Pressure Belts, Winds & Precipitation

The earth receives varying amounts of insolation, and it causes differential heating of the surface and
atmosphere. It will produce a density difference in the air. When heated, air will expand and
compressed when cooled. This will result in a variation of atmospheric pressure. It will cause the
movement of air from high pressure to low pressure in three-dimensional motions across the globe.
The air in horizontal motion is called wind.

Atmospheric pressure:
A column of air exerts weight in terms of pressure on the surface of the earth. The weight of the
column of air in the unit area is called atmospheric pressure. It is from the mean sea level to the top
of the atmosphere. It is measure in millibars and pascals. Isobars are the lines connecting the places
having the same barometric pressure.

The gradual change of pressure between different areas is known as a barometric slope or pressure
gradient. If the isobars are closer, then the pressure gradient will be high and vice versa.
Pressure variations:
Pressure will decrease with height, with a decrease in the density of air in the lower atmosphere. It
does not
FACTORS CHANGE PRESSURE

TEMPERATURE INCREASE DECREASE

ALTITUDE INCREASE DECREASE

WATER VAPOUR INCREASE DECREASE

GRAVITATIONAL FORCE INCREASE INCREASE

ROTATION OF EARTH INCREASE DECREASE

always decrease at the same rate. In cold air, the decrease in pressure can be steeper because the
density of air is greater than the warmer air. At a height above almost 1500 to 3000 meters, the
pressure is low enough to create mountain sickness and physiological problems. So, careful steps are
necessary.

We do not experience strong vertical air currents despite having a high vertical pressure gradient. This
is because of equal and opposite gravitational force acting upon the air.

The low-pressure effects are experienced by people in hilly regions. In these regions, rice takes more
time to cook because low pressure reduces the boiling point of the water. Many trekkers will face
nose bleedings and faintness because of the low-pressure condition in which air is thin, and it has a
low amount of oxygen content.

The horizontal pressure gradient is more significant for the wind direction and velocity than the
vertical pressure gradient. The low-pressure system is enclosed by one or more isobars with the lowest
pressure at the centre. The highest pressure system is also enclosed by one or more isobars with the
highest pressure at the centre.

Pressure belts of the earth:

• Equatorial low-pressure belt or DOLDRUMS:

This belt lies between 100N to 100S latitude. This belt is the zone of convergence of the trade
winds. The trade winds are coming from subtropical high-pressure belts from both
hemispheres. The zone has extremely calm movements; that is why called Doldrums. Because
of the apparent movement of the sun, the position of the belt varies. This region receives the
highest amount of insolation because of the equator. Air gets warmed up and rises above the
equator. The region has vertically upward movement that means the surface will be at low
pressure. So, the belt along the equator is called the equatorial low-pressure belt and having
calm conditions. The region is not having surface winds because winds approaching the region
will rise near to the margin. Thus only vertical currents are found. The winds contain a huge
amount of moisture because of the presence of oceans. Cyclones are not formed at the
equator because of zero Coriolis force.

• Subtropical high-pressure belt or HORSE LATTITUDE:

 This belts extent from near the tropic to about 350 N and S. after the complete loss of moisture
that is saturation at the ITCZ, the air moving away from the equatorial low-pressure belt in
upper troposphere becomes dry and cold. This air will subside at 300N and S. So the high
pressure in this region is because of subsidence of cold and dry air after becoming heavier.
The subsiding air is now warm and dry; that is why the region in this belt has deserts. A calm
or anti-cyclonic condition is created in this belt. The descending air currents will feed the winds
blowing in adjoining low-pressure belts. This latitude of subtropical high-pressure is called
Horse Latitude. It is because earlier sailing vessels of the cargo of horses found it difficult to
sail under calm conditions of this high-pressure belt. They used to throw the horse into the
sea when fodder ran out, and hence it is called Horse Latitude.

• Subpolar low-pressure belt:

This belt located between 450 N and S to the Arctic and Antarctic circles (66.50 N and S). These
belts are not very pronounced in year long. Subpolar pressure belts in the northern
hemisphere are grouped into two atmospheric activities. One is Iceland low and Aleutian
depression. In the southern hemisphere, these belts surround Antarctica and not well
differentiated. Coriolis force produced by the rotation of the earth, and these belts are also
dynamically produced. This is the convergence of westerlies and polar easterlies and zone of
ascending air is created. This are produces polar jet streams because of contrast between cold
and warm air masses. This encircles the earth at 600latitude and focussed in these low-
pressure areas.

• Polar high-pressure belts:

This extends around the poles and small in area. They lie around the poles between 80 0 and
900 N and S latitudes. The air coming from sub-polar low-pressure belts becomes dry after
saturation. This dry air becomes cold and moves towards poles from the upper troposphere.
This air will subside and create a high-pressure belt at the poles.

