Classical Electrodynamics Julian Schwinger °* Lester L. DeRaad, Jr. Kimball A. Milton * Wu-yang Tsai ia OF SCIENCE UP. ous ADVANCED BOOK PROGRAM PERSEUS BOOKS Reading, MassachusettsMany of the designations used by manufacturers and sellers to distinguish their products are claimed as trademarks. Where those designations appear in this book and Perseus Books was aware of a trademark claim, the designations have been printed in initial capital letters. Library of Congress Catalog Card Number: 98-86259 ISBN 0-7382-0056-5 Copyright © 1998 by Clarice Schwinger, Lester DeRaad, Jr., Kimball A. Milton, and Wu-yang Tsai Alll rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without the prior written permission of the publisher. Printed in the United States of America Perseus Books is a member of the Perseus Books Group Cover design by Suzanne Heiser 3456789 - EB - 0201 Find us on the World Wide Web at http://www.perseusbooksgroup.comTo our children, Elizabeth, Lester III Ysabel, Madeleine, Camille TennoContents Preface xvii Reader’s Guide xix 1 Maxwell’s Equations 1 PCLT RPLeChrOStatheat ttt terete tee ee er HE Eee ree 1 1.2 Inference of Maxwell’s Equations 8 1.3 Discussion . . . BSeeeeeasaeeteeeett 12 Ta: probleme forChoper i ee eed 13 2 Magnetic Charge I 17 2.1 A Very Brief History of Magnetic Charge 19 2.2. Problems for Chapter 2 ..... 19 3 Conservation Laws 21 3.1 Conservation of Energy «6.2... ee eee 21 3.2. Conservation of Momentum ................-- 22 3.3 Conservation of Angular Momentum. Virial Theorem 24 3.4 Conservation Laws and the Speed of Light . 25 3.5 Problems for Chapter 3 29 4 Macroscopic Electrodynamics 33 4.1 Force on an Atom 33 4.2 Force on a Macroscopic Body 38 4.3 Macroscopic Electrodynamics 40 4.4 Problems for Chapter4 ........ 42 5 Simple Model for Constitutive Relations 45 Bete Come metavaty testcase eecesetteceeesereseseeeaueen tate ule eteeLasteu tes eRe 45 5.2 Dielectric Constant . . . 47 5.3 Plasma.......... 7 Eee EEE aEeeHeEeHeO 5.4 Polar Molecules... ..........-.% 53 5.5 Clausius-Mossotti Equation 57 5.6 Problems for Chapter 5 59 6 Magnetic Properties of Matter 63 6.1 Canonical Equations of Motion in Electromagnetic Fields 63 6.2 Diamagnetism. ... 2... ... 0. ee eee eee eee 6510 11 12 CONTENTS G.3) -Paramagnetisn: (ccc ce cee erect ae cece 67 6.4. Ferromagnetism. . 69 6.5 Problems for Chapter 6 72 Macroscopic Energy and Momentum 75 7.1 General Discussion . . 75 7.2. Nondispersive Medium . 77 7.3. Dispersive Medium 7 7.4 Problems for Chapter7 2... 2.2.0... 00sec eee eee 80 Review of Action Principles 85 8.1 Lagrangian Viewpoint . . 86 8.2 Hamiltonian Viewpoint eee 87 8.3 A Third Viewpoint............. 89 8.4 Invariance and Conservation Laws 90 8.5 Nonconservation Laws. The Virial Theorem ......... 94 8.6 Problems for Chapter 8 95 Action Principle for Electrodynamics 97 9.1 Action of Particle in Field... . . 97 9.2 Electrodynamic Action . . . 98 9.3. Energy . 100 9.4 Momentum and Angular Momentum Conservation ........ 102 9.5 Gauge Invariance and the Conservation of Charge 105 9.6 Gauge Invariance and Local Conservation Laws 107 9.7 Problems for Chapter 9 . 110 Einsteinian Relativity 111 10.1 Relativistic Modification . . iil 10.2 Lorentz Transformations . 114 10.3 Transformation of Fields 118 10.4 Problems for Chapter 10 . . 122 Stationary Principles for Electrostatics 125 11.1 Stationary Principles for the Energy - 126 11.1.1 The Scalar Field Form 127 11.1.2 The Vector Field Form... ... 