Power Electronics EECE 473

Chapter 3

Basic Electrical and Magnetic

Circuits Concepts

3.1 Circuit Analysis in Steady-State - 1
• In power electronic circuits, diodes and
semiconductor switches are continually
changing their status between on or off.
Therefore the question arises: when is a
circuit in steady state?
• A steady-state condition is reached when
the circuit waveforms repeat with a time
period 𝑇.
• The essence of the analysis is based on
KCL and KVL, but the detail depends on
whether the circuit contains storage
elements, i.e. 𝐿 and 𝐶, or not. We will
consider two examples.
• The first circuit is a simplified version of a
battery charger supplied from an ac
voltage source. Its voltage is rectified via
a diode bridge rectifier to obtain a dc
voltage used to charge the battery.
2
• The second circuit is that of a simple
step-down or buck converter consisting
of a dc voltage source, a controlled
switch, i.e. a MOSFET, a diode, and load.
• In the battery charger circuit, although
the output of the charger is a steady-
state dc voltage, it has a repetitive
pattern due to the switching of diodes.
This frequency of the repetitive pattern
is known as the fundamental frequency.
• In the buck converter, there is also a
repetitive pattern in the output voltage
of the drive generated by turning on and
off the MOSFET.
• We will consider right away the analysis
of the simple battery charger circuit to
illustrate concepts involved when we
have switching elements.
 3

3.1 Circuit Analysis in Steady-State - 2

• Consider the battery charger circuit −𝑣𝑠 − 𝑣𝐷4 − 𝐸 + 0 − 𝑣𝐷3 = 0 ⇒

shown in Fig. 3.1. It consists of an ac 𝑣𝐷3 + 𝑣𝐷4 = −𝑣𝑠 − 𝐸 (3.3)
voltage source, a bridge rectifier of four
diodes, and the battery equivalent • From (3.2), when 𝑣𝑠 < 𝐸 over a positive half
circuit. The voltage 𝑣𝑠 is given by: cycle, 𝑣𝐷1 + 𝑣𝐷2 is negative, and the two
𝑣𝑠 = 2𝑉𝑠 sin 𝜔𝑡 (3.1) diodes indeed do not conduct. However,
The source voltage has an rms value 𝑉𝑠 when 𝑣𝑠 > 𝐸 diodes 𝐷1 and 𝐷2 are forward
and angular frequency 𝜔. biased by a voltage 𝑣𝑠 − 𝐸 and therefore
will conduct. In this case, case KVL will have
• When analyzing circuits with diodes, we
to be rewritten with the diodes conducting:
use the methods of assumed states.
Initially we will assume that the diodes −𝑣𝑠 + 𝑣𝐷1 + 𝑖𝑜 𝑅 + 𝐸 + 𝑣𝐷2 = 0 ⇒
are not conducting and will write KVL for
two loops. KVL over the first loop of 𝑣𝑠 ,
𝐷1 , 𝑅, 𝐸, and 𝐷2 is:
−𝑣𝑠 + 𝑣𝐷1 + 0 + 𝐸 + 𝑣𝐷2 = 0 ⇒
𝑣𝐷1 + 𝑣𝐷2 = 𝑣𝑠 − 𝐸 (3.2)
• KVL over the second loop of 𝑣𝑠 , 𝐷4 , 𝐸, 𝑅,
and 𝐷3 is:
Fig. 3.1: Simple battery charger
 4

3.1 Circuit Analysis in Steady-State - 3

• The voltage and current waveforms are
𝑣𝑠 − 𝐸 − 2𝑣𝐷
𝑖𝑜 = (3.4) shown in Fig. 3.2 below.
𝑅
The above expression assumes that the
two diodes are identical, and since they
share the same current, then 𝑣𝐷1 =
𝑣𝐷2 = 𝑣𝐷 . Over the positive half-cycle
diodes 𝐷1 and 𝐷2 start conducting when
𝑣𝑠 𝑡1 = 2𝑉𝑠 sin 𝜔𝑡1 = 𝐸 + 2𝑣𝐷 ⇒
1 𝐸 + 2𝑣𝐷 𝑡1 𝑡2
𝑡1 = sin−1 (3.5)
𝜔 2𝑉𝑠
𝜋
• Conduction will stop at 𝑡2 = 𝜔 − 𝑡1 . The
expression of 𝑖𝑜 is valid for 𝑡1 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 𝑡2 .
• From (3.3) diodes 𝐷3 and 𝐷4 cannot
conduct over the positive half-cycle
because 𝑣𝐷3 + 𝑣𝐷4 will always be
negative. The diodes will conduct in the
negative half-cycle when −𝑣𝑠 ≥ E + 2𝑣𝐷 . 𝑡1 𝑡2
𝜋 2𝜋
This will be when 𝜔 + 𝑡1 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 𝜔 − 𝑡1 .
Fig. 3.2: Waveforms of battery charger
 5

