WELDING AND FABRICATION

A GUIDE ON WELDING TECHNIQUES AND

FABRICATION METHODS

WRITTEN BY:
ENGR. UGOCUHKWU GERALD
ENGR.VALENTINE T. NWANI
 CONTENTS

PART ONE

WELDING

1.1 Welding
1.2 Electric arc welding
1.3 Oxyacetylene welding
1.4 TIG welding
1.5 Spot Welding

PART TWO

2. FABRICATION

2.1 Material processing

2.2 Agro processing equipment

PART ONE

WELDING
1.1 WELDING

Definition of Welding
Welding is a material joining process which produces coalescence of materials
by heating them to suitable temperatures with or without the application of
pressure or by the application of pressure alone, and with or without the use of
filler material. Welding is used for making permanent joints. It is used in the
manufacture of automobile bodies, aircraft frames, railway wagons, machine
frames, structural works, tanks, boilers, general repair work and ship building.

Need for Welding

With ever increasing demand for both high production rates and high precision,
fully mechanized or automated welding processes have taken a prominent place
in the welding field. The rate at which automation is being introduced into
welding process is astonishing and it may be expected that by the end of this
century more automated machines than men in welding fabrication units will be
found. In addition, computers play critical role in running the automated
welding processes and the commands given by the computer will be taken from
the programs, which in turn, need algorithms of the welding variables in the
form of mathematical equations. To make effective use of the automated
systems it is essential that a high degree of confidence be achieved in predicting
the weld parameters to attain the desired mechanical strength in welded

Classification of Welding Processes

There are many types of welding techniques used to join metals. The welding
processes differ in the manner in which temperature and pressure are combined
and achieved. The welding process is divided into two major categories: Plastic
Welding or Pressure Welding and Fusion Welding or Non-Pressure Welding.

Plastic Welding or Pressure Welding:

When the metal piece acquires plastic state on heating, external pressure is
applied. In this process, externally applied forces play an important role in the
bonding operation. “A group of welding processes which produces coalescence
at temperatures essentially below the melting point of the base materials being
joined without the addition of a filler metal” is Pressure Welding Process.
Without melting the base metal, due to temperature, time and pressure
coalescence is produced. Some of the very oldest processes are included in solid
state welding process. The advantage of this process is the base metal does not
melt and hence the original properties are retained with the metals being joined.
Fusion Welding or Non-Pressure Welding:
The material at the joint is heated to a molten state and allowed to solidify. In
this process the joining operation involves melting and solidification and any
external forces applied to the system do not play an active role in producing
coalescence. Usually fusion welding uses a filler material to ensure that the joint
is filled. All fusion welding processes have three requirements: Heat, Shielding
and Filler material.

TYPES OF WELDING
Welding process can also be classified as follows:
1. Gas Welding
• Oxy Acetylene Welding
• Oxy Hydrogen Welding
• Pressure Gas Welding

2. Arc Welding
• Electric Arc Welding
• Shield Metal Arc Welding
• Submerged Arc Welding
• Metal Inert Gas Welding
• Tungsten Inert Gas Welding
• Plasma Arc Welding
3. Resistance Welding
• Spot Welding
• Flash Welding
• Resistance Butt Welding
• Seam Welding

4. Solid State Welding

• Forge Welding
• Cold Welding
• Friction Welding
• Explosive Welding
• Diffusion Welding
• Ultrasonic Welding

5. Thermo-Chemical Welding
• Thermal Welding
• Atomic H2 Welding
6. Radiant Energy Welding
• Electron Beam Welding
• Laser Welding

Electric Arc Welding

• The welding in which the electric arc is produced to give heat for the
purpose of joining two surfaces is called electric arc welding.
• The joining by fusing of two or more pieces of metal together by using
the heat produced from an electric arc .
• The arc is like a flame of intense heat that is generated as the electrical
current passes through a highly resistant air gap.

Arc welding Equipments

Welding transformer Electrode holder

Electrode Work piece clamp

 Chipping hammer Wire brush

Protective shield

Arc Welding Setup

Arc Welding Process

Arc Welding

• Many things around us are welded such as pipelines that bring fresh
water, towers that carry electricity to houses, cars and buses that take
people where they need to go.
• Arc welding continues to be used extensively in the construction of steel
structures and in industrial fabrication.
• The process is used primarily to weld iron and steels (including stainless
steel) but aluminium, nickel and copper alloys can also be welded with
this method.
• It dominates other welding processes in the maintenance and repair
industry, and though flux-cored arc welding is growing in popularity
• Is popular because it can be used in the field without complicated
equipment and gases
• It is a manual arc welding process that uses a consumable electrode
coated in flux to lay the weld.
• An electric current, in the form of either alternating current or direct
current from a welding power supply, is used to form an electric arc
between the electrode and the metals to be joined.
• As the weld is laid, the flux coating of the electrode disintegrates, giving
off vapours that serve as a shielding gas and providing a layer of slag,
both of which protect the weld area from atmospheric contamination.
• Arc welding is a process that melts and joins metals by heating them with
an arc established between a sticklike covered electrode and the metals.
• The core wire conducts the electric current to the arc and provides filler
metal for the joint.
 • The electrode holder is essentially a metal clamp with an electrically
insulated outside shell for the welder to hold safely.
• The heat of the arc melts the core wire and the flux covering at the
electrode tip into metal droplets.
• Molten metal in the weld pool solidifies into the weld metal while the
lighter molten flux floats on the top surface and solidifies as a slag layer.
• Also known as “stick welding”
• Uses an arc between a covered electrode and a workpiece.
• Shielding is obtained from decomposition of the electrode cover.
• Pressure is not used
• Filler metal is obtained from the electrode

