Electrical Machine II

Assignment

Q.1. What are the different Excitation systems used for alternator.
Ans. The system which is used for providing the necessary field current to
the rotor winding of the synchronous machine, such type of system is
called an excitation system.

Types of Excitation System :

The excitation system is mainly classified into three types. They are

1. DC Excitation System
2. AC Excitation System
 Rotor Excitation System

 Brushless Excitation System

3. Static Excitation System

1. DC Excitation System

The DC excitation system has two exciters – the main exciter and a pilot
exciter. The exciter output is adjusted by an automatic voltage regulator
(AVR) for controlling the output terminal voltage of the alternator. The
current transformer input to the AVR ensures limiting of the alternator
current during a fault.

When the field breaker is open, the field discharge resistor is connected
across the field winding so as to dissipate the stored energy in the field
winding which is highly inductive.
The main and the pilot exciters can be driven either by the main shaft or
separately driven by the motor. Direct driven exciters are usually
preferred as these preserve the unit system of operation, and the
excitation is not excited by external disturbances.

The voltage rating of the main exciter is about 400 V, and its capacity is
about 0.5% of the capacity of the alternator. Troubles in the exciters of
turbo alternator are quite frequent because of their high speed and as
such separate motor driven exciters are provided as standby exciter.

2. AC Excitation System

The AC excitation system consists of an alternator and thyristor rectifier

bridge directly connected to the main alternator shaft. The main exciter
may either be self-excited or separately excited. The AC excitation system
may be broadly classified into two categories which are explained below
in details.

a. Rotating Thyristor Excitation System

The rotor excitation system is shown in the figure below. The rotating
portion is being enclosed by the dashed line. This system consists an AC
exciter, stationary field and a rotating armature. The output of the exciter
is rectified by a full wave thyristor bridge rectifier circuit and is supplied
to the main alternator field winding.
The alternator field winding is also supplied through another rectifier
circuit. The exciter voltage can be built up by using it residual flux. The
power supply and rectifier control generate the controlled triggering
signal. The alternator voltage signal is averaged and compare directly
with the operator voltage adjustment in the auto mode of operation. In
the manual mode of operation, the excitation current of the alternator is
compared with a separate manual voltage adjustment.

b. Brushless Excitation System

This system is shown in the figure below. The rotating portion being
enclosed by a dashed line rectangle. The brushless excitation system
consists an alternator, rectifier, main exciter and a permanent magnet
generator alternator. The main and the pilot exciter are driven by the
main shaft. The main exciter has a stationary field and a rotating
armature directly connected, through the silicon rectifiers to the field of
the main alternators.
The pilot exciter is the shaft driven permanent magnet generator having
rotating permanent magnets attached to the shaft and a three phase
stationary armature, which feeds the main exciter field through silicon
rectifiers, in the field of the main alternator. The pilot exciter is a shaft
driven permanent magnetic generator having rotating permanent
magnets attached to the shaft and a 3-phase stationary armature, which
feeds the main’s exciter through 3-phase full wave phase controlled
thyristor bridges.

The system eliminates the use of a commutator, collector and brushes

have a short time constant and a response time of fewer than 0.1
seconds. The short time constant has the advantage in improved small
signal dynamic performance and facilitates the application of
supplementary power system stabilising signals.
3. Static Excitation System

In this system, the supply is taken from the alternator itself through a 3-
phase star/delta connected step-down transformer. The primary of the
transformer is connected to the alternator bus and their secondary
supplies power to the rectifier and also feed power to the grid control
circuit and other electrical equipment.

This system has a very small response time and provides excellent
dynamic performance. This system reduced the operating cost by
eliminating the exciter windage loss and winding maintenance.
Q.2. Write short notes on Parallel operation of synchronous Machines.
Ans.
In alternator, an EMF is induced in the stator (stationary wire) with the
influence of rotating magnetic field (rotor) due to Faraday’s law of
induction. Due to the synchronous speed of rotation of field poles, it is
also known as synchronous generator.
When the AC power systems are interconnected for efficiency, the
alternators should also have to be connected in parallel. There will be
more than two alternators connected in parallel in generating stations.

Condition for Parallel Operation of Alternator

There are some conditions to be satisfied for parallel operation of the
alternator. Before entering into that, we should understand some terms
which are as follows.
 The process of connecting two alternators or
an alternator and an infinite bus bar system in parallel is
known as synchronizing.
 Running machine is the machine which carries the load.
 Incoming machine is the alternator or machine which has to
be connected in parallel with the system.