11.2 Force on Dielectrics . . 11.3 Boundary Conditions . 11.4 Conductors ........ 11.5 Problems for Chapter 11 . Introduction to Green’s Functions 137 12.1 Reciprocity Relation ©... 6... eee eee ee eee 138 12.2 Problems for Chapter 12............-....0-2..04 139CONTENTS vii 13 Electrostatics in Free Space 141 19172 Diumensione site aee eee rce eres ce seas rene 143 13.2 Problems for Chapter 13.0... eee cee eee 146 14 Semi-Infinite Dielectric 147 147 150 153 14.1 Green’s Function for Charge Outside Dielectric 14.2 Derivation in ‘Terms of Bound Charge ........ 14.3 Green’s Function for Charge Within Dielectric 14.4 Full Green’s Function and Image Charge . 14.5 Problems for Chapter 14 15 Application of Green’s Function 157 15.1 Force between Charge and Dielectric . . . 157 15.2 Infinite Conducting Plate ......... 161 15.3 Problems for Chapter 15.......... 163 16 Bessel Functions 165 16.1 Delta Functions and Completeness : .. 170 16.2 Problems for Chapter 16.......... . 174 17 Parallel Conducting Plates 177 17.1 Reduced Green’s Function 177 . 179 180 - 182 17.2 Induced Charge 17.3 Energy . 17.4 Force. . 17.5 Images . 183 17.6 Linear Lattices... 2... . 185 17.7 Periodic Green’s Function . 186 17.8 Problems for Chapter 17. . 189 18 Modified Bessel Functions 193 18.1 More Bessel Functions . . . . 197 18.2 Problems for Chapter 18 . . . 203 19 Cylindrical Conductors 205 191 Reckangle iia nuei tua tti ney marin iii nnonry ie rninaiy 19.2 Isosceles Right Angle Triangle 19.3 Equilateral Triangle 19.4 Circle ......... 19.5 Circle and Septum . . . 19.6 Problems for Chapter 19 . . 20 Spherical Harmonics 231 20.1 Solutions to Laplace’s Equation 231 20.2 Spherical Harmonics ......... ee . 233 20.3 Orthonormality Condition . 20.4 Legendre’s Polynomialsviii CONTENTS 20.5 Problems for Chapter 20.0... 0... 000000 0000000- 238 21 Coulomb’s Potential 243 Sit iLegendretsPolynomiale ity ecient nie sia 21.2 Infinitesimal Rotations... ........200.000-% 21.3 Spherical Bessel Functions 21.4 Problems for Chapter 21.0... 0.0000 c eee ee eee 253 22 Multipoles 257 22.1 Problems for Chapter 22... 0... 00 cece eee eee 261 23 Conducting and Dielectric Spheres 265 265 267 271 274 276 23.1 Interior of Conducting Spherical Shell 23.1.1 Bessel Function Representation . . 23.2 Exterior of Conducting Sphere i 23.3 Conducting Plate and Hemispherical Boss . . . 23.4 Dielectric Sphere... ......-..0-- 23.4.1 Interior of sphere - 278 23.5 Problems for Chapter 23 - 280 24 Dielectrics and Conductors 283 24.1 Variational Principle»... 2... 1. ee eee - 283 24.2 Restricted Forms of the Variational Principle - 285 24.3 Introduction of Additional Conductor - 286 24.4 Alternate Variational Principle - 288 24.5 Green’s Function . . . - 289 24.6 Capacitance... .. . : - 290 24.7 Problems for Chapter 24. .............0 000000058 293 25 Modes and Variations 295 25.1 A Comparison Method . 301 25.2 Iteration 304 25.3 Example 311 25.4 Problems for Chapter 25 312 26 Magnetostatics 313 26.1 Variational Principle . 26.2 Boundary Conditions . 26.3 Vector Potential 26.4 Problems for Chapter 26 318 27 Macroscopic Current Distributions 319 27.1 Magnetic Energy. Coefficients of Inductance... ......... 322 27.2 Problems for Chapter 27... ....-..-00 0000000200 323CONTENTS ix 28 Magnetic Multipoles 325 28.1 Magnetic Dipole Moment ........ 00.0... 0000008 325 28.2 Rotating Charged Spherical Shell»... 2... 2 ee eee 327 28.3 Problems for Chapter 28.0.0... 