Journal of Cleaner Production 239 (2019) 117852

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Journal of Cleaner Production

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jclepro

Review

A review of the properties of hemp concrete for green building

applications
Tarun Jami a, b, S.R. Karade a, b, *, L.P. Singh a, b
a
Academy of Scientific & Innovative Research (AcSIR), Ghaziabad, India
b
CSIR e Central Building Research Institute (CSIR-CBRI), Roorkee, 247667, India

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: The growing concerns surrounding the rising carbon emissions have impelled the leaders around the
Received 22 January 2019 world to make efforts to prevent catastrophic manifestations of climate change and global warming. This
Received in revised form has led to the resurrection of vegetal concrete building materials using biomass, which have the added
3 July 2019
benefits of carbon sequestration apart from low embodied energy and renewability. Vegetal concretes
Accepted 30 July 2019
Available online 3 August 2019
are made up of an organic or inorganic binder, and biomass originating from agro-forestry industries
such as rice husk, straw bale, hemp, kenaf, cork, and so on. Hemp concrete, a variety of vegetal concrete
^ as de
Handling Editor: Cecilia Maria Villas Bo has been widely researched and is arguably one of the most researched building materials in current
Almeida times. This paper presents a review of the state-of-the-art of hemp concrete research, with a view to
identifying research gaps that shall guide future research for its implementation in the fast-growing
Keywords: green buildings industry. The reviewed aspects of hemp concrete include properties of hemp relevant
Hemp concrete to construction, binder characteristics, mechanical properties, durability, hygric and thermal properties,
Lime environmental credentials, manufacturing processes, and current applications. Several research gaps
Lightweight concrete
with regards to the hydraulicity of the binder, strength and durability, and fire resistance of hemp
Carbon negative
concrete were identified. It was also established that hemp concrete has very low embodied carbon and
Mechanical properties
Thermal properties embodied energy, making it ideal for green building applications. The paper ends with a discussion
Green building applications outlining the need and direction for future research on improving the manufacturing processes and
mechanical performance of hemp concrete for wider adoption by the construction industry.
© 2019 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Contents

1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
2. Methodology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
3. Properties of hemp relevant to construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
3.1. Anatomy of the hemp stalk . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
4. Properties of hemp concrete . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
4.1. Binder characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
4.2. Density . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
4.3. Compressive strength . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
4.4. Flexural strength . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
4.5. Shear behavior . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
4.6. Thermal properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
4.7. Hygrothermal behavior . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
4.8. Acoustic properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
4.9. Reaction to fire . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
4.10. Durability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10

* Corresponding author. CSIR e Central Building Research Institute (CSIR-CBRI),

Roorkee, 247667, India.
E-mail address: srkarade@cbri.res.in (S.R. Karade).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2019.117852
0959-6526/© 2019 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
2 T. Jami et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 239 (2019) 117852

4.11. Environmental credentials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10

5. Mixing and manufacturing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
5.1. Projection process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
5.2. Ex-situ pre-casting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
5.3. In-situ casting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
6. Applications of hemp concrete . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
6.1. Hemp concrete walls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
6.2. Hemp concrete insulation panels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
6.2.1. Wall insulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
6.2.2. Roof insulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
6.2.3. Sub-slab insulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
6.2.4. Window insulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
6.3. Hemp concrete renders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
6.4. Pre-cast blocks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
7. Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
7.1. Manufacturing processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
7.2. Binder characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
7.3. Mechanical properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
7.3.1. Density . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
7.3.2. Compressive strength and flexural strength . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
7.3.3. Thermal and hygrothermal performance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
7.3.4. Acoustic properties and fire resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
7.3.5. Durability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
7.3.6. Environmental credentials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
7.4. Research gaps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
7.5. Building applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
8. Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
Acknowledgement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16

1. Introduction 2017). Hence, cultivation of fast-growing crops/plants such as

hemp, jute, sisal, kenaf, flax, hazelnut, and so on for commercial
Combating climate change has been one of the most important products must be considered as a solution.
priorities of several UN organizations. The New Urban Agenda, Simultaneously, scientists had begun experimenting with
adopted at the UN Habitat III conference at Quito, Ecuador in biomass products as potential building materials. Lime-hemp
October 2016, was largely focused on sustainability & energy con- concrete (LHC), hemp concrete or hempcrete is a cellulose aggre-
sumption of built environments to improve livelihoods and combat gate concrete that employs hemp hurds or shivs as the aggregate
climate change (Habitat III Secretariat, 2017). Consequently, the and a lime-based binder. Hemp concrete falls under a broader
demand for green buildings will increase substantially in the category of building materials that incorporate bio-based particles
coming years. The World Green Building Council defines ‘green’ as the aggregates and a mineral binder that may be called cellulose
building as “a building that, in its design, construction or operation, aggregate concrete (CAC) (Jami et al., 2016), bio-aggregates based
reduces or eliminates negative impacts, and can create positive building materials (Amziane and Collet, 2017), agro-concretes or
impacts, on our climate and natural environment” (WGBC, 2019). vegetal concretes (Amziane and Sonebi, 2016). This paper dissem-
Recent evolutions in green building design incorporate passive as inates information on the various properties of hempcrete and its
well as active technologies that aim at improving the energy effi- applications in building construction, which have been examined
ciency of buildings. However, while the adaptation of such energy- and compiled by reviewing relevant research published by several
efficient architecture is definitely beneficial, the use of conventional authors. An attempt has been made to present the state-of-the-art
building materials is detrimental to the environment. To reduce on hemp concrete research in a systemized and concise manner.
energy consumption in buildings some of the avenues that are
being explored are phase change materials (Laaouatni et al., 2017),
passive house techniques (Pitts, 2017) and other similar measures.
On a similar track, scientists and researchers have been devel- 2. Methodology
oping a relatively new concept called geoengineering, which in-
volves deliberate, large-scale manipulation of the environment to The literature reviewed for this paper was selected from a wide
counter some manifestations of anthropogenic climate change variety of sources with a focus towards the scientific community as
(Sandler, 2017). It was put forth that this manipulation of the well as the industry. The databases used to search for relevant
environment could be achieved by implementing carbon dioxide papers were: Scopus, Web of Science, ScienceDirect, SpringerLink,
reduction (CDR) strategies and albedo modifications (AM). Refor- Crossref and Google Scholar. The terms “lime hemp”, “hemp con-
estation and afforestation, bioenergy with carbon capture and crete”, “hempcrete”, “properties of hemp concrete”, “applications of
storage (BECCS) and accelerated weathering are some carbon di- hemp concrete”, “lime binders”, “lime pozzolana” were used for the
oxide reduction strategies that have demonstrated the potential for literature search. The sources used for this literature review
capturing or removing several gigatons of carbon dioxide from the included books, chapters, journal papers, web publications, reports,
atmosphere, to abate anthropogenic climate change (Sandler, standards, and theses. To screen the literature for relevance, the
following controls were employed:
 T. Jami et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 239 (2019) 117852

What are its aims?

What are the methods used?

What are the applications?

What materials are being used?

What are the properties being reported?

How is it relevant to the industry?

What are the future studies/work discussed in the literature?

What are the environmental conditions studied?

What is the geographical scope?

What primary and secondary data are used, and their relevance?