3.2 Fourier Analysis of Waveforms - 1

• The constant 𝑎0 is the average of the
• From the previous example, we clearly function given by:
see the repetitive pattern associated 1 2𝜋
with a steady state waveform. 𝑎0 = 2𝜋 ‫׬‬0 𝑓 𝑡 𝑑 𝜔𝑡 (3.7)
• We also notice that the application of a • The Fourier coefficients 𝑎ℎ and 𝑏ℎ , for
sinusoidal voltage to the rectifier input ℎ = 1 … ∞ are given by, respectively:
generated a non-sinusoidal, i.e. 1 2𝜋
𝑎ℎ = 𝜋 ‫׬‬0 𝑓 𝑡 cos ℎ𝜔𝑡 𝑑 𝜔𝑡 (3.8)
distorted, current waveform.
1 2𝜋
• The characterization of a repetitive signal 𝑏ℎ = 𝜋 ‫׬‬0 𝑓 𝑡 sin ℎ𝜔𝑡 𝑑 𝜔𝑡 (3.9)
is most conveniently established using • The Fourier series may also be put in the
Fourier analysis. It will allow us to find alternative phasor projection notation:
the average and rms values, and the
𝑓 𝑡 = 𝑎0 + σ∞
ℎ=1 2𝐹ℎ sin ℎ𝜔𝑡 + 𝜑ℎ (3.10)
fundamental and harmonic frequencies.
• A non-sinusoidal waveform 𝑓 𝑡 where
repeating with an angular frequency 𝜔1 2 +𝑏2
𝑎ℎ ℎ 𝑎ℎ
may be expressed as 𝐹ℎ = 2
and 𝜑ℎ = tan−1 𝑏ℎ
(3.11)
∞

𝑓 𝑡 = 𝑎0 + ෍ 𝑎ℎ cos ℎ𝜔𝑡 + 𝑏ℎ sin ℎ𝜔𝑡

• The rms value 𝐹 of 𝑓 𝑡 in terms of its
Fourier series components is:
ℎ=1
(3.6) 1/2
𝐹 = 𝑎02 + σ∞ 2
ℎ=1 𝐹ℎ (3.12)
 6

3.2 Fourier Analysis of Waveforms - 2

• Many waveforms have zero average • Table 3.1 summarizes the types of
value, like the current 𝑖𝑠 associated with symmetry, the required conditions, and
the source of the dc battery charger. expressions for 𝑎ℎ and 𝑏ℎ .
 7

3.2 Fourier Analysis of Waveforms - 3

• The amount of distortion present in a • Example 3.1: (a) Calculate the rms value
current, e.g. 𝑖𝑠 (𝑡), is quantified by of the fundamental component of the
means of an index called the total current 𝐼𝑠1 . (b) Calculate the rms value
harmonic distortion (THD), defined as: of the current 𝐼𝑠 . (c) Calculate the THD
𝐼dis of 𝑖𝑠 , for 𝑉𝑠 = 80 V, 𝐸= 48 V, 𝑅= 1.2 Ω,
THD𝑖𝑠 = 100 (3.13)
𝐼s1 𝑣𝐷 = 1 V and 𝜔= 2 50 rad/s.
where 𝐼s1 is the rms of the fundamental • Solution:
component, and 𝐼dis is the rms of the (a) The current 𝑖𝑠 is equal to the output
harmonics that cause the distortion, so current 𝑖𝑜 when diodes are conducting:
∞ 1/2
𝑣𝑠 −𝐸 ′
2
𝐼dis = ෍ 𝐼𝑠ℎ (3.14) 𝑖𝑠 = 𝑅 , 𝑡1 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 𝑡2
ℎ=2 where 𝐸 ′ = 𝐸 + 2𝑣𝐷 , let 𝐼𝑠1 be the rms
• When 𝑖𝑠 (𝑡) has an average 𝐼0 = 0, then of the fundamental of 𝑖𝑠 , which is equal
using (3.12) and (3.14), Eq. (3.13) may be to 𝐼𝑠1 = 𝑏1 Τ 2. Note that the function
written as: is odd and 𝑎1 = 0. Using (3.9) with ℎ= 1,
2 𝜃2 2𝑉𝑠 sin 𝜃 −𝐸 ′
𝐼𝑠2 − 𝐼𝑠1
2
𝐼𝑠1 = ‫׬‬ sin 𝜃 𝑑𝜃
𝜋 2 𝜃1 𝑅
THD𝑖𝑠 = 100 (3.15)
𝐼s1 where 𝜃1 = 𝜔𝑡1 and 𝜃2 = 𝜔𝑡2 . Noting
• The above formulae apply to currents that 𝜃2 = 𝜋 − 𝜃1 , and using an integrals
and voltages that have distortion. table, the expression for 𝐼𝑠1 becomes:
 8
3.2 Fourier Analysis of Waveforms - 3

