~.

'v
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 of 1 AC CURRENT DEMODULATORS
AC MODULE SCHMEATIC (A-M)
PAGE
1-3
4-7
POWER LThfiT CIRCillT CALIBRATION 8-10
In BEFORE SECTlDN ONE DJ\llDER
SAFETY PROCEDURES
POWER LOOT CIRCillT SCHEMATICS
POWER LOOT CONTROLLER
1l-l3
14
COURSE OUTLJNE METER CALIBRATION PROCEDURE 15
PHASOR DIAGRAlW 16
THE P-N JUNCTION 17-22
POWER SUPPLIES AND RECTIFIERS 23-40
BRIDGE RECTIFIERS 41
GENERATOR CONTROL SCHEMATIC 42
¥OiJ'fAG RE§H&A'I'~R-B:b - 43

POWER FACTOR CORRECTOR I

FREQUENCY REGULATOR BLOCK 2
THROTTLE CIRCUITS 3
AC REGULATOR SCHEMATICS 4-5
MASTER SLAVE BLOCK DIAGRAM 6
MASTER SLAVE OPERATION 7
ELECTROmC DEVICES:
SCRs; Operational amplifiers; 8-19
LEO.; Zener dindes; 22-27
PETs 28-34
The 555 timer. 35-42
43-58

SCR BRIDGE SCHEMATIC I

THREE PHASE WAVEFORMS 2
SCR BRIDGE TRANSFER FUNCTION 3
SCR BRIDGE WAVEFORMS 4-7
( ) MOTOR FORMULAS
DC MOTOR CURVES & TORQUE
8
!}-12
SURGE SUPRESSOR (NEW) l3
COMMUTATOR CHECK CHART 14

BASIC DC REGULATOR BLOCK I

DRIVE BASICS 2
DC REGULATOR SCHEMATIC (A-D) 3-7
DC REGULATOR (A-F) 8
HED THEORY !}-Il
HED CONFIGURATIO IS 12
SPROCKET SLIP DETECTOR 13-15
SPROCKET SLIP SCHEMATIC 16
DRILLERS CONSOLE P.G.B. 17

INTRINSIC SAFETY PRIMER 1-12

SCHEMATIC - PURGE LOSS l3
DRAWWORKS DYNAlWIC BRAKE 14-16
BASIC FIELD SCHEMATIC 17-18
ACTIVE FIELD SUPPLY 1!}-21
FIELD SUPPLY REGULATOR CARD 22
() FIELD SUPPLY REGULATOR THEORY 23-37
SCR SYSTEM STORAGE 38-39
RECOMMENDED GROUNDING 40-51
)

ADVANCED SCR DRIVE COURSE

COURSE OUTLINE

Lecture

DAY 1 1. Welcome and purpose of the course

2. Expanded SCR system block diagram
3. Devlopment of KW and IT signals
A. Current demodulators
B. MUltipliers
4. Power Limit
A. Signals from control module
B. Fundamentals of power limit circuit operation
C. Basic Operational amplifiers
5. Introduction to oscilloscopes

Distribute homework and dismiss for lunch.

Lab (Oscilloscope Familiarization)

1. Lab safety procedures

2. Using the oscilloscope as a voltmeter L005
3. Determining phase rotation & ripple frequency L004
4. Oscilloscope familiarization L003

Lecture

DAY 2 1. Review homework

2. Exciter circuit operation
3. Voltage control block diagram
A. AC Module exciter circuit operation
B. Troubleshooting the exciter
4. Actuator fundamentals
5. Throttle circuit operation
6. Frequency regulation block diagram
A. AC module throttle circuit operation
B. Master slave circuit operation
C. Troubleshooting throttle circuit

Distribute homework & dismiss for lunch

Lab (Oscilloscope Familiarization)

1. continue oscilloscope familiarization L003

2. Throttle/Frequency regulator checkout
3. Exciter/Voltage regulator checkout
)
\ SCR ADVANCED COURSE OUTLINE (Continued)

Day 3 Lecture

1. Review homework
2. Protection circuits of the AC Module
3. SCR cubicle
4. SCR Bridge waveform analysis
5. Review of contactor logic

Distribute homework & dismiss for lunch

Lab

simulator familiarization and checkout

Instucutor will begin inserting faults for
troubleshooting practice

Day 4 Lecture

1. Review homework
2. Review contactor logic
3. DC module Block diagram
4. DC module circuit operation
A. Current limit, current feedback
B. Deadbands
C. Speed feedback for shunt or series motors
D. Speed catching
E. Zero throttle interlock
F. Current regulator
5. Sprocket Slip circuit
A. Purpose
B. HED's theory of operation
C. How card functions

Distribute homework and dismiss for lunch

Lab

continue working on simulator.

Day 5 Lecture

1. Review homework
2. Ground fault operation
3. Intrinsically safe circuits/Zener barriers
4. Active field supply operation
5. Dynamic brake
6. Principles of Regeneration

Lab

continue working on simulator. 6/94

 SAFETY PRECAUTIONS
)
In the performance of their normal duties, the technician is exposed
to many potential dangerous conditions and situations. No training
manual, no set of rules or regulations, no listing of hazards can
make working conditions completely safe. However, it is possible
f.or technicians to complete a full career without serious accident
or injury. Attainment' of this, goal requires they be aware of the
main sources of danger. and that they remain constantly alert to
those dangers. They must take the proper precautions and practice
the basic rules of safety. They must be safety conscious at all
times, and this safety consciousness must become second nature.
The purpose of this lesson is to indicate some of the major hazards
incountered in the normal working conditions of the technician, and
to indicate some of the basic precautions that must be observed.
Although many of these hazards and precautions are general and ap~ly
to all personnel, some of them are peculiar to or specifically apply
to personnel concerned with electrical or electronic maintenance.
Most accidents which occur, can be prevented if the full cooperation
of all personnel is gained, and if care is exercised to eliminate
unsafe acts and conditions. In the following paragraphs, some
general safety rules are listed. These rules apply to personnel in
all types of activities, and each individual should strictly observe
the following precautions as applicable to their work or duty:
1. Report any unsafe condition or any equipment or material
which you consider to be unsafe.
2. Warn others whom you believe to be endangered by known
hazards or by failure to observe safety precautions.
3. Wear or use available protective clothing and equipment of
the type approved for safe performance of your work.
4 Report any injury or evidence of impared health occurring
in the course of work or duty.
5. Exercise, in the event of any unforeseen hazardous
occurrance, such reasonable caution as is appropriate to
the situation.
ELECTRICAL SAFETY PRECAUTIONS
Safety precautions in this lesson are not intended to replace
information given in instructions or maintenance manuals. If at any
time there is doubt as to what steps or procedures are to be
followed, consult your Lead or Supervisor.

(1)
 EFFECTS OF ELECTRIC SHOCK
The amount of current that may pass through the body without danger
. depends on the individual and the current quantity, type, path and
length of contact time .
•
Body resistance varies from 1,000 to 500,000 ohms for unbroken, dry
skin. Resistance is lowered by moisture and high voltage, and is
highest with dry skin and low voltage. Breaks, cuts, or burns may
lower body resistance. A current of 1 milliampere can be felt and
will cause a person to avoid it. Current as low as 5 milliampere
can be dangerous. If the palm of the hand makes contact with the
conductor, a current of 12 milliampere will tend to cause the hand
muscles to contract, freezing the body to the conductor. Such a
shock mayor may not cause serious damage, depending on the contact
time and your physical condition, particularly the condition of your
heart. A current of 25 milliamperes has been known to be fatal.
Due to the physiological and chemical nature of the human body, five
times more direct current than alternating current is needed to
freeze the same body to a conductor. Also, 110 volts 60 hertz
alternating current is the most dangerous. This is due to it being
the most common power used in residential, commercial and industrial
applications. That is, everybody uses it every day without thinking
about it.
The damage from electrical shock is also proportional to the number
of vital organs trans versed , especially the percentage of current
that reaches the heart.
Currents between 100 and 200 miliamperes are lethal. Ventricular
fibrillation of the heart occurs when the current through the body
reaches 100 milliamperes. Ventricular fibrillation is the
uncoordinated actions of the walls of the heart's ventricles. This
in turn causes the loss of the pumping action of the heart. This
fibrillation will usually continue until some force is used to
restore the coordination of the heart's action.
Severe burns and unconsciousness are also produced by currents of
200 milliamperes or higher. These currents usually do not cause
death, if the victim is given immediate attention. The victim will
usually respond is rendered resuscitation in the form of artifical
respiration. This is due to the 200 milliamperes of current
clamping the heart muscles which prevents the heart from going into
ventricular fribrillation.
When a person is rendered unconscious by a current passing through
the body, it is impossible to tell how much current caused the
unconsciousness. Artificial respiration must be applied immediately
if breathing has stopped.

(2)
HIGH VOLTAGE SAFETY PRECAUTIONS
It is human nature to become careless with routine procedures. To
illustrate the results of unsafe practices and to re-emphasize the
need for good safety habits, particularly around. high voltage or
high current circuits, consider the following incident .
•
A technician was electrocuted while attempting to bypass an
interlock circuit in the vicinity of high voltages on a plece of
electrical equipment. This was the direct result of violating a
basic safety practice and indirectly an individual lack of equipment
knowledge.
Many pieces of electrical equipment employ voltages which are
dangerous and may be fatal i f contacted. Practical safety
precautions have been incorporated into electrical systems; when the
most basic rules of safety are ignored, the built-in protection
becomes useless.
The following rules are basic and should be followed at all times by
all personnel when working with or near high voltage circuits.
1. CONSIDER THE RESULT OF EACH ACT-There is absolutely no
reason for an individual to take chances that will
endanger his life or the lives of others.
2. KEEP AWAY FROM LIVE CIRCUITS-Do not change parts or make
adjustments inside the equipment with high voltage on.
3. 00 NOT SERVICE ALONE-Always service equipment in the
presence of another person capable of rendering assistance
or first aid in an emergency.
4. 00 NOT TAMPER WITH INTERLOCKS-Do not depend on interlocks
for protection; always shut down the equipment. Never
remove, short circuit or tamper with interlocks except to
repair the switch.
5. DO NOT GROUND YOURSELF-Make sure you are not grounded when
adjusting equipment or using measuring equipment. Use
only one hand when servicing energized equipment. Keep
the other hand behind you.
6. DO NOT ENERGIZE ANY EQUIPMENT WITH WATER PRESENT-If there
is any evidence of water leakage into or on the equipment,
repair the leak and dry the water prior to attempting to
energize the equipment.
These rules, teamed up with the idea that voltage shows no
favortism and that personal caution is your best safeguard, may
prevent serious injury or even death.

(3)
WORKING ON ENERGIZED CIRCUITS
Insofar as is practical, repair work on energized circuits should
not be undertaken. When repairs on operating equipment must be made
because of emergency conditions, or when such repairs are considered
e6sential, the work should be done only by experienced personnel,
and if possible, under the supervision of the technicians supervisor.
Every known safety precaution should be observed. Ample light for
good illumination should be providedj the worker should be insulated
from ground with some suitable nonconducting material such as
several layers of dry canvas, dry wood or a rubber mat of approved
construction. The worker should, if possible, use only one hand in
accomplishing the necessary repairs. Helpers should be stationed
near the main switch or the circuit breaker so the equipment can be
de-energized immediately in case of emergency. Someone qualified in
first aid for electric shock should stand by during the entire
period of the repair.
BATTERY SAFETY PRECAUTIONS
The principal hazard, in connection with batteries, is the danger of
acid burns when refilling or handling them. These burns. can be
avoided by the proper use of eyeshields, rubber gloves, rubber
aprons and rubber boots with nonslip soles. Rubber boots and aprons
need only be worn when batteries are being refilled. It is a good
practice, however, to wear the eye shield whenever working around
batteries to prevent the possibility of burns to the eyes. Wood
slat floorboards, if kept in good condition, are helpfull in
preventing slips and falls as well as electric shock from the
high-voltage side of the charging equipment.
Another hazard is the danger of explosion due to the ignition of
hydrogen gas glven off during the charging process. This is
especially true where the accelerated charging process method is
used. Open flames or smoking is prohibited in the battery charging
room, and the charging rate should be held at a point that will
prevent the rapad liberation of the hydrogen gas. Manufacturers 1
recomendations as to the charging rates for various size batteriies
should be closely followed and a shop exhaust system should be used.
Particular care should be taken by technicians to prevent short
circuits while batteries are being charged, tested or handled.
Hydrogen gas, which is accumulated while charging, is highly
explosive and a spark from a shorted circuit could easily ignite the
gas, causing serious damage to personnel and equipment.
Extreme caution should be exercised when installing and removing
batteries. The nature of battery construction is such that the
batteries are heavy for their size and are some what awkward to
handle. These characteristics dictate the importance of using
proper safety precautions. There is the possibility of acid causing
damage to equipment or injury to personnel and the danger of an
explosion that may be caused from the gas that is produced as the
battery is charged.
(4)
FIRE FIGHTING
In case of electrical fires, the following steps should be taken:
1. De-energize the circuit .
• 2. Call the Fire Department.
3. Control or extinguish the fire, using the correct type of
fire extinguisher.
4. Report the fire to the appropriate authouity.
For combating electrical fires, use a C02 (carbon dioxide) fire
extinguisher and direct it towards the base of the flame. Carbon
tetrachloride should never be used for fire fighting since it changes
to phosgene (a poisonous gas) LqJon contact with hot metal, and even
in open air this creates a very hazardous condition. The
application of water to electrical fires is dangerous. Foam type
fire extinguishers should not be used, as the foam is electrically
conductive.
In cases of cable fires in which the inner layers of insulation or
insulation covered by armor shielding are burning, the only positive
method of preventing the fire from running the length of the cable
is to cut the cable and seperate the ends. All power to the cable
should be removed and the cable cut with a wooden handled ax or
insulated cable cutter. Keep clear of the ends after they have been
cut.
SAFETY PRECAUTIONS WHEN USING ELECTRICAL TOOLS
As a general precaution, be sure that all tools use conform to U.L.
standards as to quality and type, and use them only for what they
were intended for. All tools in active use should be maintained in
good repair, and all damaged or nonworking tools should be tagged
and turned in for repair or replacement.
When using a portable power drill, grasp it firmly during the
operation to prevent it from bucking or breaking loose, thereby
causing injury or equipment damage.
Use only straight, undamaged and properly sharpened drills. Tighten
the drill securely in the chuck, using the key provided. Never use
wrenches or pliers. It is important that the drill be set straight
and true in the chuck. The work should be firmly clamped and if
metal, a center punch should to score the material before the
drilling operation is started.
In selecting a screwdriver for electrical work, be sure that it has
a nonconducting handle. The screwdriver should not be used as a
substitute for a punch or a chisel, and care should be taken that
the size of the blade is the right one for the job.
(5)
When using fuse pullers, make certain that it is the proper size and
type for the particular fuse being pulled.
The soldering iron is a fire hazard and a potential source of
burns. Always assume that a soldering iron is hot. Never rest an
iron anywhere but on a metal surface or a rack provided for that
purpose. Keep the iron holder in the open to minimize the danger of
fire from accumulated heat. Do not shake the iron to remove excess
solder. A drop of hot solder could strike someone and burn them, or
land in an energized circuit causing a short circuit. Hold small
soldering jobs with pliers or clamps.
When cleaning the iron, place the cleaning rag on a suitable surface
and wipe the iron across it. Do not hold the rag in your hand.
Disconnect the iron when leaving the work, even for a short time.
You may be gone longer than thought.
ELECTRICAL HAZARDS
Every person who works with electrical equipment should be
constantly alert to the hazards of the equipment they may be exposed
to, and also be capable of rendering first aid to injured
personnel. The installation, operation and maintenance of
electrical equipment requires enforcement of a stern safety code.
Carelessness on the part of the operator or maintenance technician
can result in serious injury or death due to electric shock, falls,
burns or irreversable damage to the equipment. After an accident
has happened, investigation almost invariably shows it could have
been prevented by the exercising of simple safety precautions and
procedures with which the personnel should have been familiar.
Each person concerned with electrical equipment should make it their
personal responsibility to read and become thoroughly familiar with
the safety practices and procedures contained in applicable safety
directives, manuals and other publications, especially the manual
pertaining to the piece of equipment they are working with prior to
energizing the equipment. It is the individual's responsibility to
identify and eliminate unsafe conditions and unsafe acts which cause
accidents.
SHOCK
Electric shock is jarring, shaking sensation resulting from contact
with electric circuits or from the effects of lightning. The victim
usually feels that they have received a sudden blow. If the voltage
and current were sufficiently high enough the victim may be
unconscious. Severe burns may appear on the skin at the place of
contact. Muscular spasms may occur, causing the victim to clasp the
apparatus or wire which caused the shock and be unable to let go.

(6)
The following procedures are recommended for rescue and care of
shock victims:
1. Remove the victim from electrical contact at once, but do
not endanger yourself. This can be accomplished by;
• a. Throwing the switch if it is nearby;
b. Cutting the cable or wires to the apparatus, using an
ax with a wooden handle. Take measures to protect
your eyes from the "FLASH" which will likely occur
when the wires are severed.
c. Use a dry stick, rope, belt, coat, blanket or
any other nonconductor of electricity, to drag the
victim to safety.
2. Determine whether the victim is breathing. Keep them
lying down in a comfortable position and loosen the
clothing about their neck, chest and abdomen so that they
can breath freely. Protect them from exposure to cold,
and watch them carefully.
3. Keep them from moving about. In this condition, the heart
is very weak, and any sudden muscular effort or activity
on the part of the patient may result in heart failure.
4. Do not give stimulants or opiates. Send for medical help
at once and do not leave the patient alone until they have
received adequate medical care.
5. If the victim is not breathing, it will be necessary to
apply artifical respiration without delay, even though
they may appear lifeless.
DO NOT STOP ARTIFICAL RESPIRATION UNTIL TOLD TO DO SO BY COMPETENT
MEDICAL AUTHORITY.
SAFETY PRECAUTIONS
Take time to be safe when working on electrical circuits and
equipment. Carefully study the schematics and wiring diagrams of
the entire system, noting what circuits must be de-energized in
addition to the main power supply. Remember that electrical
equipment frequently has more than one source of power. Be certain
that ALL power sources are de-energized before servicing the
equipment. 00 not service any equipment with the power on unless it
is necessary.
It must be borne in mind that de-energizing supply circuits, by
opening supply switches will not necessarily "KILL" all circuits in
a given piece of equipment. A source of danger is inputs from other
sources, such a remote control circuits. Moreover, the rescue of a
victim shocked by the power from a remote source is often hampered
because of the time required to determine the source of the power
and turn it off. Therefore, turn off ALL power inputs before
working on equipment.
(7)
Remember that 120 volt power supply voltage is not low, relatively
harmless voltage, but it is the voltage that has caused more deaths
than any other!
00 not work with high voltage circuits alone, have another person
(safety observer) who is qualified in first aid for electrical
shock, present at all times. The person stationed nearby should
also know the circuits and switches controlling the equipment. This
safety backup, should immediately remove the power should anything
go wrong.
Always be aware of the nearness of high voltage lines or circuits.
Use rubber gloves where applicable. Stand on approved rubber
matting. Remember, not all so-called rubber mats are good insulators.
Equipment containing metal parts, such as brushes and brooms, should
not be used within 4 feet of high voltage circuits or any electric
wiring having an exposed surface.
Inform remote stations as to the circuit on which work is being
performed.
Keep clothing, hands and feet dry if at all possible. When it is
necessary to work in wet or damp locations, use a dry plat form or
wooden stool to sit or stand on, and place a rubber mat or some
other nonconductive material on top of the wood. Use insulated
tools and insulated flashlights of the molded type when required to
work on exposed parts.
Do not wear loose or flapping clothing. The use of thin-soled shoes
with metal plates or hobnails is prohibited. Safety shoes with
nonconducting soles should be worn if available. Flammable
articles, such as celluloid cap visros, should not be worn.
When working on an electrical apparatus, technicians should remove
all rings, watches, wristwatches, bracelets, tags or any similar
metal items. Care should be taken that the clothing does not
contain expossed zippers, metal buttons or any type of metal
fastener .•
Do not work on energized circuits unless absolutely necessary. Be
sure to take the time to lock out the power switch and tag it.
Locks for this purpose are available, if a lock is not available,
remove the fuses and tag the fuse box.
Use one hand when turning switches on or off. Keep the doors to the
switches and fuse boxes closed except when working inside or
replacing fuses. Use a fuse puller to remove cartridge fuses after
first making certain that the circuit is dead.
All supply switches or cutout switches from which power could
possibly be fed should be secured in the OPEN position and tagged.
The tag should read, "THIS CIRCUIT WAS ORDERED OPEN FOR REPAIRS AND
SHALL NOT BE CLOSED EXCEPT BY DIRECT ORDER OF "
(8)
Never short out, tamper with, or block open an interlock switch.
Keep clear of exposed equipment. When it is necessary to work on
it, use one hand only as much as possible.
warning signs and suitable guards should be provided to prevent
personnel from coming into accidental contact with high voltages.
Avoid reaching into enclosures except when absolutely necessary.
When reaching into an enclosure, use rubber blankets to prevent
accidental contact with the enclosure.
Do not use your bare hands to remove hot parts from their holders.
Use heat insulating gloves if necessary.
Use a shorting stick, similar to the one shown in figure 1, to
discharge all high voltage charges. Before a technician touches a
capacitor or any part of a high voltage which is known or likely to
be connected to a capacitor, (whether the circuit is de-energized or
disconnected entirely), they should short circuit· the terminals to
make sure that the capacitor is completely discharged. Grounded
shorting sticks should be permanently attached to workbenches where
electrical equipment using high voltages are regularly serviced.

HANDLE

.RAIDED WIRE STlAP

FIGURE 1
Make certain that the equipment is properly grounded. Ground all
test equipment to the equipment under test.
Turn off the power before connecting alligator clips to any circuit.
When measuring circuits over 30 volts, do not hold the test probes.

(9)
 SAFETY EDUCATION
)
Safety is an all-hands responsibility. It is the job of every
person to exercise caution to insure that people will not be injured
or killed, or equipment damaged or ruined. Safety information is
presented in many ways. For example:
• l. written material, as given in this lesson.
2. Safety bulletins.
3. Lectures.
4. Movies.
5. Courses in first aid.
6. Posters.
Every shop in which you work should emphasize safety. One of the
ways in which this can be done is through the use of posters. Some
of are general in nature and some relate to sped fic types of work.
These posters should be placed in a conspicous area and as new ones
are printed they should replace the older ones.
Safety is a very important part of your job. Now is the time to be
more aware of safety!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!

(10)
 ADVANCED SCR MAINTENANCE COURSE
PARALLEL RESISTIVI¥i& INDUCTIVE CIRCUITS
)
S
\:y( llQ
o~ 1 Gl.KW G2-KW G3-KW

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~', ~v 1039
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Gen 2 &. Gen 3 waveforms would be the same. Adding
/ additional generators will only change the amplitude,
phasing will remain the same.

..• • 90

.•
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Pink AC waveform Is
the same phase as the
brown & blue vectors.
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KVA V500,000
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 I REACTIVE CURRENT DEMODULATORS

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 '-- -/

AC MODULE
CT CONFIGURATIONS r;;&"
Drilling AC Module
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OURRENT

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 I ROSS HILL CONTROLS I
ADVANCED SCR DRIVE MAINTENANCE COURSE

• CALIBRATION OF THE POWER LIMIT CIRCUIT BOARD

To determine KW voltage output of AC Module for Power Limit Board. Take KW of

engine and divide value by C.T. Ratio:

KW Assume D398 is 600KW

C.T. Ratio machine.