The conditions to be satisfied are

1. The phase sequence of the incoming machine voltage and the

bus bar voltage should be identical.
2. The RMS line voltage (terminal voltage) of the bus bar or
already running machine and the incoming machine should
be the same.
3. The phase angle of the two systems should be equal.
4. The frequency of the two terminal voltages (incoming
machine and the bus bar) should be nearly the same. Large
power transients will occur when frequencies are not nearly
equal.
General Procedure for Paralleling Alternators
The figure below shows an alternator (generator 2) being paralleled with
a running power system (generator 1). These two machines are about to
synchronize for supplying power to a load. Generator 2 is about to
parallel with the help of a switch, S1. This switch should never be closed
without satisfying the above conditions.

1. To make the terminal voltages equal. This can be done by adjusting the
terminal voltage of incoming machine by changing the field current and
make it equal to the line voltage of running system using voltmeters.

2. There are two methods to check the phase sequence of the machines.
They are as follows
 First one is using a Synchroscope. It is not actually check the phase
sequence but it is used to measure the difference in phase angles.
 Second method is three lamp method (Figure 2). Here we can see
three light bulbs are connected to the terminals of the switch, S1.
Bulbs become bright if the phase difference is large. Bulbs become
dim if the phase difference is small. The bulbs will show dim and
bright all together if phase sequence is the same. The bulbs will get
bright in progression if the phase sequence is opposite. This phase
sequence can be made equal by swapping the connections on any
two phases on one of the generators.
3. Next, we have to check and verify the incoming and running system
frequency. It should be nearly the same. This can be done by inspecting
the frequency of dimming and brightening of lamps.
4. When the frequencies are nearly equal, the two voltages (incoming
alternator and running system) will alter the phase gradually. These
changes can be observed and the switch, S1 can be made closed when
the phase angles are equal.

Advantages of Parallel Operating Alternators

 When there is maintenance or an inspection, one machine
can be taken out from service and the other alternators can
keep up for the continuity of supply.
 Load supply can be increased.
 During light loads, more than one alternator can be shut
down while the other will operate in nearly full load.
 High efficiency.
 The operating cost is reduced.
 Ensures the protection of supply and enables cost-effective
generation.
 The generation cost is reduced.
 Breaking down of a generator does not cause any interruption
in the supply.
 Reliability of the whole power system increases.
Q.3. Write short Notes on Torque Slip characteristics on Induction
Motor.
Ans.

Torque Slip Characteristics of Three Phase Induction Motor

The torque slip curve for an induction motor gives us the information
about the variation of torque with the slip. The slip is defined as the ratio
of difference of synchronous speed and actual rotor speed to the
synchronous speed of the machine. The variation of slip can be obtained
with the variation of speed that is when speed varies the slip will also
vary and the torque corresponding to that speed will also vary.
The curve can be described in three modes of operation-

The torque-slip characteristic curve can be divided roughly into three

regions:

 Low slip region

 Medium slip region
 High slip region
Motoring Mode
In this mode of operation, supply is given to the stator sides and the
motor always rotates below the synchronous speed. The induction motor
torque varies from zero to full load torque as the slip varies. The slip
varies from zero to one. It is zero at no load and one at standstill. From
the curve it is seen that the torque is directly proportional to the slip.
That is, more is the slip, more will be the torque produced and vice-versa.
The linear relationship simplifies the calculation of motor parameter to
great extent.

Generating Mode
In this mode of operation induction motor runs above the synchronous
speed and it should be driven by a prime mover. The stator winding is
connected to a three phase supply in which it supplies electrical energy.
Actually, in this case, the torque and slip both are negative so the motor
receives mechanical energy and delivers electrical energy. Induction
motor is not much used as generator because it requires reactive power
for its operation. That is, reactive power should be supplied from outside
and if it runs below the synchronous speed by any means, it consumes
electrical energy rather than giving it at the output. So, as far as possible,
induction generators are generally avoided.

Braking Mode

In the Braking mode, the two leads or the polarity of the supply voltage is
changed so that the motor starts to rotate in the reverse direction and as
a result the motor stops. This method of braking is known as plugging.
This method is used when it is required to stop the motor within a very
short period of time. The kinetic energy stored in the revolving load is
dissipated as heat. Also, motor is still receiving power from the stator
which is also dissipated as heat. So as a result of which motor develops
enormous heat energy. For this stator is disconnected from the supply
before motor enters the braking mode. If load which the motor drives
accelerates the motor in the same direction as the motor is rotating, the
speed of the motor may increase more than synchronous speed. In this
case, it acts as an induction generator which supplies electrical energy to
the mains which tends to slow down the motor to its synchronous speed,
in this case the motor stops. This type of breaking principle is called
dynamic or regenerative breaking.