1 2𝜃1 2𝑉𝑠 sin 2𝜃1 4𝐸

𝐼𝑠1 = 2𝑉𝑠 1 − + − cos 𝜃1
2𝑅 𝜋 𝜋 𝜋
Verify the above expression.
(b) The rms of the current is denoted by
𝐼𝑠 and is given by:
2 1/2
1 𝜔𝑡2 2𝑉𝑠 sin 𝜃 −𝐸′
𝐼𝑠 = ‫׬‬ 𝑑𝜃
𝜋 𝜔𝑡1 𝑅

𝐼𝑠 may be reduced to the following form:

1
2𝜃1 2 + 𝐸′2 + 2
1
1 − 𝑉𝑠
𝜋
𝐼𝑠 = 𝑅 𝑉𝑠2 sin 2𝜃1 4 2𝑉𝑠 𝐸 ′
− 𝜋 cos 𝜃1
𝜋
Verify the above expression.
(c) The THD may be calculated using
(3.15). For the values given, the rms
current 𝐼𝑠 = 31.859 A and the rms of the
fundamental is 𝐼𝑠1 = 30.408 A. This THD=
31.26%.

3.3 Power and Power Factor - 1
• When a system, like the battery charger,
is supplied by a voltage 𝑣𝑠 (𝑡), and as a
result experiences a current 𝑖𝑠 (𝑡), then
the average power consumed by this
system is
1 𝑇
𝑃= ‫𝑣 ׬‬ 𝑡 𝑖𝑠 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 (3.16)
𝑇 0 𝑠
• We will now derive an expression for the
average power when the current is
distorted, which may also lead to
distortion in the utility supply voltage.
• However, the distortion in the utility
voltage may usually be neglected, since
the Thevenin impedance associated with
the utility supply is very small.
• So let us assume that the voltage is
sinusoidal, but that the current has been
distorted due to the switching action
that makes power electronics systems
non-linear.
9
• We will express the current using its sine
Fourier series given by (3.10) to obtain:
𝑖𝑠 𝑡 = 2𝐼𝑠1 sin 𝜔𝑡 + 𝜑1 +
∞
෍ 2𝐼𝑠ℎ sin ℎ𝜔𝑡 + 𝜑ℎ (3.17)
ℎ=2
• Now, let us replace 𝑣𝑠 𝑡 and 𝑖𝑠 𝑡 in
(3.16) by their expressions from (3.1) and
(3.17), respectively. Note that the integral
of product terms sin ℎ𝜔𝑡 + 𝜑ℎ sin 𝜔𝑡
for ℎ > 1 will yield zero, thus
1 𝑇
𝑃 = න 2𝑉𝑠 sin 𝜔𝑡 2𝐼𝑠1 sin 𝜔𝑡 + 𝜑1 𝑑𝑡
𝑇 0
= 𝑉𝑠 𝐼𝑠1 cos 𝜑1 (3.18)
• Note that the components of the current
at harmonic frequencies do not
contribute to the average (real) power
drawn from the sinusoidal voltage source.

3.3 Power and Power Factor - 2
• The power factor is defined as the ratio
of average power divided by apparent
power:
𝑃 𝑃𝐹 =
𝑃𝐹 = (3.19)
𝑆
• Replacing 𝑆 by 𝑉𝑠 𝐼𝑠 and using (3.18) to
obtain:
𝑉𝑠 𝐼𝑠1 cos 𝜑1 𝐼𝑠1
𝑃𝐹 = = cos 𝜑1
𝑉𝑠 𝐼𝑠 𝐼𝑠
(3.20)
• The term cos 𝜑1 is known as the
displacement power factor (DPF), which
is the power factor when the voltage and
current are sinusoidal. The term 𝐼𝑠1 /𝐼𝑠 is
known as the distortion factor (DF).
• Even with cos 𝜑1 = 1, when there is high
distortion, the DF is low and the 𝑃𝐹 is
also low. The system absorbs reactive
power at the harmonic frequencies.
10
• The 𝑃𝐹 may be expressed in terms of the
DPF and TDH by using (3.15) in (3.20):
1
cos 𝜑1 (3.21)
1 + 𝑇𝐻𝐷𝑖𝑠2
• Example 3.2: Given the results of Ex.
3.1, calculate (a) the distortion factor,
(b) the rms of the harmonics, and (c) the
power factor of the battery charger seen
by the voltage source.
• Solution: (a) The distortion factor may
be calculated using the THD as given by
the first term on the RHS of (3.21), DF=
0.954. (b) The rms of all the harmonics
is given by
𝐼𝑑𝑖𝑠 = 𝐼𝑠2 − 𝐼𝑠1
2
= 9.505 A
(c) The PF may be calculated using
(3.20). The phase angle 𝜑1 = 0, so cos
𝜑1 = 1, and the PF= 0.954.
 11