What is the duration of the study?
3. Properties of hemp relevant to construction
Hemp is the generalized name for the high growing varieties of
the cannabis sativa plant (see Fig. 1), a hitherto marginalized crop
with multitudes of applications, which is gaining popularity
amongst professionals as well as entrepreneurs. It has been claimed
that the plant has about 25,000 applications (Johnson, 2014;
Mechanics, 1938). Hemp has been cultivated by the human race
since as early as 8000 BCE (Allegret, 2013) for a variety of purposes
not including recreational. With excellent dry matter yield of 7e34
metric ton per hectare per year (Schluttenhofer and Yuan, 2017),
ease of growing, and a high operating margin, the cultivation of this
crop creates excellent economic value for the farmers and a steady,
sustainable supply of raw materials for various industries including
construction.
3.1. Anatomy of the hemp stalk
The botanical name of hemp is Cannabis sativa L., which is
further consisted of three subspecies: Cannabis sativa (industrial
hemp and the source of technical fibres), Cannabis ruderalis (wild
hemp) and Cannabis indica L. (contains high amounts of tetrahy-
drocannabinol (THC), one of the principal cannabinoids that in-
duces narcotic effects) (Bocsa and Karus, 1997; Chabbert et al.,
2013).
The hemp stem is made up of two cellular zones: a central
woody area (pith) and the external bark (epidermis) (Bocsa and
Fig. 1. Hemp (cannabis sativa) plants grown in the wild (left); close up of the leaves of the same hemp plants (right).
3
Karus, 1997; Bowes, 1998; Chabbert et al., 2013). These cellular
zones consist of the various layers as shown in Fig. 2 and explained
below.
The most commonly used parts of the hemp stalks are the
epidermis and phloem layers. The phloem layer participates in an
important function of transporting the organic nutrients from the
photosynthesis sites to the other parts of the plant. The primary
fibers of the plant originate from the phloem layer, and are long in
length. The layers just adjacent to the cambium layer are called
secondary fibers. The primary and secondary fibers once removed
from the plant and bundled together are called technical fibers. The
layers below the cambium are majorly formed of dead cells,
deposited in a pattern that allows for the transportation of water
and soluble minerals. The Xylem layer is constituted of vessels and
fibers (Chabbert et al., 2013).
Normally, the hemp shivs/hurds, which are used to make hemp
concrete, are derived from the cambium layer and below. They are
devoid of the epidermis and phloem layers which are extracted for
the manufacture of textiles and other fibrous products like insu-
lation and so on. In Fig. 2 it can be observed that hemp shivs are
porous and contain enough interconnected voids that can absorb
large quantities of water.
The composition of hemp hurds (Table 1) varies depending on
the growing environment and available nutrients. The structure of
the hemp plant at the cellular level is similar to timbers such as
birch (lat. betula) or willow (lat. salix) (Evrard, 2008; Walker,
2013).
4. Properties of hemp concrete
Put down to its unique nature and constituents, hemp concrete
(Fig. 3) behaves differently from conventional building materials
such as cement blocks, red bricks, cellular concretes, and so on.
Some of the hallmark characteristics of hemp concrete are that it is
carbon negative, lightweight, has a low density, excellent moisture
buffer capability, low thermal conductivity, and acoustic insulation.
The various properties of hemp concrete are discussed further in
sub-sections below.
4 T. Jami et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 239 (2019) 117852
Fig. 2. Optical Micrograph of a thin cross-section of a hemp stem (Vignon et al., 1995).
Table 1
Composition of hemp hurds (Evrard, 2008; Thomsen et al., 2005; Vignon et al., 1995).
Authors Cellulose Hemicellulose
Vignon et al., (1995) 44% 18%
Evrard, (2008) 50e60% 15e20%
Thomsen et al., (2005) 34e44% 31e37%
Fig. 3. Cast hemp concrete cubes of size 100 mm formed from (a) 90% hydrated
lime þ fly ash; (b) 90% hydrated lime þ fly ash þ CaCl2.
4.1. Binder characteristics
The most important part of a concrete-like material is the
binder. A lime-based binder is the chosen variety of binder because
of its abundance and low emissions from its manufacture. The
environmental benefit notwithstanding, lime binders are more
compatible with hemp shivs than cement since they absorb large
quantities of water and interfere with the hydraulic activity, pre-
venting the setting of the inner parts of the hemp-cement com-
posite (Walker, 2013). Therefore, hemp concrete research and
commercial applications around the world rely on either natural
hydraulic lime (NHL) or commercial binders produced by very few
manufacturers such as Tradical®. Hydraulic lime is that lime which
hardens/sets when it comes in contact with water (CSIR-CBRI, 1962)
due to the formation of calcium silica hydrates (CeSeH), a per-
manent, stable and hardened gel compound. Hydraulic lime con-
sists of Ca(OH)2 (calcium hydroxide) and C2S (dicalcium silicates)
also known as belite, which is reactive with moisture and
Lignin Pectin Wax Protein Ashes
28% 4% 1% 3% -
20e30% - - - 4e5%
19e28% 4% 1% - 1e2%
undergoes a chemical reaction called hydration (Chabannes et al.,
2017b). Non-hydraulic limes or calcic limes (CL) harden at an
extremely slow rate due to the absence of clay impurities such as
silica and alumina (CSIR-CBRI, 1962). The setting of calcic limes
occurs through the uptake of carbon dioxide from the atmosphere
in a mechanism called carbonation, forming stable calcium car-
bonate (Chabannes et al., 2017b). Limes, in general, undergo the
hardening process for several years and still retain a small amount
of unreacted portlandite. Considering that the hydraulicity of lime
is important, there are studies that explore the combination of
hydrated lime or quicklime with pozzolanic materials such as fly
ash to improve the strength and setting characteristics (Walker and
Pavía, 2010). The practice of mixing limes with pozzolana is not
new. It has been evidenced in ancient structures that still have
structural integrity due to the ability of lime to continuously gain
strength with the passage of time (Walker and Pavía, 2010). The
Indian Standards code IS: 10772e1983 (Standards, 2009) deals with
the specifications for quick setting lime-pozzolana mixtures for use
in constructions other than reinforced structures. The IS code
prescribes manufacturing lime-pozzolana mixture by inter-
grinding lime with pozzolana (pulverized fuel ash, bagasse ash or
other pozzolanic materials) and a hardening accelerator of choice
with a small quantity of Type IV Gypsum (conforming to IS:
1290e1973 (Standards, 2010)), if desired, not exceeding a quantity
that is 5% of the combined mass of lime and pozzolana (Standards,
2009).
Specific to hemp concrete, studies have explored the usage of
lime mixed with pulverized fuel ash, ground granulated blast
furnace slag (GGBS), metakaolin, silica fumes, pumicite, and clays.
Evrard et al. (2006) suggest that the addition of approximately 25%
of hydraulic and pozzolanic content improves performance
(Walker, 2013).
Walker (2013) in their study on hempcrete had assessed nine
different pozzolans for their reactivity with hydrated lime, all of
which were available in and around Ireland. The studied pozzolans
were:
 T. Jami et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 239 (2019) 117852
1. Pulverized Fuel Ash (PFA),
2. Ground Granulated Blast Furnace Slag (GGBS),
3. Metakaolin,
4. Microsilica,
5. Rice Husk Ash,
6. Yellow Brick Dust,
7. Red Brick Dust,
8. Light expanded clay aggregate (Leca), and
9. Tile Waste.
Their study had shown that calcium silica hydrates are the
compounds that contribute to the lime-pozzolana concrete's
strength. However, it was found that the hydrated lime had better
reactivity with GGBS and metakaolin than with that of the other
products such as pulverized fuel ash. The low reactivity between
lime and PFA can be rectified by the addition of activators such as
sodium sulfate (Na2SO4) and calcium chloride (CaCl2). The activa-
tors improve the pozzolanic reaction between lime and PFA and
contribute to the formation of CeSeH, ettringite, and mono-
sulphoaluminate, which improve the early strength as well as the
28-day strength (Shi, 1996). Walker (2013) had prepared hemp
concrete from binders with compositions as set out below:
Lime-Metakaolin: 80% Calcic Lime þ 20% Metakaolin, and 80%
Calcic Lime þ 20% Metakaolin þ 0.5% methylcellulose
Lime-GGBS: 70% Lime þ 30% GGBS, and 70% Lime þ 30%
GGBS þ 0.5% methylcellulose
Tronet et al. (2016) had utilized the same commercial binder
(Tradical® PF 70 by Lhoist Group) as Walker (2013) in their study
and had disclosed the composition of the binder as 75% hydrated
lime Ca(OH)2, 15% hydraulic lime and 10% pozzolana (undisclosed).
Sassoni et al. (2014) in their published literature had revealed
some exceptional mechanical performance values for their hemp
composites, which were made using a patented binder. The binder
was manufactured from three components: magnesium oxide,
magnesium sulfate solution or magnesium chloride solution, and a
reactive vegetable protein in a flour-like form (Canti, 2013; Sassoni
et al., 2014). While Sassoni et al. (2014) had not revealed its curing
characteristics such as setting time, type of curing, etc., the method
of manufacturing was explained briefly, showing that the mixed
hemp concrete was subjected to a thermo-mechanical pre-treat-
ment. It must also be noted that the binder is suitable for producing
hemp concrete as well as hemp composites for replacing formal-
dehyde bonded wood boards. Fig. 4 shows hemp shivs covered in
calcium carbonate crystals after a 28-days curing period.
Fig. 4. Hemp shiv and calcic lime interface (a.) at 10 mm scale (b.) at 2 mm scale; hemp particles covered with calcium carbonate crystals.
5
4.2. Density
The use of hemp shivs as the aggregates leads to a considerable
lowering of the density of the resultant concrete since they are
lighter than aggregates that originate from rocks. Interestingly,
hempcrete is a building material of which the density is not always
constant and does not have an average value with a small disper-
sion, like other standardized materials such as concrete. One of the
reasons behind such large variations in densities is that the mass of
the product depends on the mass composition of composite. This is
unlike conventional ordinary Portland cement concrete where,
irrespective of the grade of concrete, the density almost always
remains constant at 2400 ± 50 kg/m3 (Neville, 2012; Scanlon and
McDonald, 1994).
Ohmura et al. (2002) have shown that the nature of spatial
orientation in the volume of the product influences density. With
hemp concrete, as the composition of the material and the
manufacturing process changes, so does its density. Therefore,
higher strength hemp composites have a higher density by virtue of
the degree of compaction (see Table 2). It has been indicated that
the density is also affected by the amount of humidity trapped in
the walls, although only by a negligible degree. Variations in den-
sity can largely impact the thermal performance and hence makes
for an important variable. This postulation can be confirmed by the
studies conducted by Sinka et al.(2014), where it was found that the
thermal conductivity of LHC increases by 0.005 W/m.K for every
50 kg/m3 gained.
An organization that sells and constructs with commercial
hempcrete produces a 275 kg/m3 density product (Abbott, 2014).
Sutton et al. (2011) have published that the density varies between
270 and 330 kg/m3. Table 3 in section 4.3 shows hemp concretes of
widely varying densities. Sassoni et al. (2014) had manufactured
hemp concrete from a patented binder with densities varying be-
tween 300 kg/m3 and 1300 kg/m3, as outlined in section 4.4,
Table 4.
In Table 2, B/S is the binder to shiv ratio by mass. W/B is the
water to binder ratio by mass, equal to 0.55 for all of the LHC mixes.
This value corresponds to a continuation of the findings of Nguyen
et al. (2010). Currently, conventional lime concretes or mortars also
use approximately the same W/B ratio of 0.5 for lime with high
density (NHL5), 0.55 for lime with medium density (NHL2) and 0.6
for limes with a bulk density lower than 600 kg/m3. Lanos et al.
(2013) determined the ideal W/B ratio for hemp concrete as 0.56
for natural hydraulic lime (NHL), to optimize lime porosity and
restrict water suction by shiv into the fresh mixtures.
6 T. Jami et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 239 (2019) 117852