Torque Slip Characteristics of Single Phase Induction Motor

From the figure, we see that at a slip of unity, both forward and backward
field develops equal torque but the direction of which are opposite to
each other so the net torque produced is zero hence the motor fails to
start. From here we can say that these motors are not self starting unlike
the case of three phase induction motor. There must be some means to
provide the starting torque. If by some means, we can increase the
forward speed of the machine due to which the forward slip decreases
the forward torque will increase and the reverse torque will decrease as a
result of which motor will start.
From here we can conclude that for starting of single phase induction
motor, there should be a production of difference of torque between the
forward and backward field. If the forward field torque is larger than the
backward field than the motor rotates in forward or anti clockwise
direction. If the torque due to backward field is larger compared to other,
then the motor rotates in backward or clockwise direction.
Q.4 Explain Speed Control techniques for Induction motors.
Ans.
An induction motor is practically a constant speed motor, that means, for
the entire loading range, change in speed of the motor is quite
small. Speed of a DC shunt motor can be varied very easily with good
efficiency, but in case of Induction motors, speed reduction is
accompanied by a corresponding loss of efficiency and poor power factor.
As induction motors are widely being used, their speed control may be
required in many applications. Different speed control methods of
induction motor are explained below.

Induction Motor Speed Control From Stator Side

1. By Changing The Applied Voltage:

From the torque equation of induction motor,

Rotor resistance R2 is constant and if slip s is small then (sX2)2 is so small
that it can be neglected. Therefore, T ∝ sE22 where E2 is rotor induced emf
and E2 ∝ V
Thus, T ∝ sV2,  which means, if supplied voltage is decreased, the
developed torque decreases. Hence, for providing the same load torque,
the slip increases with decrease in voltage, and consequently, the speed
decreases. This method is the easiest and cheapest, still rarely used,
because

1. large change in supply voltage is required for relatively small

change in speed.
2. large change in supply voltage will result in a large change in
flux density, hence, this will disturb the magnetic conditions of
the motor.
2. By Changing The Applied Frequency
Synchronous speed of the rotating magnetic field of an induction motor is
given by,

where, f = frequency of the supply and P = number of stator poles.

Hence, the synchronous speed changes with change in supply frequency.
Actual speed of an induction motor is given as N = Ns (1 - s). However,
this method is not widely used. It may be used where, the induction
motor is supplied by a dedicated generator (so that frequency can be
easily varied by changing the speed of prime mover). Also, at lower
frequency, the motor current may become too high due to decreased
reactance. And if the frequency is increased beyond the rated value, the
maximum torque developed falls while the speed rises.

3. Constant V/F Control Of Induction Motor

This is the most popular method for controlling the speed of an induction
motor. As in above method, if the supply frequency is reduced keeping
the rated supply voltage, the air gap flux will tend to saturate. This will
cause excessive stator current and distortion of the stator flux wave.
Therefore, the stator voltage should also be reduced in proportional to
the frequency so as to maintain the air-gap flux constant. The magnitude
of the stator flux is proportional to the ratio of the stator voltage and the
frequency. Hence, if the ratio of voltage to frequency is kept constant, the
flux remains constant. Also, by keeping V/F constant, the developed
torque remains approximately constant. This method gives higher run-
time efficiency. Therefore, majority of AC speed drives employ constant
V/F method (or variable voltage, variable frequency method) for the
speed control. Along with wide range of speed control, this method also
offers 'soft start' capability.

4. Changing The Number Of Stator Poles

From the above equation of synchronous speed, it can be seen that
synchronous speed (and hence, running speed) can be changed by
changing the number of stator poles. This method is generally used
for squirrel cage induction motors, as squirrel cage rotor adapts itself for
any number of stator poles. Change in stator poles is achieved by two or
more independent stator windings wound for different number of poles
in same slots.
For example, a stator is wound with two 3phase windings, one for 4 poles
and other for 6 poles.
for supply frequency of 50 Hz
i) synchronous speed when 4 pole winding is connected, Ns = 120*50/4 =
1500 RPM
ii) synchronous speed when 6 pole winding is connected, Ns = 120*50/6 =
1000 RPM

Speed Control From Rotor Side:

1. Rotor Rheostat Control

This method is similar to that of armature rheostat control of DC shunt
motor. But this method is only applicable to slip ring motors, as addition
of external resistance in the rotor of squirrel cage motors is not possible.
2. Cascade Operation
In this method of speed control, two motors are used. Both are mounted
on a same shaft so that both run at same speed. One motor is fed from a
3phase supply and the other motor is fed from the induced emf in first
motor via slip-rings. The arrangement is as shown in following figure.