3.4 Storage Elements in Steady State - 1

• Inductors and capacitors are often used
in power electronics circuits. They
provide smoothing of the currents and
voltages, between switch operations.
• After a transient start-up of a circuit, a
steady state condition is usually reached.
A steady-state condition implies that the
current waveform 𝑖𝐿 of an inductor
repeats with a time period 𝑇, that is
𝑖𝐿 𝑡 + 𝑇 = 𝑖𝐿 𝑡 (3.22)
• The average voltage 𝑉𝐿 of an inductor is
obtained as follows:
1 𝑡1 +𝑇
𝑉𝐿 = න 𝑣𝐿 𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑇 𝑡1
𝐿 𝑖𝐿(𝑡1+𝑇)
= න 𝑑𝑖𝐿 = 0 (3.23)
𝑇 𝑖𝐿(𝑡1)
• Thus the average voltage across an
inductor in steady-state is zero: 𝑉𝐿 =0.
• A capacitor in a steady-state condition
implies that the voltage waveform 𝑣𝐶
repeats with a time period 𝑇, that is
𝑣𝐶 𝑡 + 𝑇 = 𝑣𝐶 𝑡 (3.24)
• The average current 𝐼𝐶 of an capacitor is
obtained as follows:
1 𝑡1+𝑇
𝐼𝐶 = න 𝑖𝐶 𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑇 𝑡1
𝐶 𝑣𝐶(𝑡1+𝑇)
= න 𝑑𝑣𝐶 = 0 (3.25)
𝑇 𝑣𝐶(𝑡1)
• Thus the average current through a
capacitor in steady-state is zero: 𝐼𝐶 =0.
• Another way to look at (3.23) is that the
volt-time area of an inductor in steady-
state during one period is equal to zero.
Similarly the current-time area of a
capacitor (3.25) in steady state over one
period is also equal to zero.

3.4 Storage Elements in Steady State - 2
• Let us now use these concepts, of volt-
time area and current-time areas being
zero in steady state, to analyze a power
electronics circuit with storage elements.
• Consider the buck converter, shown in
Fig. 3.3, which controls load current by
controlling its supply voltage. This
topology, which we will revisit in Ch. 5,
may also be used a dc motor drive.
• The circuit consists of an dc voltage
source, a controlled switch, which could
be a MOSFET or an IGBT, a free wheeling
diode, and the dc motor equivalent
circuit model.
• The steady-state of this circuit oscillates
between two modes. Mode 1 occurs
when switch S is closed. The diode is
turned off because it is reverse biased by
a voltage 𝑉𝑑 imposed by the source.
12
• The current 𝑖𝐿 in the inductor increases
due to energy delivered from 𝑉𝑑 that is
larger than 𝑉𝑜 , the average of 𝑣𝑜 .
• Mode 2 occurs when switch S is open.
The diode is turned on and conducts a
current 𝑖𝐷 = 𝑖𝐿 . The inductor is delivering
energy to the load and to the capacitor 𝐶
that stabilizes the output voltage.
• The switch is turned on for a time 𝑡𝑜𝑛
out of a period 𝑇. The duty ratio, or duty
cycle, is defined by:
𝒕𝒐𝒏
𝑫= = 𝒕𝒐𝒏 𝒇𝒔 (3.26)
𝑻𝒔
Fig. 3.3: Step-down or buck converter circuit.
 13

3.4 Storage Elements in Steady State - 3

• The turn-off time is given by: • Let us now apply the concept of the volt-
1−𝐷 time area of an inductor over one cycle,
𝑡𝑜𝑓𝑓 = 1 − 𝐷 𝑇𝑠 = (3.27) 𝑇𝑠 = 𝑡𝑜𝑛 +𝑡𝑜𝑓𝑓 , being equal to zero. So using
𝑓𝑠
the above expressions of 𝑣𝐿 , yields:
• Let us note first that the large capacitor
𝐶 acts like a battery and keeps the 𝑉𝑑 − 𝑉𝑜 − 𝑣𝑆 𝐷𝑇𝑠 − 𝑉𝑜 + 𝑣𝐷 1 − 𝐷 𝑇𝑠 = 0
output voltage 𝑣𝑜 more or less constant (3.30)
rippling around an average value 𝑉𝑜 . We • From (3.30) we get
will now develop an expression of the 𝑉𝑜 = 𝑉𝑑 𝐷 − 𝑣𝑆 𝐷 + 𝑣𝐷 1 − 𝐷 (3.31)
average output voltage 𝑉𝑜 in terms of the
supply voltage 𝑉𝑑 and other parameters. • In some applications, 𝑣𝑆 and 𝑣𝐷 are be
much smaller than 𝑉𝑑 𝐷 and may be
• When the switch 𝑆 is closed for a neglected, then
duration 𝑡𝑜𝑛 = 𝐷𝑇𝑠 , from KVL in the loop
𝑉𝑑 , 𝑆, 𝐿, and 𝐶 (green) we deduce 𝑣𝐿 as: 𝑽𝒐 = 𝑽𝒅 𝑫 (3.32)
𝑣𝐿 = 𝑉𝑑 − 𝑉𝑜 − 𝑣𝑆 (3.28)
• Next, when the switch 𝑆 is open for a
duration 𝑡𝑜𝑓𝑓 = 1 − 𝐷 𝑇𝑠 , from KVL in
the loop 𝐷, 𝐿, and 𝐶 (red) we deduce 𝑣𝐿
as:
𝑣𝐿 = −(𝑉𝑜 + 𝑣𝐷 ) (3.29) Fig. 3.4: Dc motor drive circuit with loops.
 14