Principle of Arc
• A suitable gap is kept between the work and electrode
• A high current is passed through the circuit.
• The electric energy is converted into heat energy, producing a
temperature of 3000°C to 4000°C.
• This heat melts the edges to be welded and molten pool is formed.
• On solidification the welding joint is obtained

• Process
• Intense heat at the arc melts the tip of the electrode
• Tiny drops of metal enter the arc stream and are deposited on the parent
metal
• As molten metal is deposited, a slag forms over the bead which serves as
an insulation against air contaminants during cooling.
• After a weld ‘pass’ is allowed the cool, the oxide layer is removed by a
chipping hammer and then cleaned with a wire brush before the next
pass.

Basic Steps of Arc Welding

• Prepare the base materials: remove paint and rust
• Choose the right welding process
• Choose the right filler material
• Assess and comply with safety requirements
• Use proper welding techniques and be sure to protect the molten puddle
from contaminants in the air.
• Inspect the weld

Electric Power for welding

Current used may be
1. AC Arc Welding
• instead of 220 V at 50 A, the power supplied by the transformer is
around 17–45 V at currents up to 600 A.

2. DC Arc Welding
• D.C. machines are made up to the capacity range of 600 amperes.
• 45 to 95 volts

Comparison of A.C. and D.C. arc welding

Direct Current Arc Welding
1. Less efficiency
2. Power consumption more
3. Cost of equipment is more
4. Low voltage – safer operation
5. Suitable for both ferrous non ferrous metals
6. Preferred for welding thin sections
7. Positive terminal connected to the work
8. Negative terminal connected to the electrode

Types of Electrodes
The choice of electrode depends on a number of factors, including
• The weld material
• Welding position and
• The desired weld properties.

1. Bare electrodes
2. Coated electrodes

Welding Electrodes
• The composition of the electrode core is generally similar and sometimes
identical to that of the base material.
• But even though a number of feasible options exist, a slight difference in
alloy composition can strongly impact the properties of the resulting
weld. This is especially true of alloy steels such as HSLA steels.
• Likewise, electrodes of compositions similar to those of the base
materials are often used for welding nonferrous materials like aluminium
and copper.
• However, sometimes it is desirable to use electrodes with core materials
significantly different from the base material. For example, stainless steel
electrodes are sometimes used to weld two pieces of carbon steel, and are
 often utilized to weld stainless steel work piece with carbon steel work
piece.

Coated Electrodes
The electrode is coated in a metal mixture called flux, which gives off gases as
it decomposes to prevent
1. Weld contamination
2. Introduces deoxidizers to purify the weld
3. Causes weld-protecting slag to form
4. Improves the arc stability, and
5. Provides alloying elements to improve the weld quality.

Electrode Coating
Electrode coatings can consist of a number of different compounds, including
rutile, calcium fluoride, cellulose, and iron powder.
• Rutile electrodes, coated with 25%–45% TiO2, are characterized by ease
of use and good appearance of the resulting weld. However, they create
welds with high hydrogen content, encouraging embrittlement and
cracking.
• Electrodes containing calcium fluoride (CaF2), sometimes known as
basic or low-hydrogen electrodes, are hygroscopic and must be stored in
dry conditions. They produce strong welds, but with a coarse and convex-
shaped joint surface.
• Electrodes coated with cellulose, especially when combined with rutile,
provide deep weld penetration, but because of their high moisture
content, special procedures must be used to prevent excessive risk of
cracking.
• Finally, iron powder is a common coating additive, as it improves the
productivity of the electrode, sometimes as much as doubling the yield.

Functions of electrode (flux) covering

• Provides the gaseous shield to protect the molten metal from air.
• Deoxidation - Provide deoxidizers and fluxing agent to deoxidize and
cleanse the weld metal. The solid slag also protects the weld metal from
oxidation.
• Arc stabilization - Provide arc stabilizers which are compounds such as
potassium oxalate and lithium carbonate. They readily decompose into
ions in an arc, which increase electrical conductivity.
• Metal addition - Provide alloying elements (for composition control) and
metal powder (increase deposition rate) to the weld pool.
Types of Electrodes
Electrodes can be divided into three groups—
1. Fast-fill electrodes, fast-fill electrodes are designed to melt quickly so
that the welding speed can be maximized.
2. Fast-freeze electrodes, fast-freeze electrodes supply filler metal that
solidifies quickly, making welding in a variety of positions possible by
preventing the weld pool from shifting significantly before solidifying
3. Intermediate electrodes go by the name "fill-freeze" or "fast-follow"
electrodes.

Welding Electrodes types

• Most widely used electrodes are E6010, E6011, E6013, E7018, and
E7024
• 6010 arc welding rods are most commonly used for welding root passes
in pipe and even for the fill passes on pipelines
• 6011 arc welding rods are the kissing cousin of 6010 and are designed to
be used on AC
• 6013 arc welding rods are the farmers welding rod and the welding rod
most people use first when learning to weld
• 7018 stick welding electrode is used for pipe welding and structural steel
welding and a all kinds of repair welding.
• 7024 stick rod is used to lay down a heap of weld fast...a really hot and
big puddle to get things done quick if its flat or horizontal...and run sweet
on AC.