Table 2
Variation in Green Density and Compactness of various experimental mixes manufactured by Nguyen et al. (2009).

Mix Shiv, S Binder, B (kg) (In a Water, W W/ B/S Upper Compression Stress (at the end of Green density Green Compactness Ratio after 28
(kg) m3 of LHC) (kg) B compression step) (MPa) (kg/m3) Compactness days of ageing
Ratio

M1 215 387 213 0.55 1.80 1.10 816 0.52 0.37

M2 257 360 198 1.40 1.70 0.52 0.39
M3 320 320 176 1.00 2.60 0.53 0.40
M4 500 270 148 0.54 6.70 920 0.60 0.55
M5 204 112 0.41 6.30 816 0.54 0.50

Table 3
Mechanical properties of LHC as found in literature published by various authors (developed from Jami et al. ( 2016).

Authors Binder Composition Density (kg/ Compressive strength Young's modulus

m3) (MPa) (MPa)

Nguyen et al. (2009) NA 850 e 131

670 e 113
Arnaud and Gourlay, NHL 3.5a 460 0.18 9
(2012) NHL 3.5-Zb 480 0.31 36
NHL 2.5c 480 0.10e0.22 5e24
Commercial pre-formulated lime-based binder 460e500 0.30e0.34 e
Kioy, (2005) NA 610 1.88 43
830 1.98 52
Cerezo, (2005) NA 356 0.30 14
391 0.35 44
504 0.70 15
Tronet et al., (2016) Commercial pre-formulated lime-based binder e 1.36 43
e 1.63 51
e 2.13 70
e 4.74 147
e 3.95 122
Sutton et al., (2011) Commercial pre-formulated lime-based binder 270e330 0.10e0.20 e
Sassoni et al., (2014) Patented MgO based binder with water-soluble vegetable protein (Canti, 330 1.15 e
2013) 640 3.04 e
Sinka et al., (2014) 60% Dolomitic Lime þ 40% Metakaolin 540 0.266 e
397 0.154 e
330 0.133 e
Sinka et al., (2014) Pure Dolomitic Lime 461 0.181 e
367 0.136 e
345 0.125 e
Sassu et al., (2016) NHL 3.5 643 0.414 12.495
698 0.146 3.387
Sassu et al., (2016) 85% NHL 3.5 þ 15% Portland cement 753 0.357 12.190
Sassu et al., (2016) Portland cement 638 0.622 15.070
a
NHL 3.5 e Natural Hydraulic Lime having a characteristic compressive strength of at least 3.5 MPa.
b
NHL 3.5-Z e Natural Hydraulic Lime with pozzolanic additions having a characteristic compressive strength of at least 3.5 MPa.
c
NHL 2.5 e Natural Hydraulic Lime having a characteristic compressive strength of at least 2.5 MPa.

Table 4
Flexural Strength of hemp concrete made from a patented binder (Sassoni et al., 2014).

Denotation Density (kg/ Binder Composition Mix Ratio by weight. Compression Ratio Flexural Strength
m3) (Binder:Hemp) (Final:Initial) (MPa)

LD 330 Patented MgO based binder with water-soluble vegetable 1:1 1:1.7 0.90
MD 640 protein 1:1 1:3.3 6.83
HD1 1025 1:1 1:4 10.08
HD2 1210 1:1.25 1:4 16.41
HD3 1280 1:1.50 1:4 17.47