3.4 Storage Elements in Steady State - 4

• The current through the inductor will be • The voltage and current waveforms of the
rippling. When the switch is on, 𝑣𝐿 ≅ dc motor drive are shown below in Fig. 3.5.
𝑉𝑑 − 𝑉𝑜 , neglecting 𝑣𝑆 , and thus the
current is increasing by ∆𝑖𝐿 given as: A1

𝑉𝑑 − 𝑉𝑜 𝐷 A2
∆𝑖𝐿 = (3.33)
𝑓𝑠 𝐿
• Using (3.32) ∆𝑖𝐿 may be expressed as:
𝑉𝑑 1 − 𝐷 𝐷 𝑉𝑜 1 − 𝐷
∆𝑖𝐿 = = (3.34)
𝑓𝑠 𝐿 𝑓𝑠 𝐿
• The above expressions neglect losses
associated with the switching elements.
Under such conditions, input power and
output powers are equal:
𝑉𝑑 𝐼𝑑 = 𝑉𝑜 𝐼𝑜 (3.35)
where 𝐼𝑑 is the average input current.
Using (3.32) and (3.34), we have A3
A4
𝑉𝑑 𝐼𝑜 1
= = (3.36)
𝑉𝑜 𝐼𝑑 𝐷
• This is like transformer action but for dc.
Fig. 3.5: Voltage (a) and current (b) waveforms
 15

3.4 Storage Elements in Steady State - 5

• The shaded areas A1 and A2 on the • Substituting ∆𝑖𝐿 from (3.34) into the
voltage diagram are the volt-time areas previous equation yields:
of the inductor and are equal, as can be ∆𝑉𝑜 𝑇𝑠 2 (1 − 𝐷) (1 − 𝐷)
verified approximately from displayed = = (3.39)
waveforms.
𝑉𝑜 8𝐿𝐶 8𝐿𝐶 𝑓𝑠 2
• By KCL, the current in the capacitor is
𝑖𝐶 = 𝑖𝐿 − 𝐼𝑜 (3.37)
• The average value of 𝑖𝐶 is equal to zero, ,
denoted 𝐼𝐶 = <𝑖𝐶 > = 0, because the 𝒊𝑳
current-time areas of the capacitor
during charge A3 and discharge A4 are Q
also equal, as shown on the current plot
of Fig. 3.5. The shaded area A3, shown
magnified in Fig. 3.6, represents an
additional charge ∆𝑄. Therefore the
peak-to-peak voltage ripple can be
written as:
∆𝑄 1 1 ∆𝑖𝐿 𝑇𝑠
∆𝑉𝑜 = = (3.38)
𝐶 𝐶2 2 2
Fig. 3.6: Voltage (a) and current (b) waveforms
 16

3.4 Storage Elements in Steady State - 6

• Example 3.3: Consider that the converter b) From Eq. (3.37), the average inductor
of Fig. 3.5 has a supply 𝑉𝑑 = 80 V, and current 𝐼𝐿 is equal to average output
that it is operating a motor a motor at current since <𝑖𝐶 >= 0. So 𝐼𝐿 = 12 A. The
constant torque drawing a current of 12 inductance 𝐿 is found from (3.34):
A. The switch S is operating at a 𝑉 1−𝐷
frequency of 20 kHz and a duty ratio of 𝐿 = 𝑜𝑓∆𝑖
𝐿
0.667. Neglecting the voltage drop
across the diode and switch (a) calculate with ∆𝑖𝐿 = 0.3×12= 4 A. So 𝐿 = 222 H.
the average voltage 𝑉𝑜 and average c) Capacitance 𝐶 is found from Eq. (3.39):
current 𝐼𝑑 , (b) find the inductance 𝐿 to (1−𝐷)
𝐶 = 8𝐿𝑓2(∆𝑉 Τ𝑉 ), with ∆𝑉𝑜 Τ𝑉𝑜 = 0.01 or 1%.
limit the current ripple ∆𝑖𝐿 to 30% of the 𝑜 𝑜
average inductance current, (c) find 𝐶 to So 𝐶= 47 F.
limit the output voltage ripple ∆𝑉𝑜 to 1% d) We will need to find the maximum value
of its average value, and (d) how would of 𝐿 over the range of duty ratios. Again
the value of 𝐿 change if the duty cycle 𝐷
from (3.34):
is allowed to vary in the range 0.2 to 0.8.
𝑉 1−𝐷 𝐷
• Solution: 𝐿 = 𝑑 𝑓∆𝑖
𝐿
a) The average voltage 𝑉𝑜 = 𝑉𝑑 𝐷= 53.3 V, 𝑑 1−𝐷 𝐷
and the average input current 𝐼𝑑 = 𝐼𝑜 𝐷= which is maximum when = 0.
𝑑𝐷
8 A. This occurs at 𝐷= 0.5, and 𝐿 = 250 H.
 17