Using Electrode 6010 for an example...

• The 60 in 6010 indicates the tensile strength in psi.
• The last 2 digits indicate what type flux. See the chart below
Arc Welding Power Supplies
• The current for arc welder can be supplied by line current or by an
alternator/generator.
– The amount of heat is determined by the current flow (amps)
– The ease of starting and harshness of the arc is determined by the
electrical potential (volts).
• Welding current adjustments can include:
– Amperage
– Voltage
– Polarity
– High frequency current
– Wave form

Amperage Output
• The maximum output of the power supply determines the thickness of
metal that can be welded before joint bevelling is required.
• 185 to 225 amps is a common size.
• For an individual weld, the optimum output amperage is determined by
– thickness of the metal
– type of joint and
– type of electrode

Ampere
• Electricity passing through a resistance causes heat.
• An air gap is a high resistance
• The greater the amperage flowing through the resistance (air gap) the
greater the heat.
• The electrode also has resistance.
• Excessive amperage for the diameter of the electrode (current density)
over heats the electrode.
• Insufficient amperage for the diameter of electrode makes the electrode
hard to start.

Advantages of arc welding

• Simple welding equipment
• Portable
• Inexpensive power source
• Relatively inexpensive equipment
• Welders use standard domestic current.
• Process is fast and reliable
 • Short learning curve
• Equipment can be used for multiple functions
• Electric arc is about 5,000 oC
• Used for maintenance, repair, and field construction

Disadvantages
• Not clean enough for reactive metals such as aluminium and titanium.
• The deposition rate is limited because the electrode covering tends to
overheat and fall off.
• The electrode length is ~ 35 mm and requires electrode changing lower
the overall production rate.

Basic Welded Joints

1. Butt Joint
2. Corner Joint
3. T – Joint
4. Lap Joint
5. Edge Joint

Butt Joint
Butt joint is a joint between two members aligned approximately in the same
plane

Different Edge Shapes and Symbols for some Butt-Joints

Corner Joint
Corner joint - a joint between two members located at right angles to each other

Some Different Edge Shapes and Symbols for Corner Joints

T-Joint
T- joint - a joint between two members located approximately at right angles to
each other in the form of T

Some Different Edge Shapes and Symbols for T Joint

Lap Joint
Lap Joint- a joint between two overlapping members

Some Different Edge Shapes and Symbols for Lap Joints

Edge Joint
Edge joint- a joint between the edges of two or more parallel or nearly parallel
members

Some Different Edge Shapes and Symbols for Edge Joints

Defects affect the quality of weld

• Porous welds
• Poor penetration
• Warping
• Undercut & Underfill
• Distortion
• Cracked welds
• Poor appearance
• Poor fusion
• Brittle welds
• Spatter
• Magnetic blow
• Weld stress

Causes and cures of common welding troubles Porous welds

Causes
 1. Short arc, with the exception of low hydrogen and stainless.
2. Insufficient puddling time.
3. Impaired base metal.
4. Poor electrodes

Cures
1. Check impurities in base metal.
2. Allow sufficient puddling time for gases to escape.
3. Use proper current.
4. Weave your weld to eliminate.
5. Use proper electrodes for job.
6. Hold longer arc.

Poor penetration
Causes
1. Speed too fast..
2. Electrodes too large.
3. Current too low.
4. Faulty preparation.

Cures
1. Use enough current to get desired penetration – weld slowly.
2. Calculate electrode penetration properly.
3. Select electrode according to welding groove size.
4. Leave proper free space at the bottom of weld.

Warping

Causes
1. Shrinkage of weld metal.
2. Faulty clamping of parts.
3. Faulty preparation.
4. Over heating at joint.

Cures
1. Peen joint edges before welding.
2. Weld rapidly.
3. Avoid excessive space between parts.
4. Clamp parts properly; back up to cool.
5. Adopt a welding procedure.
 6. Use high – speed, moderate penetration electrodes.

Undercut/Underfill

Causes
1. Faulty electrode manipulation
2. Faulty electrode usage.
3. Current too high.

Cures
1. Use uniform weave in butt welding.
2. Avoid using an overly large electrode.
3. Avoid excessive weaving.
4. Use moderate current; weld slowly.
5. Hold electrode at a safe distance from vertical plane in making horizontal
fillet welds.

Distortion

Causes
1. Uneven heat
2. Improper sequence.
3. Deposited metal shrinks.

Cures
1. Tack or clamp parts properly.
 2. Form parts before welding.
3. Dispose of rolling or forming strains before welding.
4. Distribute welding to prevent uneven heating.
5. Examine structure and develop a sequence.

Cracked welds

Causes
1. Wrong electrode.
2. Weld and part sizes unbalanced.
3. Faulty welds.
4. Faulty preparation.
5. Rigid joints.

Cures
1. Design structure and welding procedure to eliminate rigid joints.
2. Heat parts before welding.
3. Avoid weld in string beads.
4. Keep ends free to move as long as possible.
5. Make sound welds of good fusion.
6. Work with as low an amperage as possible.
Poor appearance

Causes
1. Faulty appearance
2. Over hang.
3. Improper use of electrodes.
4. Wrong arc and current voltage.