C.T. Ratio 600:1

600 = 1 Multiply this answer by 3.2
mr

1 X 3.2 = +3.2 VDC

If card is Revision H, this is the output from Pin 534 of AC Module to Power
Limit Board. If board is an older Revision level, like G or C you must
subtract .6 from 3.2 to get Pin 534 voltage.

3.2 - .6 + +2.60 VDC - Done only on revisions up to and including Level G.

On the Revision H board the KW signal from the AC Module goes into Pin 11 on
the Power Limit Board.

The Power Limit set point for KW is TP1.

TPl is adjusted to a voltage of 1.25 X the input on Pin 11.

Therefore TPl = 1.25 X 3.2 = 4.0VDC, so 4.0VDC at TPl will represent a KW

Power Limit of approximately 600KW.

We will explain why this value may not be exactly 600KW.

The voltage at TP1 is adjusted by selecting a new value of R7 or R8, we will
discuss this procedure in class .

•
To determine the I Total voltage output of the AC Module for the Power Limit
Board.

Determine KVA of generator utilized, you may assume the total amps supplied by
the generator is equal the generators nameplate value. However, if you wish
to set I Total at exact rating multiply KVA by .96.

Take KVA value or 96% of KVA and divide by C.T. Ratio.

KVA Assume generator is a

C.I. Ratlo 1250KVA machine
C.T. Ratio is 600:1
1250 = 2.08
600 Multiply this answer
by 3.1
,
2.08 X 3.1 = 6.5VDC. This voltage is the output of AC Module Pin 525, if
Power Limit Board is Revision H.

If the Power Limit Board is an older revision level, it will be necessary to

subtract .6 from the answer of 6.5 to obtain voltage at Pin 525.

6.5 - .6 = 5.9VDC

Using the Revision H board the AC Module output for I Total from Pin 525 will
go into Pin 10 on the Power Limit Board.

The Power Limit set point for I Total is TP4.

TP4 is adjusted to a voltage of 1.25 X input to Pin 10.
Therefore TP4 = 1.25 X 6.5 = 8.1VDC
This voltage represents a power limit of approximately 1250 Amps.
The voltage at TP4 is adjusted by selecting a new value for R29 and R30. We
will discuss this procedure in class .
•
Power Limit should not be adjusted unless it is determined a definite Power
Limit problem exists.

On I Total setting we must determine where breaker is adjusted to trip. The

breaker will normally be set 50 to 70 Amps above the setting of I Total Power
Limit.

CAUTION: A calibration change of the Power Limit Board should, if

possible be operationally checked. Do not assume it is
right.

This written procedure covers the H Revision Power Limit Board only. Be sure
your class notes reflect differences in method of calibration of older board.

10
 BLOCK DIAGRAM OF ( REV. H-K ) POWER LIMIT BOARD

j.J' % POWER LLMIT

~~·X0) ~ I;, III~I;III

" 1111-1~1I1
" liD 'll 1110

24 1111

SEt.:
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DRIVER SEL CONSOLE

+14V_>- SEL ,.,1{ . Z3

KW POWER
INPUT
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r 11
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MODULE 11 OETECfOR
5~11 RELAY
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PIN 534 . !
K1

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P.L. @ 75 % of
rated en ~ine
KW. ...........
>-

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KW RAM'
l.EYE-
DETECTOR

RATED ENGINE
KW
-
Z2
KW
RAMP

;!E!
,
ATTENTUATE8
I<W alONAI.

D7
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1'118 .. "'18
REDUCES K W
SIGNAL 25%
- 26
POWER LMT
SIGNAL
AMPLIFIER
--K
-20V

SEL·
: SEL

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TP4
SEL
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\' 1.-~ ·14V_p- ov

\\ ... ~t,~ . TP7 25
INPUT j' , lOOK ITOTAL
FROM AC
MODULE
10 ,
..
LEVEL
PIN 525

."vi 221K 5.0

DETECTOR

Input from Input from

current current Output of 212 = TP7
demodulators demodulators
TP4 = 1.25 X TP7

23

{ X }
{ X }
ENGINE KW KW SIGNAL GENERATOR AMPS
(TIMES) = TP18 AT POWER LIMIT I TOTAL
F.S. KW ( METER BV (TIMES I _ Output
- of 212
F.S. GEN. AMMETER 7.75V
r:=
 ROSS HILL
OP-AMPS MADE EASY

Inverting 2
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NON INVERTING BUFFER

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N£)N11JV[RTIH(. IN ~
-ISV
"SSY N01ES
LNG1N£ERIN6 NOTES:

11B
 ",S"
3hOl(
v
Rz>
-----J:.k~''------ @OVT

I R. 21 +------~ 'J~
I 3.3<
0
L.fl-4.-.. - - t
<:-B
0.1
2.N544'
DID Drl
.----+-'*""'7-+'0'
ovB----,
MET-0--L OV

I
I Of~ I'U.7.
'¥" DV

~.~!-.~I' '''~-rl~W';~ t
I~'L f . I: : : AC ~" ' 'i -L W_' ~f.fJ~J
100 V
~ l C.AC ++-t-~~
K.~'- I I ,ALa... l~iY~1
L
D4 0'9
I -'" ---+-,
~:::tO R~O
BUJ.",
l.W
aU).. .
r.w
::h 0"

ov

12
 +lfoV 7'/G.V
~I
SELEtT
01

R3 RII
R8 2.2K
sa 1801< 12 OUT
OV

KW II

ov @]
R5
I()K
-,(;V
Rl8
SCJB7'
.22.
o
laY
GV
IJf>-'"
5tlV
1<9
SElELT
OY
DZ

-lhY
RI2
3.:JK
~
Qt
UP7l.IJ
.. rt-

03 f)4 ex. D7 w
ITor 0 011
{!2VIW R/j RI1 OV
Kef- 1 8!aL
R15 NOV
IN"lJ8A~ tw
KIT 15()Q OV DlZ -.>IV -24V
zw
RIl
{)"!} ".11K ....r B ~-

16 VAl: I +C3 ItJ5W

5Zl:l.r r. mil 014
JOV ~~v
013

+C4 DIO ~3
RI"
l5lJJI.. It-V SW UPTM3
~f ew 1,",3538
-<'1V e 5i?V

0(1 ov
. -/~v

5. RAISE IrEM Ala 20 .t/PPROX r~ O~F aMRO.

2. r/-741 HAl OP /IMP

COAlNE{TII!N OI/IGRIIM

INVERTINIL
INPIIT 2
e
4. RAISE ITEM NO II/IIIDI2 APP/il1X ~~ ()F~ SOAR{J
.3 JVMP£R. FPO/1 Q/-I ro Q/- 3

NIYoJIN VERTIAG 3
TOP

I
VIEW

7 +/1:. v
.
• fX/TPUr

WPi/r 1
-lid

I. Q 1- 3N/S8A 1- SOURCE
2- GATE
3- DR4/N
4 - CA<;E(O V)

"",,,',""
.~ "
..
.. , . .- .....··'f ,,,. , •.
,,/ ,"
..":tl ,,'

) '"
.1".
ot~
,•:.:
"
~,')",

13
 POWER LIMIT CONTROLLER
\
1. Has ramp for KW limit.
2. Has ramp for IT.,., limit.
3. Has underfrequency
power limit 0 58Hz.
TB11

Exolter

G
~
KVA

Amps @ 600VAC
KVA
A = X 1000

@o x
1039
VT= 10~ I)

SWITCHES ACTIVE UP
ALL DOWN SET AT 80%

SWITCHES ACTIVE UP
) ALL DOWN SET AT 80%

14
 POWER LIMIT CONTROLLER
)

PC3

PC2
PC1

Terminal
connections

Removing this Loosen this

Select resistors are screw screw
located on PC3. Access
can be obtained by:

This will allow

top to pivot
up.

)
PN = 0000-7497-01
14A
 I ROSSHILLCONTROLS I
I. METER CALIBRATION PROCEDURE

DETEfu~INE C.T. SECONDARY CURRENT FOR FULL SCALE METER DE-

FLECTION. DETERMINE VOLTAGE DROP ACROSS 0.5 BURDEN (CURRENT
LOSS THROUGH BRIDGE IS NEGLIGABLE). MULTIPLY THIS VMS
VOLTAGE BY 0.9 DETERMINE THE AVERAGE VALUE APPLIED TO THE METER
& SERIES CALIBRATION RESISTORS FOR FULL SCALE DEFLECTION.

II. LIFT ONE SIDE OF 0.5 BURDEN RESISTOR

APPLY VOLTAGE FROM ABOVE TO BRIDGE OUTPUT STUBBS. DETEffi1INE
VALUE OF R2 REQUIRED FOR FULL SCALE DEFLECTION. DETERMINE
VALUE OF R3 REQUIRED TO TRIM R2 IF NEEDED. RESOLDER OPEN
END OF BURDEN RESISTOR.

TABLE FOR A.C. AMMETER CALIBRATION

C. T. RATIO 4000:4 3000:5 2000:5 750:1 600:1 400:1 200:1

0-750

1000A 0.560V 0.750V 1.125V 0.600V 0.750V 1.125V 2.300V

1500A 0.844v 1. 125V 1. 687V 0.900V 1.125V 1. 687V
2000A 1.125V 1. 500V 2.300V 1. 200V 1. 500V 2 • ..lUUV
2500A 1.406V 1. 87 5V 1. 875V
3000A 1. 690V 2.300V 2.300V

VALUES SHOWN ARE AVERAGED D.C. VOLTAGE

CALIBRATING A.C. AMMETERS:

C.T. 2Sw ~.J1..

A.C. CURRENT FROM THE C.T. SECONDARY IS APPLIED ACROSS A 5.0 UFD
CAPACITOR INTO A FULL WAVE RECTIFIER BRIDGE. THE BRIDGE OUTPUT IS
APPLIED TO A 0.5 BRIDGE BURDEN RESISTOR, R1, R2 AND R3 ARE CALIBRATION
RESISTORS PLACED IN SERIES WITH THE METER MOVEMENT.

15
 Ansaldo Ross Hill

OVAB
'.'. --'-'-'-./-'-'-'A/!
,: /I!
I A total
I
I
I
I
I
• • I

······VBC 0································ ··················>i·······O Vea .

. . . . . ...
· I A reactive
·· '.

~Vc
'.

6
VBA
°VCA

Notes:

16
 DIDOES THE P-N JUNCTION

I ntroducti on:

The separate P and N type materials are of limited practical use. However, if
we join a piece of N-type material to a section of P-type material a P-N
junction is formed. Almost all semiconductors contain at least one P-N
junction. The characteristic of the P-N section is its ability to conduct
current in one direction and block current flow in the other direction.

semiconductor materials:

Most semiconductor devices are constructed by using a highly purified piece of

Silicon. This pure element is called Intrinsic Silicon Crystals. The pure
material will not conduct current very well because the crystal structure has
an atomic makeup that binds electrons to necleus of the Silicon Atom. see
Figure 1.

•
.®. covalent bond

. : /.
.®.. @'!~j®.
• •• •
.®.
•

Figure 1
However, the material is not a good insulator because the bonding can be
broken by increasing applied electrical potentials and subjecting materials to
high temperatures. To create create useful semiconductors a very small but
percise amount of a carefully selected impurity is added to the pure
materials. This procedure is called Doping. The materials conductivity is
modified to a value between that of a good conductor and the low conductivity
of an insulator. The impurities added to the pure Silicon material \~ill
modify its conductivity. Two types of impurities are used. One contains only
three electrons in the Valence Band and the other has 5 electrons in the
Valence Band. see Figure 2.

• • • • • •
• • • • • •
··00··00··00·· ·00··00··00· ·00··00··00·
•• •
•
•
• •
•
•
• •
• •• •
•
•
•
··00··0··0··
· .
• • .~-~._-
~.
fifth arsenic
valence electron
·00··8··00· ·G··Q··G·
• o--empty • •
•
..._now.
• filled O---hole
• • bond _

··G··G··G··
• • •
·0··00··0·
• • •
·00··00··00·
• • •
• • •

Donors Figure 2 Acceptors

4
The donor impurities added to the Silicon material create an N-type
semiconductor material. The five valence electrons of the donor impurity will
supply an extra electron to the material. The extra electron is free to move
through the N-type Silicon material and is called a majority carrier. The
'Acceptor impurity has only three electrons and creates an electron vacancy
called a "hole". This hole will exhibit movement because electrons from
adjacent atoms can and do move into the empty hole. The absence of an
electron will allow the hole to be considered a positive carrier. This type
Silicon material is called a P-type semiconductor because the free holes can
move randomly through the material. Current flow through the P-type
semiconductor is the result of the holes, so the hole can be called the
majority carrier in the P-T~pe material. Figure 3, indicates the direction
the majority carriers will move through the Silicon Block.

18
 N-TYPE P -TYPE

'---"";-"t I.1.:""'+---'

Fi gure 3

Temperature increases in the Silicon Block will allow unwanted polarity

carriers to be set free. -These carriers are known as minority carriers and
they move in the opposite directon that the majority carriers move. Silicon
material has a better ability to withstand high temperatures than earlier
semiconductor material, because more energy is required to free the minority
carriers in Silicon.

The PH Junction:

\;hen the two types of Silicon material are put together, a PH Junction Diode
is formed. Since characteristics can be controlled by shape and amount of
a
doping the number of different types is almost unlimited. The theory is easy,
if we consider electrons as negative charges and holes as positive charges.
Remember both can move and be current carriers. The electrons are negative
charges that will be attracted by a positive charge and repelled a negative
charge. The hole is a positive charge attracted by a negative charge and
repelled by a postive charge. An electron that leaves the Valence Band of a
Silicon Atom leaaves a hole which appears to have a positive charge because
the atom has lost a negative electron. When the P and N type materials are
combined, the majority carrriers near the junction will attract each other,
cross the junction and cancel each other, refer to Figure 4.

19
This cancelling action of majority carriers at the junction creates a
potential Hill or space charge region. The charge that is created tends to
hold majority carriers away from junction, and the area at the junction is now
devoid of mobile carriers sometimes referred to as the depletion area.

•••
•••
• •
• •• •
• •
•••
N P

Figure 4
The charge at the junction1Will be small, amounting to about .5V to .7V in
Silicon. This voltage at the junction is equal to the amount of energy a
carrier must obtain to pass across the junction or up to the junction where
recombination may take place. Heat will add enough energy to some carriers
that they are able to cross the junction.

P-N JUNCTION DIODES

The most used application of the P-N Junction Diode is that of a rectifier.
Through the junction ther~:;t'ill be a forward, or low-resistance direction,
called Forward Bias. The diode will have a reverse or high resistance
direction called Reverse Bias. If we apply a battery across a diode that aids
the potential Hill, carriers are pulled further away from the junction and the
resistance of the diode is very large. Refer to Figure 5.

riPOTENT'ALH'LL

• •
• •• •
•• •
•• •
• •
•• •
N P

'----...;:+'-i·I...- - - - - '
Reverse Biased Junction Diode
Fi gure 5
20
As the applied voltage is increased, the potential Hill increases, the diodes
resistance also becomes larger, but there will be a limit to how high the
voltage can be increased. Therefore, the current through a Reverse Biased
Diode is almost constant.

If the diode is Forward Biased, the applied battery voltage can overcome the
potential HIll allowing electrons and holes to flow across the junction. The
forward Bias voltage is small because we must only overcome the potential Hill
to produce a current flow. Refer to Figure 6.

rl......._-...,
• •
CJ
•
• •• • •
• +
CJ
•
• •• • •
•
••
CJ
•
N P
'------....1·.. .+ :-..-----'
Forward Biased Junction Diode
Fi gure 6

"' resistance of the junction -decreases, which

As the current increases, t~e
causes the voltage across the junction diode to remain for all practical
purposes constant. When the junction diode is Forward Biased, minority
carriers play no role in diode operation. However, when the diode is Reverse
Biased. The minority carriers create what is known as a leakage or reverse
current. At low temperatures there is almost no leakage current for small
Reverse Biased Voltages. If the Reverse Bias Voltage is increased till it
exceeeds the rating of the diode, there is a complete breakdown of electron
bonds and the current increases sharply. This is the avalanche current
indicated on the curve of Figure 7 it can destroy the junction of the diode.
Diodes and the P-N junction

Ge Si

<
Reverse Bias

A1J3V Ai!7V
lOOV 50V ;

JJ2
;

. Jl6 .
Forward bias

Avalanche
current
~..,-
\
Small leakage
~

current

I Rev.
The relationship between applied voltage and current in the diode.

Figure 7
The positive alternation of the AC input will cause CRl to conduct, current
will flow though the load resistor RL> and the output voltage will rise to
lOOY as sho\'ln in Figure 21C. During the time from TO to Tl, Figure 21B, Cl
will charge rapidly to the peak of the input voltage. The charge path is
shown in Figure 21A. At time Tl, the input voltage to CRl will start to
decrease. When the voltage applied to the anode decreases belO\; lOOY, CRl
will be reversed biased and will stop conducting. Cl will be reverse biased
and will stop conducting. Cl will start discharging and the output voltage
across RL will slowly decrease to,lard 60Y. Cl continues to discharge from Tl
to T2. At time T2 the input voltage applied to the anode of CRl becomes
greater than the voltage on Cl (60Y). CRl will conduct and Cl will rapidly
recharge to the peak input voltage (lOOV) • At time T3 the diode will once
again stop conducting and Cl will start to discharge through the load
resistance. Refer to Figure 21C.

The amount Cl discharges betlfeen positive alternations is determined by the

capacitance of Cl or the resistance of RL' The larger the values of Cl or RL
the less Cl >Till discharge. Ripple amplitude is determined by how much Cl
discharges and is inversely proportional to Cl or RL' In the example in
Figure 21C the output voltage changes from lOOY to 60V. Ripple amplitude is
40V. Since the discharge time for the filter, Cl, is dependent upon its value
and the value of RL' the values of Cl and RL >Till determine the ripple
amplitude.

The average DC output voltage is also affected by the values of Cl or RL • In

Figure 21B note that the average voltage is 31.SV. With the addition of the
filter capacitor, the output >Taveform in Figure 21C shotTS that the average
voltage increases to about SOY.

You will always find that the filter capacitor is placed in parallel with the
load resistance. The smaller the capacitor value, the larger the ripple
amplitude and the 10lfer the average output voltage. A large, load (small RL )
placed on the rectifier Ifi th a capacitor filter >Till cause a decrease in
filtering which results in a decrease in average voltage and an increase in
ripple amplitude.

38
Looking at the filtered output wave-shape of a full-wave rectifier in Figure
23, you can see that the average output voltage is higher than that of a
half-\;ave rectifier. Note that the three-phase rectifier in Figure 24
maintains an even higher average output voltage than the full-wave rectifier.
Rectifiers with higher ripple frequencies are easier to filter.

R'

'R>

'R>

• ,n I

\.~R;

CR.

EPEAK in EpEAK in
+10
+8.66

INPUT
VOLTAGE

-5 - - - -
,
,
-8.66 ,
. -10 , I
, ' 1'3 T'4 T~ T6 T7
l
Tp
1\1 TZ
I ' I I ,- I
,
. I I I EPEAK out
+17. 3Z -"!""'_~"",_"""","""''''=''''!:'''''''''':-~~~~dl
.... _, '.:.l-
+15 - \I" .... ..' y

-+- 1 CYCLE·OF INPUT VOLTAGE~ : OUTPUT

, VOLTAGE
OV'----------------,..-!--

Figure 24

40
 ADVANCED SCR. DRIVE COURSE
) HALF WAVE

--~--
INPUT _l OUTPUT

SINGLE PHASE

SINGLE PHASE
FULL WAVE

(\(\{\
BRIDGE RECTIFIER

SINGLE PHASE
FULL WAVE

•
,~
(\(\{\
BRIDGE RECTIFIER

SINGLE PHASE
FULL WAVE

VV\J
L -_ _-'-~ •
)
BRIDGE RECTIFIER

41
I_
'---- ROSS HILL
- - -
Advanced SeR Maintenance Course
Review Questions - Set 2

. 1. Answer the following questions concerning the waveforms "A" and "B" in figure 1. The
time/div knob is set on 2ms/div.

/ 1\/ 1\
I A if\ B \

\ IV I
\ V\ V

Figure #1

Waveform "A" L810 Waveform "B" by /)., 0 degrees.

2. What is the approximate frequency of waveform A & B of question #1.

a. 60 Hz
b. 83 Hz
c. 90 Hz
d. 166 Hz

3. Excessive ripple in the DC output of the power supply could be caused by:

a. A leaky filter capacitor

b. An open filter capacitor
c. An open rectifier
d. All of the above

4. The firing reference for the Exciter Control Loop can be checked at what test point in the
AC Module?

a. TP 13
b. TP 18
c. TP 1
d. TP 22

1
 ROSS HILL
c"
Advanced SCR Maintenance Course
Review Questions - Set 2

5. The exciter firing reference measures +.5VDC, what should this mean?

a. The exciter SCRs are shorted.

b. The exciter SCRs are off.
c. The exciter SCRs should be turned on maximum.
d. The AC Control Module is defective.

6. Exciter current feedback can be measured at pin of the AC Module.

a. 501 It, 7, ~~
b. 525 .r I':R _:1 . ""J &
~: 510 IOOIr ArE Co, t8~ C,,~T i ';'eo rs ~c -( l U-l. So/~f~_
~~
"J._

556 0 ,,'t\ T;;..I' /II1r(1S e sq.

7. The oscilloscope should be used to check current feedback. In a period of 16.7ms how
many pulses should be seen on the scope?

a. Two
b. One
c. Three
d. Four

8. Voltage feedback in the AC Module can be measured at test point?

a. TP 1
b. TP 13
c. TP 12
d. TP 5

9. At 600VAC, the voltage feedback in the AC Module will measure?

a. +11VDC
b. -90VDC
c. -160VDC
d. +160VDC

2
 ROSS HILL

Advanced SCR Maintenance Course

Review Questions - Set 2

10. Identify the power supply voltages in the AC Module that are Zener regulated:

#b. +/- 160VDC

+/- 16VDC
c. + 11VDC
d. + 62VDc
e. - 39VDC
f. +/- 15 VDC

11 . Use the drawings on the following page to answer the following questions.

a. On the output waveform indicate where the SCRs would be fired if the firing angle
were delayed to 90 degrees.

b. Indicate on the drawing of the single phase, full-wave bride (at the top of the page)
how you would connect the oscilloscope to display the output waveform shown.

) c. Indicate where the firing reference would be located on the firing ramp for the output
waveform shown.

d. Indicate the electron flow ( - to + ) through the SCR controlled bridge.

3
- -
OUTPUT INPUT

B
Cf) Cf) Cf) Cf)

~ ~ ~ ~
·2V I j

OV I
-2V ~ ~L ~T
I

- -X -- --J -
,,!
@ TP1

-4V
T IrJ I S7
FIRING REFERENCE

-
12.

A. LAMPS GLOW
BRIGHTLY
~
~f/~ ,,\\~
G -

LAMPS GLOW
B. DIMLY
~f/~
/ -
,,\\~

LAMPS DO NOT
C. GLOW

Given the amount of light produced by the lamps

in circuits A, B, and C choose all items that apply to each circuit.