4.3. Compressive strength
Compressive strength is one of the most important properties of
construction materials. The term corresponds to the resistance
offered by a material, without changing form or shape, or under-
going failure, when compressive loads are applied.
The performance of hemp can vary slightly since it is a natural
product, but commercial hemp lime wall systems tend to achieve
0.1e0.2 MPa (Sutton et al., 2011) which is around 1/20 that of
concrete blocks. It is also found that the strength of hemp concrete
improves if cement is added to it. Since it is a low-density material
and resistant to crack under movement it is highly suitable for use
in earthquake-prone areas.
According to Bouloc et al. (2006), the low compressive strength
of LHC can be attributed to the imperfect arrangement of the shives,
the high flexibility of the aggregate (IsoHemp, n.d.), and the porous
nature of LHC. Owing to its low Young's modulus and low
compressive strength, LHC cannot be used as a load-bearing
 T. Jami et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 239 (2019) 117852
material in its present form. For load-bearing application, higher
compressive strength and increased rigidity are required to be
achieved (Tronet et al., 2016).
Apart from binder composition, the authors (Nguyen et al.,
2009, 2010; Nguyen, 2010) observed that the compressive
strength of hemp concrete could significantly be increased by
compaction. This process not only improves the mechanical
strength of the material by using lower binder content but also
increases its capacity to resist deformation before failure. This
observation can be corroborated by the information published by
Elfordy et al. (2008), who have drawn a relationship between
density, compressive strength and compaction. They observed that
a mix with a greater density displayed higher compressive
strengths and that high density is linked to a high level of
compaction (Murphy et al., 2010).
Tronet et al. (2014) studied the compressive behavior of hemp
concrete, in which cylindrical specimens (100 mm diameter and
200 mm high) from several mixes were used. It was observed that
applying high compressive pressure and limiting the binder pro-
portions (which is the main environmental impact component of
hemp concrete) improves the mechanical properties of the hemp-
crete blocks. Jami et al. (2016) postulate that the strength of hard-
ened hemp concrete is primarily a result of the properties and mix
proportion of the binder chosen for its formulation.
Research conducted by Cigasova et al. (2014) shows that
compressive strength of hardened mixtures of hemp shives, MgO
based cementitious binder, and water ranges from 1.86 MPa to
6.94 MPa (Kremensas et al., 2017). The compressive strengths of
hemp concrete mixtures created by Evrard (2003) range from
0.2 MPa to 0.5 MPa and Arnaud et al. (2006) obtained values
ranging from 0.4 MPa to 1.2 MPa. Walker (2013) reported
compressive strength values ranging from 0.13 MPa to 0.20 MPa at
28 days and 0.32 MPa to 0.41 MPa at the age of 1 year, for concretes
made with binders as outlined in section 4.1. Haik et al, (2017) had
investigated hemp lime mixtures in a 1:2 hemp-lime ratio, wherein
two samples were made by substituting 50% and 90% of lime with
Israeli clay (Mamshit clay). They had reported compressive
strengths of 0.069 MPa, 0.089 MPa and 0.043 MPa for mixes with
90% clay, 50% clay and 0% clay respectively (Haik et al., 2017). From
the reported values it can be inferred that 50% substitution of lime
with clay had resulted in the formation of hydraulic compounds
improving the strength slightly. The authors did not report any
correlation with the density of their hemp concrete specimens.
Sutton el at. (2011) published compressive strength values of
0.1e0.2 MPa. Various researchers that have experimented with
hemp concrete and contributed to its development have achieved
compressive strengths in the range of 0.10e4.74 MPa as shown in
Table 3.
An important consideration with regards to hemp concrete's
behavior under compression is that it behaves linearly and elasti-
cally until 10% strain. Hence, several researchers stop tests at 10%
strain when studying the behavior of hemp concrete in compres-
sive loading (Sassoni et al., 2014; Walker, 2013).
Murphy et al. (2010) had investigated the mechanical properties
of hemp concrete made with commercial binders and hydrated
calcic lime (CL90s). It was observed that composites made with
commercial hydraulic binder displayed higher ultimate compres-
sive strengths than those that were made from calcic lime (CL90s).
It was also noted that, with increase in hemp content, the
hydraulicity of the binder has little effect on the compressive
strength of the composite. The commercial hydraulic binder sam-
ples with 10% hemp content (approx. 12 MPa compressive strength)
were found to be approximately 5.5 times stronger than their
equivalent CL90s mixes. Whereas, the samples with 50% (approx.
3.2 MPa) and 75% (approx. 1.5 MPa) hemp were only 3.2 and 2 times
7
stronger, respectively, than their equivalent CL90s mixes (Murphy
et al., 2010). It must be noted that the authors have clarified that
the values corresponding to the CL90s mixes were approximated
since the obtained values were very low. It was also found that the
samples containing 10% hemp shivs behave in a brittle manner
while the behavior of those with higher hemp content is noted to
be more ductile (Murphy et al., 2010).
Murphy et al. (2010), and other researchers found that an in-
crease in compressive strength was evident with increasing binder
content (Fig. 5). However, O'Dowd and Quinn (2005) observed that
an increase in hemp content beyond 3:1 ratio (volumetric) had
little impact on reducing the compressive strength. The hemp
(shivs) lime composites made by O'Dowd and Quinn (2005) had
compressive strengths ranging between 0.65 and 1.9 MPa.
The low strength of hempcrete does not permit it to fully sup-
port roof loads, but it does play a minor structural role in the
building when it is cast around conventional timber wall framing or
double-stud framing. Hempcrete insulation possesses the struc-
tural capacity to help restrain the studs from bending or buckling
under loaded conditions. Results of tests conducted at Queen's
University in Canada showed that a 610 mm  1830 mm timber
stud wall with 313 kg/m3 hempcrete infill could support three to
four times the compressive loading of a standard stud wall due to
the support that hempcrete provides to the timber stud in weak
axis bending (Mukherjee and MacDougall, 2013).
4.4. Flexural strength
Flexural strength is another important mechanical property of a
building material as it defines its ability to resist bending stresses.
The Limecrete Company Ltd (Abbott, 2014) has published that their
commercial hempcrete product has a flexural strength of
0.30e0.40 MPa. Sassoni et al. (2014) had published flexural
strength values of hemp concrete as outlined in Table 4, which were
made using a patented binder (Canti, 2013) whose components are
outlined in section 3.1. It must be noted that the hemp composites
denoted by HD1 e HD3 were made as a replacement for formal-
dehyde bonded wood boards. Due to this, the aforementioned
composites may not be compared with regular hemp concrete.
However, the mixes denoted by LD and MD are for walling units
that are similar to hemp concrete with the difference that MgO is
used instead of lime.
Fig. 5. Compressive strength development of hemp composites (CL90H10 e 10%
hemp; CL90H50 e 50% hemp; CL90H75 e 75% hemp with 90% calcic lime binder; TH10
e 10% hemp; TH50 e 50% hemp; TH75 e 75% hemp with Tradical binder) (Murphy
et al., 2010).
8 T. Jami et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 239 (2019) 117852
Murphy et al. (2010) had studied the mechanical behavior and
flexural strength development of different hemp composites for a
period of 90 days (Fig. 6). The composites were made with hydrated
lime and commercial binder with hydraulic and pozzolanic addi-
tions in different volumetric lime-hemp proportions (1:9, 1:1 and
3:1). It was observed that flexural strength increased by increasing
the binder content by 25%e50%. A further increase in binder con-
tent to 90% had almost no impact on the flexural strength. This
indicates a possible contribution of lime-hemp bonds towards the
flexural strength of the mix. The commercial composites were
found to have significantly higher flexural strength than those
made with the CL90s. The flexural strength of composites made
from 75% hemp and Tradical® binder, equivalent in composition
and density to the hempcrete blocks investigated by Elfordy et al.
(2008) had a comparable 28-day flexural strength of 1.20 MPa
and 1.19 MPa, respectively (Murphy et al., 2010).
Except for the TH50 specimen, all samples achieved over 90% of
their total 90-day flexural strength by 28 days. The commercial
samples achieved their early flexural strength marginally faster
than the CL90s samples, which could be attributed to the early
formation of hydraulic products. All the high hemp content samples
gained their flexural strength significantly slower than the low
hemp specimens. A slight decrease in flexural strength was recor-
ded for TH75 and CL90H50 between 28 and 90 days. In the case of
hydraulic binder mixes, the decrease in flexural strength after 28
days was attributed to the formation of hydration products
(Murphy et al., 2010).
Several researchers (Dalmay et al., 2009; Le Troe€dec et al., 2009;
Sedan et al., 2008) investigated the effects of hemp fibers on the
flexural strength of lime, cement and gypsum binders. It was
observed that, initially, the matrix supports the load but following
the occurrence of the first macroscopic damage, the load is trans-
ferred to the matrix-fiber interfaces, with a reduction in rigidity and
a corresponding slight increase in stress uptake. Unlike brittle
composites, there is a gradual load decrease after the peak load is
reached. This is on account of the progressive failure of the matrix/
fiber bonds. In addition, Elfordy et al. (2008) established the rela-
tionship between increasing density and increased flexural
strength by investigating a commercial lime binder and hemp shiv
composite.
This shows that hemp shiv particles act in a manner similar to
hemp fibers at low concentrations. The 50% and 75% hemp
Fig. 6. Flexural strength development of hemp composites (CL90H10 e 10% hemp;
CL90H50 e 50% hemp; CL90H75 e 75% hemp with 90% calcic lime binder; TH10 e 10%
hemp; TH50 e 50% hemp; TH75 e 75% hemp with Tradical binder) (Murphy et al.,
2010).
composites display a lower load carrying capacity and progressive
failure takes place in a ductile manner. The type of binder has the
greatest influence on stiffness, with the commercial samples hav-
ing a greater Young's modulus at higher binder contents. The
Young's modulus of the commercial composites did not increase
with time. The TH10 and TH50 samples decreased by 11% and 22%
respectively between day 7 and day 90. On the other hand, the
CL90s hemp composites increased in stiffness over time, owing to
carbonation (Murphy et al., 2010).
4.5. Shear behavior
As one of the most common types of failure in walls is shearing,
it is imperative to understand the shear behavior of hemp concrete.
Chabannes et al. (2017a) had undertaken a triaxial compression test
of hemp concrete and rice husk concrete (see Fig. 7), wherein they
were able to determine that hemp concrete had a better shear
resistance as compared to rice husk concrete. Secondarily it was
also shown that hemp concrete has cohesion strength of approxi-
mately 0.36 MPa. While this is not exactly the shear strength of the
prepared hemp concrete specimens, the authors had suggested
that this value be assumed as the safe shear strength for design
purposes. They had also reported that their specimens of hemp
concrete had undergone two modes of shear failure in the triaxial
compression test, namely shear banding and bulging.
4.6. Thermal properties
To be able to design a green building, designers need to un-
derstand the thermal properties of the materials being used.
Similar to strength, thermal conductivity is a function of the density
of hemp concrete. According to Arnaud et al. (2013), the thermal
conductivity (l) of hemp concrete varies between 0.06 and 0.18 W/
m.K for a dry density ranging between 200 and 800 kg/m3. It is
important to note that irrespective of the type of mineral binder