Cures
1. Use a proper welding technique.
2. Avoid over heating.
3. Use a uniform weave.
4. Avoid over high current.

Poor fusion

Causes
1. Wrong speed.
2. Current improperly adjusted.
3. Faulty preparation.
4. Improper electrode size.

Cures
1. Adjust electrode and ‘V’ size.
 2. Weave must be sufficient to melt sides of joints.
3. Proper current will allow deposition and penetration.
4. Keep weld metal from curling away from plates.

Brittle welds

Causes
1. Wrong electrode.
2. Faulty preheating.
3. Metal hardened by air.

Cures
1. Preheat at 135 to 260º C if welding on medium-carbon steel or certain
alloy steel.
2. Make multiple-layer welds.
3. Anneal after welding.
4. Use stainless or low-hydrogen electrodes for increasing weld ductility.

Spatter

Causes
1. Arc blow.
 2. Current too high.
3. Arc too long.
4. Faulty electrodes.

Cures
1. Whitewash parts in weld area.
2. Adjust current to needs.
3. Adjust to proper arc length.
4. Lighten arc blow.
5. Pick suitable electrodes

Magnetic blow

Causes
1. Magnetic fields cause the arc to deviate from its intended course.

Cures
1. Use steel blocks to alter magnetic path around arc.
2. Divide the ground into parts.
3. Weld in same direction the arc blows.
4. Use a short arc.
 5. Locate the ground properly on the work.

Weld stress

Causes
1. Faulty welds.
2. Faulty sequence.
3. Rigid joints.

Cures
1. Allow parts to move freely as long as practical.
2. Make as few passes as possible.
3. Peen deposits.
4. Anneal according to thickness of weld.
5. Move parts slightly in welding to reduce stresses.

Safety Instruments
Gas Welding
Gas welding is a welding process that melts and joins metals by heating them
with a flame caused by a reaction of fuel gas and oxygen. The most commonly
used method is Oxyacetylene welding due to its high flame temperature.

The flux may be used to deoxidize and cleanse the weld metal. The flux melts,
solidifies and forms a slag skin on the resultant weld metal. Utilizes oxygen and
a fuel gas to heat metal until it is in a molten state and fuse multiple pieces of
metal together. It can be used with or without a filler rod.

Great for joining dissimilar metals together. Older technology that can be
replaced by GTAW. Gas Welding also known as “oxyacetylene welding” uses
an oxyfuel gas flame, an be applied with or without pressure and be applied
with or without the use of filler materials.

Oxy-acetylene Welding: CaC2 + 2H2O = Ca (OH) 2 + C2H2 C2H2+2.5O2=

2CO2+H2O(vapour)+ 306.800 cal /mol

A number of welding processes use a flame produced by burning a mixture of

fuel gas and oxygen. The gas usually used is Acetylene but other gases are also
used. Separate cylinders and a hose pipe from each cylinder transports the gases
to a torch. Gas and fuel mix in the torch.
Chemical reactions and temperature distribution in a neutral oxyacetylene

The secondary combustion is also called the protection envelope since CO and
H2 here consume the O2 entering from surrounding air, thereby protecting the
weld from oxidation.

The Oxy-acetylene welding Flame

The oxy-acetylene flame has two distinct zones.

The inner zone (Primary combustion Zone) is the hottest part of the flame. The
welding should be performed so as the point of the inner zone should be just
above the joint edges. C2H2 + O2 2CO + H2
The outer zone the secondary combustion envelope performs two functions
•Preheats the joint edges
•Prevents oxidation by using some of the surrounding oxygen from weld
pool for combustion and gives off carbon dioxide and water vapour CO +
H2 + O2 CO2 + H2O

Oxyacetylene Welding
•Flame formed by burning a mix of acetylene (C2H2) and oxygen
•Fusion of metal is achieved by passing the inner cone of the flame over
the metal •Oxyacetylene can also be used for cutting metals

Oxyacetylene Welding
Uses a high-temperature flame from the combustion of acetylene and oxygen

Gas Welding
Oxyacetylene welding
(a) overall process
(b) welding area.
Gas Welding
•Sound weld is obtained by selecting proper size of flame, filler material
and method of moving torch
•The temperature generated during the process is 33000c
•When the metal is fused, oxygen from the atmosphere and the torch
combines with molten metal and forms oxides, results defective weld
•Fluxes are added to the welded metal to remove oxides
•Common fluxes used are made of sodium, potassium, Lithium and
borax.
•Flux can be applied as paste, powder,liquid.solid coating or gas

The Oxy-acetylene welding Flame

Reducing or Carburizing Excess acetylene (0.9:1) (Alloy steels and

aluminium alloys)

Oxidizing Excess oxygen (1.5:1) (Brasses, Bronzes, copper)

Neutral Equal acetylene & oxygen (low carbon steel, mild steels).