1. Small capacitance _
2. Large capacitance _
3. Medium frequency source _
4. High frequency source - - - - - -
5. Medium Capacitance - - - - - - -
6. Low frequency source _
 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- ~

AC MODULE
FREQUENOY
FEEDBAOK
GEN #1 I

SPEED 21 ) 14 ,.1 • KW
-5V
COMMAND
0 F.S. KW
~!jjfP l ;tJ"
REFERENCE
. ./

ov
O~(,I"/~
ov

--------------,, Q • 0 1
,
GEN #1 ,:
,
,
, SLAVE
, S H ARE

I MASTER BREAKER CLoseo:

L. _
_.- - .
MASTER BREAKER CLOSED
I
SLAVE SHARE
CS
GEN #2 +14 V
T AUX

-14 V
-

Q • 01

P-CHANNEL
FAEQUeNOY
FEEDBAOK

SPEED Z1 ') '... •

I
~I >- KW
-5V COMMAND
0 F.B. KW
REFERENCE

ov AC MODULE
ov
GEN #2

KW SHARE AUTO SHARE AC MODULE

-.,J
» AUTOMAST.CED
 Ross Hill
MASTER SLAVE CIRCUIT

P KW COMMAND ) 643 643

643 ~
P ~643
4
-18V GEN 1 -18V GEN 2 -18V GEN 3 -18V GEN 4
,
~644
-.L -.L
644 4644 4644

641 641 641 641

640 Aux. contacts 640 640 640

In generator
circuit breaker.
Contacts close, 639 639 639
639 when the
breaker Is closed.

TP20 TP21
034
2
TO 29
DS'-COMPENSATES FOR MASTER'S DIODE 034

041 SLAve'S
+62V
GATE
R60 MASTER'S
22K +15V GATE R68
47K
042 045
R73
035 3.3K L..------t-.....------t----:~--- .....---~(___--__l5 43
R72 Master
1.5K Slave
050
..._j<lI_-.._--<~-------+------+----------------{5
44
046 053
537

R69 R70 INPUT -16V

R71 IN SLAVE
22K 27K
3.3K
L-.I-----t 5 41
- 3 9V.....- - - - - - - - - - - - - -.... - 3 9 V
049
+15V

CIRCUIT OPERATION

1. EVERY GENERATOR ON LINE HAS -16V APPLIED TO PIN 544 OF AC MODULE.

2. -16v APPLIED TO DIODE GATE 041, 042 THROUGH R72 TURNS THIS GATE ON.

3. THEREFORE, TP20 CONNECTED TO PIN 543, THIS UNIT IS THE MASTER.

4. ASSUME CIRCUIT IS NOW A SLAVE WITH -16V APPLIED TO PIN 541.

5. THE -16V FROM 541 ELIMINATES THE EFFECT OF '15V WHICH WAS KEEPING
GATE OF 043 & 044 OFF.

6. NOW THE -39V THROUGH R70 TURNS ON GATE OF 043 & 044. TP20 OF
MASTER IS CONNECTED TO TP21 OF SLAVE(S).

7. ALSO THE -39V IS DROPPED BY R69, APPLIED TO 28 VIA 035 & R60, THIS
DRIVES THE OUTPUT OF Z8 TO ITS MAXIMUM POSITIVE LEVEL.

8. THEREFORE THE SLAVE'S FREQUENCY REGULATOR STAGE Z8 IS TURNED OFF.

9. THE SIGNAL THE MASTER'S MODULE, PIN 543, MAY NOW ENTER SLAVE AS
ITS KW COMMAND THROUGH 043 & 044.

10. 046 & 050 ARE AND GATE, REQUIRING BOTH PIN 544 AND SLAVE INPUT TO
BE -16V TO OFFSET OP AMP Z8. THIS PREVENTS SLAVE(S) FROM PRODUCING
THEIR OWN KW COMMAND.
Section 2, Page 7

J
 f1f
I(j(lJ' MASTER SLAVE SCHEMATIC & BLOCK DIAGRAM

-JV GEN 1 GEN 2 GEN 3

~ -16V_~
AC MODULB -16V lAC MODULEl ~MODUL
~ ~jl/) 1)7
\...,~J 9
- 50

\.I~
Slave Ma s t err-------' (;01\ I I I Slave Master

~ I • t§ _ I • ~TOTB9-6GEN4543
- TO TB9-4 GEN 4 542
TO TB9-2 GEN 4 540
I TO TB9-3 GEN 4 541

ON LINE ON LINE ON LINE ON LINE

GEN 1 MASTER GEN 2 SLAVE GEN 3 SLAVE GEN 4 SLAVE
544 -16V 544 -16V 544 -16V
544 -16V
542 -16V 542 -16V 542 -16V
/
I GEN2 MASTERI GEN 3 SLAVE GEN 4 SLAVE V'1t/
~v~
(

+/
544-16V 544-16V 544 -16V
541 -16V 541 -16V
/.(9

GEN 3 MASTERI GEN 4 SLAVE t'~~ ~ ~

544-16V 544-16V ~~
540 -16V
yO

GEN 4 MASTER
. ,- .......... 544 -16V
[gJ OFF LINE

0)
I R_O_S_S_H_IL_L _
Advanced SCR Maintenance Course
Review Questions - Set 3

1. An open or misfiring SCR can cause a traction motor to:

a. Run too fast

b. Run rough and make noise
c. Run hot
d. Both band c are correct

2. Using the oscilloscope to locate a misfiring SCR, the waveform that would give the
troubleshooter the best information would be:

a. The 600VAC
(!t( xLc' II~PJ;/c~ ~vtO~
b.
c.
d.
Ripple on the DC power supply
SCR amps -- P:N /<3 I
Measurement at TP8
c?,(/\
r Ir . I> in.
1Jta-6
't)

3. If 200VAC is measured from the +DC Bus to ground, when the SSCR bridge is not
assigned, what is the most likely problem?

a. A leaky SCR puck

b. An open SCR puck
c. A defective DC module
d. An open snubber resistor

4. Using a dual trace oscilloscope, that triggers on channel 1, to troubleshoot for a

misfiring or open SCR. The TP4 waveform from the SCR firing circuits of the DC
module, lines up with defect in the current feedback displayed on channel 2. Which
SCR is defective:

a. B+
b. B-
c. A-
d. C+

5. Measuring across an SCR puck with an ohmmeter yields a reading of 50k ohms, how
would this SCR function?

a. It would short immediately on application of power.

b. It would function normally.
c. The bridge would run the motor but the motor would overheat.
) d. The bridge would lack power.

;</t:.~tU PwK5 fe/} () /0k 1

I ROSS HILL
- - - - -
Advanced SCR Maintenance Course
Review Questions - Set 3

6. The basic rule for determining if traction motor drying is necessary before power is
applied is:

a. All windings must check infinity to ground.

b. A low resistance to ground must be present.
c. A megohmmeter reading should indicate a minimum of 1000 ohms per volt of the
maximum operating voltage.
d. The motor should not be operated if any winding checks less than 5 meg ohms to
ground.

7. What will happen if the field winding of an unloaded shunt traction motor opens?

a. The motor may overspeed.

b. The motor will stop.
c. The motor will not run forward.
d. The motor will only run in reverse.

8. The armature and field resistance of a series would traction motor is .02 ohms. What
limits the bridge current drawn by the motor, when the motor is applied to an SCR
bridge phased up to 750DVC. (Assume the motor is running at full rpm.)

a. CEMF
b. Inductive reactance.
c. Resistance.
d. The field impedance.

9. Assume the motor of question #8 is stalled, what limits the motor current?

a. CEMF
b. DC resistance
c. DC module's current limit.
d. The fuses in the SCR bridge.

10. The contactors for MP1 in SCR1 do not pickup. Upon checking -14V is found at the
Mud Pump contactor coils. What voltage may be missing and where is the source for
this voltage found?

a. +14V at pin 153.

b. -8.2V in the Drillers Console.
) c. +60V at the PC1 card in the SCR cubicle.
d. +160V on pin 508 of the AC control module.

2
I" ROSS HILL
1- - - -
Advanced SCR Maintenance Course
- -
Review Questions - Set 3

11. Fuse F7 in the SCR cubicle is open. What would be possible symptom caused by this
problem? What voltage would be affected?

a. PC1-35
b. PC1-5
c. PC1-41
d. DC module pin 154

12. Indicate what is wrong in the contactor circuit diagram below.

r----------...,-------v-o~ + 60V
I 1
_-'--0-------,

K2) ~~ K7) :<it

_ _.-J "''-----------...//"\.'---------1
1
H ~ DC module

3
· ~ R_O_S_S_H_IL_L _

Advanced SCR Maintenance Course

Review Questions - Set 1

1. The input signal we wish to display on the oscilloscope is applied to the oscilloscope's?

a. Horizontal input
b. Vertical Input
c. External Horizontal input
d. External Sync input

2. If the vertical sensitivity of the scope is set on .5 volts/division, using a 10X probe. A signal is
displayed that is three divisions. What is the voltage amplitude of the signal?

a. 1.5V
b. 150V RMS
c. 0.15V
d. 15V

•. An oscilloscope's CRT is divided into eight divisions for the horizontal sweep. If the time/div.
knob is set on 2ms/div. and two complete cycles of AC are displayed on the scope. What is the
frequency of the AC waveform.

a. 125 HZ
b. 60 HZ
c. 62.5 HZ
d. 30 HZ I

4. The output of the power limit board is pin , is input to all the DC Modules pin _ _ .
: ...
a. 10,135
b. 11,155
c. 12,115
d. 12,138

5. The rig has reached power limit, we can verify this by a measurement of the power limit output, it
would be approximately?

a. -5VDC
c. OV
b. +.25VDC
d. +1VDC
1
r=
)
R_O_S_S_H_IL_L
Advanced SCR Maintenance Course
_

Review Questions - Set 1

6. A junction diode will probably be damaged by minority carriers avalanching when:

a. A forward bias is applied.

b. Sufficient reverse voltage is applied.
c. Zero volts is applied.
d. The potential hill is too small.

7. In figure #1 indicate the type bias in each case.

~
6V .=..
.=.. 6V

l' l'
3V 3V
(el (D)
(A) (B)

Figure #1
......
a. -1~ r ,)c cJ:'
b. )1
c. tt'-Ir
d.

8. Find the output of the AC Module to the KW input of the Power Limit board. The engines are
rated at 1050KW and 600:1 CTs are installed. (The system has an H revision Power Limit
circuit).

a. 5.6V A~n:~1t. VI
. n'
oil""
or f1wP
b. 4.95Ve-nr t;:
c. 5.42V
d. 4.82V

2
~ R_O_S_S_H_IL_L _
Advanced SCR Maintenance Course
Review Questions - Set 1

9. The rig is in I Total Power Limit. Two engines are on line. Each engine has a 300KW load.
Each generator has an output of 1500KVA. What is the power factor?

a. .8
b. .2
c. 0
d. 1

10. A three-phase, 460V motor is drawing a current of 52 amps. The motor has an efficiency
rating of 94% and a power factor of 80%. Determine the horsepower.

a. 35HP
b. 60HP
c. 42HP
d. 51 HP

Answer the following review questions from electricity one-seven.

11. Review questions page 3-32

5.

9.

12. Review questions page 3-87

5.

7.

3
r

ADVANCED SCR MAINTENANCE COURSE

Additional Exercise Questions:

An SCR System has 600:1 CTs

0-1500 full scale KW & KVAR meters
The TP1 voltage measured on the power limit board is 6.0VDC

What is the power limit board setting for KW _---jCfi'-"CP"--=-tJ ?

Given: TP18 =TP6

TP1 = TP6 x 1.25 -----Therefore TP6 = TP1
1.25
=
KW TP18 x C.T. Ratio
3.2

An SCR system has 800:1 CTs

0-2000 full scale KW & KVAR & Amp meters
The TP4 voltage measured on the power limit board is 7.25V

What is the ITot.' setting in amps _ _!...I-l~_q-/£.".L<h,,---_?

Where would you set generator breaker to trip?

Given: Z12-6 =TP7

TP7 =TP4
? I- r c>
__:- ~ B
ITOTAL = Z12-6 x C.T. Ratio ~
3.1
I L{ 9h

)
 ,- •
'"
ROSS HILL
Oil( OF NATIONAL-OILWELL

Checking Deadbands

1. OPEN SCR BREAKER OR SWITCH•

•
2. REMOVE THE REFERENCE & CONTACTOR INPUTS FROM THE PINS OF
THE MODULE. (REFER TO YOUR LOGIC & MODULE PRINTS TO VERIFY)

3. CONNECT A JUMPER BETWEEN PINS 154 (-14V) AND THE CONTACTOR

r INPUT PIN ON THE MODULE. (DO NOT'USE AN ALLIGATOR CLIP ON PIN
154 UNLESS IT IS INSULATED).

I . j..~tf\~~u.~. CONNECT A JUMPER FROM THE WIPER OF THE MANUAL VOLTS POT.
(IV f;~VO THE REFERENCE INPUT PIN.

1jb",J~ ~. MONITOR THE VOLTAGE AT THE REFERENCE INPUT PIN AND TP8.
SLOWLY TURN THE MANUAL VOLTS CONTROL KNOB CWo THE
VOLTAGE AT THE REFERENCE INPUT WILL START AT -5V, CONTINUE TO
ROTATE THE MANUAL VOLTS CONTROL KNOB UNTIL THE THROTTLE
VOLTAGE, REFERENCE INPUT, CROSSES -W, AT THIS REFERENCE
VOLTAGE TP8 SHOULD CROSS OV. (TOLERANCE + OR - .1V)

CHECKING RRENT LIMITS

1... OPEN SCB REAKER OB SWITCH.

REMOVE THE REFERENCE & CONTACTOR INPUTS FROM THE PINS OF

THE MODULE. (REFER TO YOUR LOGIC & MODULE PRINTS TO VERIFY)

3. CONNECT A JUMPER BETWEEN PINS 154 (-14V) AND THE CONTACTOR

INPUT PIN ON THE MODULE. (DO NOT USE AN ALLIGATOR CLIP ON PIN
154 UNLESS IT IS INSULATED).

- ,If i ~. AtSO C6NNECT THE -1l!V EBOM PIN 154 TO ;rH~ Rr;;r;;r;;Rr;;NCEJNPUT~
fJllll' fi~/t' II( iII W0lJLD BE BEST TO eHECK THE CURRENT LIMIT. USING THE
,,~{..t'li I BO::r::r:LE INPl:J:r; FRO R DRILLER'S CONSOLE I T S EOSSIBLE
~O~tPI IJRI'-I T-I=lE TI;:l OnLE TO THE FULL CW POSITION

~ ~~~ SING AIlrGl C MET.EB 1It10NITOR TP8 AND RECORD THE NEGATIVE
,r:{/ VOLTA:GE T. :fP8. COMPARE J IS VOLTAGE WITH THE CURRENT IMIT
it e
\rA1: E.1f'llSCRIBED THE TOP OF THE MODULE.

DO NOT ATTEMPT TO CHANGE THE CURRENT LIMIT WITHOUT

PERMISSION FROM YOUR COMf)A V. CALL, FAX OR EMAIL ROSS HILL,
IEYOU HAVE "ROBLEMS WITH HIS PROCEDURE.
 Ross Hill Dlv of Nallonal-Ollwall
Advanced Electricians Course

Practice exercise
Determine which SCR Is defective
...............
A+
A+
B-
C-
.
B+ C- MisFire
B+ A-
C+ A-
C+ B-

CH 2 of Oscilloscope .~
Pin 131 of DC Module

Waveform #5
See drawing
.2000116,
1,. CH1 on OC test point TP1
Sheet 3 of 50 __--'

~
A+8-
0
B+ C-
0
C+ A-
0
120 120 120

A+ C- B+ A- C+ 8-
0 0 0
120 120 120

Place Channel 1 on Test Point in Firing circuits

for SCRs.
TP1 is A+
TP2 is A-
T83 is 8+ Refer to drawing 2000116
TP4 is 8- Sheet 3 of 5
TP5 is C+
TP6 is C-
 ROSS HILL
DIV. OF NATIONAL OILWELL

CHECKING & ADJUSTING THE ROTARY TABLE CURRENT LIMIT

1. OPEN SCR BREAKER OR SWITCH.

2. REMOVE THE CONTACTOR INPUT FROM THE PIN 129 OF THE DC

MODULE. (REFER TO YOUR LOGIC & MODULE PRINTS TO VERIFY)

3. CONNECT A JUMPER BETWEEN PINS 154 (-14V) AND THE CONTACTOR

INPUT PIN 129 ON THE MODULE. (DO NOT USE AN ALLIGATOR CLIP ON
PIN 154 UNLESS IT IS INSULATED).

4. TURN THE ROTARY TABLE HAND THROTTLE TO MAXIMUM (FULL CW

POSITION. VERIFY THE ROTARY THROTTLE VOLTAGE IS ARRIVING AT 1
THE DC MODULE PIN 130. (THE THROTTLE VOLTAGE SHOULD BE -7.5V ,,
OR GREATER).

5. TURN THE ROTARY TABLE CURRENT LIMIT KNOB TO MINIMUM (THE

FULL CCW POSITION). VERIFY PIN 128 OF THE MODULE IS OV. USING A
DIGITAL METER MONITOR THE TP8 VOLTAGE. THE VOLTAGE SHOULD
BE GREATER THAN -.25V BUT LESS THAN -.5V. IF NOT ADJUST THE
VALUE OF RESISTOR R73.

6. TURN THE ROTARY CURRENT LIMIT KNOB TO ITS MAXIMUM SETTING

(FULL CW POSITION) VERIFY PIN 128 OF THE MODULE IS -7.5V OR
GREATER. MONITOR THE NEGATIVE DC VOTAGE AT TP8. THE TP8
VOLTAGE IS -.511/100A. THEREFORE THE TP8 VOLTAGE TO SET THE
CURRENT LIMIT TO 1400ADC IS 14 X -.511V OR -7.15V. THE UPPER
CURRENT LIMIT IS SET BY SELECTING THE VALUE OF R23. IF THE
VOLTAGE AT TP8 IS LOW R23 CAN BE SELECTED BY PARALLELING A
DECADE RESISTANCE BOX WITH PRESENT VALUE OF R23.

THE CURRENT LIMIT SETTING FOR THE VOLTAGE MEASURED AT TP8

=
CAN BE DETERMINED BY: TP8/.511 X 100 CURRENT LIMIT AMPS.

CAUTION: CHANGING THE CURRENT LIMIT REQUIRES SOLDERING IN

THE DC MODULE. INCORRECT SOLDERING EQUIPMENT AND THE
WRONG TYPE SOLDER CAN DAMAGE THE MODULE. THE SOLDERING
IRON SHOULD BE LESS THAN 50W AND HAVE A PROPERLY TINNED TIP.
USE ONLY ROSIN CORE SOLDER. ALWAYS VERIFY CURRENT LIMIT TP8
VOLTAGE AFTER ADJUSTMENT.
1
) DO NOT ATTEMPT TO CHANGE THE CURRENT LIMIT WITHOUT i,

PERMISSION FROM YOUR COMPANY. CALL OR FAX ROSS HILL

CONTROLS IF YOU HAVE PROBLEMS WITH THIS PROCEDURE.
 -- ._. "-" -_. .
REVISIONS

"'~UL:
_I4V
MANUAl
VOlTS
SCIl
'U,
ce

c;'1'!·J---<.......".~O:Eh ..[!:::I}-+-lI--f-ra.=->'h.~,-r'.-~,n-­
REV
,
•
(CN
02230~ REl(ASED
CHHO AOO pelo
lXSClhpnQH ..
r.'L .....,,
e(AT. REl. OAf( Rtl.
0-11-91

DC UOOUL(
e CH6H 51] YlAS 51 .... ,\()()(O 1. '"'
... ~V.
1-2~-91

.!.'2.'S'.Ji'2.
RL'
ORILUNG ENABt..[O
_ 14\' ~~I ~'~ ..! ...._..". r7=j""1- __
~aa I ., ~

RL'
PURCE lOSS
ORC 1
-14\1 @=iC:-...._,r..~, ~7~,,....~OR~·'-_- _
·~I· n
I

79
iri'_-C'[J"J--I<I-~""-[}'=-!"G------,","--\
'n 1000. 1!2W

I
I
"

'
L 79.50
'0011. '/2_
O:'-='u-1<:I-....,"'colJ'=-}'~'I---+---,.,...-{
..
I-Ie

"
119 91

1-18
. Rll GIVES INQlCATION AND AlA.RW ($ PeR(;( lOSSjF'M.URE.
IiOIflEVER. tilE CQNTRlX, $'JPPI.li,;S AND SCA: ORCUIT BR(AI<F;RS
". ARE NOl lRl,-PEO orr.
THIS D£CISION IoIU51 BE fM[N BY THE
ORllUR 10 K[EP OAIlLlHC CP(RA"QNS A! SAfE AS POSSIBlE.
ONCE TH( DRILLER SHUTS DiE SCA $l'ST(\l OO~ ...." [1oI[AC(NCy
1-20 orr I'lJ$HBUTTON. THE PUAC{ S£CU[NC[ MUST B( REPEAlEO to
~A8L( T1o((
EN' CClHSa,t AND SCR Aff(A PRESSURIZATiOH HAS aEEN
R(1\JRN(O TO NORI,IAl.

THE ORUERS CONSOlE IS loIONllOR(Il 8" OlrrtRENftAL PRESSURE

S'lilITO! (5''') 'ilT TO '~I,I t:F WAfER CAUCl. 'M'iEN lH£ CONSOlE
r. _ IS PRESSURIZED AN INTRINSlC..... l,. SAI'E PO>KR suvPl" ACROSS
SI .. IS S'lIlITCHEO. [NERClZ:NC RL' IN LACW SeA CU9IQ.E.
SCR2
I AfTER 10 MINUTES PUqC!NC U COtfSOlE. Tfl("-PN(UWAnc nl,4l/iC
...ALV( nUES OUT, M.LO'fllNC CONSOU: TO PRESSURIZE.
,U,
SCR C8
I PINS ~ AHD 0 0'" OAILURS COf'olSOl.E 19' ~RU TBe ARE ZENER
8-~ 40 H BARRlr,R PR01(Cl£O INT~IN5ICAUl' SAfE 'I\IRINC fOR 'air
OPERAlrON O!" D!ff[REHIIAl. <>RESSUR( Sv.I:C;4.

", I ,. RELAYS lOCATED IN SCR CI;81ClE5 """-l NOT PERUlf \IOI.TA(,E to

APPEAR CN ORlll£ns CONSOl£ :Bl :HRu 19' P1",S 1 lHRIJ ..

~
DRllllNC E!IIA8LEO UNTil. PlIRC:E ''''I£RlOClC. $T'ST(W HAS 1'1,1£0 0111 AND ptllWI$S1VE
_1 ..... ~If-'''~V'-_~.~, --col RELAYS IN EAe.. SeR l-iAVE BEEN \I.v4UAlLT ACTUATED. Al.l DflorR
SI(;NAI.S eN lB' TIolRU Tao ,o.R( QUTPlJTS O(Rl'o1:D rROI.l PIN J ($I
elECTRONICALlT OISABl(D 1,1(0(" SIGNALS-
L [» 5([ OWC. lIlll-021-DO. SOl CV9'C'..E SCHEl,IAnc

'"
PURe( lOSS
ORe 1
p",

7 ...... ~4
-'4V PC1-"0

"" 70

ROSS H~ll CO~lROlS

" ""
,-, 'ocn, 1/2IN
1-11
.. ,~:z
j}'c•.. n

.
RV I~JO W. 5Al,I MO\JS1ON PARIlWA" N.