used or the porosity, as the binder content increases, so does its
thermal conductivity (Arnaud et al., 2013).
The hemp composites developed by Sassoni et al. (2014) from
their patented binder (Canti, 2013) had displayed thermal con-
ductivity values of 0.078 and 0.138 for their low density (330 kg/
m3) and medium density (640 kg/m3) mixes, respectively.
Thermal tests on hempcrete conducted at various research fa-
cilities around the world display a range of insulation ratings, from
R-1.25 per inch (0.22 K m2/W) to R-2.3 per inch (0.40 K m2/W) for
low (200 kg/m3) to medium (400 kg/m3) density wall insulation
mixes. This can be compared with the R-value of cellular concrete,
which at a density of 480 kg/m3 has the same R-value as hempcrete
at R-1 per inch (0.18 K m2/W). A 45% reduction in energy con-
sumption was observed when hempcrete was used, instead of
cellular concrete (Magwood, 2016).
Ahlberg et al. (2014) had published different U-values observed
for different density mixtures. The different densities for the wall
were chosen to be 220 kg/m3, 275 kg/m3 and 330 kg/m3 and the
chosen hemp plaster had a density of 700 kg/m3. The thermal
transmittance is directly related to the density of the mix and
thickness of the wall (Ahlberg et al., 2014). Sutton et al. (2011) show
exceptional thermal conductivity values of 0.07e0.09 W/m.K, while
Tradical® (2006) manufactures hempcrete with thermal conduc-
tivity ranging between 0.08 and 0.13 W/m.K. In comparison,
Autoclaved Aerated Concrete (AAC) at a density of 330e350 kg/m3
has a thermal conductivity of about 0.08 W/m.K (Straube and
Walther, n.d.).
Hemp concrete is also known to have high thermal capacity as
compared to conventional cement concrete. According to Evrard
(2008), hemp concrete has a specific heat capacity of about
 T. Jami et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 239 (2019) 117852
Fig. 7. Schematic representation of the triaxial shear test on vegetal concretes (Chabannes et al., 2017a).
1500 J/kg.K in a dry state and can go up to more than 2900 J/kg.K at
about 99% relative humidity (RH) (Collet, 2017). In comparison,
conventional cement concrete has a specific heat capacity of 800 J/
kg.K to 1200 J/kg.K (Pan et al., 2017).
4.7. Hygrothermal behavior
Hemp concrete is considered to be a green building material not
only because of its low embodied carbon but also because of its
ability to regulate heat, moisture, and relative humidity. It has a
high moisture diffusion coefficient and water vapor permeability of
approximately 2.3  1011 kg/(Pa.m.s) and is nearly constant for
low to mid relative humidity. It was also found that hempcrete has
an excellent moisture buffer value (MBV) of 2 g/(m2.%RH) and is
found to be better than concrete's MBV of 0.37 ± 0$04 g/(m2.%RH)
(Latif et al., 2015; Rode et al., 2007). MBV signifies the ability of a
material to uptake or release moisture when it is exposed to
repeatedly varying levels of relative humidity (Latif et al., 2015). The
higher the moisture buffer value, the greater is the ability of the
material to regulate the ambient relative humidity.
Piot et al. (2017) had studied the hygrothermal behavior of a wall
made from a proprietary mix of hempcrete having a dry density of
350 kg/m3 in outdoor climatic conditions. Their test setup consisted
of two test cells, which were coated with two types of exterior
coatings e industrial pre-mixed additives, lime, and cement based;
and hand mixed lime and cement based. The interior sides of both
the test cells were coated with a lime based render. A numerical
model was used to estimate the conduction and storage of heat,
vapor diffusion, the capillary flow of liquid, and storage of moisture.
It was found that the choice of exterior rendering made a difference
in the overall dryness of the hempcrete wall. The hygric inertia of
hempcrete results in the presence of a “perennial wetness” within
the wall, which is detrimental to the building performance on two
fronts e thermal conductivity and durability. Piot et al. (2017) had
reported that choosing an exterior coating or plaster that absorbs
water affects the thermal conductivity of the hempcrete wall by
making it more conductive. Another risk associated with choosing a
water-absorbing exterior coating is the growth of mold just un-
derneath the coating.
Hemp concrete is known to exhibit properties of phase change
materials, due to its latent heating effects, which are a result of the
high heat capacity combined with the breathability and volumi-
nous moisture handling. Fig. 8 shows the relationship between
9
relative humidity and thermal capacity of a hempcrete wall. Hence,
while thermal bridges due to mortar joints increase the heat fluxes,
they are suppressed by the moisture transport when the humidity
is high. However, the amount of suppression caused by the mois-
ture movement is still unclear (Ahlberg et al., 2014; Simpson, 2004).
4.8. Acoustic properties
Hemp concrete is also known to exhibit acoustic insulation.
Kinnane et al. (2016) have asserted in their research that hemp
concrete walls have better sound absorption capabilities than
conventional Portland cement concrete walls. They were able to
conclude in their research that physical parameters such as
porosity and density do not affect the acoustic absorption of hemp
concrete as much as the chemical composition. It was also estab-
lished that LHC made of Lime-Pozzolana binders had better
acoustic absorption than that of binders with more hydraulic
components. It was found that un-rendered hemp concrete walls
were able to absorb 40e50% of the incident signal. Noise Reduction
Coefficient (NRC) values of 0.4 and 0.2 for un-rendered and
rendered hemp concretes, respectively, had been reported
(Kinnane et al., 2016).
Another study indicated that the sound absorption of hemp
concrete is by virtue of the material's porosity. Gle et al. (2011) have
also however indicated that changing the constituents and the
fabrication process can alter the acoustic absorption of hemp con-
crete. Limecrete Company Ltd. sells commercial hempcrete that has
an NRC value of 0.69 (Abbott, 2014).
4.9. Reaction to fire
Reaction to fire is an important factor to be considered because
it relates to building safety, which affects building permissions and
insurance. However, this is not a well-explored property of hemp
concrete, with limited number of studies. But, interestingly, the
studies have all conceded to hemp concrete's favorable fire resis-
tance (Murphy et al., 2010). Fernea et al. (2017) in their study of
hemp concrete's reaction to fire had found that the material had
passed the fire test requirements. The studied samples were built as
an acoustic absorption material wherein the composition consisted
of white cement, lime, and water. Three samples were studied
where the volume of cement was kept constant and the hemp-
cement ratio was varied. The ratios were 1:1, 2:1 and 3:1. The 2:1
10 T. Jami et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 239 (2019) 117852
Fig. 8. Relationship between relative humidity and thermal capacity of hemp concrete (Evrard, 2008).
ratio sample was considered as control/reference. The water-
cement ratio was kept constant throughout at 1:2. No informa-
tion on the curing period was given. The samples were subjected to
a reaction to fire test according to Standard SR EN520/A1:2010
(Fernea et al., 2017).
Sassoni et al. (2014) had studied the fire resistance of a hemp
composite as part of their multi-criteria study. The method of
manufacturing is outlined briefly in section 4.1. The samples were
graded according to their densities e low density (LD; 330 kg/m3)
and medium density (MD; 640 kg/m3). The fire resistance test was
conducted according to the EN 13823 and the LD samples had
achieved class ‘C’ fire resistance, while the MD samples had ach-
ieved class ‘B’ fire resistance.
4.10. Durability
Building materials are required to have adequate durability to
ensure the longevity of the building and cost-effectiveness. Various
studies have been conducted to examine hemp concrete's dura-
bility across various parameters. Walker et al. (2014) had studied
the mechanical properties and durability of hemp-lime concretes of
various mixes, with binders composed of combinations of lime,
GGBS and metakaolin; and commercial binders. The durability
parameters examined were:
1. Resistance to freeze-thaw,
2. Resistance to salt exposure, and
3. Resistance to biological deterioration.
It was found that hemp concrete had poor resistance to freeze-
thaw due to the washout of mass during the freeze and thaw cycle,
thereby leading to a reduction in compressive strength; hemp
concretes had good resistance to sodium chloride salt exposure as
the large pores weren't suitable for crystallization to take place;
and biological deterioration was also found to be non-existent
owing to the absence of nutrients to support growth of micro-
organisms despite repeated heavy microbial inoculations.
Walker et al. (2014) had suggested the use of additives to improve
the strength and durability of lime-pozzolan binder based hemp
concretes.
Piot et al. (2017) had discovered mold growth just underneath a
hand-mixed exterior coating on their hempcrete walls, which were
studied for an entire year exposed to outdoor conditions. Their test
procedure is outlined in section 4.7. Contradictorily, for a similar
binder composition and mix design, Walker et al. (2014) show in
their seven month long study that the alkalinity of lime, the lack of
nutrition for the microbial inoculations to thrive, “and/or
unsuitable environmental conductions” was the reason for hemp-
crete's resistance to microbial attack.
Questions with regards to the natural decomposition of matter
arise when vegetal materials are used. It was found that hemp shivs
do not decompose completely within the composite because of the
mineralization, which takes place as a result of the precipitation of
calcium carbonate on the individual elementary fibers, following an
alkaline degradation mechanism. Such mineralized hemp particles
become inert within the composite, but also brittle, less porous,
and weak in tension (Marceau and Delannoy, 2017). In other aging
tests such as wetting and drying cycles, and full immersion and
drying cyles, it was found, especially with calcic lime binders, that
the binder leaches out and the mass reduces, leading to a reduction
in compressive strength. In cases of hydraulic binders, the cyclic
wetting and drying has improved the compressive strength of the
composite (Marceau and Delannoy, 2017).
4.11. Environmental credentials
Hemp concrete is considered to be carbon negative because the
net GHG emissions from its manufacture and installation are in the
negative values (please see Fig. 9) (Arrigoni et al., 2017). Hemp
concrete benefits from a useful phenomenon called carbon
sequestration. The term refers to the ability of a material to store
carbon within itself in a stable form. There are two parts to the
carbon sequestration mechanism of hemp concrete e biogenic and
non-biogenic. The biogenic component of the material, hemp shivs,
are 45% carbon (Jami, 2016), which is a direct result of the atmo-
spheric carbon dioxide absorbed by the plant through photosyn-
thesis during its growth. The non-biogenic component of hemp
concrete is the lime binder, which engulfs the hemp shivs in a
hardened matrix and also consumes carbon dioxide through
carbonation (Jami and Kumar, 2017). Jami et al. (2016) in their study
had found the total carbon sequestration of hemp concrete to be
307.26 kg of CO2 per m3. Bevan and Woodley (2008) claim that 1 m3
of hemp concrete wall can sequester over 100 kg of CO2.
Ip and Miller (2012) had studied two different mixes of hemp
concrete as indicated in Table 5. They had found very promising
values of carbon dioxide storage in hemp shivs and the lime binder.
It was concluded that a functional hemp lime wall with dimensions
of 1 m  1 m  0.3 m can sequestrate 82.71 kg of carbon dioxide,
which meant that not only does it compensate for 46.43 kg of
carbon dioxide emitted during the cultivation, manufacturing and
construction processes in the UK, but it also enables the storage of
36.08 kg of carbon dioxide (Ip and Miller, 2012; Jami et al., 2016). A
similar LCA study conducted by Arrigoni et al. (2017) had shown
that the net greenhouse gas emissions of a wall made from hemp
 T. Jami et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 239 (2019) 117852 11