3.5 Magnetic Circuits - 1

• A current 𝑖 flowing in a coil of 𝑁 turns 𝐵 = 𝜇𝐻 (3.42)
creates a magnetic field intensity 𝐻 (in where 𝜇 (H/m) is the permeability of the
A/m) that obeys Ampere’s law: medium, which may be written as
𝜇 = 𝜇0 𝜇𝑟 (3.43)
ර 𝑯. 𝑑𝒍 = 𝑁𝑖 (3.40)
𝑙 where 𝜇0 = 4𝜋×10-7 H/m is the
• The quantity 𝑁𝑖 is known as the permeability of free space, and 𝜇𝑟 is the
magneto-motive force (MMF) and is relative permeability of the material, which
measured in A. The application of may range from 1.0 for air to several
Ampere’s law for the circuit of Fig. 3.7 thousands for ferromagnetic materials.
yields the following: 𝑙𝑐
𝐻𝑐 𝑙𝑐 + 𝐻𝑔 𝑔 = 𝑁𝑖 (3.41)
• The direction of 𝐻 is obtained using the 𝑖
right hand rule. For Fig. 3.7, if we put our
fingers in the direction of the current in 𝑁

the turns of the coil, the direction of 𝐻 in

the leg holding the coil is upwards.
• The 𝐻-field is related to the flux density 𝐻𝑐
𝐵 (W/m2 or T) through a property of the
medium as: Fig. 3.7: Winding on a magnetic core with an air gap.
 18

3.5 Magnetic Circuits - 2

• Expressing (3.41) in terms of 𝐵 using • Using (3.47) in (3.46) yields:
(3.42), we obtain: 𝜑 ℛ𝑐 + 𝜑 ℛ𝑔 = 𝑁𝑖 (3.48)
𝐵𝑐 𝐵𝑔
𝑙
𝜇𝑐 𝑐
+ 𝜇 𝑔 = 𝑁𝑖 (3.44) • The above equation is similar to the KVL of a
0
circuit containing a source equal to 𝑁𝑖 and
• Multiplying the RHS up and down by the two resistances ℛ𝑐 and ℛ𝑔 with a current
areas of the media 𝐴𝑐 and 𝐴𝑔 , we get:
equal to 𝜑 flowing, as shown in Fig. 3.8.
𝑙𝑐 𝑔
𝐴𝑐 𝐵𝑐 𝐴 + 𝐴𝑔 𝐵𝑔 𝐴 = 𝑁𝑖 (3.45) • Let us differentiate (3.48) while noting that
𝑐 𝜇𝑐 𝑔 𝜇0
ℛ𝑐 + ℛ𝑔 = ℛ𝑡𝑜𝑡 , we obtain:
• The quantities 𝐴𝑐 𝐵𝑐 and 𝐴𝑔 𝐵𝑔 are the
𝑑𝜑 ℛ𝑡𝑜𝑡 𝑑𝜆 𝑑𝑖
fluxes in the core and air gap, 𝜑𝑐 and 𝜑𝑔 , ℛ𝑡𝑜𝑡 = = 𝑁 ⇒
𝑑𝑡 𝑁 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
respectively. The quantity 𝑙/𝜇𝐴 is known 𝑑𝜆 𝑁2 𝑑𝑖 𝑑𝑖
as the reluctance and denoted by ℛ. 𝑣𝑖𝑛 = 𝑑𝑡 = ℛ 𝑑𝑡 = 𝐿 𝑑𝑡 (3.49)
𝑡𝑜𝑡
Rewriting (3.45) in terms of the
reluctances and fluxes:
𝜑𝑐 ℛ𝑐 + 𝜑𝑔 ℛ𝑔 = 𝑁𝑖 (3.46)
• Gauss’s law stipulates the continuity of
flux so that:
𝜑𝑐 − 𝜑𝑔 = 0 ⇒ 𝜑𝑐 = 𝜑𝑔 = 𝜑 (3.47)
Fig. 3.8: Electric circuit analog of a magnetic circuit.
 19

3.5 Magnetic Circuits - 3

• Example 3.4: The magnetic core with air • In the derivations, we have assumed that 𝐵
gap has a core length 𝑙𝑐 = 11.9 cm and and 𝐻 are uniform over the cross section of
the air has a thickness 𝑔= 0.1 cm. The the core. It all depend on how we draw the
cross-section area of the core 𝐴𝑐 = 1 cm 2
Ampere loop (path of 𝐻), which in some
and the area of the gap 𝐴𝑔 is 5% larger situations can be tricky.
than 𝐴𝑐 due to fringing effects. The core • A third difference is that the permeability of
has a magnetic permeability of 150𝜇0 the flux-conducting material is typically
with 100 turns wound on it. Determine 1000 times that of air. The conductivity of
(a) the core reluctance (b) the air gap copper, however, is 1020 that of air. So while
reluctance, and (c) the coil inductance.
in electric circuits no current flows in the air
• Solution: surrounding the conductor, in magnetic
(a) ℛ𝑐 = 𝑙𝑐 Τ(𝜇𝑐 𝐴𝑐 )= 6.313×10 A/W
6
circuits there is a fair percentage of flux
(ampere/weber) or H . -1
leakage into the surrounding air.
(b) ℛ𝑔 = 𝑙𝑔 Τ(𝜇0 𝐴𝑔 )= 8.356×10 H .
6 -1
• Even with these limitations, it is possible to
(c) 𝐿 = 𝑁 2 /ℛ𝑡𝑜𝑡 = 681.7 μH. make very good predictions of magnetic
• The magnetic circuit approach is useful devices behavior through magnetic circuit
but has limitations. First, the calculations. In what follows, the ideal and
permeability of ferromagnetic material real transformer design and analysis is
is nonlinear and thus reluctance changes considered from a magnetic circuit
as MMF values change. viewpoint.
 20