Motor A is called the main motor and motor B is called the auxiliary
motor.
Let, Ns1 = frequency of motor A
       Ns2 = frequency of motor B
       P1 = number of poles stator of motor A
       P2 = number of stator poles of motor B
       N = speed of the set and same for both motors
       f = frequency of the supply

Now, slip of motor A, S1 = (Ns1 - N) / Ns1.

frequency of the rotor induced emf in motor A,   f1 = S1f
Now, auxiliary motor B is supplied with the rotor induce emf
therefore,  Ns2 = (120f1) / P2  =  (120S1f) / P2.

now putting the value of  S1 = (Ns1 - N) / Ns1

 At no load, speed of the auxiliary rotor is almost same as its synchronous
speed.
i.e. N = Ns2.
from the above equations, it can be obtained that

With this method, four different speeds can be obtained

1. when only motor A works, corresponding speed = .Ns1 = 120f / P 1
2. when only motor B works, corresponding speed = Ns2 = 120f / P 2
3. if commulative cascading is done, speed of the set = N = 120f / (P 1 + P2)
4. if differential cascading is done, speed of the set = N = 120f (P 1 - P2)

3. By Injecting EMF In Rotor Circuit

In this method, speed of an induction motor is controlled by injecting a
voltage in rotor circuit. It is necessary that voltage (emf) being injected
must have same frequency as of the slip frequency. However, there is no
restriction to the phase of injected emf. If we inject emf which is in
opposite phase with the rotor induced emf, rotor resistance will be
increased. If we inject emf which is in phase with the rotor induced emf,
rotor resistance will decrease. Thus, by changing the phase of injected
emf, speed can be controlled. The main advantage of this method is a
wide rage of speed control (above normal as well as below normal) can
be achieved. The emf can be injected by various methods such as Kramer
system, Scherbius system etc.
Q.5. Explain Static Scherbius drive
Ans.
The Static Scherbius Drive provides the speed control of a wound rotor
motor below synchronous speed. The portion of rotor AC power is
converted into DC by a diode bridge. The controlled rectifier works as an
inverter and converts the DC power back into AC and feeds it back to the
AC source. This drive has the ability of flow the power both in the positive
as well as the negative direction of the injected voltage. This increases the
operating condition of the drive.
The feedback power is controlled by controlling the inverter counter emf
Vd2, which is controlled by controlling the inverter firing angle. The DC
link inverter reduced the ripple in DC link current Id. The slip power of the
drive is fed back to the source due to which the efficiency of the drive
increases.

Static Scherbius Drive

The drive input power is the difference of the DC input power and the
power fed back. Reactive input power is the sum of the motor and input
reactive power. Thus, the drive has poor power factor throughout the
range of its operation.
Where α is the inverter firing angle and n, and m are respectively the
stator to the rotor turn ratio of motor and source side to convert side
turns ratio of the transformer. The neglecting drop across the inductor.

Substituting the equation (1) and (2) in the above equation we get

where a = n/m

The maximum value of alpha is restricted to 165º for safe commutation of

inverter thyristor. The slip can be controlled from 0 to 0.966α when α is
changed from 90º to 165º.The appropriate speed range can be obtained
by choosing the appropriate value of α.

The transformer is used to match the voltage from Vd1 and Vd2. At the
lowest speed required from the drive, Vd1 will have the maximum value
Vd1m, and it is given by
Where Sm is the value of slip at the lowest speed. If α is restricted to 165,
m is chosen such that the inverter voltage has a value V d1m when α is
165º, i.e.,

The value of m determines the highest firing angle at the lower motor
speed. It also gives the highest firing angle and the lowest reactive power
at the lowest speed.

Considered the circuit of the motor, which is neglecting the magnetising

branch. When referred to DC link, resistance (sRs + Rr) will be 2(sR’s + Rr).
This gives the equivalent circuit of the drive, where Vd1 and Vd2 are given.
Rd is the resistance of the DC link inductor.

The drive has application in pump drive which requires the speed control
in the narrow range only. The drive is widely used in medium and high
power fan and pump drives, because of high efficiency and low cost.

Operating Modes of Static Scherbius Drives

The following are the operating modes of Static Scherbius Drives.

Sub-synchronous Motoring – In this mode of operation the slip and

torque both are positive and hence the injected voltage is in phase with
rotor current. The power flows into the stator and feedback into the rotor
circuit.

Super-synchronous Motoring – When the speed of the motor is above

the synchronous speed, then the slip is negative. Thus, the voltage and
current are out of phase with each other. The power feeds into the rotor
from the drive circuit along with input power flowing into the stator.

Sub-synchronous Generating – For sub-synchronous speed, the torque is

required to be positive, although the slip is positive. The power is fed into
the rotor through the slip ring.
Super-synchronous Generating – When the speed of the motor above
the synchronous speed, then the slip and torque becomes negative. Thus,
the injecting voltage is in phase with the rotor. The mechanical power is
injected by the shaft and the output power is obtained from the stator
and rotor circuit.