4000 (AST LUVEIUOH CooRf

(1'Jl "U-9Me
• ANAHEIU.
(IU) 'JO~al0:Z
• HOUSTON. TEIlA!

CAllrOA:~IIA
110U

nOO1

" THIS IS A PROPIII("FART OESICfI or noss to"'L CONTROLS

CORP~AtIOH, REfJJ100\JCTlQN Olt ....i( Of THIS OfSl(;N BY
OThERS IS P(R>,I15S1BL[ ONl v II [Xf'II.E~Sl l' A\JTHOflIUO IN
""lTrNO aT $I~S'!! HILL CONTROLS COIlPO'IATIOH.
,:-{ 1-'; t)NLESS OTH(A\\ISt: ::iPr.CIFI(O:
• 01I,1EN5ION5 ARt IN lNc~n
10011. ijU' • 'o..(RMC(
19.90
H '-12 ,IU;.1 .11.... 01 IlIlllt:.OO) rRACH/1t me.I/l'
" CERTlrlEO COAREC' rOR PAOAet hOIEO.
B~ OA~

""
I-US '. " SCHEMA TlC-PURCE LOSS AND SCR SHUTDOWN
'"
\-20
ORA~
81' 1 LUKE
eN, OAT!
C=~D
'-11-9'
JA[ UC
,
" OAT '0-'-91 6213
;1".
 ADVANCED RIG ELECTRICIANS COURSE
SYSTEM INFORMATION WORKBOOK

1. The oscilloscope displays electrical signals on the screen of the cathode

ray tube. As shown in Figure 1 the evacuated glass envelope contains
an which produces a beam of electrons and
__________ whi cll are used to defect the
beam of electrons.
Fluorescent
Screen

Spot of
light

Evocuoted
Gloss
Envelope

Fi gure 1

2. Explain the advantage of using a X10 probe to make measurements with the
oscilloscope _

3. Examine the following waveform and determine the phase angle of the points
identified, refer to Figure 2.

A 0 degrees
B (,l degrees

c.. 0

A B

Figure 2

C 0 degrees
0"
D (,l degrees
44
(1I
Advanced Rig Electricians Workbook

4. Measurement errors due to circuit loading, refer to Figure 3, answer the

following questions.

R,
.----"v"'vv-----,~ - - -
I D I"
-'- 20,00051../-,./
IOV Rz.. '> 10k VQ

Figure 3

a. Before the YOM is placed across R2 the voltage drop of R2 would

be V?
b. Assume the YOM has a 5V scale, if the meter is on the 5V scale and
placed across R2 the voltage will measure V.

5. Draw the waveform and label the parts required to complete the horizontal
trace on the oscilloscope.

6. What does the term PRY mean?

(2)

45
Advance Rig Electricians Workbook

7. A diode has the following ratings and specifications at 50·C.

PRY 400 volts
VRDC 350 vol ts
IF 500ma
VF .3V at 100ma

a. What is the maximum allowable DC reverse voltage for this diode?

b. What is the maximum allowable instanteous reverse voltage

, that
may be applied across this diode?
c. What is maximum current this diode can safely carry?

8. The most popular application of a Zener Diode is a __

9. Refer to the diagram of the Power Limit Card, Rev. H••

a. The transistor Q2 is a type transistor.
b• The ba se 0 f Q2 mu st be dri ve n ina ___
direction to turn Q2 on.

1O. Another way of referri ng to KW is to call it ?

11. At what test point in the AC module can we measure a voltage proportional
to KW TP _

12. What is the maximum voltage for a KW signal to be measured at test point
of Que st ion 11? ___

13. The test point of Question 11 feeds Pin of the AC Module.

14. The voltage at TP1 in the AC module is called the __

(3)

46
Advanced Rig Electricians Workbook

15. A measurement of volt at TPl in the AC module should

correspond to maximum exciter current.

16. The voltage at TP12 in the AC module is called _

_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _,. At 600VAC it will measure about VDC.

17. Protective circuits in the AC module control a that

removes the trip voltage from Pin of the module
to drop the generator off-line.

18. The AC Control Module fuses can cause

- - - - - - - - , if one of them
is open. Their fuse numbers in the training print system are ,
and ?
-------
19. Actuator current may be determined by _

20. The Tach Signal can be measured _

21. If the Tach Signal is lost the engine will not , the
most likely cause of a lost Tach Signal is _

22. How would you verify Reverse Power Trip circuit in the AC Module functions?

23. The cable that carries power to the Drillers Console for the Power Limit
Light leaves the SCR System from Terminal Strip located
in the Cubi cl e.
Advanced Rig Electricians Workbook

24. The 110 VAC supplied to the Drillers Console for operation of auxiliary
functions in MCC Blowers, Rod Oilers, etc. is furnished by transformer
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ located and fused by fuse(s}

25. What inputs must be received at the DC Module in order to run the Rotary
Table _
What module pin numbers are in-
volved ? At what test point in the DC
Module could you measure to verify amount of current module is requesting

26. The approximate torque developed by the series type traction motor at a
current of 1000 Amperes is ___

27. The torque developed by a Shunt motor is related to _

assuming a constant field current.

28. Why is Sprocket Slip utilized?

--------------------

29. In case of an emergency, where it becomes necessary to run a Mud Pump and
the Sprocket Slip Card is defective. What would you do? __

30. To verify the Sprocket Slip HEDs are phased properly, an oscilloscope may
be used, explain this procedure.

48
Advanced Rig Electricians Workbook

31. Draw a Current Feedback Waveform, if an SCR is misfiring.

32. N Feedback is feedback?

33. N Feedback is developed at the rate of approximately RPM.

34. A measurement of the TP9 voltage in the DC module indicates -lOVDC. What
does this mean?
a. The SCR Bridge is _
b. Transistor Ql is turned
------------
35. The DC module is in zero throttle interlock, the circuit will not reset,
but the module must be used. Diode may be removed to
restore operation.

36. What is deadband and why is it used?

37. Whay do we use an Active Field Supply? _

49
Advanced Rig Electricians Workbook

38. The amount of armature current unbalance that will trip the Field Loss
Relay is about __

39. Firing circuits in the AC and DC module and on the Field Supply Regulator
Card are all similiar. They create a firing • A
firing pulse is developed when the firing reference crosses the firing

40. The difference between the DC module when using Series motors and Shunt
mo to r i s ___

50
 I 6 PULSE RECTIFIER CURRENT
. .
I
30% DISTORTION
, ,........
? r-:,,
.~ I I
',U ~: I
I
I
I
I I
~ 'll I I

~¢
I
,
I ,
I I
,
~~ 'f, ,,
Q:',~
I
I
,, ,,
,,
I
,
~0J~ : '--- '--- : I,vw,
I
:.\vvv.

PHASE CURRENT + 13th = 1/13

t
FOURIER ANALYSIS

fv-II
t
fJ~"/.J
I I
, ,,, ,
f\NI : I ,

I
I ,,,
\' . ~ , J
I
,
(\fl~(,?<(;-- I' '• ~ ,,
'\~ ~ ~
\9 - 1-
I J---+-r '( jt \, 1, ,
V 1\ J---+- ,
,
I
I
I
I
I
I
,, 'vv-J ,' :""'"
~ t)\;
~
~ FUNDAMENT AL + 5th = 1/5 + 7th = 1/7 + 11th = 1/11
GJj®0 ;I @ @ 1~
/ ® @ ai @ @ /
27

TRAINING 116

»
 KW
1 COMMERCIAL
PF = .95 PF -.95
16300V SOURCE
KVAAs
I 30% DISTORTION
SUPPLIED LBS1 600A
BY PFC
125E FUSES
LEAD KVARs LAG KVARs

16300V : 600V
2500KVA PHASE CURRENT
3 fif, 60Hz FOURIER ANALYSIS
6,.: y
A
HI-LINE
t
4000:5 PC
I IVOLT8;.

04 - 6S6MCM
PER PHASE
----(:
KW HR
4000:5
TRANSDUCER I l~:
FUNDAMENT AL + 5th'" 1/5 + 7th" 1/7

4000:5 KVAR
Gl®0/®@ 15 .'11',
"'"
19'
''J
21

1 X 2AW13 d.
PER PHASE A XI Calculator
A
v
65000 INT. s
150AF CB2 X 636 MOM
FB1 ) 40AT o ) 3000AT
200000 INT. ,(
v
PER PHASE

1 X 2AWB 4 - 6S6MCM ---<D

PER PHASE PER PHASE 65000 INT.
CB1 ) 2500AT POWER FACTOR CORRECTOR CUBICLE

75KV A \..A..A.AJ '"" , ) ". ~) ".~) "'o~ 0-100DV I

ooo~"rov ~ ~~~
i i
750:1 6

I
CB2 ) 1200AT CB3 :)800AT

~
127/220V
3 Ill. 4W, 60HZ
100A
c,," '"""',,
LAGGING KVAAs

8
KVAR

sooO-O-SOOOKVAR
2 - 600A
PER LEG

.8 uH
38 uH

1"5 X 200KVAR

5TH TRAP
J 32 uH

=T'3 X 200KVAR

7TH TRAP

..... POWER FACTOR CORRECTOR & HARMONIC FILTERS

 FOR OET AILS SEE THE AC
REGULA TOR SCHEMA TIC
2000128, SHEET 3 OF 5.

512-517 Frequency Demodulator r""

-16V FROM Speed "-J
503 ON AC 526 & 527 Magnetic Pickup ,'---"
Feedback
+llVDC MODULE

c-eTP19 Magnetic
-2.5V @ 60Hz TP21 TP22 Pickup
1111111111

533 I
..
-16V~
. 547
) , ) I~ > ) [Actuator j ENGINE

_L'

OV
_y
-.-L

I
544

543
I
,'
OUT
(
.•.
~
-

r'
i

IN
)
Q4
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SOLID STATE DEVICES

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8
Silicon-Controlled Rectifier

Just as P- and N-type semiconductor materials can form a two-layer PN device

(diode), other smiconductor devices are built with three or more alternate
1ayers of P and N materi al s. Nost transi stors are three-l ayer devi ces of
either PNP or NPN structure and contain two PN junctions. Four layers create
a PNPN device, which has three junctions. A large number of applications have
been found for the four-layer devices, since these units have charcteristics
which make them superior to the two- and three-layer devices for control
acti ons.

The SILICON-CONTROLLED RECTIFIER (SCR) is a four-layer (PNPN) semiconductor

device having three electrodes: a CATHODE, an ANODE, and an electrode called
the GATE, as shown in Figure 1 along with its schematic symbol. The term
RECTIFIER is used for devices which conduct current in one direction, such as
the junction diode. The SCR differs from the diode rectifier in that it will
not conduct from cathode to anode until a certain minimum voltage is
exceeded. The value of this potential can be varied or controlled by a
voltage applied to the gate electrode of the SCR. This control characteristic
makes the SCR useful as a power controlling device in high power circuits.

Figure 2 shows the SCR connected in a circuit. The supply voltage causes the
anode to be positive with respect to the cathode (forward bias). The
resulting electrostatic field causes electrons to be attracted towards the
anode and holes toward the cathode. In section S4, holes are repelled by the
positive anode potential and move toward junction Jl. In section S3,
electrons move toward junction Jl. Jl is forward biased. A similar action
takes place in sections Sl and S2 to forward bias J3. Electrons in section S3
and holes in section S2 move away from junction J2, or J2 is reverse biased.
Conduction from cathode to anode is prevented by the reverse bias. The SCR is
now in its nonconducting or OFF state.

9
 Silicon-Controlled Rectifier (Cont'd.)

ANOOE
I
p ANODE
ANODE
000
P "L
I'
tt+ ... tt+
J1 - FORWARD
N BIASED

11 N

GA TE 000 J2 - REVERSE
p BIASED
CATE 12 000 p
GATE CATHODE tt......
j3 _ FORWARD
BIASED
N
I' N

000
I (ATHODE
- CATHODE
-
A. PICTORIAL B. SCHEMATIC
DIAGRAM DIAGRAM
Figure 1 Figure 2

Conduction (or the ON state) can be achieved by one of two means. The first
is to increase the anode to cathode potential until the SCR breaks over into
conduction. The potential at which this breakover occurs is called the
FORWARD BREAKOYER POTENTIAL. Forward breakover is based on the following
concept. Electrons (from section Sl) cross forward biased J3, attracted by
the positive anode potential. If Sl is more heavily doped than S2 and the
anode potential is sufficiently large, some of the electrons crossing J3 will
NOT find holes to combine with. The free electrons outnumber the holes. This
condition is called SATURATION. Those electrons that do not combine act like
minority carriers, since they are electrons in P-type material. These
electrons the "see" J2 as being forward biased, and they cross on over J2 and
enter section S3. This is the same action that occurs in a transistor at the
base to collector junction. Jl is forward biased and the electrons move on to
the anode and out to the battery, completing the path for current flow. If
electrons continue to be in excess in S2 (S2 now has many free electrons and
no holes), sections Sl, S2, and S3 will act like a single piece of N-type
material. Since the anode (S4) is P-type material, the overall effect is as
if we now have a single forward biased PN junction at J1.

10
Silicon-Controlled Rectifier (Cont'd.)

The SCR remains in the high conduction (ON) condition until the current drops
to a value below that necessary to supply more than enough electrons from Sl
to S2 to combine with and cancel all of the holes in S2. This minimum current
is called HOLDING CURRENT. When the holes in S2 outnumber the free electrons
arriving from Sl, conduction stops. J2 reverts to a reverse biased junction.

The second means of achieving conduction involves the use of the gate
electrode. A small positive potential on the gate will cause conduction.
Refer to Figure 3. Notice that the gate terminal is tied to section S2. With
a positive potential at the gate, electrons will be drawn out of Sl and into
S2. The positive gate potential is aiding the anode potential. Some of these
electrons will combine with holes in S2 and gate current (IG) will flow.
Others will move toward the anode. If enough electrons are drawn from 51 to
cancel all the holes in S2, anode conduction will occur. The SCR has been
gated ON. The more positive the gate potential is made, the lower the anode
to cathode voltage required for conduction.

ANODE

P S4 RL

Jl
SUPPLY
VOLTAGE
N S3

J2
GATE S2
P

J3
V3 N Sl

CATHODE

-
~

Figure 3

11
Silicon-Controlled Rectifier (Cont'd.)

Figure 4 shows two curves, one with zero gate current (IG1=O) and one with
positive gate voltage and gate current (IG2)' Observe that the breakover
voltage point with IG2 is at a lower anode voltage than with IG1' The VOLTS
FORWARD represents the anode to cathode voltage. If the gate current is
increased sufficiently to saturate section S2, current flows through the SCR
even with very low anode to cathode voltages applied.

HIGH CONDUCTION
C F
U 0 HDLDING
RR CURRENT BREAKOVER
RW CURRENT

--- ------
E A
NR
T D ---
VOL TS REVERSE
•

j
V~L;S FORWARD BREAKOVER
VOLTAGE
U E
RV
RE
ER
NS
T E

Figure 4

After the silicon-controlled rectifier is turned ON by the gate voltage, the

current flow through the SCR is independent of gate voltage or gate current.
It remains in the high conduction state until the anode current is reduced
below the holding current value. The SCR can also be turned off by reversing
the polarity of voltage from anode to cathode. With reverse bias, Jl and J3
become reverse biased and- only a small leakage current will flow. If an
excessive reverse bias is applied, structure breakdown will occur due to
avalanche current; and the SCR will be destroyed.

Another solid-state device used extensively in radio and radio equipment is

the Operational Amplifier. It is discussed in the next section.

12
Operational Amplifier

An OPERATIONAL Ar~LIFIER (multi-transistor integrated circuit) is basically an

amplifier circuit that can have an extremely high voltage gain; is directly
coupled internally has a very high input resistance; and a very low output
resistance; and, when used in an actual circuit, has external degenerative
feedback. Its versatility allows it to be used in a variety of applications;
video amplifiers, RF amplifiers, voltage comparison networks, differentiation,
integration, summation, and other applications. The following discussion on
operational amplifiers will be devoted to the terms and modes of operation of
these devices.

The schematic diagram of an operational ampliifier is shown in Figure 5. It

consi sts of a tri angl e Iti th three 1eads. The 1ead comi ng off the poi nt of the
triangle is the output lead. The other two leads are inputs. The one that
has the plus sign is called the NONINVERTING input lead. The one that has the
minus sign is called the INVERTING input lead. The plus and minus signs do
not represent the polarity of input signals. They are used to indicate
whether or not inversion takes place between the input and output. The plus
sign indicates that a signal applied to that lead will be amplified but will
not be inverted on the output lead. Conversely, the minus sign indicates that
a signal applied to that lead will be amplified AND inverted on the output
1ead.

OP At1PS are not limited to one per integrated circuit package. In Figure 6,
there are two op amps in a single integrated circuit.

INVERTING INPUT LEAD

~ OUTPUT
INPUT LEADS
LEAD

i
NONINVERTING INPUT LEAD

Figure 5

13
Operational Amplifier (Cont'd.)

IN-I 2 IN-2 5
lOUT 1 70UT 2
IN+l 3 + IN+2

VCC=PIN 4
BOTTOM VIEW
GNO=PIN 8

Fi gure 6

Another example of multiple packaging is the guad op amp in a single

"dual-in-l ine package" (DIP). Refer to Figure 7.

OUT IN- IN+ IN+ IN- OUT

4 4 4 GND 3 3 3

DIP - TOP VIEW

OUT IN- IN+ v IN+ IN- OUT
1 lIce 2 2 2

Fi gure 7

One characteristic of the operational amplifier is its OPEN LOOP voltage

gain. This term identifies the voltage gain of the operational amplifier
without any feedback connected. As an example, an open loop voltage gain of
70,000 means that when a signal is applied to one of the input leads, the
output signal will be 70,000 times larger than the input signal. Another
example: an open loop voltage gain of 250,000 means the output is 250,000
times larger than the input. The phase relationship between the input and
output will be determined by the input lead that is used.

14
Operational Amplifier (Cont'd).

In the previous discussion, only one input signal was considered. That is, a
signal was applied to one of the input leads and no signal was applied to the
other lead.

There will be times when one signal will be applied to the inverting lead and
a second signal will be applied to the noninverting lead, and these signals
will be present at the same time. This arrangement is called the DIFFERENTIAL
or COMMON MODE OPERATION. When the two signals are equal in amplitude and in
phase, the output of the operational amplifier will be zero. When the two
0
input signals are equal in amplitude but 180 out of phase, the output signal
will be maximum. If one signal is 10 millivolts, the other signal is 15
millivolts, and they are in phase, the difference between the two is 5
millivolts; and this is what the operational amplifier will amplify.

Most operational amplifiers use two power sources, one positive and one
negative, so that the input and output terminals are near zero volts. This is
illustrated in Figure 8. The absolute value of these source voltages will be
chosen to allow both the input and output terminals to be near zero volts.
This simplifies the design of feedback networks.

o VOL TS DC
o VOL TS DC
o VOL TS DC

Figure 8

15
Ideally, the input resistance of an amplifier circuit should be infinitely
large (an open) and the output resistance should be infinitely small (a
short). The input resistance is very high and the output resistance is .very
low in most operational amplifiers. As examples, an input resistance of 700k
ohms and an output of 150 ohms, or an input resistance of 10 megohms and an
output resistance of 100 ohms. These are typical values for operational
amplifiers.

Because of their high gain characteristic, operational amplifiers will break

into oscillations when they are used in the open loop configuration. To
prevent oscillation and ·to provide certain other desirable features, most
operational amplifiers are connected in a CLOSED LOOP configuration. A closed
loop configuration refers to the fact that degeneration is present in the
circuit (feeding a portion of the output signal back to the input so that is
opposes the input signal).

The first closed loop arrangement that will be discussed in the noninverting
mode of operation. The circuit is shown in Figure 9. The input signal to the
circui t is applied to the noninverting lead. The output of the circuit is
taken from the output lead. Also, a portion of the output signal is applied
through RF (feedback resistor) and developed across RI (input resistor) and is
applied to the inverting input lead. The feedback signal will have the same
frequency and same phase as the original input signal on the noninverting
lead. In fact, the only difference between the two signals will be their
amplitude, and that will be controlled by the feedback network, RF and RI'
Since this is degenerative feedback, the voltage gain of the circuit will be
less than the open loop gain of the operational amplifier, but the circuit
will now be very stable. Using Figure 9 as the circuit, values will be
assigned to the feedback resistors and then the voltage gain of the circuit
will be calculated. In the first example, assume RF is lOOk ohms and RI is lk
ohm. The formula for finding the voltage gain in this circuit is:

16
Operational Amplifier (Cont'd.)

Substituting the values into the formula gives:

AV = 100 x 10 3 + 1 x 10 3
1 x 103
= 101

The resulting circuit is one that will provide a voltage gain of 101 and it
will not invert the signal.

FEEDBACK
SIGNAL

OUTPUT
SIGNAL
INPUT
SIGNAL

Figure 9

In a case where RF is 200k ohms and RI is 500 ohms, the resulting voltage gain
is 401. So to determine the voltage gain of an operational amplifier
connected in the noninverting mode of operation, simply add the value of RF to
RI and then divide by RI'

Another configuration that an operational amplifier can be connected in is the

INVERTING mode of operation, shown in Figure 10. Notice once again that
degenerative feedback is present. The amount of degeneration will be
controlled by the size of RF and RI' Also notice that the input signal is
applied through RI to the inverting input lead. The voltage gain of this
circuit, inverting mode of operation, can be determined by using the formula
AV ; RF/RI' Suppose RF is lOOk ohms and RI is lk ohm. The voltage gain in
this example is 100. This means that the input signal will be amplified by a
0
factor of 100 and the output signal will be inverted by 180 from the input
signal. As another example, when RF is 500k ohms and RI is 500 ohms, the
voltage gain of the circuit is 1000.

17
Operational Amplifier (Cont'd.)

INPUT
SIGNAL ~ OUTPUT
SIGNAL

Figure 10

Another possible configuration for the operational amplifier is a in a circuit

that provides a voltage gain of one and it does not shift the phase of the
signal. This connection is called a VOLTAGE FOLLOWER and is shown in Figure
11. In this circuit, the input signal is applied to the noninverting input
lead, and the degenerative feedback is present on the inverting lead. This
will provide a voltage gain of one and will not invert the signal. Circuits
like these are used where a high input resistance is required and no phase
shift is wanted. This can be used any place a common collector configuration
will normally be used.

OUTPUT
INPUT SIGNAL

SIGNAL

Figure 11

18
Operational Amplifier (Cont'd.)

Another circuit, which is very similar, is shown in Figure 12. This is the
basic inverting mode of operation, but RF is now equal to RI' In this
arrangement, the voltage gain will be one (using the previous formula for the
inverting mode of operation), and the output signal will be inverted. This
circuit also provides a high input resistance and a low output resistance.

INPUT

SIGNAL OUTPUT

SIGNAL

RF = RI
INVERTING GAIN OF 1

Figure 12

When an operational amplifier is connected to receive two input signals at the

same time, it is said to be connected in a differential input or a COMMON MODE
operation. A typical circuit is shown in Figure 13.