3.5 Magnetic Circuits - 4

• A toroid core with two coils, shown in Fig. • Coil 1 (primary) has a flux 𝜑1 = 𝜑𝑙1 + 𝜑,
3.9, has an MMF expression given by where 𝜑𝑙1 is the leakage flux that leaks
𝑁1 𝑖1 − 𝜑ℛ𝑐 = 𝑁2 𝑖2 . If 𝜇 is large, then through the air around the coil, while 𝜑 is
ℛ𝑐 will be small, and the flux portion that flows in the core.
𝑁1 𝑖1 ≅ 𝑁2 𝑖2 (3.50) • Associated with 𝜑 is the magnetizing
2
• The primary voltage is 𝑣1= 𝑁1 𝑑𝜑/𝑑𝑡 and inductance 𝑁 1 /ℛ𝑐 = 𝐿𝑚1 , referred to the
the secondary voltage is 𝑣2 = 𝑁2 𝑑𝜑/𝑑𝑡. primary. We associate with the leakage flux
2
Provided that 𝑑𝜑/𝑑𝑡  0, by taking the 𝜑 𝑙1 a leakage inductance 𝑁 1 /ℛ𝑙1 = 𝐿𝑙1 of
ratio 𝑣1 /𝑣2 we get, Coil 1. Similar effects occur in Coil 2.
𝑣1 𝑁1 • Each coil has a resistance that depends on
= (3.51) the size and composition of the wire and
𝑣2 𝑁2
also on temperature and frequency.
• Equations (3.50) and (3.51) describe an
ideal transformer with the important
condition that the flux must have a non-
zero time derivative.
• In a real transformer, ℛ𝑐 is small but not
negligible. So most of the flux flows
through the core, but some will flow in
the surrounding air.
Fig. 3.9: Toroid with two coils.
 21

3.5 Magnetic Circuits - 5

• Example 3.5: A transformer is to be (c) If the transformer is used with an input
designed using a toroidal core of outside waveform of 120 Vrms sine wave at 2500Hz,
diameter of 𝐷𝑜 = 15 cm, an inside what will be the input current at no load?
diameter of 𝐷𝑖 = 10 cm, and a thickness Suggest a load rating for the transformer.
𝑑=2.5 cm. The ferrite core has a 𝜇= 5000
𝜇0· The primary has 100 turns of #12
American Wire Gauge (AWG) wire and
the secondary has 500 turns of wire.
As shown in Figure 3.10, the coils are
wound “separated” on opposite sections
of the core rather than overlapped. This
permits high isolation, but a higher (a)

leakage flux results.

(a) Suggest a wire size for the secondary.
(b) Develop a circuit model for the
transformer, based on an estimate of the
leakage flux being 0.02%, (i.e. 5000-1) of
the magnetizing flux, because 𝜇r = 5000.
(b)
Fig. 3.10: Transformer Schematic (a) and equivalent circuit (b).

3.5 Magnetic Circuits - 6
• Solution:
a) The voltage ratio 𝑣2 /𝑣1= 5, and the
current ratio 𝑖2 /𝑖1 = 1/5= 0.2. This due to
the permeability of the core being very
high and as such the transformer having
very little leakage flux.
The cross section area of the primary
wire is 3.3 mm2, and so the area of the
secondary wire should be one-fifth of
that of the primary, i.e. 3.3/5= 0.651
mm2. This is to have equal current
density and thus equal power loss on
both sides. This corresponds to just
about #19 AWG wire (area 0.653 mm2).
b) The components of the circuit model are
the resistances of the wires 𝑅1 , and 𝑅2 ,
the leakage inductances on the primary
𝐿𝑙1 and secondary 𝐿𝑙2 , and the
magnetizing inductance 𝐿𝑚1 referred to
the primary side.
22
To determine 𝐿𝑚1 = 𝑁12 /ℛ𝑐 we need to find
the reluctance ℛ𝑐 = 𝑙𝑐 /(𝜇𝑐 𝐴𝑐 ), where 𝑙𝑐 =
𝜋(𝐷𝑜 + 𝐷𝑖 )/2= 24.35 cm, and 𝐴𝑐 =
𝑑(𝐷𝑜 − 𝐷𝑖 )/2= 3.125 cm2. See Fig. 3.11. So
ℛ 𝑐 = 0.124×106 H-1, and 𝐿𝑚1 = 81 mH.
A total leakage flux of 0.02% suggests 0.01%
for each coil. Since flux is given by 𝑁𝑖/ℛ𝑙1 ,
the leakage reluctance should be about
10000 higher than core reluctance. Thus,
𝐿𝑙1 = 8.1 μH and 𝐿𝑙2 = 202 μH.
Do
lc Di
d Ac
Fig. 3.11: Toroid core with dimensions.