Fig. 9. Illustration of carbon emission and sequestration of hemp concrete with a net emissions balance demonstrating carbon negativity (Arrigoni et al., 2017).

Table 5
Quantities of carbon dioxide storage of hemp shivs and lime binder against their material quantities (Ip and Miller, 2012).

Hemp Shivs Lime Binder

Study 1 Quantity of material: kg 24.8 54.5

Carbon dioxide storage: kg 52.2 13.6
Study 2 Quantity of material: kg 30 50
Carbon dioxide storage: kg 45.82 28.55

concrete blocks were 48.36 kg CO2eq per m3 of the functional unit,

demonstrating its carbon negativity.
Pretot et al. (2014) have published that LHC has a positive
impact on a climate change indicator. They had conducted a life
cycle assessment (LCA) analysis of an LHC wall and found that the
manufacture and use of the LHC wall has a reversal effect on climate
change. They had shown that as the thickness of the LHC wall
increased, the favorable impact on the climate change indicator also
increased. It was concluded that along with the carbon dioxide
uptake by photosynthesis and carbonation mechanisms, there were
secondary, indirect savings of carbon emissions during building
operations due to the relatively higher thermal resistance of the
LHC wall (Jami et al., 2016; Pretot et al., 2014).

5. Mixing and manufacturing

The hemp stalks (also referred to as hemp straw), normally
devoid of the fibrous layers, are processed in a hammer mill to be
reduced to particles (see Fig. 10) no larger than 40 ± 5 mm in their
largest dimension. Sinka et al. (2014) in their studies had used
hemp hurds having an average length of about 15 mm, with the
largest hurd particle having a length of 55 mm. Alternatively, other
industrial processes make use of the decorticator, which separates
the fiber from the whole hemp straw, while reducing it to small
particles in a single operation. The binder is predominantly hy-
drated lime and some parts of pozzolanic material or a commercial
hydraulic lime-based binder.
Lime hemp concrete (LHC) walls can be made on site either by
pouring the mix into a temporary formwork and tamping it
manually or by spraying the material onto the target site using
projection process (Fig. 11). The resultant compaction from both
methods is not high and there is no control over the maturation
conditions of the material. The compressive strength achieved for
tamped LHC walls and floors as per the French professional building
rules should be greater than 0.2 MPa (Chabannes et al., 2017b).
Fig. 10. Hemp shivs produced from processing hemp stalks in a blade mill type
biomass shredder.
5.1. Projection process
Elfordy et al. (2008) had characterized the mechanical and
thermal properties of hemp concrete manufactured using the
projection process. The process adopted by Elfordy et al. (2008)
makes use of a manufacturing setup that consists of two parts: a
lime and hemp hopper and a water pump (see Fig. 11). The dry
lime þ hemp mixture controlled by the operator is fed into the
lance through a pressurized air stream and mixed with the water at
the nozzle before the entire mix is projected onto the target site
(wall formwork or block mold). The water content is regulated
enough to ensure the slaking of lime and prevent large quantities of
water being absorbed by hemp shivs (Elfordy et al., 2008).
It was found that the mechanical behavior of projection formed
specimens was inconsistent. The resulting compaction from the
12 T. Jami et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 239 (2019) 117852
Fig. 11. Illustration of the projection of hemp concrete onto the target site (Elfordy et al., 2008).
projection process also induces material anisotropy (Williams et al.,
2017). An alternative method suggested by Williams et al. (2017)
modifies the above-described apparatus by inputting lime slurry
into the operator's lance and mixing with the air-pressurized hemp
shivs stream before projecting onto the target site. The primary
advantage of this modification is faster drying. However, skilled
personnel is required to operate this machine, and the consistency
and mix design are “vastly influenced by visual approximation”
(Elfordy et al., 2008; Williams et al., 2017). One of the disadvantages
of the projection process is that the material favors a singular
orientation when placed, resulting in a greater amount of anisot-
ropy (Williams et al., 2017). The anisotropy combined with the
inconsistent mechanical behavior results in an undesirable cast
member. One of the favorable aspects of the projection process is
that the compressive strength is higher in the direction perpen-
dicular to that of the projection (Williams et al., 2017).
5.2. Ex-situ pre-casting
One of the emerging trends of hempcrete manufacturing is to
cast in block molds. Hemp concrete is manufactured in a planetary
mixer or a helical mixer so as to ensure proper mixing of hemp
shivs with the lime putty and avoid the formation of lumps of either
of the constituents. The mixed batch is then cast into block molds
and cured for a certain period of time according to the design and
the chosen mineral binder. Lime binders normally take an
impractically long period of time to cure. But normally, the curing
period is between 28 and 45 days (Chabannes et al., 2017b; CSIR-
CBRI, 1962; Elfordy et al., 2008; Standards, 2009; Walker, 2013;
Walker and Pavía, 2010; Williams et al., 2017).
5.3. In-situ casting
Similar to the manufacture of precast blocks, the hemp concrete
mixture is mixed in a planetary or helical mixer and carried to the
target site, which is normally a wall formwork, floor or roof. The
mixed batch is poured into the formwork and tamped using a
tamping rod to ensure there are no voids and proper compaction is
achieved. Owing to the really low density of the hemp shivs, self
compaction or compaction due to gravity does not take place and
external compacting stresses need to be applied. Walker (2013) in
their study had manufactured hemp concrete walls by tamping
gently using a trowel after every 300 mm of filling into the form-
work. The projection process also is an in-situ casting method.
6. Applications of hemp concrete
The research of hemp concrete had begun in the nineteen
eighties. Using different types of binding materials and mix pro-
portions of binders with hemp shives, mixtures with various
physical-mechanical properties for a wide range of applications are
obtained (e.g. load-bearing, thermal insulating, sound absorbing
structures and elements) (Nguyen et al., 2010).
Hemp concrete was originally envisioned as a sustainable
alternative for other insulation materials such as glass wool,
fiberglass, dense-packed cellulose, etc. (Magwood, 2016). Eventu-
ally, its use extended to walling appliations as well. In the UK, entire
buildings have been constructed with timber-frame and hemp
concrete (Magwood, 2016; Stanwix and Sparrow, 2014). One study
focused on creating hemp concrete for different applications using
the mix proportions as set out in Table 6 (Murphy et al., 2010).
6.1. Hemp concrete walls
Hempcrete is non-toxic (Magwood, 2016) and one of its primary
applications is as a walling material. Stanwix and Sparrow (2014)
have published an entire book, which acts as a guide for building
hemp concrete walls in homes. Hemp concrete walls can be cast in-
situ, as is prevalent, or be precast into blocks ex-situ that can be
assembled on site using conventional masonry. The authors have
cautioned that hempcrete walls cannot be left unprotected, as they
are not entirely immune to rain. A healthy amount of roof overhang
was suggested to prevent dampness and mass run-off due to rain
and storms. However, if a roof overhang does not agree with
architectural requirements, the hemp concrete walls are required to
be plastered with a breathable material such as lime and a drain
leading off the roof needs to be provided, so that dampness does
not creep into the walls. Fig. 12 shows hempcrete blocks assembled
using conventional masonry for thermal insulation purposes.
6.2. Hemp concrete insulation panels
6.2.1. Wall insulation
Hempcrete of a density ranging from 250 to 350 kg/m3 can be
used to insulate the exterior walls in most low-rise constructions.
The hempcrete insulation will be an infill within the wall frame or
formed on the exterior or interior side of the structural frame. The
panels have been used as curtain walls in larger projects, up to six
stories in height (Magwood, 2016).
Sassoni et al. (2014) have studied a low-density hemp concrete
made from their patented binder (Canti, 2013), which is used as a
wall insulation material. In conformity to Magwood (2016), the
studied hemp composite had a density of 330 kg/m3.
6.2.2. Roof insulation
Hempcrete of a density ranging from 200 to 250 kg/m3 can be
 T. Jami et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 239 (2019) 117852 13