00.0 eee eee vee 329 29 Magnetic Scalar Potential 331 29.1 Problems for Chapter 29.0.0... 00.0000. c eee eee ee 334 30 Magnetic Charge II 337 30.1 Problems for Chapter 30... 0.0.0.0 ec eevee eee 339 31 Retarded Green’s Function 31.1 Potentials and Gauges... 20... eee 31.2 Green’s Function in the Lorentz Gauge 31.3 Problems for Chapter 31... . 32 Radiation—Field Point of View 351 32.1 Asymptotic Potentials and Fields ...........-..0--% 351 32.2 Angular Distribution of Radiated Power 353 32.3 Radiation by an Accelerated Charged Particle... . . eeaere abd 32.4 Dipole Radiation... 0.2 ee ee 355 32.5 Potentials in Radiation Gauge. . . oe oe 357 32.6 Problems for Chapter 32... ... 000.000.0000 00042 359 33 Radiation—Source Point of View 361 $311) Conservation of Poerey i tise inner 361 33.2 Dipole Radiation .. . 33.3 Hamiltonian... ... 33.4 Problems for Chapter 33 34 Models of Antennas 367 34.1 Simplified Model... .........0... 367 34.2 Center-fed antenna . eee ee 371 3413: Problemeifor Chapter o4csce teeters Hea To 35 Spectral Distribution of Radiation 375 35.1 Spectral and Angular Distribution ..............0.0- 375 35.2 Spectral Distribution for Dipole Radiation . . . 379 35.3 Damped Harmonic Motion. ........... 380 95/4: Problems for Chapter ao secre caer 383 36 Power Spectrum and Cerenkov Radiation 385 36.1 Macroscopic Power Spectrum .............. 000005 385 36.2 Cerenkov Radiation ........ 00.000. e eee eee 386 36.3 Problems for Chapter 36.......-..-.--0-0.0.-0048 389x CONTENTS 37 Constant Acceleration and Impulse 391 37.1 Radiation by a Uniformly Accelerated Particle 301 37.2 Radiation by Impulsive Scattering .........0.005 396 87:3 Problems for Chaptero? ties eee 398 38 Synchrotron Radiation I 401 38.1 Motion of a Charged Particle in a Homogeneous Magnetic Field . 401 38.2 Spectrum of Synchrotron Radiation... ...........00-% 403 38.3 Total Power Emitted into the mth Harmonic 406 98/4 Total Radiated Power tcctn ss att aut eeneeaaecee 408 38.5 Problems for Chapter 38........0.-.000.000005 . 410 39 Synchrotron Radiation II—Polarization 413 39.1 Problems for Chapter 39.0... 415 40 Synchrotron Radiation III—High Energies 417 40.1 Range of Important Harmonics 40.2 Asymptotic Form for J3,,(2m) 40.3 Spectral Distribution . 40.4 Angular Distribution . 40.5 Qualitative Description A417 418 419 422 424 40.6 Problems for Chapter 40 . 426 41 Propagation in a Dielectric Medium 427 41.1 Equations for the Normal Modes ..... 2.0.0 00000 eee 427 41.2 Reflection and Refraction: 1 Polarization ...........- 431 41.3 Reflection and Refraction: || Polarization ........... 4 436 41.4 Total Internal Reflection . . 440 41.5 Energy Conservation . . . . 441 41.6 Problems for Chapter 41 443 42 Reflection by an Imperfect Conductor 445 42.1 Problems for Chapter 42.0.0 00.0000 cece eee 448 43 Cylindrical Coordinates 449 43.1 2+1 Dimensional Decomposition of Green’s Function ..... . 449 43.2 Three Dimensional Fourier Representation... 2... 0... .. 451 43.3 Hankel Functions . . . 43.4 Problems for Chapter 43 455 44 Waveguides 44.1 E and H modes 44.2 Boundary Conditions . . 44.3. Modes 44.4 Problems for Chapter 44 .CONTENTS xi 45 Scattering by Small Obstacles 471 45.1 ‘Thomson Scattering .... . 471 45.2 Scattering by a Bound Charge 45.3 Scattering by a Dielectric Sphere 45.4 Radiation Damping. . . . 45.5 Problems for Chapter 45 . 46 Partial-Wave Analysis of Scattering 479 46.1 Mode Decomposition. ......... 