Types of Gas Welding

1. Leftward Welding
2. Rightward Welding

Gas welding two types

Gas welding equipments

1.Gas Cylinders Pressure

•Oxygen – 125 kg/cm2

•Acetylene – 16 kg/cm2

2.Regulators

•Working pressure of oxygen 1 kg/cm2

•Working pressure of acetylene 0.15 kg/cm2

•Working pressure varies depending upon the thickness of the work pieces
welded.
3.Pressure Gauges

4.Hoses

5.Welding torch

6.Non return valve

Gas welding Apparatus

1.Oxygen cylinder
2.Acetylene cylinder
3.Pressure gauges
4.Valves
5.Hose pipes
6.Torch
7.Welding tip
8.Pressure regulators
9.Lighter
10.Goggles
Gas welding torch

Gas Welding - Advantages

•Simple equipment
•Portable
•Inexpensive
•Easy for maintenance and repair

Gas Welding - Disadvantages

•Very low welding speed
•High total heat input per unit length
•Large heat affected zone
•Severe distortion
•Not recommended for welding reactive metals such as titanium and
zirconium.
TIG WELDING
General Principles
TIG (Tungsten Inert Gas) welding also known as GTA (Gas Tungsten Arc) in
the USA and WIG (Wolfram Inert Gas)
in Germany, is a welding process used for high quality welding of a variety of
materials, especially, Stainless Steel,
Titanium and Aluminium.

TIG welding setup

Equipment
_ DC or AC / DC Power Source
_ TIG Torch
_ Work Return Welding Lead
_ Shielding gas supply line, ( normally from a cylinder )
_ Foot Control Unit ( common option )

Power Source
TIG welding can be carried out using DC for Stainless Steel, Mild Steel,
Copper, Titanium, Nickel Alloys etc and AC for Aluminium and its Alloys and
Magnesium. Further information on the TIG Welding Process follows
information on equipment
used in this document. The Power Source is of a transformer design with or
without a rectifier, with a drooping characteristic (constant current power
source). The output is generally controlled by either a moving core within the
main transformer of the power source or by using electronic control of power
thyristors. DC power sources could be of 1 phase or 3 phase design, with an
inductor to provide a smooth output. AC and AC / DC Power Sources are of a
single phase design.

Arc Starting Circuit

HF : - Sparks of high tension jump across the gap between electrode and
workpiece rapidly to carry the welding current across to start welding in DC
TIG welding, this will stop once the arc is struck, in AC TIG welding, this will
normally continue to keep the arc alive as the AC output changes from a
Positive half cycle to a Negative half cycle and back again.

Lift Arc : -
The electrode is touched onto the workpiece, the TIG Torch switch or foot
control switch is operated, the equipment circuits detect a short circuit on the
output and allow only a very low current typically 5 - 8 amps to flow. The
electrode is lifted off the workpiece, the equipment circuits now detect a voltage
between electrode and workpiece and welding current strikes across that very
tiny gap as the electrode lifts off and welding continues.

Scratch Start : -
The electrode is scratched or dragged and lifted off the workpiece, much the
same as striking an electrode in MMA ( Stick ) welding. Using the HF method.
No cross contamination from electrode and workpiece takes place as they never
touch, with Lift arc correctly set and used, only minimal cross contamination
occurs because of the low current when electrode is in contact with workpiece,
scratch start TIG is a low cost option for general TIG welding, but cross
contamination can occur.
Output Control
In TIG output voltage is not controlled by the power source ( as with MIG ), but
is determined by the process and output welding current. Welding current is
normally controlled by either a moving core in the main transformer or by
melectronic power components.

Moving Core Control : -

The main drawback of this method of control, is its slow response to change
when required and due to the mechanical movement remote controls ( such as
foot control ) are so difficult and expensive to provide, that it is thought of as
not possible.

Electric Power Control : -

system has many advantages over the previous system. The possibility to
have a remote control of welding current, so the operator can raise or lower the
output as required while welding.

Craterfil / Slopedown Control

If not using a remote control, but simply a torch ON / OFF switch the output
can be sloped down to finish the weld without a crater at the end of the molten
pool, an electronic timer gradually reduces the output from welding valve to off
over an adjustable time.

AC Waveform Balance
A pot can be fitted, when welding in AC mode the positive half cycle cleans the
oxides on the Aluminium and the Negative half cycle produces weld penetration
during welding self rectification occurs and causes an imbalance of the
waveform, a balance control allows the operator to adjust the amount of time
the cleaning or penetration takes in each cycle.

Gas Flow Control

The TIG process relies entirely on the shielding gas to protect the hot electrode
and molten pool and it is therefore essential for good arc striking that the flow
of gas is initiated and allowed to stabilise before the arc is struck. Preflow
timers are commonly fitted to better TIG power sources. Equally the gas shield
must be allowed to flow after the arc is extinguished, to prevent oxidation of the
electrode and cooling weld. Postflow timers are fitted to most TIG power
sources.

DC Output Pulse Control

For DC welding use, there is often a pulsing facility which allows the welding
current to be switched between a low
current ( say approximately 15 amps ), sufficient to keep the arc alight but not
produce much heat and the main pulse current ( say 50 - 350 amps ), dependant
on the design control of the following parameters can be adjusted to provide
high quality welding.
Peak Current Valve
Peak Time
Base Current Valve
Base Current Time
Frequency of Pulses
The use of pulsed current greatly extends the control which can be exercised on
the process allowing:
* Improved consistency in the under head of unbacked butt welds.
* The ability to overcome differences in heat sink and therefore to join thick to
thin material.
* The ability to make cylindrical or circular welds without a build up of heat
and an increase in weld width.
* The ability to produce stable TIG welds at very low level.
Basically a series of overlapping spot welds, with short cooling periods between
such welds.