Table 6
Various Hemp Concrete mixes and their applications made by (Murphy et al., 2010).

Application % Volume Hemp:Binder:Water by Volume Binder

Non-load bearing wall 75% hemp 25% binder 1:0.33:3.3 CL90

Floor 1:1:3.3 CL90
50% hemp 50% binder
Plastering 1:9:22.2 CL90
10% hemp 90% binder
Non-load bearing wall 1:0.33:3.3 Commercial Binder
75% hemp 25% binder
Floor 1:1:3.3 Commercial Binder
50% hemp 50% binder
Plastering 1:9:22.2 Commercial Binder
10% hemp 90% binder

increase the structural integrity of the binder by ensuring a bonding

interface between the surface and the render. The higher void
content of the renders also ensures a small degree of thermal and
acoustic insulation while also being eco-friendly. Hempcrete ren-
ders are normally high in density due to the higher binder content.
Commercial hemp concrete renders cater to wall rendering and
floor screed applications. Since the application and the composition
of the mixes are different, the thermal and physical properties vary
(Tradical®, n.d.).

6.4. Pre-cast blocks

Several researchers have, as discussed earlier, proved that pre-

cast blocks are a viable form for hemp concrete. Recent de-
velopments in the industry also show a higher interest in pre-cast
blocks rather than cast hemp concrete walls (IsoHemp, n.d.;
Fig. 12. Precast hempcrete blocks applied as an insulation layer for a load-bearing Technology, n.d.). Some innovations also help with stacking the
masonry structure (IsoHemp, 2019). blocks without mortar joints through physical interlocking (Vicat,
2017). Fig. 13 illustrates how pre-cast blocks are used to build in-
fill walls using conventional masonry in a reinforced cement con-
used to insulate the roof of most buildings. The material can be used
crete frame. Some of the advantages of pre-cast blocks are:
as loose-fill insulation on flat ceilings or it can be lightly tamped
into vaulted roof assemblies. As roof insulation, hempcrete has the

Compaction applied to the mixes can be controlled, thereby
advantage of discouraging pests, and it will not blow or settle over
guaranteeing consistency in mechanical strength and
time. The material is also much more resistant to moisture than
performance
conventional insulations (Magwood, 2016).

They can be cured separately and then brought onto site, thus
ensuring the construction is free from seasonal constraints
6.2.3. Sub-slab insulation
Less common than wall and roof applications, hempcrete of a
density ranging from 375 to 500 kg/m3 can be used to provide
insulation underneath floor slabs. The higher density for slab
insulation lowers the thermal value. Hempcrete used under the
floor should be placed on a stable, well-drained base and a vapor
barrier should be placed between the soil and the insulation
(Magwood, 2016).

6.2.4. Window insulation

A hempcrete mix that includes some amount of hemp fiber is
used to fill the shimming space between window units and
framing. The window can be trimmed conventionally, or the
hempcrete can be formed to create an exterior and/or interior trim
for the window. This creates a means of providing an airtight seal
around windows without having to rely on petrochemical based
products (Magwood, 2016).

6.3. Hemp concrete renders

Hemp concrete renders are designed differently and tend to

have higher quantities of binder in the mix. The primary functions Fig. 13. Illustration of a 220 mm thick hempcrete wall assembly made of large
of hemp in a hempcrete render are to reduce the quantity of binder, hempcrete blocks of dimensions (600 mm  200 mm x 200 mm).
14 T. Jami et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 239 (2019) 117852

Ensures rapid construction because the hemp concrete walls
don't need to be dried

Higher strength blocks can be used for partially load-bearing
applications as well
Pre-cast blocks are not without their drawbacks. Some of their
disadvantages are:

Ex situ production of hemp concrete pre-cast blocks requires
specialized machinery, infrastructure and curing facility

Cost of production and manufacture of hemp concrete increases
substantially

Constructing with hemp concrete blocks would mean the use of
mortar joints which result in the formation of thermal bridges
and increased heat fluxes, making it unsuitable for colder cli-
matic regions