479 46.2 Interior of conducting sphere 481 46.3 Spherical Hankel Functions 483 46.4 Scattering cae eee 484 46.5 Problems for Chapter 46.................02000- 490 47 Diffraction I 491 47.1 Diffracted Electric Field»... 0.0. 47.2 Diffraction by a Circular Aperture 47.3 Diffraction bya Slits te cee 499 47.4 Diffraction by a Straight Edge... .... » 503 47.5 Problems for Chapter 47. 2... 0... ee eee eee 507 48 Diffraction II 509 48.1 Approximate Solution 510 48.2 Exact Solution for Current 512 48.3 Exact Diffraction Cross Section . 516 48.4 Field Near Edge .. 517 48/5 Problems for Chapter (8-g0 te eee eee 520 49 Babinct’s Principle 523 49/1 eProblems for Chapter 400i ined manana 525 50 General Scattering 527 50.1 Integral Equation 527 50.2 Optical Theorem 529 50.3 Born Approximation .. . . 531 50.4 Problems for Chapter 50. . 532 51 Dispersion Relations for the Susceptibility 539 6 1: Probleme for Chapter obec eee eee 543 52 Charged Particle Energy Loss 52.1 General Expression... ......... 4 52.2 Evaluation in Terms of Spectral Functions B29 High Pucrey Limite ee cee taee 52.4 Energy Loss by a Magnetic Monopole 52.5 Problems for Chapter 52... .. .CONTENTS xii A Units 555 B Bibliography 561 563 IndexList of Figures 1.1 A surface $ bounding a volume V used in computing the electric a ee etree ethene emia criicy 1.2 Geometrical definition of solid angle. ............. 1.3 Topology if ep is inside (a) or outside (b) the surface S. 3.1 Electric and magnetic fields for an electromagnetic pulse propa- gating with velocity Vo. 2... ee 5.1 The real and imaginary parts of the conductivity, as given in (5.14). 48 50 5.2 Singularities of the integrand in (5.33) in the complex w plane. 6.1 Solutions to (6.58) for temperatures above and below the Curie temperature. The solid curves are the plots of the right side of (6.58) for T < T, and T > Tz, respectively, while the dashed line is the left side of that equation... .........200-0 0005 8.1 A possible path from initial state to final state. .......... 8.2 6wxr is perpendicular to 6w and r, and represents an infinitesi- mal rotation of r about the 6w axis. ©... 1... ee ee 9.1 Rigid coordinate displacement. 10.1 The transformation (10.43), (10.44) carries us to a new coordinate frame moving relative to the original one with a velocity —v along the? gaia Cte cee teens 10.2 Motion of original frame relative to the new frame. 11. Dielectric slab immersed in an inhomogeneous electric field. The forces F shown are those on each surface due to (11.46), (11.50). 11.2 Boundary between two regions with different dielectric constants. 11.3 Dielectric between parallel plates, as discussed in Problem 11. 19-1" Contour used'to evaluate!(13-22)sccsatuu anes aaaeenn satan 14, Geometry of semi-infinite dielectric region... 2.2.0.0... xiiixiv 17.1 17.2 17.3 29.1 29.2 30.1 30.2 30.3 32.1 3. Cross section of equilateral triangular cylinder. LIST OF FIGURES The primary field, P, and secondary field, 5, contributing to Greei’s function (1426) eee eee 151 Image charge for a grounded conducting plane. ...... 2... 162 Geometry of grounded, parallel, conducting plates. ........ 177 Positions of image charges for two parallel conductors. . . . 185 Infinite conducting sheet, described in cylindrical coordinates by ¢=0,m. The coordinate z is perpendicular to the page. A unit point charge is located at the point (p’,4’,2)............ 190 Cylindrical region created by intersecting perpendicular conduct- ing planes. Bisection of a cylinder with square cross section. 