R2

INPUT 1 Rl
OUTPUT
INPUT 2 R3
SIGNAL

R4

Figure 13

The voltage gain is assumed to be the same for both input signals. An example
would be when Rl is lk ohm, R2 is 1 megaohm. R3 is lk ohm, and R4 is 1
megaohm. From input 1 to the output, the gain will be equal to the ratio of
R2/Rl or 1000. From input 2 to the output, the gain will be equal to:

19
 R4/R3 + R4 approximately .999

multiplied by the gain of the noninverting mode of operation:

(Rl + R2)/Rl 1001

which e'luals a voltage gain of 1000. So the voltage gain for each input
signal is the same.

When input signals 1 and 2 are e'lual in amplitude and are in phase with each
other, the output will be zero (the difference between the two input signals
times the voltage gain).

When input 1 is 2 millivolts peak to peak and input 2 is 1.5 millivolts peak
to peak, and they are in phase, the output will be the difference between the
two input signals multiplied by the gain of the circuit. The output amplitude
will be maximum when the two signals are 180' out of phase.

Photo-Cells

A light-sensitive semiconductor may be used as a photoconductive element. A

PHOTCONDUCTIVE cell is used as a variable resistance. The battery (Figure 14)
is used to reverse-bias the photoconductive cell. Without light exposure, a
"dark current" of, perhaps, 4 microamps flows through the circuit.

When light rays strike the P-N junction, conduction through the diode increase
(Figure 14A, B, and C). In a typical photoconductive cell, a moderate amount
of light produces about 300 microamps of current for a battery voltage of 30
volts. The ratio of dark resistance to light resistance in a photoconductive
cell is usually greater than 100 to 1. In a photoconductive cell, primary
concern is with the amount of change in resistance that can be produced for a
given change in light exposure.

20
 Photo-Cells (Cont'd.l

I
L-._ _
RL OUTPUT
..:-:..II..,:+_......__~
•

LE "S ...--CASE

~
~
LICH'T
SOURCE

B
~
P
h- I- - II: +
RL
;.
OUTPUT

Figure 14A, B. C

Figure 15 illustrates the schematic symbol for the Photocell Diode.

Figure 15

21
Light Emitting Diode (LED)

Some lighted numeral displays (for calculators, adding machines, clocks, etc.)
make use of the light-emitting diode (LED). Figure 16 illustrates schematic
symbol for the LED.

~D~TIO~B~D HEAT

ENERGY ABSORBEDt FORBIDDEN I '. /{NERGY

. REGION • ~ELEASED
oVALENCE
0 0 0 ·PL~~r.9N
BAND .",... T

Figure 16 Figure 17

Light generation in a semiconductor occurs when an excited electron in the

conduction band resumes equilibrium by combining with a hole in the valence
band. The junction diode provides a simple and efficient means of placing
large numbers of electrons in an excited state. In order for an electrical
current to cross the junction, electrons must be raised from the valence to
the conduction band. After the junction has been crossed, the electrons fall
into holes on the P side, releasing electromagnetic energy as heat and light
(Figure 17).

When used in numeral displays, seven LEOs are required for each numerical
digit. A seven-segment device, as shown in Figure 18, is required to produce
o through 9.

In the next section of this chapter we will discuss another solid state
device, the Varactor Diode, and see how it changes capacitance with a change
in input voltage.
I • I

"'-8 8 1--1
••

8 8 I • I
Figure 18
22
Varactor

The VARACTOR diode is a variable capacitor. To understand its principle of

operation, review the PN junction. When a PN junction is biased in the
reverse direction, the electrons in the N-type material are drawn toward the
positive battery terminal. The holes in the P-type material are drawn toward
the negative battery terminal. The carriers are pulled away from the
junction; therefore, no carriers would exist in the barrier region (Refer to
Figure 19.)

UNBIASED PN JUNCTION

L...-._ _~ 1111-_ _......

REVERSE BIASED PN JUNCTION

Figure 19

Electrical charges are held captive in the diode, separated by an area where
no carriers are present. In other words, the semiconductor diode forms a
capacitor with the N- and P-type materials acting as conductors and the
deletion region as the dielectric. The formula for capacitance is:

C = AK
-D

A = plate area
K = dielectric constant
d = distance between plates

If the reverse bias voltage is increased, carriers move further away from the
junction (distance between plates increased) and the resulting capacitance
decreases. If the reverse bias voltage is decreased, carriers move closer to
the junction, and the resulting capacitance increases. Thus, the capacitance
is dependent upon the amount of reverse bias.

23
Yaractor (Cont'd.)

This capacitive effect is present in all semiconductor diodes; it is increased

by suitable doping to produce a VAP~CTOR. A varactor (or VARICAP DIODE) is a
speci a1 type of semi conductor di ode where the capaci tance is dependent upon
the reverse bias voltage. The schematic symbol is shown in Figure 20.

Figure 20

The relationship between reverse bias voltage (VR) and capacitance for a
typical varactor is shown in Figure 21. The capacitance is determined by the
reverse voltage YR' Observe that the greatest capacitance values occur at low
values of YR' The varactor caan be used in almost any application requiring a
variable capacitor.

200
w 175
~ 150
<
~ 125
~ 10'0
ll.
< 75
u
50
25
, iii
10 20 30 40 5060 70 80 90 10011C
VR

Figure 21

24
 Dr. Zener"s Diode
... SK most people what the function of a
f t diode is and they'll say rectification-in
either a detector or a power-supply circuit.
Right they are so far. But there's one diode,
called a zener diode, which does more than
just rectify. Its primary purpose is to regulate
a voltage. The device takes its name from Dr.
Carl Zener (pronounced zee-ner), who di s-
covered what now is known as zener action
or zener effect.
Voltage regulation once was the job of gas-
filled tubes, neon lamps and vibrating me-
chanical contacts. But today the zener diode,
a rugged solid-state device which does not re-
quire a complicated circuit, does the job.
Let's see how it works and how you'd design
a circuit to operate a 9-V transistor radio
from a car's 12-V electrical system. You'll
also be able to tailor-make your own regula-
tor circuit for other applications.
Up to a point, the operation of a zener
diode is practically identical to that of a con-
ventional solid-state diode. Fig. IA shows
what goes on in a conventional forward-
biased diode and even a zener diode if it were
connected the same way. The positive baltery
terminal connected to the P-type semicon-
ductor material repels positively charged
holes and pushes them toward the junction.
The negative baltery terminal similarly
pushes free electrons in N-type material to-
ward the junction where the holes and elec-
trons combine quickly. The combining of
holes and electrons constitutes a current flow
through the diode and external circuit.
In a reverse-biased diode (Fig. IB) the
positively charged holes and negatively
charged electrons are attracted to the nega-
tive and positive terminals, respectively.
Thus, there are no electrons and holes at the
junction fo combine and, hence, there is no
current flow.
Fig. IC shows what happens with a zener
diode. The diode is connected the same way
as a reverse.biased diode. Let's see what hap-
pens now if we keep increasing the reverse-
bias voltage. At first the zener behaves just
like a conventional reverse-biased diode.

p-TrPE N-TrPE p-TrPE N-TrPE p-TrPE K-TrPE

SILICON SILICON SILICON SILICON SIL/CON SILICON
~~
~---- ----~
---~ -0--- ---~
---e--- ---~ -0--- ---~
---e--- --~ -0--- ---~
---e--- ---~ -0--- ---~
---<}--- ---~ ---~

NOLE)'; Pt-p/;;iQNZ
REGIOK £LErTlONS
'£.~;p'~~E~"~7()IIJoW
HOLE})""f'o.!-'
NINOHITr HUlON 'ELECTHONS
2.
II + CAHH/ENS III-'+--JV\;_...J
Rs
IAI FORWARD BIAS (BI REVERSE BIAS IC) ZENER ACTION
Flq. I-Actions of CODnDUonal and seDe, diodes. In A. holes cmd electrons combine at JuncUon:
current Oowa. In B. hole. and electrona are pulled from lunctlon: DO current Oowa. In reTerse·
blcued sener (Cl. hlqb neqatl...e yoltaq. on P-type material fore" m.1norlty carrien (electrons)
GeroN Junction: ther d1alodqe more electr'o2u. C'\ItNDt fiowa. Vollaqe aero.. diode b conslant.

25
That is, it appears as a high resistance in a
circuit. Reason for this is there are no free
holes and electrons combining.
But when lhe voltage finally reaches the
zener voltage, something new and different
happens. In the P-type material a few injected
electrons pick up energy from the high nega-
tive voltage. Under the influence of this high
negative voltage these electrons, wbich are
called minority carriers. become active and
cross the junction.
Let's sidetrack for a second to see what
minority carriers are. First, let's review some
semiconductor theory. In N-type semicon-
ductor material the majority carriers are
electrons. In P-type semiconductor material
the majority carriers are holes.
However, in N-type semiconductor mate-
rial there also happen to he a few holes. And
in P-type semiconductor material there are
a few electrons.
These electrons and holes, which are not
where you'd expect them to he, are called
minority carriers. Their flow in a reverse·
hiased diode constitutes something called re-
verse-saturation current. The current is of the
order of microamperes and usually is disre-
garded. (Refer to Fig. IB and you'll see that
majority carriers are now out of the picture
since they're away from the junction.)
The minority carriers (electrons in Ibe
P-type semiconductor material) get pushed
across the junction and collide with atoms in
the N-type material. A chain reaction takes
place in which the collisions knock loose
some fixed electrons, which in turn knock
loose more fixed electrons. This causes a sub-
8 age can rise to as high as 15 V, we will use
6 E. is the diode's zener voltage. You know
FORIfARO(A/
CURRENT 4
REYERSE
YOLTAfiE
15 10 5 When NYerae--blaMd (lower left quadrant) DO cur-
0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0
0.5 FORWARD-BIAS
M wW remam COD.8laDt eYeD. 1f the current throu9h
1.0 REVERSE(A/
1.5CURRENT
CONYENTIONAL DIODE
26
stantial current flow through the diode. The
process is known as electron multiplication.
That resistor R.-Iet's see what its purpose
is since it is found in all zener-diode shunt
regulator circuits. If the battery voltage is in-
creased, more current will flow through the
diode and R.. However, the voltage drop
across the resistor will increase but it will not
increase across the diode. In other words, R.
absorbs all voltage that is greater than the
diode's zener breakdown voltage. This is the
important characteristic of the zener diode:
an increase in voltage above the zener voltage
causes a proportionate increase in voltage
across It. but not across the diode. Therefore.
you simply connect Ibe load across the zener
diode where the voltage is constant.
But voltages and currents must remain
within limits. Zener diodes are rated in cata-
logs according to zener voltage (V.), the
voltage at which reverse breakdown starts.
The wattage rating of the zener diode is
the maximum power the diode will handle
safely at its zener voltage. Zener diodes are
available in ISO, 250, 400, 750 mw and I, 10
and 50-watt sizes. Zener voltage tolerances
are 5, 10 or 20 per cent.
Let's look at our practical circuit to see
how you go about selecting the zener diode
and how to determine the value of R•. Fig. 3
is the schematic of a shunt-type regulator
which reduces 12 V to 9 V. Not only does
the circuit reduce voltage, it stabilizes it as
well to prevent annoying volume changes as
the car ,\oltage shifts from 12 to 15 V.
First, we must solve this formula for R•.
R•. = El.-E.
1.+1,
E,. in input voltage to the regulator-the
voltage supplied by tbe car. Since a car's volt-
15 V for E.. in the formula.
Flq. 2-Zener-dlod. charactetlatlc CWTe (color),
Wh... Ionnml blCDed (top dqbl quaclnmU lb.
&eDer diode t>.hcr\"H Uk. a conTentional dlod•.
JeDt DoW'S until _ener \"01Iag8 la reached. Then
the current IDcreaaea rapidly. The ....u1t of th1a
la that the Tohage drop acrou thO' ..ner diode
tbo cIIado Is Iaaoaoed. A CaDYODtioDaI dJado be-
hcrY.. almllarly except ttl Nftne-blaa CUlTe
(black. Io,...r lolt quaclnmU .10_ cmd Is roDDdod.
lb. abarply-d.fiDed b.-altdoWD palal Ia lb.
HAe, d.lod. Is prochlcR durinq manufacture. at
which time carefully controlled impurity CODcen-
tI'at1.ozu; are added to the .emlconductor matedal.
1)1'. Zener's I)iode
+ I/s +
IfY PI 9Y
Fig. 3-Zenor-diode shunt-regulator cbeult. top.
Be sure that the diode'. cathode is CODJlected to
pos.1ti.,.e buu. Voltage In exce•• oJ zener Tollage
is dropped across Ra. Pictorial of em adaptor
that wW drop 12 V from car'. electrical ayalem
to 9 V for transiator radio la abOWll at rlqhl.
wh~t it is-it's the voltage required by the
load. Since our transistor radio is powered by
a 9-V battery, the zener diode should have
a 9-V rating. The di.ode we used had a 9.I-V
rating. (International Rectifier type No.
lZF9.1TIO,Nlied Radio, $1.12 plus postage.
Not listed in catalog.) A zener with a power
rating of I watt wiu easily handle the low
power consumption of the radio.
IE is the zener's maximum current-han-
dling capability in amperes. If you don't lind
this rating listed in a catalog, compute it by
dividing the zener's wattage rating by its volt-
age rating. In the case of our diode, the maxi-
mum current would be equal to I watt/9.1 V
which is about 100 rna. But this is a maximum
current rating and IS not used. To be on the
safe side, the zener is normally operated at
about 20 per cent of its maximum current.
Thus, in the formula we will use 20 rna (or
.02 A) for I•.
I, is current consumed by the load (in this
case, the radio) in amperes. You'll have to
measure this with a YOM. Easiest way to is
to connect a milliammeter in series with one
of the battery's leads. The average current of
27
two of our radios was 10 rna. Therefore, I, is
10 rna, or .01 A.
When we put these values in the formula
and solve it we get
R = 15-9.1 = 5.9 = 196 ohms
.02+.01 .03
Thus, resistor R. should be 196 ohms. A
close standard value of either 180 or 220
ohms can be used. The power rating of R. is
determined by multiplying the voltage drop
across it by current through it. These values
can be taken from the formula above:
E = 5.9 V and I = .03 A. The answer is .177
watts; therefore, a half-watt resistor will do
the job.
Construction details are shown in Fig. 3.
Polarities are important. If your zener diode
is not marked with the symbol shown, con-
nect the lead which is insulated from the case
to negative side of the circuit. You can con-
nect the 9-V output to the transistor radio
with a battery clip from a discarded 9-V bat-
tery. Connect the regulator to the car's elec-
trical system with a cigarette lighter plug. The
.02 p.f capacitor kills noise from the car i~ni­
tion system. -H. B. Morris . . .
F1v. 4-Photo of adap·
\or next to 9-V transla·
tor ",cIIo_ A .02 pi tubu·
lar capacilor la included
m requ.lator c:1.rcult to
.uppre •• mterference
from lbe ear"s e1.eCtrlccr.1
aplem. Ie awe 10 qet
connectlODJl hi dqaretle-
l1qhter plU9 aDd con-
nector that couples req-
ulator to n::rcl1o cofl"OCl
Of' the ra.d1o or the ••Der
to llbl-r to be damaqed.
 Reprinted with permission from Electronics Now MagaZIne,
September 1992 issue. (C) Copyright Gernsback
Publications, Inc .. 1992 and March 1993 issue. tel
Copyright Gernsback Publications. Inc., 1993.
RAY MARSTON

FlgLD-EFFECT TRANSISTORS (F'ET'SI

are unipolar rather than bipolar '.'r..
devices, and this gives them cer-
tain properties that are superi-
or to those of bipolar tran-
sistors. Unlike the bipolar
transistor. whose current de-
pends on the movement of both
eleetrons and holes, FET opera-
tion depends on only one of ".
those charge carriers. Freed
from the time delays that occur
when those charge carrier re-
combine. FET's offer faster ,-
switching speed and higher
cutoff frequencies.
Other advantages of the FET
include:
• Voltage rather than current
operation.
• Extremely high input imped-
ance in the OFF state.
• Virtually constant current
with respect to voltage at specif-
FIELD-'
ic bias levels.
• Current change that is inver-
EFFECT lif Ii
sely rather than directly propor-
tional to temperature.
Despite these advantages, the
TRANSISTORS 1//,
FET has not replaced the bi-
polar the bipolar transistor in
all applications. but it has en-
couraged new generations of
Learn about field-effect transistors:
small-signal and general pur- JFET's, MOSFET's, DMOS MOSFET's
pose and RF MOSFET's as well
as general purpose and RF and CMOS-how they are made, how
MOSFET power transistors.
Moreover, the latest digital logiC they work, and what to look for when
families are based on FET tech-
nologies. The basic FET is a selecting them for your designs.
Simple. three-terminal, voltage-
controlled device with charac-
teristics that are similar to collector, and base of the bipolar are fabricated with planar ge-
those of vacuum-tube pen- transistor. Both JFET's and ometry in which all electrodes
todes. Thus, the FET is consid- MOSFETs are available as dis- are accessible from the top of
ered to be the solid-state crete transistors. Some the device. The active regions
eqUivalent of a pentode. MOSFET's have dual gates and are defined on the wafer or sub-
The two major classes of are intended for use as radio- strate by successive masking.
FET's are the junction FET frequency mixers. etching. and deposition or ion-
IJFET) and metal-oxIde-semI- This article explains how P- implantation steps. But power
conductor FET (MOSFET), for- channel and N-channel MOSFET's now being fabricated
merly called an insulated-gate MOSFET's are combined to with vertical structures are ac-
FET lIGFET). FETs are further form the popular complemen- tually capable of handling much
divided into N-channel, P- tary-MOS (CMOS) digital logic higher current In smaller areas
channeL. depletion-mode and families. CMOS technology has of silicon.
enhancement-mode devices. made possible very large scale
MOSFETs with N-doped chan- integrated (VLSl) memories. mi- Junction FET's
nels are called NMOS, and those croprocessors and dedIcated The simplest FET, the JFET.
wIth P-doped channels are re- circuits that contain more than is illustrated by the cross-sec-
ferred to as PMOS. one million transistors and still tion view of Fig. I-a. It is made
The three electrodes in all have very low power reqUire- by selectively implanting or dif-
FETs are the source, drain. and ments. fusing ions into the wafer or
gate, analogous to the emiller, Most small-signal FETs today substrate. An N-type region is 47

28

a JFET gate actually controls
~
ORAIN
GATE . Fig. I-b. As in other schematic
SOURCE
b
FIG. l-N-CHANNEL PLANAR JFET
showing diffused or implanted channel
and gate regions (a), and schematic
symbol (b).
defined on the P-type substrate
by photoli thographic methods.
and N-type ions are implanted
to form the N-channeL Later in
the manufacturing process. fol-
lowing further masking, oxide-
deposition and etching steps, P-
type ions are implanted or
diffused into the N-channel to
form the P-type gate,
Aluminum source and drain
terminals are formed directly on
the N-channel and an alumi-
num gate terminal is formed on
the P-type gate. The sym-
metrical construction of the
JFET permits the drain and
source to be interchanged. if
necessary.
If a positive voltage is applied
at the drain of the N-channel
JFET shown in Fig. I-a. and a
negative voltage is applied at the
source with the gate terminal
open, a drain current flows.
When the gate is biased nega-
tive with respect to the source,
the PN junction is reverse bi-
ased. and a depletion region,
devoid of current carriers. is
formed.
Because the N-channel is
more lightly doped than the P-
type gate material, the depletion
region penetrates Into the N-
channeL This region. depleted
of charge carriers, behaves like
an insulator. The depletion re-
gion narrows the N-channel
and increases its resistance. If
the gate bias is made even more
48 negative, drain current is cut off
completely. current flow) points from P-
The gate-bias voltage that doped material to N-doped ma-
cuts off the drain current is teriaL In the N-channel JFET
called the pincho.ff or gate-cut- symbol, the arrowhead points
o.ffvoltage. However. as the bias from the P-type gate toward the
becomes positive, the depletion N-type channeL
region recedes, the channel re- A section view of a P-channel
sistance is reduced. and drain JFET is shown in Fig. 2-a. The
current increases. Thus. the channel of the device is P-type
material. and the gate Is N-type.
JFET curren t. If a positive voltage is applied to
The schematic symbol for the the source. conventional cur-
N-channel JFET is shown in rent flows from the source to the
drain. 10 reverse bias the junc-
symbols for solid-state devices, tion between the N-type gate
the arrowhead (representing and the P-type channel, the'gate
the direction of conventional must be made positive With re-
spect to the channeL The bias-
ing voltages ofa P-channel JFET
are opposite to those of the N-
channel JFET.
The schematic symbol for the
P-channel JFET is shown in Fig.
2-b. The arrowhead also points
from P-type material to N-type
material. In this instance, it
pOints from the P-type channel
to the N-type gate region. The
.': characteristics of the P-channel
JFET are similar to those of the
N-channel device, except that
the voltage and current polar-
ities are reversed.
Both N-type and P-type
JFET's operate in the depletion
mode; that is. they conduct
with zero bias on their gates.
Figure 3 shows a typical family
of drain characteristics for an
N-channel JFET. As the gate-to-
80
i
60
""E I,,, _______ vGS-o
~
z
~
0 40
V -IV
....z
~t
V
w
'"'"
:>
-2V
-3V
-
" 20
-4V
~
-5V
.
-BV
o ~ :,.,.'
'. . , ",,' . ·1 0,.,.. 15,. '....,.
Q •. . 5 .t~,:;·
" "'"~:'''
., . \;.~"'\ " 25-' <. ......
t:ov:.c,~",:-:~,
I' 20.,
• ;!-'_' .,,', ~ ", , . - ' - . ~'.' ".' '," "h1t\'-....,.. ~fu ..... "~l-"~ .~' .. ~,\.
1,·, -,., ..' -;~'-', '
•
.. -,' <.>ORAIN-TO-SOURCE.VOlJAGe'l'iO;i.v.''::Ji'-- 'c," >"~;
;; '.: "~oj . , . :.~.~~i':"-:'-~T'"'' ", ~l\1~":\H:;':\::"';l;.!~il.:.\li·,7i{",,>·:;r;r.;:;": ;\'.
'.'
FIG. 3-DRAIN CHARACTERISTICS FOR AN N-CHANNEL JFET. The family of gate
curves has Its origin at zero drain-la-source Yolts, and the gate bias values show
voltage control.
29
•