General circulation of the atmosphere:

The movement of planetary winds is called the general circulation of the atmosphere. This general-
circulation also influences the ocean water.
The wind is the result of a pressure gradient, which is caused by the differential heating of the earth's
surface and the atmosphere. Wind in the atmosphere is neither unidirectional nor have the same
pattern horizontally. Wind movement in the atmosphere is classified into three broad categories:

1. Primary circulation: It includes a planetary wind system. It is related to the arrangement of

pressure belts on the earth's surface. It is the primary circulation which prepares a framework
for the other circulation.
2. Secondary circulation: It includes cyclones, anti-cyclones, and monsoons.
3. Tertiary circulation: It includes all the local winds produced by local causes such as
topographical features, sea influences, etc. The impact is visible only in a particular area.

Primary circulation and planetary winds:

It blows from high-pressure belts to low pressure belts in the same direction throughout the year.
They blow from vast areas of continents and oceans. It consists of trade winds, Westerlies, and polar
easterlies. The pattern of planetary winds depends upon:
• Pressure belt emergence
• Latitudinal variation of atmospheric heating
• Rotation of Earth
• Belts are moving because of the apparent movement of the sun
• Distribution of continents and oceans

Sun's rays are vertical at the equatorial zone, and the air becomes light and forms a low-pressure area.
This is called doldrums or ITCZ. The air rises at the ITCZ because of convection, and the low-pressure
area is created. The wind coming from tropic converge at the low-pressure area and rises with the
convective cell. It reaches to the top of the troposphere up to 14 km and moves towards poles. This
causes accumulation of air at the 300 N and S. this air sinks and creates a high-pressure area. On the
surface, air flows towards the equator is called easterlies. The easterlies or trade winds either side of
the hemisphere converge at the ITCZ.

In the middle latitude, cold air sinks, which is coming from the poles and rising warm air from the
subtropical high. At the surface, these winds are called westerlies.

At polar latitudes, cold, dense air subsided near the poles and blew towards middle latitude as the
polar easterlies.

One cell model of troposphere circulation:

It was given by George Hadley in 1735. It was on the
assumption that earth is not rotating and uniform surface of
the earth that is either land or water.

Hadley cell is based on the conventional current, which is an

upward movement of warm air. According to Hadley, in each
hemisphere, there is a large convection cell powered by the
heating of the equatorial region. By means of this
convectional cell, the surplus energy is transferred polewards.

Hadley did not consider the rotation of the earth; therefore,

his model got oversimplified and, as a result, failed to describe
and explain the complexities of tropospheric circulation.
Tri cellular meridional circulation:
The heat in the atmosphere transferred
through:
1. Horizontally: The horizontal
distribution of heat is mainly
because of the unequal heating
of different latitudes.
2. Vertically: The vertical
distribution of heat is because
of ascent and descent of heated
and cold air. The meridional
circulation of heat transfer
results in the formation of
certain cells.

• Tropical cells (Hadley cells):

Sun rays fall vertically in the

equatorial zone. Air becomes
light and forms a low-pressure area at the equator. This is known as Doldrums or ITCZ. The
warm ascending air releases the latent heat, and it produces the cumulous clouds. Cumulous
clouds provide the required energy to drive the tropical cells. It gives rains to the equatorial
region. The rising air moves polewards in the upper troposphere. The air of the Hadley cell
descends at 300 N and S. this cell is more pronounced in the southern hemisphere than the
northern hemisphere because of less land and more water.

• Polar Front cell (Ferrell cell):

It develops between 300 and 600 in both the

hemisphere. In this, the wind blows from
southwest to northeast in Northern
Hemisphere and northwest to southeast in
the southern hemisphere. It is because of
the Coriolis force that winds blow from
west to east. In these latitudes, the upper
troposphere is having movement of winds
is parallel to the trade winds in both
hemispheres. The westerly in this zone is
influenced by migratory temperate
cyclones. It will help in the mixing of
temperature because the direction of the
wind in temperate cyclone is variable
coming from different directions. Middle
latitude circulation is having a vital role in
maintaining terrestrial heat balance.

• Polar or subpolar cells:

 It is located between 600 to 900 N and S in both the hemisphere. This is the area of high
pressure and also anti-cyclones. The air descends downwards from the upper troposphere in
this area. The air moves towards the sub-polar low pressure from the polar high pressure. The
direction of the wind in the Northern hemisphere is from northeast to southwest, and for the
southern hemisphere, it is from southeast to northwest. But under the impact of Coriolis
force, wind generally moves from east to west. The cold polar easterlies clash with the warmer
westerlies when it moves towards the equator. The zone of convergence of these two airflows
of different nature is known as Polar Front. The mixing of heat transfer in this cell is done by
the waves in westerlies. The wind blows from 600 towards the poles in the upper troposphere.