3.5 Magnetic Circuits - 6
The AWG table gives the resistance in
Ω/km, so to determine the resistances
we need to find the length of the wires.
One turn of wire requires 10 cm, so we
will need at least 10×100= 1000 cm (10
m) on the primary, and 10×500= 5000 cm
(50 m) on the secondary. But things are
not perfect because the wires will
overlap, so we will take a length of 11 m
(+10%) on the primary, and 60 m (+20%)
on the secondary because of more turns
there. So 𝑅1 = 5.21×11×10-3= 0.057 Ω,
and 𝑅2 = 26.4×60×10-3= 1.58 Ω. The
equivalent circuit is shown in Fig. 3.12.
c) If 120 V at 2500 Hz (= 5000 rad/s) is
imposed at the input with no secondary
load, the input impedance will be 0.057 +
j81×10-3× 5000= 0.057+j1272 Ω. The
primary will draw a magnetizing current
of 120/(j1272)= -j0.094 A(rms).
23
The rated load is limited to a large degree
by the wire capacity. If the current density
is held to 10 A/mm2, the primary should be
able to handle 33 A(rms) supporting a
power rating of 4000 W.
The secondary current would be about
6.6 A, and the losses in the wires would be
(33)2(0.057) + (6.6)2(1.58) = 131 W, or 3.3%
of the 4000 W rating.
Note that this does not include the
nonlinear loss within the magnetic core,
which is given empirically by the Steinmetz
equation. Research it.
0.057 Ω 8.1 H 202 H 1. 58 Ω
81 mH
Fig. 3.12: Equivalent circuit of transformer.

3.6 Circuit Analysis by Simulation - 1
• Throughout this course we will use
computer simulation as an additional
learning aid. This will lead to an improved
understanding of circuit behavior.
• The simulations are used to determine
the waveforms of various circuits, their
dynamic and steady-state performance,
and the voltage and current ratings of
their different components.
• We will use one of the commercial
versions of the Simulation Program with
Integrated Circuit Emphasis (SPICE). I
have personally been using Ltspice which
is available free from Linear Technology
Corporation. But you may use other
available versions to you, e.g. PSPICE.
• In the older days, we used to enter a net-
list describing the circuit connections and
devices used.
24
• Nowadays, we enter the circuit devices
and connections graphically, and the net-
list may be deduced as an output.
• There are other programs used to simulate
power electronics circuits. One widely
used program is EMTP, the electro-
magnetic transients program.
• Unlike SPICE which has its origins in the
micro-electronics industry, EMTP was
developed for the electric power industry
at the Bonneville Power Administration in
Portland, Oregon.
• ATP (Alternative Transients Program) is a
version of EMTP that is also available for
personal computers. Similar to SPICE,
EMTP uses a trapezoidal method of
integration, but the time step of
integration is kept constant. As such it
tends to be computationally faster.
 25

3.6 Circuit Analysis by Simulation - 2

• Example 3.6: As a start we model the • At this stage, the load circuit is simplified
circuit shown in Fig. 3.3 with component to an equivalent resistance. The voltage
values as given in Example 3.3. and current waveforms are in Fig. 3.11.
• First, the circuit schematic is built using • The blue trace is the output voltage and
the input graphics facility of Ltspice, and the green trace is the voltage across the
then the components values are diode. The yellow trace is the inductor
selected. The circuit is shown in Fig. 3.10. current, rippling as expected. The diode
The voltage controlled switch is replaced current is on and off, but it is going
with MOSFET as shown. negative due to reverse recovery current.

n1 n3

n4

Fig. 3.10: Dc motor drive built using LTspice. Fig. 3.11: Waveforms of dc motor drive.
 26

3.6 Circuit Analysis by Simulation - 3

• As seen earlier, we may reduce the
reverse recovery current of the diode by
a turn on snubber in series with the
source.
• As shown below shown in Fig. 3.12. The
value of LS and RS needed were obtained
by trial and error. The waveforms are
shown in Fig. 3.13.
• Notice that there is some reverse recovery
current, but much smaller in magnitude
now, of the order of -2 A.
• The voltage waveforms are essentially the
same, the output voltage (red) is very
slightly lower, because of the voltage drop
across RS. The voltage across the diode
(green) is getting a bit of delay at the rising
edge due to the snubber.

n2 n4

n5

Fig. 3.12: Dc motor drive built using LTspice. Fig. 3.10: Dc motor drive built using LTspice.