Rl
10MEG
IN
61
+ of the JFET is forward biased. it
~
. . . '-'. .,,' ~'J:,.::>;f,~:~,-:j.:~'
FIG. 4-N-CHANNEL JFET COMMON-
source amplifier is analogous to a bI-
polar common-emitter amplifier.
source voltage is made in-
creasingly negative, the deple-
tion region is increased, and
drain current decreases. As a re-
sult. pinchoffvoltageoccurs ata
lower value of Vos' Curves for
different values of gate-to-
source bias, VGS' are plotted in
the figure because the FET is a
VOltage-operated device.
JFET circuits
When an N-channel JFET is
connected to a Vos supply as
shown in Fig. 4. a drain cur-
rent. 10 , flows in the device. The
magni tude of 10 can be con-
trolled by a gate-to-source bias
voltage. VGS' Similarly. when a
P-channel JFET is connected to
a negative drain voltage. a drain
current, 10 , flows in the device.
The value of 10 is maximum
when VGS equals zero. and it is
reduced (to bring the JFET into
a linear operating region) byap-
plying a reverse bias to the gate
terminal of the device (negative
bias in a N-channel device.
positive bias in a P-type).
In Fig. 3, the value of VGS to
reduce 10 to zero. the gate-to-
source pinchoff voltage Vp is
about -7 volts. The value of 10
when VGS equals zero (called
lDSS or drain saturation current
for zero bias) is about 52 milli-
amperes for the device shown In
the figure.
The gate-to-source junction
of the JFET has the charac-
leristics of a silicon diode. When
reverse biased (to bring it into
its linear operating region). gate
leakage currents (IGss) are mea-
sured in thousandths of a ml-
croammpere at room tempera-
lure. Actual gate signal cur-
rents are only a fraction of a
that, and the input impedance
to the gate is typically LOOO
megohms at low frequencies.
The gate junction is effectively
.",' shunted by a capacitance' of a
few picofarads. so input imped-
ance falls as input frL1uency is
OUT .
increased.
... '
If the gate-to-source junction
conducts like a normal silicon
diode. and if it is severely re-
verse biased it avalanches llke a
Zener diode. Neither of those
conditions will harm a JFET if
its gate currents are limited to
those specified.
Referring to the N-channel
JFET drain characteristics In
Fig. 3. it can be seen that, for
each value ofVGS' drain current
10 rises linearly from zero as the
.' •~ .. :;>;~:".. ',::;:,~,
" ,;4.~'
:5\~ \"l;lt.:,'(.I~,_..
t:;il: ",~';1,." :iii: J~~ \" .,;.. ~ }~.,: .•:-.~._,..~;,. .,._:,._~~~~"'.', •.~,.,!~.~!
?-j';~~~~~'~~~~ rJ};,,::, ~ _ ~....:.... ' '"r, T~.
FIG. 5-N-CHANNEL JFET COMMON-
drain (source-follower) amplifier Is anal·
ogous to a bipolar emitter-follower am-
plifier.
drain-to-source voltage (V os ) is
increased from zero to a value at
which a knee occurs on each
curve. Moreover. to remains vir~
tually constant as Vos is in-
creased beyond where the knee
occurs.
Thus. when Vos for any of the
family ofVGS curves is below its
knee value. the drain-to-source
30
pins 01 the JFET act like a volt-
age-variable resistor with its
value determined by VGS' The
drain-to-source resistance,
Ros. can be varied from several
hundred ohms at VGS = zero to
thousands of megohms at
pinchoff. That characteristic
permits the JFET to be used in a
'," circuit as a voltage-controlled
~ -..:' ,'". switch.
From the drain characteristic
curve of Fig. 3. It can be seen
that when Vos is above the knee
value, the 10 value is dictated
primarily by the VGS value. and
is Virtually independent of the
Vos value. This characteristic
permits the JFET to function as
a voltage-controlled current
generator.
The gain of a JFET is spec-
ified as a transconductance.
gm' the rate of change of drain
current With respect to gate
voltage. A gm of 5 mllliamperes
per volt indicates that a varia-
tion of one volt on the gate pro-
duces a change of 5 milliam-
peres lo' The units of this
measurement are in inverse
ohms or mhos. You will find that
JFET data sheets usually spec-
ify gm In millimhos or mlcro-
mhos.
The N-channel JFET In Fig. 4
is organized as a common-
source amplifier. analogous to a
bipolar NPN common-emitter
amplifier. In typical applica-
tions. the JFET is biased into
its linear region and organized 49
 as a vol tage- to-vol tage converter
or amplifier. As shown in Fig. 4.
a load resistor of suitable value.
R L • should be placed in series
with the JFET's drain-to-source
current.
Another common JFET con-
figuration is the common drain
or source:follower configura-
tion shown in Fig. 5. That con-
figuration is analogous to the
bipolar emitter-follower config-
uration. Yet another possible
JFET configuration is the com-
mon-gate configuration shown
in Figure 6. That configuration
is analogous to a bipolar com-
mon-base configuration.
MOSFET's explained
The metal-oxide FET or
MOSFET was developed as an
improvement on the JFET. and
it has become the most impor-
tant form of FET. Figure 7-a
illustrates an N-channel deple-
tion-mode MOSFET with a
negative gate bias. The gate of
this MOSFET is fully insulated
from the adjacent cnannel. This
is the most important distinc-
tion between an N-type deple-
tion-mode MOSFET and an N-
type JFET. which is manufac-
tured wi th a doped gate region
directly under and in contact
with the gate.
The surface of the silicon P-
type wafer is first coated with a
layer of silicon dioxide (Si0 2 ).
and the source and drain win-
dows are masked and etched to
expose the P-type substrate. N-
dopants are heavily diffused or
implanted into those two re-
gions. Another window is
masked and etched over the
channel. and it is given a lighter
concentration of N dopant. In
subsequent steps. the channel
is recoated with an insulating
oxide. and the metal source.
drain. and gate terminals are
deposited.
When the drain is positive
With respect to the source. a
drain current will flow. even
wi th zero gate vol tage. However.
if the gate is made negative with
respect to the substrate.
positive charge carriers (holes)
induced in the N-channel will
combine with the electrons and
cause channel resistance to in-
50 crease. With increasing nega-
10,--.--,---r--.--,---,--,--.--.-~
".
< ' VGs =+O.5V
81--r--t-=±=:==I==I=T~:':'-'+--+-I
/~
~
"
'1--i--/-+--1---\---I---1
1/ v-+---j----j--
v",ov \----1---1---1
- ... --- - - -----
~.' 61---/-+/---rF---+--+-+-j---+--+--+--..--...j
~.. -~n
.!z
o V ,// '
a~
DO
4ii7f-==l==t==t==t==j·-0.4vt--+---j--l
1/
I ,/
.
r/ O.6V
/ L--+-+--+---j---.------
1-1--:4-+--+---11---1----+ +--+-l----I
_~~i -------.----.
'c.·, 2
.' :_:;{~; V,/
.. i·;,i·~7;::F==l===I===I===I===F~f==I==F-j
•.: "1 :~~~ ?/
~· ;r~o~"'''''''''"',.""'?,.",-
....•,.-."r"'~'~"'~,.-.,....J"":-'--..."-._,,...·,,L~.,_-.-',...i::;;,..J.2L.5,...,,-.-,L-~'--_..L_.....L_--l
• f! ....
.,....::'.;..• $'"h.~ ••· >.,,·.
-~l'':_ •. ,'-"'_<,', .:-. . ,. 5
:c. ~.}!+,; . '. c., .~~,,}; .~~ ·ORAIN-To,sOURCE VOLTAGE IY..).V
. '.~; ·~'t::;:;~<::::1. :~~~~..:·"·' ~~,~.i~>·: ''''' ..,. ~
FIG. 3-DRAIN CURVES FOR N-CHANNEL DEPLETION-MODE MOSFET showing the
effects of positive and negative bias
tive bias. the pinchoff voltage DRAIN
will be reached. and drain cur- + + SILICON
ren t will cease. However. if the DIOXIDE.
.
gate is made positive with re- I
spect to the substrate. addi-
tional electrons are induced.
and the channel current then
increases.
The schematic symbol for the
N-type depeletion-mode '.'.i
MOSFET is shown in Fig. 7-b.
The path or channel between
the source and drain is shown
as a solid bar.. The symbol for
the P-channel depletion-mode
MOSFET is identical to the N-
type. except that the arrow
points outwards.
Figure 8 is a drain-to-source
characteristic curve for an N- FIG. 9-N-CHANNEL ENHANCEMENT-
mode MOSFET with positive grid bias
channel depletion-mode (8), and schematic symbol (b).
MOSFET. It can be seen that the
current drain. ID • is inversely
proportional to the magni tude the N-channel depletion-mode
of the negative gate voltages. MOSFET. Therefore. there is no
VGS' Compare Fig. 8 with Fig. 3 conduction between drain and
for the N-channel JFET to see source at zero gate bias.
their similarities. To turn an enhancement-
Planar enhancement-mode mode MOSFET on. positive gate
MOSFET's are made by the bias is needed. As the gate volt-
same methods as planar deple- age is increased. more electrons
tion-mode MOSFET's. However. are induced into the channel.
the N-channel enhancement- They cannot flow across the ox-
mode MOSFET shown in Fig. 9 ide layer to the gate. so they ac-
does not have the N-doped cumulate at the substrate
drain-to·source channel surface below the gate oxide.
through the P-type substrate of When a sufficient number of
31
 40

/
~-
----~- -- -- VQ3=5V

/ 4V
0
- - - -
/ DRAIN ORAiN METAlIZATIO"

o /
/ ---- 3V
FIG. 12-SECTION VIEW OF AN N·chan·
nel DMQS power MOSFET showing its
vertical structure and vertical current
---~~-- .. - flow.
f. /"
~~

- ... - .- _.-
j?-
~

2V-
ORAIN
o ,
o 10 20
"OI1.IIIN-T?-SOURC€ VOLOOE<(Vbs)'V'
, : .. ~(,-'~

FIG. Ill-DRAIN CURVES FOR AN N-CHANNEL, enhancement·mode MOSFET show·

ing the effects of increasingly positive gate bias.
GIIfE o-=+----

FIG. 13-SCHEMATIC SYMBOL FOR A

DMOS power MOSFET including a drain-
s(\urce diode.

termlttent channel.
Current flow In the channels
of both kinds of enhancement -
N-CHANHEL MOSFET
mode MOSFET's is proportional
to the voltage on their gates,
Yes' This can be seen for an N-
type enhancement-mode
r'F--'f--+\' s ~:. \~;. .' MOSFETby examining the fam-
P-CHANNF.L< lly of gate voltage (Ves ) curves in
D Fig. 10. Current drain, 'D' is di-
rectly proportional to the
positive value of gate voltage.
A P-channel enhancement·
mode MOSFET is made the
same way as the N-channel en-
hancement device except that P-
type drain and source regions
, ~_;~~~h~tL\:~1,:t;>:'· ':~,-;'\ ',.; are diffused Into an N-type sub-
strate. The symbol for a P-type
FIG_ 11-{;MOS INVERTER (NOT) GATE FORMED FROM N·CHANNEL AND P-channel
enhancement-mode MQSFET's with power, ground, Input, and output connections as
enhancement-mode MOSFET
shown in (a), and schematic (b). Is the same as the one shown in
Fig. 9·b except that the direc-
electrons has accumulated, the N·type enhancement-mode tion of the arrow Is reversed. In
P-type substrate material Is con- MOSFET Is shown in Fig. gob. the case of a P-type enhance-
verted into an· N·channel, and In this symbol, the gate does not ment-mode MOSFET, the drain
drain-to·source conduction oc· make direct contact with the current Is directly proportional
curs. The magnitude of the channel. The arrowhead points to the negative values of its grid
drain current depends on the from the P-type substrate to- voltage.
channel resistance, but It Is ward the (Induced) N-type chan· The high gate Impedance of
controlled by the gate voltage, nel, shown as a line broken Into all MOSFETs makes them sus·
The schematic symbol for an three sections to indicate an in- ceptlble to damage from even

32
 low-energy electrostatic dis- er the P-channel device to be the CMOS unit is extremely low.
charge (ESDI. For this reason driver and the N-channel device These properties of N- and P-
many discrete MOSFETs and to be the load. Recall that an .N- type enhancement-mode FETs
Ie's based on MOSFETs are pro- channel enhancement-mode combined to form CMOS gates
tected with on-chip Zener diode MOSFET conducts with a provide many advantages:
circuits. positive gate voltage. while a P- • Extremely low power con-
channel, enhancement-mode sumption.
CMOS logic devices MOSFET conducts wi th a nega- • Wide power supply voltage
An enhancenlenl~mode tive gate voltage. range.
MOSFET can act as a switch When the voltage input to the • High DC noise margin
when it is turned on or off by a inverter is low (logic 0), the gate • High input Impedance
vol tage applied to the gate elec- voltage of the P-channel device • Wide operating temperature
trode: N-channel MOSFETs are 'is negative, equal to the supply range.
switched with positive gate volt- voltage V DO' As a result. the P- The diagram in Fig. II-a illus-
age. and P-channel MOSFETs' channel MOSFET is switched trates standard CMOS metal-
are swi tched wi th negative gate ON, and there is a low imped- gate technology (74C/4000). but
voltage. These are known as ance path from the output to there are many other CMOS
complementary responses. and V DO. Because the N-channel is technologies including the
they form the basis for comple- off (gate voltage is zero). there is high-speed silicon-gate HC,
mentary MOS or CMOS digital
logic families.
Figure ll-a is a section view of
a complementary pair of
MOSFETs on a common sub-
strate, the basic topography for
all CMOS gates. The common
substrate that Is used for this
pair is an N-doped silicon wafer.
To make an N-channel MOSFET
on an N-doped substrate. it is
necessary to diffuse or implant
a P-doped well in the substrate.
The smaller N-type wells can
then be formed in this P-doped
region.
Because the substrate is N-
doped, fewer steps are required
to form the P-channel FET. The
P- and N-doped guard bands iso-
late and insulate the individual
transistors in this integrated
circuit to prevent mutual inter-
ference. (Although not illus-
trated here, these guard bands
are actually N- or P-doped rings
formed around the complete
FET below the oxide layer in
this CMOS technology.
The two transistors in the a very high Impedance path HCT. and FACT familles. An-
section view, Fig. II-a. can be from the output to ground. other digital logiC technology
connected to form a CMOS logiC Therefore, the output voltage called BiCMOS takes advantage
inverter. the simplest of digital rises to V DO' of the lower power consumption
logic circuits. This is accom- When the input voltage is and higher integration density
plished by connecting the gates high (logic I). the situation is of CMOS. and the higher speed
together to form an input (V IN ) reversed. The P-channel FET is and superior drive capability of
terminal, and taking the output cut off. and the N-channel FET bipolar transistors.
(VOUT ) from the common drain. is ON, so the output voltage falls
The source on the left side of the to zero. Therefore, the circuit is Power MOSFET's
diagram. Vss ' is grounded, a logiC inverter: a low Input re- Power MOSFETs exhibit the
while the source on the right sults in a high output. and vice properties of small-signal
side is connected to the positive versa. MOSFETs such as high-input
supply, Voo' [n either lOgIC state one FET is Impedance and voltage control,
Those connections are shown ON while the other is OFF. Be- and they have drains. sources
schematically in Fig. II-b. How cause one FET is always turned and gates, but they are designed
56 does the inverter work? Consid- off. the quiescent current of the continued on page 89

33

FET'S
continuedJrom page 56
to handle hIgher currents. As
majority-carrier devices that
store no charges. they can
switch faster than bipolar
power transistors.
Figure 12 is a section view of
an N-Channel. enhancement-
mode power MOSFET. Unllke
its small-signal counterpart.
the latest power MOSFET's are
fabricated wi th vertical rather
than planar structures. They
are made with the double-
diffused (OMOS) process. and
they have conductive sillcon
(polysll1con) gates. The gate of
this device is Isolated from the
source by a layer of Insulating
slUcon oxide.
When a voltage Is applied be-
tween the gate and source ter-
mInals. an electric field is set up
within the MOSFET. This field
alters the resistance between
the drain and source terminals.
and It permits conventional cur-
rent to flow in the drain In re-
sponse to the applled drain
circuit voltage. There are also P-
channel, enhancement-mode
power MOSFET's in which con-
ventional current flows in the
opposite direction of the N-
channel device. Figure 13 is the
schematic symbol for a OMOS
enhancement-mode. N-channel
power MOSFET.
Figure 14 Is an cutaway view
of a typical OMOS power
MOSFET. It is made up of many
cells or transistor elements
connected in parallel. Each
source cell consists of a closed
rectangular or hexagonal chan-
nel which separates a source re-
gion from the substrate drain
body. The cells are formed in an
Integrated circuit process. and
there might be more than a half
mlllion cells per square inch of
substrate. All of the source cells
are connected In parallel by a
continouus deposition of alu-
minum metal1zatlon. which
forms the grld-l1ke common
source terminal.
The OMOS power MOSFET
contains an inherent PN junc-
tion diode. and Its eqUivalent
circuit can be considered as a
diode in parallel wi th the
source-lo-drain channel. as
shown in the schematic symbol
of Fig. 13.
Internation2.l Rectifier (IR)
makes OMOS power MOSFET's
that have hexagonally shaped
cells. so it calls its products
HEXFET's. Motorola Semicon-
ductor also offers OMOS power
MOSFET's. but Its devices have
rectangular rather than hex-
agonal cells. Motorola named its
power MOSFET's TMOS to call
attention to the T-shaped cur-
ren t flow that occurs in the cells
between the common drain and
the channels to the multiple
sources.
Power MOSFET's are Widely
speCified for high-frequency
switching power supplles (gen-
erally those that switch at fre-
quencies above 100 kHz), AC
and DC motor speed controls.
high-frequency generators for
Induction heating. ultrasonic
generators. audio ampl1fiers.
and ampl1tude modulation
transml tters.
The advantages to using
power MOSFET's over power bi-
polar transistors Include:
• Faster switching speeds and
lower switching losses.
• Absence of the bipolar's sec-
ond breakdown
• Wider safe operating area
• HIgher input Impedance
• High. If not higher. gain
• Faster rise and fall times
• Simple drive Circuitry
The principal dIsadvantages
of power MOSFET's are their
higher cost and a higher static
draln-to-source on-state resis-
tance. which can cause unac-
ceptable power losses In certain
switching applications. How-
ever. the manufacturers have
made progress in reducing
those resistance values. OMOS
geometry has largely replaced
the V-groove or VMOS process
that was Widely used to fab-
ricate power MOSFET's back in
the 1970·s.
Radio-frequency power
MOSFET's are now available
that will operate over the 2 to
200 MHz frequency range. The
high power and high gain of
these devices makes tham suit-
able as power amplifiers in sol-
id-state transmitters for FM and
TV broadcasting. n
34
•
 Reprinted with permission from
Electronics Now Magazine, September
1992 issue, (C) Copyright Gernsback
Publications, Inc., 1992 and March
1993 issue, (C) Copyright Gernsback
Publications, Inc., 1993.
"'''''0 ."" .
$~~~~.
,~
"'!'".",..
I
" •
," lsc'> '1 >! ',' ,
'~A
~a
:~ l ' ~"
,
. 'j,
..','~

FIG. 1-FUNCTIONAL BLOCKS OF THE 555 TIMER with Its pinout'ldentified.

Learn to use the 555 and 556 timer Ie in practical

circuits to obtain accurate time delays and square waves

IN ANY ASSOCIATION TEST FOR
those who know integrated cir-
cuits, the three digits 555 will
summon up the instant re-
sponse "timer IC," It's the short
form generic designation for
progeny of the NE555. a popular
monolithic timer/oscillator IC
first Introduced by Signetlcs
many years ago. Still widely sec-
ond-sourced because of its ver-
satility. the 555 ranks as a
standard "building block."
The 555 and Its derivatives
can be found in thousands of
different circuits. and Its pos-
sibilities for further applica-
tions appear liml tless. Ai-
though classed as a linear IC. it
,is often used in digital or
"quasi-digital" applications be-
cause its inputs and outputs
58 are essentially square waves
rather than sine or other com-
piex waveforms. This artlcie ex-
plalns how the 555 works and
shows you how to apply the IC
in various practical control cir,
cults.
'. Duty cyc.ie adjustable
A 555/556 overview
Figure I. Is a simplified
block diagram of the 555 show-
ing Its principal functional
blocks: threshold comparator.
trigger comparator. R-S flip-
flop, low-power complementary
output stage .. slave discharge
transistor. and a vOltage-refer-
ence potential· divider. Both
halves of a dual version of the
555 (two 555's on a single chip).
the 556. have Identical elec-
trical characteristics. The
555/556 wll! run from 4.5 to 16
volts DC, although a typical
supply wlll be + 12 volts DC or
less.
The outstanding features of
the 555/556 include:
• Timing adjustable from mi-
croseconds to hours
• Ability of output to source
(supply) or sink (dissipate) 200-
mllilampere current
• Output can drive TTL logiC
circuits
• Temperature stability ex-
ceeds 0.005%rC
• Normally "on" and normally
"off' output
The 555 and 556 were de-
Signed for precision timing ap-
plications. with the tlmlng
Interval controlled by an exter-
nal resistor and.capacitor (RC)
network. The devices contain
voitage dividers consisting of