TIG Torch
The TIG torch can be air cooled or water cooled and of vastly different shapes
and sizes dependant on access to the area to be welded and welding current
required. TIG torch for use on equipment without a electric operated valve
( normally scratch start systems ) can have a finger operated gas valve fitted to
the torch head. If the operator is using a foot control unit, the torch will not need
a switch fitted. For welding in difficult to get to areas,
a flexible head torch can be used and bent to the best position for welding. In
water cooled torches, the current cable is a bore copper conductor within a
water carrying hose, this means the conductor can be greatly reduced in size and
weight. The gas shield are now invariably alumina ceramics and are available in
a wide range of sizes. When access is difficult, it may be necessary to project
the electrode well beyond the end of the gas nozzle, this may result in inferior
gas shielding because of turbulence. This can usually be overcome by
employing a Gas Lens System replacing the standard collet and collet body
system, this producing improved directional and stability of the gas flow.
Connection to the power source can be via a special lug if the equipment has a
stud output fitting, or a universal dinse
type TIG adaptor if output fittings are dinse type sockets. Electrodes for TIG
welding are Pure Tungsten or a Tungsten oxide, generally 2 % Thoriated
tungsten are used for DC
welding and 2 % Zirconiated tungsten are recommended for AC welding. The
diameter of the electrode is chosen to match the current required. For DC
welding, a sharp point is required but for AC welding only, a small bevel is
needed as the end of the electrode becomes rounded when the arc is operated.

Shielding Gas
The most commonly used gas for TIG welding is argon which can be used on
all metals. Argon - Hydrogen mixtures containing 2 - 5 % Hydrogen are
frequently used for stainless steel and nickel-base alloys having the advantage
of producing cleaner welds, giving deeper penetration.
Helium - Argon mixtures give deeper penetration, greater heat input and
therefore faster welding because of the higher arc voltage than pure Argon, but
arc striking may be more difficult than in Argon. These mixtures can be used
for Aluminium and Copper Alloys.

Welding Process
In most Arc welding processes, the arc is struck from a consumable electrode to
the workpiece and metal has been melted from electrode, transferred across the
arc and finally incorporated into the molten pool. TIG process employs on
electrode made from high melting point metal, usually a type of TUNGSTEN,
which is not melted. The electrode and the molten pool is shielded from the
atmosphere by a stream of inert gas which flows around the electrode and is
directed onto the workpiece by a nozzle which surrounds the electrode.

In TIG welding, the primary function of the arc is to supply heat to melt the
workpiece and any filler metal which may be necessary. This filler metal is fed
manually into the molten pool at its leading edge.

The second function of the arc is to clean the surface of the molten pool and the
immediately surrounding parent metal of surface oxide films and therefore no
flux is required. The shielding gas MUST be inert with respect to the tungsten
electrode and the choice is therefore more limited than with the MIG process.

When using DC the DCEN electrode negative polarity is almost invariably

employed, ( if DCEP is used most of the heat is in the electrode not the
workpiece, so if this polarity is used, very much larger electrodes MUST be
used ). The cleaning function of the arc does not take place on the DCEN
polarity, so metals forming refractory oxide surface films such as aluminium
cannot be readily welded on this polarity. For Aluminium the electrode positive
polarity on which cleaning takes place, would therefore appear desirable. In fact
on this polarity, more energy is dissipated at the electrode which therefore
becomes overheated. Aluminium is therefore welded using AC and the cleaning
action takes place on the electrode positive half cycles and weld penetration
takes place on the electrode negative half cycle. Zirconiated tungsten electrodes
are used for AC welding because Zirconia helps the electrode to maintain the
desired stable end.

Spot Welding
Spot welding (also known as resistance spot welding) is a resistance welding
process. This welding process is used primarily for welding two or more metal
sheets together by applying pressure and heat from an electric current to the
weld area.

It works by contacting copper alloy electrodes to the sheet surfaces, whereby

pressure and electric current are applied and heat is generated by the passage of
current through resistive materials such as low carbon steels.

How Spot Welding Work?

A form of resistance welding, spot welding is one of the oldest welding

processes whereby two or more sheets of metal are welded together without the
use of any filler material.

The process involves applying pressure and heat to the weld area using shaped
alloy copper electrodes which convey an electrical current through the weld
pieces. The material melts, fusing the parts together at which point the current is
turned off, pressure from the electrodes is maintained and the molten “nugget”
solidifies to form the joint.
Schematic diagram of resistance spot welding

The welding heat is generated by the electric current, which is transferred to the
work piece through copper alloy electrodes. Copper is used for the electrodes as
it has a high thermal conductivity and low electrical resistance compared to
most other metals, ensuring that the heat is generated preferentially in the work
pieces rather than the electrodes.

The amount of heat depends on the thermal conductivity and electrical

resistance of the metal as well as the amount of time the current is applied. This
heat can be expressed by the equation:

Q = I2Rt

In this equation “Q” is heat energy, “I” is current, “R” is electrical resistance
and “t” is the time for which the current is applied.

