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Introduction to Composite Materials for Engineering

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 Introduction to Composite Materials for
Engineering
Search

By

Eng. WAEL ABD EL-MONEM AL-TABEY

Mechanical Engineering
Alexandria University

 i
Wael.altabey@ymail.com

 ii
 To My Wife
To My Son

 iii
 PREFACE

The economic importance of composite materials is now well known. There are strong
indications everywhere that this importance will be increasing in the future. Composite
materials now occupy an established position in the aerospace industry. They are also used for
many components in the automotive industry and civil infrastructures now have their
reinforcements made of composite materials. There is a large range of manufacturing
processes for the production of low-cost composites.
There is a need by engineers working in composites for a practical source of reference for
the fundamentals of composites. This book fills that need. In the educational sector,
composite materials now are taught at many universities around the world. Usually the topic
covered is laminate theory. Composites Design courses also exist in a few universities and
institutes. The demand from students and also practitioners of composites for knowledge and
training in design and manufacturing of composites is increasing. However a good design
book has not been available.
The content of these design and manufacturing courses concentrates mostly on analysis
while applications still remain at the specimen level. This book collected and written by Wael
Al-Tabey in Egypt. The author is of the opinion that having the book in the English language
would facilitate the training and dissemination of knowledge to the regions where composites
are used the most. The book consists of eight main parts, with increasing levels of complexity.
Each part can be studied independently from the other parts.

Eng. WAEL ABD EL-MONEM AL-TABEY

Lecturer, Department of Mechanical Engineering,
Alexandria University, Alexandria, Egypt
23 July 2012

 iv
CONTENTS

Preface iv

Table of Contents vi

List of Tables x

List of Figures xi

1 Introduction 1
1.1 Introduction to Materials 1
1.1.1 Materials classification 1
1.2 Introduction to Composite Materials 2
1.2.1 What are composites? 2
1.2.2 Composite Materials History 2
1.2.3 Advantage and disadvantage 3
1.2.3.1 Advantage of Composite Materials 3
1.2.3.2 Disadvantage of Composite Materials 4
1.2.4 Applications of composite Materials 5
1.2.4.1 Space Applications 5
1.2.4.2 Automotive Applications 6
1.2.4.3 Sporting industry Applications 6
1.2.4.4 Marine Applications 7
1.2.4.5 What can be Made Using Composite Materials? 7
1.2.4.6 What is the world market of composites? 8
1.2.5 Classifications of composite Materials 8
1.2.5.1 Particulate composites 9
1.2.5.2 Flake composites 9
1.2.5.3 Fiber composites 9
1.2.5.4 Polymer matrix composites 10
1.2.5.5 Metal matrix composites 10
1.2.5.6 Ceramic matrix composites 11
1.2.5.7 Carbon-carbon composites 11
2 Basic Concepts and Terminology 12

 v
 2.1 Fibers and Matrix 12
2.1.1 Matrix Materials 12
2.1.2 Functions of a Matrix 12
2.1.3 Properties of a Matrix 13
2.1.4 Factors considered for Selection of Matrix 13
2.1.5 General types of Matrix Materials 14
2.1.5.1 Thermosetting Matrices (Resin) 14
2.1.5.1.1 Phenolics 15
2.1.5.1.2 Polyesters 15
2.1.5.1.3 Vinyl Ester 15
2.1.5.1.4 Polyimides 16
2.1.5.1.5 Epoxies 16
2.1.5.1.6 Bismaleimide 16
2.1.5.1.7 Comparison of Thermosetting common resins 17
2.1.5.2 Thermoplastic Matrices (Resin) 17
2.1.5.2.1 Carbon Matrices 19
2.1.5.2.2 Metallic Matrices 20
2.1.5.2.3 Ceramic Matrices 21
2.1.5.2.4 Glass Matrix 21
2.1.6 Fibers Materials 21
2.1.7 Functions of a Fibers 22
2.1.7.1 Glass Fibers 22
2.1.7.2 Carbon Fibers 22
2.1.7.3 Aramid Fibers 23
2.1.7.4 Silicon carbide 23
2.1.7.5 Organic Fibers 24
2.2 Styles of reinforcement 24
3 Design Concepts for Composite Materials/Structures 26
3.1 Methodology and management of a design project Design Issues 26
3.1.1 Design considerations 26
3.1.2 Designing the laminate 27
3.1.3 Establishing property data 27
3.1.4 Designing for the environment 28
3.1.5 Designing for joints and assemblies 28