35
three 5000-ohm resistors in se-
ries between the supply voltage
and ground so that one-third of
the supply voltage is developed
across each resistor. The inter-
nal flip-flop circuit provides a
definite "on" or "off' response.
Its timing intervals are indepen-
dent of the supply voltage.
The 555 has two basic operat-
ing modes: monos table (one-
shot-a single pulse is emitted).
and astable (a stream of output
pulses is generated). In the
monos table mode when func-
tioning as timers. time Is pre-
cisely controlled by the external
RC network. In that mode the
555 produces output pulses
with rise and fall times mea-
sured in microseconds.
In the astable mode. the 555
can be an oscl1lator. It can main-
tain an accurately controlled
free-running frequency and
duty cycle with only two exter-
nal resistors and one capacitor.
In either monostable or astable
modes. timing accuracy Is es-
sentially Independent of varia-
tions in supply voltage or
ambient temperature. The de-
vice can be trIggered and reset
on falling waveforms.
lypical applications for the
555 include precision and se-
quential timing. pulse genera-
tion. pulse-width and pulse-
position modulation. and linear
ramp generation. Moreover. it
can directly drive loads such as
relays. solenoids. low-power
lamps. and high-impedance
speakers.
The 555 is packaged in plas-
TABLE l-ELECTRICAL CHARACTERISTICS
tic and metal DIP's and B-pin
metal cans for operation in the
commercial temperature range
of 0 ·C to + 70·C. Some plastic
DIPs can operate In the -40·C to
+ 85·C extended temperature
range.
AI~ernate-sourced 555's can
usually be iden tlfied by the in-
clusion of the numbers 55 or
555 In their designations. Ex-
amples include Harris' CA555.
Motorola's MC1455. and Nation-
al Semiconductors' LM555C.
Other sources Include Exar.
Goldstar. Raytheon. Samsung.
SGS-Thomson, and Sharp Elec-
. tronics. CMOS versions of the
555, such as Thxas Instruments'
TLC555 are also available. In
addition to their low power con-
sumption compared to stan-
dard 555 ·s. their outputs are
compatible with CMOS as well
as TTL.
Thble 1 presents some' basic
electrical characteristics for the
555. The 556 Is housed In a 14-
pin DIP package but the block
diagram of each circuit Is Iden-
tical to that of the 555 shown In
Fig. 1. The 556 is also alternate-
sourced by many of the same
firms that offer the 555. Exam-
ples are Motorola's MC3556 and
Thxas Instruments' TLC7556.
How the 555 works.
Figure 2 Is a' representative
circuit schematic for the 555. It
contains 21 transistors. 4 dl·
odes. and 15 resistors. The volt-
age divider consisting of three
5000-ohm resistors (shown In
Fig. 1) appears to the right of
36
QlO In the trigger comparator. It
applies one-third of the supply
voltage to the non-inverting in-
put terminal of the trigger com-
parator and two-thirds of the
supply voltage to the Inverting
Input of the IC's threshold com-
parator.
The output of the two com-
parators controls the R-S flip-
flop. which In turn controls the
states of the complementary
output stage and the slave tran-
sistor Q6. The flip-flop's state
can also be set by signals at
RESET pin 4.
When organized as a mono-
stable timer, the TRIGGER pin 2
is held high by external resistor
~ In series with the DC supply
voltage. Under· that condition.
Q6 Is saturated. shorting exter-
nal timing capacitor Co to
ground. and OUTPUT pin 3 is
driven low. Timer action Is
started by applying a negatlve-
gOing trigger pulse to pin 2. As
this pulse falls below one-third
of the DC supply voltage. the
output of the trigger com-
parator changes state. That
causes the R-S flip-flop to
switch. turning Q6 off. and
driving OUTPUT pin 3 high.
As Q6 turns off. the short Is
removed from the external ca-
pacitor Co' The capacitor
charges through the external
resistor R o until the voltage
across Co rises to two-thirds of
the supply voltage. Then the
threshold comparator changes
state and swItches the R-S fllp-
flop back to Its original state.
turning Q6 "on" and rapidly dls-
charging Co' At the same time.
OUTPUT pin 3 reverts to its low
state. The timing cycle Is then
complete.
A characteristic of the 555 Is
that, once triggered. it cannot
respond to additional triggering
until the timing sequence Is
complete. However. the se-
quence can be aborted at any
time by feeding a negative-going
pulse to RESET pin 4.
The output pulse Is a square
wave whose duration (time de-
lay) depends on the values of R
and C. The formula for this Is:
to (time delay) = 1.1 (value of R
x value of C)
Simply stated. time delay Is
directly proportional to the
 FIG. 2-REPRESENTATIVE CIRCUIT SCHEMATIC FOR A 555 timer with external re-
sistive and capacitive components.
FIG. 3-COMBINATIONS OF RESISTANCE AND CAPACITANCE yield a range of time
delays. The trigger pulse width must be less than the liming period.
product of Rand C. Figure 3 Is a
plot of time delay vs. resistance
and capacltance based upon
the time-delay formula where t D
Is in milliseconds, R Is In thou-
sands of ohms, and C Is in mi-
64 crofarads. Figure 3 gives a
famlly 'of time delay curves with
variations In R.r and Cop Delays
from 10 microseconds to 100
seconds Can be obtained by se-
lecting suitable values of low-
leakage capacitors from 0.001
fLF to 100 fLF and resistors from
37
I thousand ohms to 10
megohms.
Figure 4,a is a simple fixed-
period (approximately 50-sec-
ond) manually-triggered time
delay circuit. and Fig. 4-b
shows the waveforms as they
would appear on an os-
cilloscope. The sequence of
events In Fig. 4-b is initiated by
grounding TRIGGER pin 2 with
momentary START switch Sl.
The CONTROL VOLTAGE pin 5 is
decoupled by C2, and the out-
put state can be determined by
observing whether LED I is il-
luminated or not. A square out-
put pulse (whose fixed-period is
determined by RI and ell ap-
pears at OUTPUT pin 3, while an
exponential sawtooth (with the
same period as the square wave)
appears at DISCHARGE pin 7.
The fixed-period output of the
circuit In Fig. 4 can vary from
1.1 to 120 seconds by making
the changes shown in Fig. 5.
Resistor RI Is replaced wi th a
10K fixed resistor and 1-
megohm potentiometer R5 in
series, as shown. A reset feature
can be added by installing
RESET switch S2, permitting
 premature termination of the
timing period.
The 555 timer can drive non-
Inductive loads directly from
R1 pin 3 with currents as large as
470K
200 milliamperes. However, If
8 4
the circuit contains an Induc-
tive relay load, either of the
schematics shown In Fig. 6 ap-
ply. In Fig. 6-a, the relay RYI Is
normally off, but It goes on only
when OUTPUT pin 3 goes high
during the timing Interval; in
Fig. 6-b, RYlls normally on, but
It turns off during the timing
Interval. Diode 01 In both cir-
. '!iii i,~ .
... tf.. ·.~::~.A~'*·_· cuits protects the 555 against
",., ",.
.-J,........oillli:,...,~-=""'_.
FIG. 4-FIXEO-PERIOD TIMER produces a ·50-second time delay (a). The wave-
Inductive-switching damage.
The contacts of relay RYI can
forms at three pins are shown (b+s).
control external circuits.
Figure 7 shows how a relay
and a 555 can form a simple 1.1-
to 120-second timer In two
switch-selected decades. How-
ever, the general-purpose cir-
cuit has several drawbacks.
First, It draws current continu-
ously, even when the timer Is
off. Second, because of the wide
tolerance variations In the elec-
trolytic timing capacitors CI
and C2, potentiometer R4
needs two custom calibrated
scales.
The schematic In Fig. 8 shows
how to overcome these draw-
backs. The RESET switch S2 and
the set of relay contacts In paral-
lel wi th the START switch S I,
which are both normally open
(N.O.) keep the circuit off so
there Is no current drain. The
timing cycle Is started by press-
ing momentary pushbutton
switch SI, which connects
power to the 555. At the Instant
of SI closure, C3 Is fUlly dis-
charged. It therefore sends a
start pulse to TRIGGER pin 2
through R4 and Initiates a tim-
ing cycle.
As the timing cycle starts, RYI
Is energized. The contacts in
parallel with SI close and keep
the 555 powered even when S2
'Is released. At the end of the
timing cycle RYlls de-energized
and Its contacts re-open, dis·
connecting power from the 555.
The timing of the circuit In
Fig. 8 Is prinCipally controlled
by the values of resistor RI and
potentiometer R5, and either CI
or C2, which are SWitch-se-
FIG. 7- TIMER WITH A RELAY OUTPUT provides time delays of 1.1 to 120 seconds. lected by S3-a. Note, however,

38
 that timing is also influenced by
the setting of potentiometers
R6 and R7. They are selected
with switch 53-b and connected
to CONTHOL voltage pin 5 of the
IC. Those potentiometers effec-
tively shunt the internal voltage
of the 555. thereby altering tim-
ing periods.
That feature allows the circuit
to produce precise timing peri-
ods even when capacitors with
loose-tolerance values are in the
circui t. It also allows a single
'----fl RVt
_ - " " 12V •
calibrated timing scale to cover >6on ;~~
the two switch-selected timing
ranges.
" ;"J
.'~"'-!.J ," .~~' ':'~
To set up the Fig. 8 circuit. ~.:~. 1,,' . !~~
first set potentiometer R5 to Its ;:. -::t"''';'i. ,','
maximum value. set switch 53 FIG. 8-PRECISION (COMPENSATED) TIMER with. relay output has two ranges: 0.9
to position 1 and push START to 10 seconds and 9 to 100 seconds.
button 51. Then adjust potenti-
ometer R6 for a preciseflerlod of
10 seconds. Next. set 3 to posi-
tion 2. push START switch 51.
and adjust potentiometer R7 for
a precise period of 100 seconds.
With those adjustments com-
plete. the timing scale can be
calibrated over Its full 100-sec-
ond range.
Timers. for car lights
Figure 9 is a circuit that auto-
mattcally deiays the turn-off of
an automobile's headlights. per-
mitting them to function as
safety lights at night after the
ignition switch is turned off. It
is a useful circuit If you want
your car's headlights to remain
on for 50 seconds after you have
parked. turned off the ignition.
locked the doors. and walked
away. The headlights will stay
on long enough to illuminate
your route until you Can reach
the safety ofyour home. The cir-
cuit does not interfere with nor-
mal headlight operation.
When the car's ignition
switch 52 is turned "on." RYlis
energized (through diode D3)
closing its contacts and con-
necting the 12-volt battery to
the 555 and headlights switch'·
51. In this state the headlights
operate normally: However, be-
cause both sides ofcapacitor C2 negative-going trigger pulse to after 52 is turned off. keeping
are connected to the positive TRIGGER pin 2. Initiating a 50- the positlve battery supply con-
supply. it is fully discharged. second timing cycle that applies nected to 51 during this period.
When 52 is turned "off." the curren t to the relay coil through That keeps the headlights on if
voltage across R3 goes to zero. 01. 51 is in its ON position. At the
de-energizing the relay. How- Relay RY1's contacts remain end of that 50-second time de-
66 ever, at that time C3 applies a closed for abou t 50 seconds lay. RYI de-energizes. its con-

39

~
R'
r.·
- ...
FIG. 13-MODIFIED ADD-ON PULSE GENERATOR can be triggered by any 'klnd 01
input waveform Including sine waves.
tacts open. and battery supply
Is disconnected from the 555
and 8l.
The circuit In FIg. 9 is com-
patible with modem practice for
powering the headlights switch
81 with ignition switch 82 so
that headlights work only when
the Ignition switch is on. How-
if· .
;l,i,
e,ver. the circuit shown InF;Jg.. lO
Is applicable to older vehicles
whose headlights or spotlight
are Independent of the Ignition
swlich. The circuit lIlustrates a
manual delayed turn-off light
control.
That clrcui t works If the vehi-
cle Is parked with its lights off.
40
They wlll be turned on for a pre-
set 50-second period as soon as
momentary pushbutton START
switch 81 is pressed. When the
delay period Urnes out. the
lights wlll be turned off again
automatically.
The Fig. 10 cl,cuit Includes
relay RYI with two sets of nor-
mally-open contacts. The tim-
Ing sequence is started wlih the
momentary closure of pushbut-
ton switch 81. Normally. both 81
and the relay contacts are open.
so the Umer circuit Is not
powered and the lights are off.
Capacitor C3 Is discharged un-
der thIs condition.
When 81 Is momentarily
closed. RY1's colI Is energIzed.
That action closes Its first set of
contacts.. applying power to the
car's lights while also closing Its
second set of contacts. applying
power to the 555. However.
TRIGGER pin 2 of the IC Is briefly
grounded through C2. so a
negative trigger pulse Is fed to
It. and a timing cycle Is begun.
Consequently. OUTPUT pin 3 of
the 555 switches high when the .
relay contacts close, locking the
relay Into Its "on" state (re-
gardless of the subsequent state
of 811, keeping the lights on for
50 seconds. At the end of the
timing cycle, pin 3 of Ihe IC
switches to Its low state. de-en-
ergizing RYI. Then both sets of
relay contacts open, dIscon-
necting power from the 555 and
the lights.
Automatic porch light
Figure llis an automatic con-
trol circuit for a porch light. It
wlll tum a porch light on auto-
matically for a preset 50-second
perIod when Its sensor detects
the presence of a person. How-
ever, it performs that function
only at night or under condi-
tions of reduced visibility such
as might occur during a storm.
The circuli Is aCUvated wi th
switch 81, which can be a
mlcroswltch triggered by a por-
ch gate. It might also be a pres-
sure-switch hidden under a
porch mat and triggered by a
person weighing perhaps 50
pounds or more.
Circuit operation depends on
a negative-going pulse that falls
below the Internally controlled 67

FIG. 14-ADD-ON DELAYED PULSE GENERATOR can batrlggarad by any Input wave-
form (a). Waveforms at input to 1C1 and those at the outputs of IC2 and IC3 based on
different values of Rand C (b).
one-third supply voltage being
fed to TRIGGER pin 2 of the 555.
[f the trigger pulse does not fall
below that value, the timing cy-
cles cannot be initiated.
In Fig. II, the photocell (re-
sistor R4) and potentiometer R5
are in series as a light-depen-
dent voltage divider. One side of
Sl is connected to the junction
between R4 and R5, and the
other side is connected to pin 2
through a the network of C2
and R3. In normal daylight the
photocell's resistance Is low, so a
high voltage appears av the
junction of R4 and R5. As a re-
sult, closing SI sends a voltage
pulse to pin 2 whose value is too
low to pull pin 2 belpw one-third
of the supply voltage. Thus, the
timer cannot be triggered with
Sl under those conditions.
However, the photocell's resis-
68 tance value increases at night or
41
under reduced visibility. caus-
ing a low voltage to appear at the
R4-R5 junction. Under that
condition, closing Sl generates
a voltage pulse that pulls pin 2
below the one-third supply volt-
age. value, triggering the timer.
. The cadmium-sulphide (CdS)
photocell (resistor R4) should
have a resistance of 1000 to
47,000 ohms under "dark"
turn-on conditions. Potentiom-
eter R5 can be adjusted to preset
the minimum "dark" levei for
circuit triggering. The trigger
signal is fed to pin 2 of the 555
through the C3 and R3, a net-
work that shapes the trigger
pulse and effectiveiy Isolates the
DC component of the photocell-
potentiometer network from
pin 2.
Pulse generators
In all of the circuits presented
so far, the 555 functions as a
monos table (one-shot) pulse
generator. Suitable trigger Sig-
nals are fed to TRIGGER pin 2 and
·output pulses are taken from
OUTPUT pin 3. The 555 can gen-
erate well formed output pulses
with periods from 5 microse-
conds to hundreds of seconds.
The maximum usable pulse re-
pltition frequency is approxi-
mately 100 kHz.
The signal reaching TRIGGER
pin 2 must be a carefully shaped
negatlve:going pulse. Its ampli-
tude must switch from an "off'
value greater than two-thirds of
the supply voltage to an "on" val-
ue less than one-third of the
supply voltage. (niggering ac-
tually occurs as pin 2 drops
through the one-third supply
voltage value.) nigger pulse
width must be greater than 100
nanoseconds but less than that
of the desired output pulse.
That condition assures trigger
pulse removal by the time the
monostable period times out.
Suitable trigger signals for
the 555 In the monostable mode
can be formed by converting the
Input signal to a good square
wave that switches between the
full positive supply voltage and
ground. The square wave is
then coupled to pin 2 With a re-
sistor-capacitor differentiating
network haVing a short time
constant. That network con-
verts the leading or trailing
edges of the square wave into
suitable trigger pulses.
Figure 12 shows a timing cir-
cuit that accepts input signals
already In the form of square
waves or pulses. nansistor Ql
converts a rectangular input
signal into a form that switches
between the positive supply and
ground. The output signal is

FIG. 15-THREE-STAGE SEQUENTIAL TIMER or pulse generator (a) and waveforms at
three different output pins (b).
then fed to TRIGGER pin 2
through differentiating net-
work C2-R4. The circuit can be-
come an add-on pulse generator
in combination with a separate
square-wave or pulse generator.
Variable-ampli tude outpu t
pulses can be obtained from po-
tentiometer R7.
The output pulse widths of
the Fig. 12 circuit can be varied
over more than a decade range
with potentiometer R6. and
they can be switched in overlap-
ping decade ranges with the val-
ues of C3 listed in Thble 2. With
the component values shown.
output pulse width is variable
from 9 microseconds to 1.2 sec-
onds. Capacitor C4 decouples
CONTROL VOLTAGE pin 5 to im-
prove circuit stability.
Figure 13 shows a modifica-
tion of the circuit in Fig. 12 that
can be triggered by any kind of
input waveform. including sine
•
waves. Here the first 555 (lCI) is
configured as a Schmitt trigger
to convert all input signals Into
square-wave output signals.
Those square waves trigger the
second 555 (lC2) In the mono-
stable mode In the same way as
described earUer. The circuit
can also become an add-on
pulse generator In combination
with any kind of stand-alone
waveform generator that pro-
duces output signals with peak-
to-peak amplitudes greater
than one-half the IC's supply
voltage. . tween SI and pin 3 of the third
Figure 14-a shows how two
monostable circuits can be con-
nected In series tt> make·a de-
layed-pulse generator. As in Fig.
13. the first 555 (ICI) Is config-
ured as a Schmitt trigger. The
second 555 (lC2) controls time
delay width. while the third 555
lIC3) ·determines the output
pulse width.
42
As shown in Fig. 14-b. the
output pulse at pin 3 of rC3 ap-
pears at a time interval after the
initial application of the trigger
signal. This time delay width
T DI is determ ined by the prod-
uct of the value of capacitor C3
and the sum of the values of re-
sistor R5 and potentiometer R6.
in accordance wi th the time de-
lay formula given earUer. Sim-
Ilarly. output pulse width t 02 Is
determined with the values of
C7. and R8 and R9.
This clrcui t can become part
of a stand-alone pulse delay gen-
erator by building It Into a
square-wave generator case.
The square-wave generator w1l1
provide the Initial trigger sig-
nals needed.
A number of monos table
pulse generators can be placed
In series to operate in sequen-
tial form. Figure 15-a. for exam-
ple. s.hows a three-stage se-
quential generator circuit. It
can control lamps or relays In a
pre-programmed time sequence
after pushbutton switch SI Is
pressed to give the START
command. Note that the RESET
pins (pin 4) of all three 555's are
shorted together and pOSitively
biased by R6. Those pins can be
shorted to ground with SET
switch S2. When power Is ap-
plied. SI should be closed. en-
suring that none of the 555's In
the circuit are falsely triggered.
Figure 14-b shows the wave-
forms from the output pins of
all three 555's lICI to IC3). The
time delay tOI is determined by
the values of C I and R2. t 02 Is
determined by the value of C4
and R4 and t03 is determined by
the values of C7 and R7 when
inserted in the time delay for-
mula given earlier.
Finally. three or more mono-
stable circuits can be connected
wi th capacitor C9 (shown In a
dashed- connection Une) be-
555 (lC3). This loop feeds a sig-
nal· back from the OlITPlIT pin of
IC3 to the Input TRIGGER pin of
ICI. permitting Infinite repeti-
tion of pulse sequence. The cir-
cuit can drive LED's and digital
logic. The circuit also has the
reset capabill ty proVided by S2
that clears the circuit when
power is first applied. R-E 69
 TheABCs
ofDMMs

DAVID ROUNTREE
E.IV1EsT. INC.
10606 HEMPSTEAD #126
HOUSTON, TX 77092
8001955-0077
SALES 7131686- 7306

F=LBI<S®
 ,-"
.VYhat exactly isa digital multimeter (DMM) and what
.\
.can itdp? How'should r:neasurements be made? What
.'~.,·i .•,ifeatures,doYou'need? INn.Cit is the safest and easiest way to
. get the m6~r6.Li(of,ybtJi,' meter? These are the questions
.
that this bbokletwillajiswer
.: .. ..
'/~,;
for you,
~.;." ,

,.tossed'joto toolcases,
they've undergone a
rigorous testing 'and' .
evaluation progrqnl.
User safety is aprimary
consideration when Fluke
DMMsare design~a.AII
Fluke handheld DMMs are
UL listedJor safety.
. Fluke offers many DMMs
with differ~'nt combinations, .-'

'c·,

This booklet is not intended as a

tutorialQrl electrical theory. It .
assumes basic electrical arid .
eleCtronic knowledge on the pari
of the reader.

Choosing Your DMM

Buying aDMM requires not only
looking at basic specifications,
but also looking at features,
functions and the overall value
represented by ameter's design
and care taken in its production.
Reliability, especially under tough
44 conditions, is more important
than ever today. So, by the time
Fluke DMMs are ready to be
.Nw-O~ AND

· I.,."" "."jn,,- · ,
:. • 10.' '&0 ~ . ~. I

('UNGe
'''lkHHqzn=

Cu~T
M~MIARtM~/'I'5,
AD AN~ tit!'
ff116~ /0-// ~ ~--=::::==~
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Frt25 /7-/5 ~

!
I
 Resolution, Digits more. However, a3200 count states that voltage =
and Counts·: meter will display atenth of avolt current Xresistance.
.,.' ;.;' up to 320 volts. This is the same Thus, if any two
Resolution refe'rstb'how small or. resolution as amore expensive values in the formula
fine ameasurement the meter can ·20,000 count meter until you are known, the third
make, By knowing the resq!ution. exceed 320 volts. can be determined,
of a DMM you can aetermiQe "
whether the meter 'could measure AcciJracy' ADMM makes use of
the principle of Ohm's
down to only 1volt or down to 1 ' Accuracy' i's the largest allowable Law to directly measure
millivolt W1000th of avolt),
, . error that will occur under specific and display'either ohms,
You wouldn't buy a ruler marked operating conditions. In other amps, or volts, in the
in one inch segments (or centi- wards, it is an indication of how next pages you will see
meters) if you had to measure close the DMM's displayed just how easy it is to use a
down to 1/4 inch (or one millime- measurement is to the actual value DMM to find the answers
ter), Athermometer that only , of the signal being measured. you need.
'measured in whole degrees isn't. .
" much'use when your normal, , ,Accuracy for aDMM IS usually
temperature is::98,6 0 F. You need a express~d as a percent of re~dmg,
,0, '; " , thermometer with' J 0 ;esolut{o ' . ~ An .accura~y qf ±1 :0, of readmg .
. " " ifffi!7 ~~:';.:»l~ , e~ns (hal for a,dlsplayed readmg VOLTAGE
(V)
" The terms ~iilit4}nd coup! ,. ~q9Q}Ov:,the a¢\ual value of.the '
, used to d~scrib~ aIlle!er's resol ,~,Qftage,coLild;beanywhere b~- ,
tion. DMMs' are grouped by'th( .1'·'tweeiji99.0V to 101..0V " ,
" ~IIII- l1
CURRENT
number of counts ofdigits they "S 'f: , "", .' 'I'· . I'd' " (A)
display , peci Icatlons may aso,mc u ea
. . range'of digits adaed to the basic
A3 1/2 digit meter can display" accuracy specification. This '
- RESISTANCE
three full digits ranging from 0to indicates how many counts the . :Fe (u)
9, and one "half" digit which digit to the extreme right of the
OMM~ineasurethe three,
displays only a1 or is left blank. display may vary. So the accuracy elements of Ohm's Law:
A31/2 digit meter will display up example from above might be voltage (V), current (A),
to 1999 counts of resolution. A4 stated as ±(1 % + 2). Therefore, and resistance, (n).
1/2 digit 'meter can display upto. ,for adisplay reading of 1OO,OV the
19,999 counts of resolution, ", "actual voltage would be between
It is more precise to describ'~ a ': 98:8Vand101.2V.
meter by counts of resolution Analog meter specifications are
rather than 31/2 or 41/2 digits, determined by the error at full
CURRENT RESISTANCE
Today's 31/2 digit meters may sea/e,-not at the displayed read- (A) (n)
have enhanced resolution of up ing. Typical accuracy for an
to 3200 or 4000 counts, analog meter is ± 2% or ±3% of Ohm's Law explains the rela-
full scale. Typical basic accuracy tionship b~fween voltage,
Meters with more counts offer for a DMM is±(0.7% + 1) to current and resistance, Put your
better resolution for certain meas- ±(0.1 % + 1) of reading, or better. finger ove~ the value you want to
ureme,nts. For example, a1999 find. Multiply the remaining
count meter won't be able to values if side-by-side; divide if
Ohm's Law one is over the other. But it
measure down to atenth of a volt
if you are measuring 200 volts or Voltage, current, and resistance in really is much easier just to use
any electrical circuit can be calcu- your OMM.
lated by using Ohm's Law, which
46
 ;<Y,\:>¥..~:.:.-Ir '-~ 'H;P~...,·,_..,~, . ;I+'~. .~-~·~t
,
/ .~,. ..;".... 'r""" .;., A'~/ll!-'lIi if!/! "' _ie..,.,·· -... " :'c. .
. , .

DIGITAL AND ANALOU P)5P~AY5

i
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fOR HlqH A(Jj).fW)( AN[I
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IHW~ OR,MORf: DIgII? FOR.
12. IaVDC
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E:AaI M(A?UR&M~NT'

IH~ANALOq N~W~ VI5PL.AY

15 ~~55 Aa:URAT~ AND HM
kOWfR f:fF~cnW
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ABAR qrq\PH 5HoW5

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J- 51qNA!.. JI,jSf L./~ ,AN »WOtJ
~~[I~! Bur 15 MOR!: +1....1....1..
I DURABI-~ AND L.f?5 F'RCN~
10 PAtv"\M~,

l ;,"-.v·-·
Measuring Voltage DMMs can accu-
rately measure ac
One of the most basic tasks of a 0 voltages with fre-
DMM is measuring voltage. A quencies from 50 Hz
typical dc voltage source is' abat- , to 500 Hz, while
tery, like tne one used in your car.