205 207 . 209 Reflected equilateral triangle. ..... . . 210 Repeated reflection of equilateral triangle. . 210 Cylinder with septum 2.2... ee eee 225 Geometry of field point and source point for a bounded charge distribution... . 2.2.2... . 0008 - 257 Two interacting charge distributions. . . - 260 Sphere bisected by plane. Shown are the locations of the physical charge at x’ and the image charges at i, 1, and. 2... 275 Geometry of dielectric sphere with source point outside... . . . 276 Conducting surfaces embedded in a dielectric medium... . . . . 284 Introduction of an uncharged conductor into a region where there is no free charge density... ....... 128 ( Finite dielectric bounded by conductors. . 292 Parallel plate capacitor. ©... 2. eee 293 Discontinuity in permeability across a plane interface. . 315 Magnetic field produced by a current-carrying wire... ..... . 319 Force between parallel, current-carrying wires... ....... . 320 Closed current loop. 2... 02.2 eee eee . 331 Topology of curve C rel . 333 Sphere surrounding a point magnetic oe . 338 Circle surrounding string. ...... . 339 Contour for line integral in Problem 2. . 340 Electric and magnetic fields for a wave propagating in the direc-LIST OF FIGURES xv 32. 34. 34. 34. 37. 37. 37. 38. 38. 40. 40. 40. 41 41 41 41 41 2 1 2 be 1 2 3 1 2 1 2 3 ot 2 13 A 5 Orientation of acceleration at emission time to direction of ob- servation. Geometry of linear autennai unten inacieaind 368 Radiation pattern produced by a short antenna, | < A. In this and the following figures axial symmetry about the z-axis is to el understood: ata casacs ating stereo aaaa 369 Radiation from an antenna of intermediate length, \ < 1 < 2A. This diagram is meant to be understood schematically only. Ac- tually, the side lobes are far smaller than indicated... . . . Radiation pattern produced by center-fed antenna for kl = 7. ‘This is called a half-wave antenna because |= /2..... 373 Radiation pattern produced by center-fed antenna for kl = 5m. . 373 . 370 Lorentzian line shape for the energy radiated per unit frequency Teun gece eres 382 Cone of Cerenkov light produced at a definite wavelength by a particle traveling with a velocity v, v greater than the speed of light in the medium. . . 388 Simple model of a linear accelerator, 6... eee 393 Spectral distribution of energy radiated by accelerator in Fig. 37.1.394 Tnmpulsive scatteringesccsei sss srgeicee tas racers suataaecgaaicae 396 Precession of velocity vector around a constant magnetic field. . 402 Diagram of charged particle moving in a circle in a magnetic field. 403 Polarization vectors for synchrotron radiation............ 414 Change of contour used in evaluating (40.19)... 0... . 420 Stationary phase contour for evaluation of (40.24)... . . . 421 Sketch of power emitted into mth harmonic as a function of m. What is actually plotted is 2mJ},,(2m) for 8 = 0.99. In this Case ie (S00 ieee eater re rec eee ice 422 Angular distribution of synchrotron radiation for m = 100 and B = 0.99, from (38.42)... ee eee ee 424 Directionality of synchrotron radiation... .. 2... 425 Interpretation of direct and reflected waves. ... 2.0.0... 434 Incident, reflected, and transmitted propagation vectors... . . 434 Relation between field orientations for incident and reflected waves.439 Parallel dielectric backed by conductor. . 443 Three parallel dielectrics. ©... .....0.0-..0.. . 444 Contour for evaluating (43.20). 6... 0. eee eee 452