 vi
 3.1.6 Designing for robustness and through life performance 29
3.1.7 Designing for manufacture 29
3.1.8 Designing for cost 30
3.2 The need for design management 30
3.3 The design process 31
4 Composite Manufacturing, Fabrication and Processing 34
4.1 Introduction 34
4.2 Classification of Manufacturing Processes 35
4.2.1 Open Mold Process 35
4.2.1.1 Wet Lay-up/Hand Lay-up 36
4.2.1.2 Spray Lay-up 36
4.2.1.3 Filament Winding 37
4.2.1.4 Sheet Molding Compound 38
4.2.1.5 Expansion Tool Molding 39
4.2.1.6 Contact Molding 40
4.2.2 Closed Mold Process 41
4.2.2.1 Compression Molding 41
4.2.2.2 Vacuum Bag Processing 41
4.2.2.3 Pressure Bag Molding 42
4.2.2.4 Injection Molding 42
4.2.2.5 Cold Press Molding 43
4.2.2.6 Resin Transfer Molding (RTM) 43
4.2.2.7 Autoclave Molding 44
4.2.3 Continuous Processes 45
4.2.3.1 Pultrusion 45
4.2.3.2 Continuous Laminating Processes 45
4.2.3.3 Braiding 46
4.3 Defects in Manufactured Polymeric Composites 47
5 Fiber Reinforced Polymer (FRP) Laminated Composites 48
5.1 Introduction 48
5.2 Lamina and Laminates 49
5.2.1 Laminate Lay-up 51
5.2.2 Ply Orientation definition 51
5.2.3 Criteria used during Ply Orientation 52

 vii
 5.2.4 Influence of Fiber Orientation 52
5.2.5 Laminate Lay-up Code 52
5.2.5.1 Total Lay-up code 53
5.2.5.2 Symmetric Lay-up Code 53
5.2.5.3 Hybrid Laminate Code 54
5.2.5.4 Quasi Symmetric Lay-up Code 54
5.2.5.5 Set Identification Code 54
5.2.6 Micromechanical Analysis of a Lamina 55
5.2.6.1 Fiber Mass Fraction. 55
5.2.6.2 Fiber Volume Fraction 56
5.2.6.3 Mass Density of a Ply 56
5.2.6.4 Ply Thickness 57
5.2.6.5 Elastic Modulus 57
5.2.6.6 Shear modulus 59
5.2.6.7 Poisson Coefficient 59
5.2.6.8 Modulus along any direction 59
5.2.6.9 Bulk modulus 60
5.2.7 Linear Elastic Stress-Strain Relations 60
5.2.7.1 Stress 60
5.2.7.2 Strain 60
5.2.7.3 The Mechanics Behavior of Materials 61
5.2.7.4 Bulk modulus (compressibility) 68
5.2.8 Stress-Strain Relations for Plane Stress 68
5.2.9 Stress-Strain Relations for a Lamina of Arbitrary Orientation 71
5.2.10 Classical Lamination Theory 75
5.2.10.1 Strain and Stress in a Laminate 76
5.2.10.2 Force and Moment Resultants 77
5.2.11 Special classification of Laminates 81
5.2.11.1 Symmetric laminates 81
5.2.11.2 Cross-ply Laminate 81
5.2.11.3 Angle-ply Laminate 82
5.2.11.4 Antisymmetric Laminates 83
5.2.11.5 Balanced Laminate 83
6 woven Roving composites 84

 viii
 6.1 Fiber architectures 84
6.2 2-D woven architectures 84
6.3 3-D architectures 84
6.3.1 3-D polar architectures 85
6.3.2 3-D orthogonal architectures 85
6.3.3 3-D angle interlock architectures 86
6.4 Geometric modeling 86
7 Failure behaviour of Composite Materials 89
7.1 Failure Modes of Composite Materials 89
7.1.1 Structural Aspects of Composites Failure 89
7.1.2 Fracture Processes in Composites 90
7.1.2.1 Matrix effects 91
7.1.2.2 Fiber effects 91
7.1.3 Fracture modes 92
7.1.4 Failure Mechanisms 93
7.1.4.1 Delamination 93
7.1.4.2 Fiber pull out and Debonding (separation of fibers &matrix) 94
7.1.4.3 Microcracking of the matrix 95
8 Methods of Non-Destructive Evaluation for Polymer Composites 96
8.1 Optical inspection 96
8.2 Radiographic methods 96
8.3 Thermal imaging 97
8.4 Ultrasonic techniques 97
8.5 Optical fibre sensors 98
8.5.1 Cure monitoring 99
8.5.2 Sensing of deformation and damage (health monitoring) 99
8.6 Microwave methods 99
8.7 Dynamic mechanical analysis 100
8.8 Acoustic emission methods 101
References 102

 ix

V i e w p u b l i c a t i o n s t a t s