Pre-cast blocks need to be transported from the manufacturing
unit to the construction site
7. Discussion
The World Green Building Council elucidates that ‘green’
buildings should use lesser energy and natural resources, reduce
pollution and waste, ensure good indoor air quality, have an
environment-friendly design, construction and operation, and
ensure a higher quality of life for the occupants (WGBC, 2019).
Making a building with hemp concrete easily satisfies most of the
criteria required to call it ‘green’. Significant amount of research has
already been undertaken on hemp concrete, but there are still
many research gaps that need to be addressed.
7.1. Manufacturing processes
While all the manufacturing processes of hemp concrete hold
merit, it is ultimately the building design and the building skeleton
that determines the most suitable process. For applications in
multi-storied structures where the building skeleton is made of
either reinforced cement concrete or steel, pre-fabricated hemp
concrete blocks or panels are more suitable. For smaller structures,
however, any form of hempcrete can be used. The compaction
process shows promise as it has the ability to deliver strength, ri-
gidity and dimensional stability upon loading. Studies, as outlined
in this paper, show that compaction does not affect its thermal
conductivity and hygrothermal behavior greatly, thus making it a
worthy avenue to pursue. In any case, the energy consumed in
making hempcrete in-situ or ex-situ is almost the same, and very
low.
7.2. Binder characteristics
Due to their cellular structure and porous nature, hemp shivs are
very hydrophilic. This affinity towards water interferes greatly with
the setting process of hydraulic binders, affecting the structural
integrity of hemp concrete units. But, hydraulic binders are proven
to have better mechanical performance due to the formation of
CeSeH. Therefore, it is important to develop binders/additives that
improve the setting properties of hemp concrete. Some research
towards the development of innovative binders to improve the
mechanical strength of hemp concrete has already been
undertaken.
While one study suggests that pulverized fuel ash is not very
reactive with lime, the abundance of its availability makes it one of
the most sought after choices for lime-pozzolana binders. However,
GGBS and metakaolin are great choices for preparing a lime-
pozzolana binder because of their high reactivity with lime and
an equally abundant availability. An important pre-requisite for
hemp concrete binders is that it cannot be entirely hydraulic. In the
reviewed literature, MgO based binders have shown great promise.
However, further research on its long-term durability, and
aggregate-binder interfacial zones is necessary.
7.3. Mechanical properties
7.3.1. Density
Throughout the reviewed literature, hemp concrete has
remained as a lightweight material. In occasional cases, the mate-
rial was medium density. It was found that the ingress and egress of
water don't affect the density of the material by a lot. Further, it was
established that the density of hemp concrete has a major role to
play in its mechanical and thermal properties.
7.3.2. Compressive strength and flexural strength
Compressive strength and flexural strength of hemp concrete
are two of the most investigated parameters. The reviewed litera-
ture shows widely varying values because of the huge variance in
composition, manufacturing processes and physical characteristics
of the raw materials. The main difference between the flexural and
compressive strength gain was that the compressive strength
increased with increasing binder content while the flexural
strength achieved a maximum value at 50% hemp content. This
suggests a contribution from the lime-hemp bonds towards the
flexural strength of the composite. The flexural and compressive
strengths also share several similarities including their dependence
on the composition of the binder, hemp content, and the degree of
compaction. The rate of strength gain varies greatly as the binder
composition changes. Dimensional stability is also a point of
concern with hemp concrete. Along with the low compressive
strength values the lateral strain often exceeds 7.5%. This is because
hemp shivs are relatively ductile and the lime-based binder allows
for rearrangement of the hemp shivs within itself. At its current
strength values, hempcrete is better suited as an insulating material
rather than as a standalone walling material.
7.3.3. Thermal and hygrothermal performance
It has been shown by several researchers that hemp concrete
has the characteristics of phase change materials such as latent
heating, low thermal conductivity, and high thermal mass. As
compared to AAC blocks, at similar densities, hemp concrete has
almost the same thermal conductivity. However, it was found that
there were higher energy savings when hemp concrete was used as
opposed to cellular concrete. This is because hemp concrete also
allows water vapor permeability and moisture transfer. This en-
ables the regulation of indoor relative humidity, limiting large
variations. Since the ambient temperature is dependent on relative
humidity, the indoor temperature is also regulated, reducing the
need for artificial heating or cooling. This is particularly attractive
from the green buildings point of view since lesser operational
energies are consumed.
7.3.4. Acoustic properties and fire resistance
Hemp concrete also shows good acoustic properties and fire
resistance. But very few researchers had investigated these prop-
erties. While hemp concrete cannot compete directly with other
acoustic insulation materials, it can, however, aid the performance
of acoustic insulators, reducing the amount of insulation required.
Further, even though hemp, individually, is flammable, it was found
that hemp concrete satisfies European fire tests requirements. LHC
owes its fire resistance to the binder.
 T. Jami et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 239 (2019) 117852
Table 7
Advantages and disadvantages of hemp concrete (Sutton et al., 2011).
Advantages

Avoids thermal bridging and provides good air tightness with simple
detailing

Good thermal insulation properties offering some thermal mass

Lightweight material with simple construction details and processes

Low weight reduces the load on foundations, so less need for materials
with high embodied energy (eg concrete)

Renewable material that stores carbon throughout the life of the
material

Vapor-permeable construction envelope
7.3.5. Durability
The durability of hemp concrete is yet another under-researched
aspect of hemp concrete. The very few studies that have investi-
gated hemp concrete show that in most cases, except for freeze-
thaw, hemp concrete performs well. A good quality, compatible
hydraulic binder must be used to strengthen hemp concrete against
freeze-thaw, and cyclic wetting and drying. There is some ambi-
guity with respect to the formation of mold due to the presence of
moisture. However, a good quality, non-water absorbing render
shall prevent the formation of mold.
7.3.6. Environmental credentials
Finally, hemp concrete has excellent environmental credentials
due to its nature of origin. While initial studies show great promise,
a more long-term, comprehensive life cycle analysis of an entire
hempcrete building needs to be undertaken to determine the final
carbon emissions at end-of-life. It would be interesting to follow a
cradle-to-cradle approach for future LCA studies, with a view to
determining the continuous impact on the climate. Since hemp
concrete uses very little virgin material and a considerable amount
of pozzolanic wastes, buildings made of the product can easily be
called green.
7.4. Research gaps
From the literature that has been reviewed in this paper, the
following research gaps have been identified:

The effect of compaction on the hydraulicity of lime-pozzolana
based hemp concretes needs to be studied.

The effect of physical treatment on the reactivity of hemp and
lime-pozzolana mixtures is yet to be explored. It is instrumental
in improving the mechanical strength of the final product.

Studies that focus on improving the mechanical performance of
hemp concrete are very limited. Currently, only the mechanical
characterization of hemp concrete is studied.

Theoretical prediction of compressive strength is yet to be made
accurate. Equations for predicting the same need to be derived.

The relationship between the phase changing properties and
the mechanical properties of hemp concrete is yet to be
investigated.

The relationship between durability and compaction needs to be
investigated.

There is an unresolved ambiguity with respect to the microbial
aspect of the durability of hemp concrete.

The degradation mechanisms of hemp concrete need to be
further studied.

While studies on the mechanical properties of lime-pozzolana
based hemp concretes have been conducted, its combination
with compaction or pre-compression of the mix is rarely
studied.
15
Disadvantages

High level of understanding of specific product required by designers and contractors

Onsite construction more suited to warmer months (drying times reduced), although can be
successfully used during winter months with protection

Requires time and shelter during drying on site before finishes can be applied

Use limited to above damp-proof course or equivalent level

Hemp concrete's resistance to fire needs to be studied further
and be validated with fire resistance standards of other
countries.

Most of the studies were conducted in Europe and building
materials being a locally sourced commodity need to be vali-
dated in the geographic region in which they shall be applied.
Hence, hemp concrete needs to be studied in other climatic
conditions as well.

Since hemp concrete behaves in a ductile manner and un-
dergoes relatively larger amounts of strain before failure, its
energy absorption behavior needs to be studied for possible use
in the structural design of earthquake resistant buildings. This
study could also help in identifying other applications for LHC.
7.5. Building applications
Amongst all the explored applications of hemp concrete, hemp
concrete blocks for walling applications are highly favored. For use
in multistoried structures and high-rise buildings, the product
must have good strength and rigidity. Dimensional stability is an
important aspect when the intended use for hempcrete is as
standalone walls without the support of timber studs.
Hemp concrete renders are applied to reduce the thermal
transmittance of conventional walls. However, hemp concrete
renders can be thick, reducing the useable space inside a building.
Nevertheless, the low thermal conductivity of hemp concrete
makes it an attractive choice for stuccos, screeds, sub-slab insu-
lation, window insulation, and roof insulation. Some of the ad-
vantages and disadvantages of hemp concrete are outlined in
Table 7. Other niche applications could include pre-fabricated
hempcrete panels for partition walls or non-structural walls; and
pre-engineered hemp concrete composite panels for structural
purposes.
8. Conclusion
It is of the authors’ opinion that hemp concrete is very close to
being mature enough to be adopted by the mainstream construc-
tion industry and that all nations must include bio-aggregate based
concretes in their building standards. The reviewed literature
shows that hemp concrete has the potential to positively affect
future built environments by reducing their carbon footprint.
Research outcomes pertaining to the identified research gaps (in
section 7.4) shall ensure the commercial success of hemp concrete.
The authors suggest that other forms of hemp concrete such as
sandwich panels, modular systems, fillers for filler slabs, and so on
may be explored. The bottom line from reviewing the published
literature is that hemp concrete is a versatile green building ma-
terial that can be tailored for a variety of applications. However,
only minor changes to the composition and manufacturing
16 T. Jami et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 239 (2019) 117852
processes cause a great many variations in the final product. In any
case, it is important that the final product has adequate mechanical
strength, low thermal conductivity, good environmental creden-
tials, and adequate durability. The authors suggest the adoption of
new terminology (for e.g., bio-based materials with carbon capture
and storage (BMCCS)) that highlights the carbon capture and
storage capability of materials like hemp concrete to increase
acceptability and visibility.
Acknowledgement
This article forms a part of an ongoing research at CSIR-Central
Building Research Institute (CSIR-CBRI), Roorkee. The authors are
thankful to the Director, CSIR-CBRI for encouragement & support.
The authors would also like to thank GreenJams Infrastructures LLP,
Visakhapatnam for sponsoring this research and also Bombay
Hemp Company Pvt Ltd, Mumbai for their support. The authors are
grateful to Ms. Tejaswini Thethi for rendering the hempcrete wall
assembly in Fig. 13.
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