Materials Appropriate for Spot Welding

Due to its lower thermal conductivity and higher electrical resistance, steel is
comparatively easy to spot weld, with low carbon steel being most suited to spot
welding. However, high carbon content steels (Carbon equivalence > 0.4wt%)
are prone to poor fracture toughness or cracking in the welds as they tend to
form hard and brittle microstructures.

Galvanized steel (zinc coated) requires slightly higher welding currents to weld
than uncoated steels.  Also, with zinc alloys, the copper electrodes rapidly
degrade the surface and lead to a loss of weld quality. When spot welding zinc
coated steels, electrodes must either be frequently exchanged or the electrode tip
surface should be ‘dressed’, where a cutter removes contaminated material to
expose a clean copper surface and reshapes the electrode. 

Other materials commonly spot welded include stainless steels (in particular
austenitic and ferritic grades), nickel alloys and titanium.

Although aluminum has a thermal conductivity and electrical resistance close to

that of copper, the melting point for aluminum is lower, which means welding is
possible. However, due to its low resistance, very high levels of current need to
be used when welding aluminum (in the order of two to three times higher than
for steel of equivalent thickness).

In addition, aluminum degrades the surface of copper electrodes within a very

small number of welds, meaning that stable high quality welding is very hard to
achieve. For this reason, only specialist applications of aluminum spot welding
are currently found in industry. Various new technology developments are
emerging to help enable stable high quality spot welding in aluminum. 

Copper and its alloys can also be joined by resistance spot welding, although
spot welding copper cannot be easily achieved with conventional copper alloy
spot welding electrodes, as heat generation in the electrodes and work piece are
very similar.

The solution to welding copper is to use an electrode made of an alloy with a

high electrical resistance and a melting temperature far in excess of the melting
point of copper (much greater than 1080°C). Electrode materials typically used
for spot welding copper include molybdenum and tungsten.
Where is Spot Welding Used?

Spot welding has applications in a number of industries,

including automotive, aerospace, rail, white goods, metal
furniture, electronics, medical building and construction.

Given the ease with which spot welding can be automated when combined with
robots and manipulation systems, it is the most common joining process in high
volume manufacturing lines and has in particular been the main joining process
in the construction of steel cars for over 100 years.

Car body welding on an automotive production line

PART ONE

FABRICATION
2. FABRICATION

2.1 Material Processing

For easy storage and transport, materials are generally changed into simple
shapes after collection and initial processing. For example, metals are changed
into sheets, bars, boards or rods; timbers are cut into boards and wooden sticks;
and plastic materials are converted into plastic grains, plastic boards and plastic
strips, etc.

The purpose of cutting, forming, joining and surface processing of materials is

to make products suit our needs. These processes are called ‘Material
processing’. For example, metals are used to make tools, timbers are used to
make chairs and plastics are used to make stationery. To raise the quality of the
artefacts, we should have a comprehensive understanding on various kinds of
material processing technology.

2.1.1 Material forming

Material forming refers to the process of turning materials into appropriate

shapes. There are many ways of material forming, e.g. Bending, Pressing,
Rolling, Moulding, Casting and Lamination.

(a) Bending

(i) Metals

Metallic sheets can be beaten into different shapes by using hand tools, as well
as by applying mechanical bending operations. There are various ways to bend
metallic sheets mechanically. Fig. 2.1 shows some common bending methods
 (a) V-Die bending

(b) Roll bending

(c) Folding

(d) Draw bending

Fig.2.1 Some bending methods for metals

(ii) Timber

Timbers can be bent by steam bending or board clamping. Under steam

bending, timbers are heated and softened by steam cases, and then immediately
placed in a mould and clamped for a long time until dry to have their shapes
fixed. Board clamping refers to the bending process of clamping glued
laminated veneer with mortise-and-tenon moulds. The laminated veneer will
form curved pieces after the glue dries.

(iii) Plastic

Thermoplastics can be bent by heating. For example, acrylic is a common

thermoplastic. C in an oven or by using an electric rod heater, acrylic will soften
and When heated to about 170 can be bent into desired shapes.

(b) Pressing

Pressing is to stamp metals into desired shapes. Firstly, heat and soften metallic
materials. Then use a hydraulic press to drive the stamping tool so that metals
can be pressed into artefacts with different shapes and thickness (Fig. 4a).
Desired appearances can be cast on the material surface if such appearances are
produced on the surface of the stamping mould. For example, coins are minted
from metals.

The principle of pressing can also be applied to stamping large pieces of metal
into sheets with different shapes or holes . Computer control pressing machines
can even change stamping moulds automatically according to the designs of the
sheets, so that metallic sheets can have complicated and meticulous surfaces.

(c) Rolling

Fig. 2.2
 (a) Rolling for metallic sheet

(b) Rolling for metallic rod

The theory of rolling is to reduce the thickness (Fig. 2.1a) or to change the
cross-section (Fig. 2.1b) of a long workpiece by using a set of rollers. Rolling is
usually classified as Cold Rolling and Hot rolling. Table 1 compares the two.