Climatic significance of tri-cellular circulation

• It is very significant for the transfer of heat from lower to the upper atmosphere.
• The convergence of trade winds in the ITCZ and subtropical high-pressure zones gives a
contribution to the transfer of energy.
• It helps in the development of temperate and tropical cyclones. The heat transfer in the
Hadley cell is the result of tornados and vertical disturbances. These cells also influence the
Indian monsoons.
• This also forms the hot desserts, Horse latitudes, and roaring forties.
• The seasons, climate, climatic belts, vegetation belts, and lifestyle of people in the different
regions of the world are directly or indirectly is influenced by tri-cellular atmospheric
circulation.

Fronts:
The boundary zone between the two air masses meet point is called the front. These air masses are
brought together by the converging movement in the general atmospheric circulation. The process by
which fronts are forming is known as FRONTOGENESIS, and the end-stage of a front is called
FRONTOLYSIS. They come into contact with the sloping boundaries. These boundaries are the
transition zone of sharp contrast in weather conditions. These masses are having vast size covering
tens and thousands of kilometres. The front brings abrupt changes in temperature and causes the air
to rise to form clouds and cause precipitation. We can recognize fronts by the following observations:

• Temperature is changing
sharply across shorter
distances.
• Moisture content is changing
• Wind direction is shifting
rapidly
• Pressure changes
• Patterns of cloud and
precipitations

Types of front:

a. Stationary fronts: When air

masses are not moving against
each other, then the zone is
called a stationary zone. In this zone, there is no movement of an actual temperature gradient,
but convergence is still there.

b. Cold fronts: The transition zone where cold and dry stable air mass displaces a warm moist
unstable subtropical air mass than the zone is called cold fronts. The dense cold air moves into
the warm air region, and it forces warm air to rise very quickly. This will result in convective
clouds and heavier precipitations.

c. Warm fronts: The transition zone in the atmosphere where moist subtropical moist air
displaces retreating cold, dry polar air mass. Gradual frontal lifting will cause the formation of
clouds and precipitations. We can see moderate and gentle precipitation over a large area for
several hours. The formation of clouds after the warm airlifting is not convective in nature, so
we get stratus precipitation.

d. Occluded Fronts: These fronts form when the air mass is fully lifted above the land surface by
the fast-moving air mass coming from behind. For example, a fast-moving cold front catches
and overtakes a slower-moving warm front. The cyclone will decrease the intensity after the
occlusion when the warm air is forces upwards between the two cold air masses than the
weather becomes clear, calm, and stable.

Precipitation
Origin of Rainfall
• The presence of warm, moist and unstable air and a sufficient number of hygroscopic
nuclei are the prerequisite condition for rainfall.

• The warm and moist air after being lifted upward becomes saturated, and clouds are formed
after condensation of water vapour around hygroscopic nuclei (salt and dust particles), but
still, there may not be rainfall unless the air is supersaturated.

• The process of condensation begins when the relative humidity of ascending air becomes
100%, and the air is further cooled through dry adiabatic lapse, but the first condensation
occurs around larger hygroscopic nuclei only. Such droplets are called cloud droplets.
 • Burgeon process and Collision coalescence process are the main mechanisms for rainfall.

Following are the pre-conditions for condensation:

• The air should be warm and must go vertical and then spread;

• Should into contact with warm air with high mountains and then to climb over to come close to the
the top layer of ice and become cool;

• Should be cooled by approaching the colder latitudes;

Types of Rainfall

On the basis of its origin, three types of rainfall are recognized as convectional, orographic, and
frontal.

Convectional Rainfall
• Occur due to thermal convection currents caused by insolational heating of the ground surface.

• Prevalent especially in equatorial areas;

• Warm air rises up and expands, reaches a cooler layer and saturates and then condenses
mainly in the form of cumulus or cumulonimbus clouds and normally precipitation takes place
in the second half of the noon;

• Also rains in the tropical, subtropical and little in temperate regions;

• But there must be two pre-conditions:

• An abundant supply of moisture through evaporation so that relative humidity becomes high;

• Intense heating of ground surface through incoming shortwave electromagnetic solar radiations.

Features of Convectional Rainfall

• It occurs daily in the afternoon in the equatorial region.

• It is for a very short duration but occurs in the form of heavy showers

• They make Cumulonimbus clouds.

• In hot deserts, it is irregular and sudden.

