and consequently does not set and harden. Sp. gr. of pure lime
is about 3.4. Uses: Fat lime finds extensive use in making mortar, matrix for concrete, base for distemper and in white
wash, manufacturing of cement, and metallurgical industry.
 Classification (IS: 712) Bureau of Indian standards has classified lime into class A, B, C, D, E and F based on the purpose of
its use in construction.
1. Class A-Eminently Hydraulic Lime is used for making mortar and concrete for construction and foundation works, i.e.,
for structural purposes. The colour is grey. Calcium oxide and clay are 60-70% and 25 per cent respectively. ) Slakes
with difficulty. Sets and hardens readily under water with initial setting time 2 hours and final setting time 48 hours.
2. Class B-Semi Hydraulic Lime is used for masonry mortars, flooring and for concrete in ordinary constructions and plaster
undercoat. The colour is grey. Contains 70 per cent calcium oxide and 15 per cent clay. Slakes and sets at slow rate
taking about a week to set under water.
3. Class C-Fat Lime is used for finishing coat in plastering and white washing, and with puzzolana in mortars. The colour is
white. Slakes vigorously and increases by two to three times its original volume. Contains about 93 per cent calcium
oxide and about 5-7% clay.
4. Class D-Magnesium/Dolomitic Lime is used for finishing coat in plastering and white washing. The colour is white.
Contains about 85 per cent calcium and magnesium oxides. Slakes promptly. Sets slowly.
5. Class E-Kankar Lime is used for making masonry mortars, plastering and white washing. The colour is grey. Contains 20
per cent calcium oxide, 5 per cent magnesium oxide and remaining impurities (iii) Slakes and sets slowly.
6. Class F-Siliceous Dolomitic Lime used for undercoat and finishing coat of plaster.
 Lime Putty = It is obtained by adding hydrated lime to water, stirring to the consistency of a thick cream and, allowing it to
stand and mature for a period of about 16 hours in the case of non-hydraulic lime before using it for making mortar. The putty
so obtained should be protected from drying out.
 Coarse StuffThe hydrated lime is first thoroughly mixed and ground with the required quantity of sand. Then water is added
and thorough mixing is done. The mix is kept to mature for about less than 16 hours in the case of hydraulic lime. Coarse stuff
should be protected from drying out till it is used.