Cold rolling Hot rolling

Principles Start rolling without undergoing Start rolling after heating the
heating process metal to working temperature
Materials Soft metals with higher ductility, Hard metals, e.g. steel
e.g. aluminium
Merits Improve physical properties, Can turn hard, thick metals
smooth surface, precise size into sheets or rods with
smaller radii
limitations Not suitable for condition of 1. Rough surface of the
great difference in thickness product
between raw materials and 2. higher cost because the
artefacts tools have to withstand high
temperture
Table 1 Comparison between cold rolling and hot rolling
(d) Moulding

Moulding refers to the process that changes the form of plastics into desired
shapes by the use of moulds. Moulding methods include mould forming, blow
moulding, vacuum moulding, compression moulding and injection moulding
etc.

(i) Mould forming

Mould forming is to fill thermosetting plastics such as polyester resin into the
moulds. When the resin hardens, shapes can be fixed and artefacts can be
released from the moulds. Decorations can be sealed if they are added before
the resin hardens.

(ii) Blow moulding

Blow moulding can blow thermoplastic strips (e.g. polyvinyl chloride) into
desired shapes. Clamp the plastic strips tight, heat and soften them. Then blow
in air using blowing machine and press the strips into the shape of the mould.

(iii) Vacuum moulding

Vacuum moulding turns thermosetting plastic strips into desired shapes using
atmospheric pressure. Firstly, clamp tight, heat and soften the strips. Then raise
the mould on top of the strips. Remove air using vacuum forming machine and
the plastic strip will be pressed into desired shapes by atmospheric pressure.

(iv) Compression moulding

Compression moulding can produce plastic bottles rapidly and automatically.

Heat and soften materials with compression moulding machine. Then fill the
materials into the mould. Bind and hold tight the ends. Blow in air and press
into the shape of the mould. Plastic bottles are then produced after the hardening
of the materials and removal of excessive parts by the machine.

(v) Injection moulding

Injection moulding is an automatic method for mass production of plastics.

Plastic materials are first heated and softened in the machine and then injected
into the moulds. Artefacts can be produced when the materials are hardened.
Merits of this moulding method are that costs can be lowered by means of mass
production and the quality of products is higher. Moreover, products do not
need further processing and they require less plastic consumption. This is why
injection moulding is widely adopted in the industry.

(e) Casting

Casting is to fill melted metals into moulds and to get the artefacts after
hardening. This method can produce metallic products with high complexity in
shape such as blades of propellers, sculptures and water pumps.

(i) Sand casting

Sand casting is to produce sand mould by using sand. Firstly, put a wood
mould into the lower case. Then cover the mould with sand and press until the
surface is smooth. Put the lower case upside down and place the upper case on
top of it. Place the pouring pipe. Fill the case with sand and press tight. Use a
spoon to remove the sand and form a pouring basin after removing the pipe.

Then remove the upper case as well as the mould from the lower case. Use a
spoon to open a pouring trench and place back the upper case. Finally, pour
melted metal into the sand mould and get the artefacts from the lower case after
cooling.

(ii) Mould casting

Mould casting is a rapid way of casting. Melted metals (e.g. aluminium) are
squeezed into steel mould in the mould-casting machine. When the metals turn
into solid, the mould will be opened for workers to get the artefacts. Some
moulds in mould casting machine are complimented by water for shorter
cooling time.

(f) Lamination of materials

Lamination refers to the process of cohering multi-layered materials with

thermosetting plastics, e.g. thin wood skins, paper, cloth, etc. Soak paper or
cloth in thermosetting plastics (e.g. resin). By using a compressor to press and
heat the materials, laminated plastic sheet (e.g. Formica) can be produced.
2.2 Agro Processing Equipment

2.2.1 Agro-processing definitions

Agro-processing could be defined as a set of techno-economic activities carried

out on an agricultural commodity for the purposes of making it usable as food,
feed, fibre, fuel or industrial raw material. The agro processing value chain
encompasses all subsequent operations after the stage of harvest till the produce
reaches the final consumer in the desired form, packaging, quantity, quality and
price. Such activities comprise two major categories; primary and secondary
processing operations.

2.2.1.1 Primary processing operations

This involves activities such as crop drying, shelling/ threshing, cleaning,

grading, and packaging. These activities are mainly carried out at the farm and
only transform the commodity into a slightly different form prior to storage,
marketing or further processing.

2.2.1.2 Secondary processing operations

This entail increasing nutritional or market value of the commodity and the
physical form or appearance of the commodity is often totally changed from the
original. Some examples of secondary processing are milling grain into flour,
grinding groundnuts into peanut butter, pressing oil out of vegetable seeds,
pressing juice out of fruit, and making cheese out of milk. Depending on type of
commodity, equipment needed for primary processing is completely different
from that used in secondary processing or major adjustments/modifications
need to be done to suit either.

2.2.2 Processing Methods

In processing of agro materials, there various methods adopted in other to

complete processing. Among many, here are few;

1. Washing 2. Peeling
 3. De-shelling 12.Freezing
4. Shredding 13.Sterilizing
5. Stamping 14.Rolling
6. Drying 15.Slicing
7. Frying 16.Sieving
8. Grinding 17.Crushing
9. Extruding 18.Cracking
10.Expelling 19.Separating
11.Pounding 20.Mixing

2.2.3 Equipment design preview and study

Let us look at the following machine below and collectively analyze them.

Fig 2.1 Palm nut and fibre separator

Fig 2.2 palm nut cracker and selector

Fig 2.3 Slicing Machine

Fig 2.4 Animal Feed Extrusion Machine

Fig 2.5 Drying Machine