Cyclonic or Frontal Rainfall

• Occur due to the upward movement of air caused by convergence of extensive air masses;

• It happens due to the convergence of two different air masses with different
temperature. The warm air rises over cold air, and cyclonic rain occurs;

• Cold air pushes up warm air, and the sky is clear again.

Orographic Rainfall

Orographic rainfall occurs due to the ascent of air forced by mountain barrier. The pre-conditions
are:

• There should be mountain barrier across the wind direction so that the moist air is forced
on obstruction to move upward, e.g. Aravali in Rajasthan is parallel to the Arabian Sea and,
thus, forms rain shadow area;

• There should be sufficient moisture in the air;

• The height of the mountain also affects rainfall; and

• If the height is more distance from the sea is also more, then there would be lesser
rainfall; if the height is less, but it is nearer to the sea, there will be more rainfall.

Features of Orographic Rainfall

• The windward slope. E.g. Mangalore is located in the western windward slope and receives
2,000 mm of rainfall, whereas Bangalore is in rain shadow area and hardly receives 500 mm.
Rainfall.
Similarly, Coastal ranges of North America receives 2,000 mm, but eastern slope doesn’t receive.

• The maximum rainfall occurs near the mountain slope and decreases away from the
foothills. E.g. in Shimla it is 520 mm; Nainital, 2,000 mm and Darjeeling receives 3150 mm
rainfall because Darjeeling is nearest to Himalayan slopes. Patna receives 1000 mm,
Allahabad 1050 mm and Delhi 650 mm rainfall.

• If the mountain is of moderate height, the maximum rainfall doesn’t occur at the top rather it occurs
on the other side.

• Cumulus clouds in the leeward side of Stratus clouds characterize the windward slope of
the mountain at the time of rainfall.

• The amount of rainfall increases with increasing height along the windward slope of the
mountain up to a certain height, but the amount of rain decreases with increasing height
because of the marked decrease in the moisture content of the air. This situation is called
‘inversion of rainfall’;

• The side opposite to windward slope does not experience much rainfall. This is because the
moisture-bearing clouds when they descent, they got compressed and their temperature
increases. This increases its moisture-holding capacity. Such regions are called rainshadow
regions.

Forms of Condensation
Mist

• Forms on wet surface, lakes or rivers where the humidity is high and condensation in
the evening led to wisps of mist over the fields and water, especially in sheltered spots.
• It is a cloud at ground level.

Dew

The Earth receives radiation from the sun during the day and reflects in the night.

• When the Earth reflects the heat, the surface becomes cool, and the air around it also
becomes cooler.

• Then the water vapour in the air condenses and then is called ‘dew’.

• But there are two pre-conditions: (1) there must be vapour in the air; and (2) the surface must
be cool enough to condense that water vapour.

• That’s why after the rainy season, the water vapour content in the air increases.

• After the rainy season in the winter, the air becomes cool and, therefore, adequate dews are
formed in October–November.

Fog
• It is a special type of thin cloud consisting of microscopically small water droplets which are
kept in suspension in the air near the ground surface arid reduces horizontal visibility.
• Fog is generally associated with inversion of temperature and occurs in the morning hours but
sometimes also continue till noon.
• When there is a mixture of smoke and fog, it becomes Smog

Frost

• When the temperature falls below freezing point, it forms a frost.

• Temperature either 0° C or less, than the water droplets, take the form of ice cubes.
• It is a deposit of white opaque ice crystals formed by the freezing of supercooled water
droplets on the surface below 0°C.
• It happens due to inversion of temperature in the mountain valleys.

Other Forms of Precipitation

1. Ice: If the temperature of the entire atmosphere is below 0°C, the condensation will lead
to ice formation and snowfall.

2. Snowfall: The fall of larger snowflakes from the clouds on the ground surface is called
snowfall. It occurs when the freezing level is less than 300m from the ground surface.

These crystals reach the ground without being melted in a solid form of precipitation like snow

3. Sleet: In the U.K., it refers to a mixture of snow and rain, but in American terminology, it
means falling of small pellets of transparent and translucent ice having a diameter of 5 mm
or less.
4. Hail: It consists of large pellets or spheres of ice. In fact, hail is a form of solid precipitation
wherein small balls or pieces of ice, known as hail or stones, having a diameter of 550 mm fall
downward as hail storms. They are a very destructive and dreaded form of solid precipitation
because they destroy agricultural crops and claim human and animal life. After condensation,
if the temperature is below 00 C degree than the water droplets would take the form of hails.

5. Drizzle: The fall of numerous uniform minute droplets of water having a diameter of less
than 0.5 mm is called drizzle.

They fall continuously from low stratus clouds, but the total amount of water received on the
ground surface is significant.