AC voltage The
generator. is usually
wall outlets '~~~~~~~~I~ cies
createdin by a voltages
fromwith frequen-
20 Hz to 100
your home are common sources ' 0 kHz. DMM accuracy
for ac voltage. Some devices specifications for ac
convert ac to dc. For example, voltage and ac,current
electronic equipment such as TVs, should state the'fre-
stereos, VCRs and computers that, quency range of asignal
you plug into an ac wall outlet the meter can accurately
use devices called rectifiers to 0 measure.
convert the ac voltage toa dc
voltage; This dcvoltage is what' " Voltage measurements
po'wers the electronic circuits in Three voltage signals: dc, ac sine determine:
these devices. wave, and non-sinusoidal ac 1) Source voltage
, .,- , signal. 2) Voltage drop
Testing' for ~[Qper's~~pply voltage, j .... ',,; 3) Voltage imbalance
is 'usually the first thing itleasurea Most meters, called "average re-
when troubleshooting acircuit. If sponding," give accurate rms
there is no voltage present, or it it readings if the ac voltage signal is
is too high orJoo loW, the voltage :{a pure sj~e wave.'Aver.aging .,".
problem should be corrected . !'fleters'are not capabje of measur-
before investigating further. ing non-sinusoidal signalsaccu-.
. . rately. Special DMMs called '.
The waveforms associated with ac "true-rms'l DMMs will accurately ,
voltages are either sinusOidal measure the correct rms value, re- :
(sine waves), or non-sinusOidal gardless of the waveform, and
(sawtooth, square, ~Ippl~, etc.). should be used for non-sinusoidal
DMMs display the rms value . si nab
(root-mean-square) of these g.
Accessories, such as Fluke
voltage waveforms. The rms value ADMM's ability to measure ac
80k-6 and 80k-40 high voltage
is the effective or equivalent dc voltage can be limited by the probes, extend the voltage
value of the ac voltage. frequeri~yof the signal Most measureme'nt range of a OMM.

48
 NO~ ~ dOo V'" I mV
[o<XJ v'" I \<.v

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,0
11P, !~~ ORWI\
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 Resistance Resistance measurements deter-
mine:
Resistance is measured in ohms 1) Resistance of aload
(Q). Resistance values can vary 2) Resistance of conductors
greatly, from a.lew milliohms 3) Value of aresistor <0.3 V de
(mQ) for contact resistance to . 4) Operation of avariable resistor
billions of ohms for insulators. For measuring resistance
Most DMMs measure down to Continu ity in the presence of diodes,
0.1 Q; some measure as high as DMM test voltages are
300 MQ (300,000,000 ohms). Continuity is aquick go/no-go kept below O.3V so that
Infinite resistance is read as "OL" resistance test that distinguishes the semiconductor junc"
between an open and aclosed tions are not turned on.
on the Fluke meter display, and
means the resistance is greater circuit.
than the meter can measure. ADMM with acontinuity beeper
Open circuits will read "OL" on allows you to complete many
the meter's display. continuity tests easily and quickly.
Resistance measurements must The meter beeps when it detects a >0.7 Vde
be made wiih the circuit power • clos~d circuit, so you don't have
, 'off, otherwise damage to the' to look at the meter as you test. Select diode test and the test
voltages are raised so the
,.', mete'r and'th,e,~i,Ii~~it ['1\l¥1~sult: Jhe".le~el of resistancereqUired to operation of diodes and semi·
SomeDMMs pto\\life prprect,io trlg!il,er the beeper vanes from . conductor junctions can be
in the ohmsmdde in\ase'of:' . 'JIll< ,?~l,el to model of DMM. checked.
accidental contact with voltages. 'Continuity tests determine:
The level of proteclion may vary, ,,1) Good O'r bloivn fuse
greatly between different DMM 2) Open or shorted conductors
models. 3) Operation of switches
For accurate low resistance 4) Circuit paths (by circuit or
measurements, resistance in the conductor tracing)
test leads must be subtracted
from the total resistance meas- Diode Test
ured, Typical test lead resistance Adiode is like an electronic
is between 0.2Q and O.SQ. If switch. It can be turned on if the
the resistance in the test leads is voltage is over acertain level,
greater than 1Q they should' be generally about O.3V for asilicon
replaced. diode, and allows current to flow
in one direction.
If the DMM supplies less than
O.3V dc test voltage for measuring Some meters have aspecial mode
resistance, it will be able to called diode test. In this mode the
measure the values of resistors readings across the diode should
that are isolated in acircuit by be 0.6V to O.7V in one direction,
diodes or semiconductor junc- and indicate an open circuit in the
tions. This often allows you to other. This indicates agood
test resistors on acircuit board diode. If both readings are open
without unsoldering them. circuit the diode is open, if both
readings indicate continuity the
diode is shorted

50
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V'\..ll\(~ ~~ y;~
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 Measuring Current sufficient capacity to clear ahigh only, and Hall-Effect
.energy'fault. The voltage rating of probes, which
Current'measurements a~e.differ~the meter's fuses should be measure ac or dc
ent fro~ other measur~ments. greaterihan the maximum voltage current.
made with aDM.~. '8u(r~f]t . . yqoJ~p'ect'l~ measure. For
me~surements are rr:ade msefles,; examPJ~l a?O a,mp, 250 volt fuse The output of a
unlike voltag~ or r~slst~nc~ m~as- may oot be able to cleafa fault current transformer is
, urements, which are made m~ "'inside the meier when 'the meter is 1milliamp per amp, A
parallel. The en.\1re c~rrent bemg across::a 480 volt circuit. A20 100 amp value is re-
· measured flows through the: .- 'lmp;; 600 volt fuse would be ' duced to 100 mi 1-
, m~ter, t lso: the lest leads :mu~\ j J:leected to clear the fault on a480 Ilamps, W8ich can be
'Qe pl~gQeP:lnto<!IQI~!er ot set ot,,;' yoll5lrCl1it.: . ." .... safely measured' by'most
'.: mput Jap~sonthy,JTl~ e ' '~, J.j'. " , . . . ' , DMMs. The probe leads
, Current m~as~r~ineri;sde errt\ine: ': C~rr,enl Probe Accessories are connected to the
"mA" and "Common"
. .1) Circuit overioads ~ Sometimes you may ha~e to make input jacks, and the meter
"2) Control circuit current (4-20 acurrent measurement that ex- function switch is set to
" rnA current loop) , ' ceedsthe rating pfYI)ur DMM, In mAac.
~31 Circoit~p~r~tihg current lhes,rhigher current@plications
, " , h •... · i1) ,Qu~ren~IJJ7dlffjlrent branches of (tyIilIGilUY o~er 2 afl)p.~! w,here ,The output of, aHall-Effect
; ".~ ClfGUI extre ' 'r tgh accuracy IS not .' -probe IS 1millivolt per amp,'
j' , ;(t "~ "~¥btiPlfi~isYery'filCOr,dc, For example, 100
I \ P, ci'I"",~'~~~!~1\ . ,:Il~i! . F!elltp~~p~:C!,!~PS,. :am~s ac is converted to 100
,A cdmmon.:$~ta~~ is lo;leavailhe. <!rii~.,'llM~'COOilu.~flIry'~9: ~ ~ mVac. The prob~ I~ads are
test leads plugged mto I~acurrent lhe,~ andR0'lYe~t~e _ ..,; .~onneGted..t~ the V and
input jacks and llien attempla measuiOO varue. to i£!i.~e ,the'" :fl' Gommon ,lacks. Set the ,
voltage measurement. This mere.f~ fiandle~~~Wi~~.':~i ~~ter f~nc\~oo SWitch to ~he
causes adirect short across the Th' ,"! ~,,~t f . ell!. V or l1}y.,scale,selectmg .'
. , ere iue two u~SIC.,lYP.~S 0, "i".<~ i.vac forac cUfcent or, Vdc for dc '
·source voltage through a10\,/- .\curreritprobes':'Qurreiit trarisfor'ril/. ,';. <t, " ( .', t ". "::. '
value
'd resistor inside the DMM,
h' Ah" h ' ' ' ' ,. ers whicHme~su[{i'aC''Curferii'
-". ;:,~wr.~n m~~.~,,~[~me~ $''''h~Fh:,
caeII ~currents unt.. '9 ~ ,;"" ',*1,:, ,~, ,.' . . '\ -.::',:~;;\' _-'. -.~{,
t-',Il~~ ,\,"'wJ:>'
"'"">';C'
r

·current flows through the DMM ".. ~ ' , ' '~ " , .
and, if the meter is not adequately ~" ,,~~~ja~?~/'~--;--:- I
protected, can cause extreme • ,- -'= '''' • .-
damage to the meter and to the:' ~."_. ' ~:.
circuit, and injury to the operator. ' ", ~
Extremely high fault currents,can ·::r .•
occur if industrial high voltage . - '19~ .. _{'...
~ ".o+-....
circuits are involved (480 voltso[~ ., - CEl ~;.:.r-"'-..l ,
higher), " ':' '~
"

ADMM should have current 'input
fuse protection of high enough
capacity for the circuit being
measured, Meters without fuse
protection in the current inputs
should not be used on high
energy electrical circuits (>240V
ac) Those DMMs that do use
fuses should have afuse with
'A tranSformer-type current
probe, such as the Fluke 80i-
400, scales down the current
being measured. The DMM
displays 1 rnA for every amp
being measured.
52
'The' Fluke 80i-1010 Hall·Effect
probe safely measures high·
current ac or de values by
scaling down the current being
measured and converting this
reduced current to voltage. The
meter displays 1 mV for every
amp measured.
 ~o\f \r i"B.7\' ~{JIt0
p..R~ \Z$\j~~~~ I po.
(-17t6.N'I'I\\'\,7I-\OW
~ 1M 1H~ P\7?~'{'
I
 ) ~.

0 OFF (power) SWITCH

POSITION

,
~
'
I ON (power) SWITCH
POSITION
AC-
~
ALTERNATING CURRENT

--,,-,
;
DC-
DIRECT CURRENT
J · " "

:;;:;;:::::: EITHER
DC OR AC

.} w~~ DANGEROUS
.

. ;: · -L'~: c,'. '"

'''1 1- •.;: G.,Rq~~:~i~" ' . h

;S~E.~Pl:A~AIIP~;;::;.~,
-:::'If' ',"
'~fu:
· '., '·'IN',M.ANUAl',~.
, .• 0'. . ~, ."
' ,
<",;

Types of DMM Protection

"'[g] DOUBLE INSULATION
(Protection Class II)
. "

Circuits:
-E3- FUSE
1) Protection with automatic
reco~ery - Some meters tiave ',
, circuitry that'det!lcts an over-
load condition and protecfs,'the '
® Underwriters Laboratories
Inc., USA
Factory Mutual Research
meteYuntil the conditlol'l:no.'·.' ,
"
<S> Corp, USA

@@ Canadian Standards
Association, Canada

I'M Technischer Uberwachungs-

verein Rheinland
Verband Deutscher Electro-
® techniker (VDE) Germany

@1i\l UL recognition mark

54
 Non-sinusoidal
waveform. A
distorted waveform
such as apulse
train, square waves,
triangular waves,
sawtooth waves and
spikes (pg 6)
,Resoluti~n.The
degree to which'small . \
:,:,'
.changes in ameCjsure- ~ \
ment can tie displayed ';
(pg 4), ....'
.l
RMS. The equivalent
dc value of an ac wave-
form (pg 6),

,
. \

'\

"

, '," ~ ".

i
.7 ' '.

'"

56
 I
t ."'J~ '. , ~'" .>' '" ';",..,
:;EaA~ FCATuRi5"
Ut' FoUMINq 5fFZ1Ai- rl£Amf<£5 MAI$ If &A5ltr1( 17) l/7C YOUR. DMM ,

MNlANGIAfoR) ~w
Af,A tiLANa' WHAIJ7
AU1bPo/NlJ1Y (NOI(/if&7;71rA~~~~~~:1i
H(ftA1i'!~ Ff,A[i1Nt17
'.tt ME'A?UW
,;, ~I 6iJM71 ~rc)
WtfH AMtNU, 71qN -...c.-_rn
·70~V~rlIFYOU
o
CCNNtcrrfif1t7f .
':or
. ' .. .'

/.-!,40 IN ~I't:f\%
You wot-lrPAW4t
1H6 MrrtR.,

AUfOfltNtW'i4
AiAfoW,f1CAIJ(7&t.ur5
fF.Q~ MfA}U~Mmr

~Ng~' ~uA\..
~IN<'1 ~1? You UXK
INlb A5fUlrlc. ~q~
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riJ7t5 PRO'II~ eXff?tl-4~iiliiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii~~iiiiiiii~
f'wr~noN PeR L-t%R "'Po·:"·!'>-
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,'c,> , MfMI.A~M~N17 ,ANp

',' ''''I". .
" ,, ''''''Fa' oWRWAlQ.
The information in this booklet
covers basic digital multimeter
functions, such as those found on
the Fluke 77 and the Fluke 23
Fluke also makes avariety of other
DMMs with specialized features
and functions tor awide range of
applications
To learn more about Fluke Digital
Multimeters, ask your distributor
for the following brochures and
application notes:
Fluke Distributor Catalog
Fluke Guide to High Performance
DMMs
Beat the Book with Fluke
Multimeters (Automotive
Troubleshooting)
Electrical Troubleshooting with
Fluke Multimeters
HVAC & RSystems - Service
Tips with Fluke Thermometers
and Multimeters
Fluke multimeters are available
from leading distributors
worldwide. For the name of
your nearest distributor call
toll-tree 1-800-44-FLUKE
(1-800-443-5853) in the USA,
905-890-7600 in Canada,
or 206-356-5600 from other
countries.
FLUKE®
Fluke 77, 23
Analog/Digital display
Volts, ohms, lOA, rnA. diode
test, Touch Hold~
0.3% basic de accuracy
Audible continuity
Autorange/range hold
Multipurpose holster
2000+ hour battery life
4800 V-A maximum {77}
3-year warranty
Fluke 25, 27
Analog/Digital display
Volts, ohms, lOA, mA, diode
test
0.1 % basic dc accuracy
Touch Hold~ function
-15°C to +55°C operation
Ruggedized, waterproof case
Relative (difference) mode (27)
MiniMax recording mode (27)
1000+ hour battery life
3-year warraflty
Fluke Corporation
PO 80x 9090, Everell, WA 98206
TeL (2~)~7-6100
For m~Qrmation call:
(800) 443-5853 (Ioll-iree) in the U.S.A.
(905) 890-7600 tram Canada
(206) 356-5500 from olher countries
Fluke 79, 29 Fluke 10, 11,12
AnaloglDigilal display 4000 Count Digital display
Volls, ohms, lOA, rnA, diode Volts, ohms, diode lest
lest, Touch Hold~
0.9% basic de accuracy
0.3% basic de accuracy
(1.5% for 10)
Frequency, capacitance
VChek™, capacitance
La-Ohms, smoothing (11 and 12)
Audible continuity Min Max recording, time stamp
(12 only)
AUlorange/range hold
Audible continuity
Multipurpose holster
Autorange/range hold
700t hour battery life
650t hour battery life
4800 V-A maximum (79)
3-year warranty
2-year warranty
8060A, 8062A Fluke 83, 85, 87
19,999 count digital display Analog/digital display
Volts, ohms, 2A, mA, diode Volts, ohms, lOA, rnA, diode
test test
0.04% and 0.05% basic dc 0.1 % basic dc accuracy
accuracy (0.3% for 83)
True-rms ac voltage and Touch Hold(/) and Relative
current modes
Continuity and diode test Min, Max, Average recording
Relative reference Frequency, duty cycle,
capacItance
Frequency, dBm, relative dB
18060A) Input Alert 1'"
170 hour battery life True·rms (87 only)
1-year warranty Protective holster, Flex-Stand''''
400+ hour battery life
3-year warranty
©CopyrighI1994, Fluke Corporal ion
All righls reserved. Prices and specilicatiol1s subjecllo
change wilhoul notice. Printed in the U,S.A
G0107G-01U9401/SE EN
i
REVISIONS
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r - - r - - 1- - - r - - r - - r - - 1 MA I N PU l S~
MAIN ~® ~<0 he ~e ~@ h@ h ISAPPLIED ro6
BAC.KUP ~ h h tl ~ h ~ AS BACKUP .
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O_E_SC_R_IP_T_IO_N -+D_A_T_E+-B_Y-l
UNLESS OTHERWISE SPECIFIED
DIMENSIONS ARE IN INCHES
AND TOLERANCES ARE:
...,~ROSS HILL CONTROLS SCR THREE PHASE WAVFFORMS
t:. L~ CO R PORATI 0 N ~ . ..L.J-~'-L:-!.="='---I
:-'\W~ 1530 WEST BELT NORTH • HOUSTON, TEXAS 77043
.X ! .10 (713) 467-9888
.. , - - - - - - - - - - - - - + - + - - 1 .xx ! .020
3001 RED HILL AVE. 61102 • COSTA MESA, CALIf. 92526
1714) 556-6438
DRAWN BY DATE C '(0
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1530 W. SAlol HOUSTON PI<WY N. • HOUSTON, TEXAS 77043 PROJ.::CT
(713) 467-9886 O:~VfN J ALSTON
CERTIFIEO CORRECT FOR PROJECT NOTED. OATE 5-22-92 SYRIAN PETROLEUM COMPANY
4000 EAST LEAVER70N COURT • ANAHEIM, CALIF. 92607
81 DATE
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GATE C-
GATE B+
GATE A-
GATE C +
GATE B-
O· 60· 120· 180· 240· 300· 360· 60· 12

I"
SC-0039-B

6
 WITH RESISTIVE LOAD
CURRENT STOPS
FLOWING H.ERE
V CB V AB V AC V BC V BA V CA V CB V AB
r-.. / . , /-r- ..... /-r-,/-,.., /-"',,..- , / -
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~/

GATE A+ I I
GATE C- I I
GATE B+ I
GATE A- I I
GATE C+ I I I a
GATE B-
a I a
180· 240· 300· 360· 60·

SC-0037-B

7
 ROSS HILL CONTROLS
TRAINING BULLETIN

MOTOR APPLICATION FORMULAS

TORQUE (Lb - Ft) HORSEPOWER X 5250

RPM

HORSEPOWER = TORQUE (Lb-Ft) X RPM

5250

HYDRAULIC HORSEPOWER = VOLUME (GPM) X PRESSURE (PSI)

1714 X EFF

Hook Horse Power

Observe Weight Indicator
Readings For Determining Load Lb.
Assume Average Stand 30 Ft.
Time Middle Section of Stand

HORSE POWER = LOAD (LB) X 30

TIME (SEC) X 550

EXAMPLE: Load 300,000 lbs

Time in seconds required to hoist middle section (30') of a stand of
drill pipe is 11 seconds

HP = 300,000 X 30
= 1487
11 X 550

8
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o '200 3 4t'0 s 600 0 800 9 lOCO 11 1~0 '3 1400 '5 16e!0 17
1800
AMPERES
9
 AI1PS TORQUE A"'PS TORQUE 079 110TOR
e 9 825 49S9
25 9 850 4290
59 49 875 4375
75 1ge 909 4525
199 125 925 4700
125 225 959 4999
ISS 275 975 5959
175 359 1999 5259
2ee 465
225 699
259 725
275 865
399 1919
325 1135
359 1275
375 1425
499 1575
425 1739
459 1875
475 2899
599 2125
525 2275
559 2425
575 2575
699 2799
625 2859
659 3999
675 3125
7ge 3275
725 3425
759 3575
775 3759
Sge 3959

...o
 752ARB OIL WELL SERIES MACHINE - HIGH TORQUE
AMPS TORQUE LB-FT SPEED (RPM
200 410.5 2336.9
250 623.0 1976.0
300 851.6 1753.8
350 1099.0 1594.0
400 1360.4 1475.5
450 1637.5 1380.6
500 1924.0 1305.9
550 2213.2 1248.4
600 2506.7 1201.7
650 2807.4 1161.3
700 3112.5 1127.0
750 3418.2 1098.0
800 3726.5 1073.0
850 4036.4 1051.1
900 4350.5 1031.1
950 4675.6 1011.2
1000 5002.3 993.4
1050 5317.2 979.8
1100 5631.6 967.7
1150 5958.0 954.7
1200 6287.5 942.5
1250 6611.5 932.2
1300 6936.0 922.6

....o
»
 GENERAL ELECTRI-C 752 "
I

__ .__ .2.._----_.. .__._ _

, . ~ _

- T'--

4000--~---: ---5000- -- --
lb;ft. lbLft.

- -_.
__ *_CURRENT
900 # TORQUE
--~ -

800

---~---------

, I

500
(J)
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.1-
========================= CURRENTfTORQUE DATA =========================
MOTOR TYPE: GE 752 SHUNT

CURRENT TORQUE
0.0 0.0 1425.0 6100.0
25.0 40.0 1450.0 6175.0
50.0 80.0 1475.0 6250.0
75.0 150.0 1500.0 6320.0
100.0 280.0 1525.0 6400.0
125.0 400.0 1550.0 6470.0
150.0 500.0 1575.0 6525.0
175.0 650.0 1600.0 6600.0
200.0 775.0 1625.0 6675.0
225.0 900.0 1650.0 6730.0
250.0 1025.0 1675.0 67900
275.0 1150.0 17000 6840.0
300.0 1300.0 1725.0 6900.0
325.0 1425.0 1750.0 6960.0
350.0 1540.0 1775.0 7020.0
375.0 1675.0 1800.0 7075.0
400.0 1790.0
425.0 1900.0
450.0 2025.0
475.0 2150.0
500.0 22750
525.0 2400.0
550.0 2500.0
575.0 2600.0
600.0 2700.0
625.0 2815.0
650.0 2930.0
675.0 3050.0
700.0 3180.0
725.0 3260.0
750.0 3360.0
775.0 3500.0
800.0 3605.0
825.0 3710.0
850.0 3815.0
875.0 3925.0
900.0 4030.0
925.0 4110.0
950.0 4225.0
975.0 4330.0
1000.0 4440.0
1025.0 4525.0
1050.0 4650.0
1075.0 4725.0
1100.0 4825.0
1125.0 4950.0
1150.0 5025.0
1175.0 5125.0
1200.0 5210.0
1225.0 5300.0
1250.0 5400.0
1275.0 5500.0
1300.0 5600.0
1325.0 5700.0
1350.0 5800.0
1375.0 5900.0
1400.0 6000.0

12
 752RB HIGH TORQUE SHUNT MOTOR

FIELD CURRENT 30 AMPS FIELD CURRENT 40 AMPS

AMPS TORQUE LB·FT SPEED (RPM) AMPS TORQUE LB- SPEED (RPM)
200 776 1269 200 859 1139
300 1177 1280 300 1313 1142
400 1566 1293 400 1759 1147
500 1942 1308 500 2197 1153
600 2304 1325 600 2623 1162
700 2650 1344 700 3037 1171
800 2978 1366 800 3436 1183
900 3288 1391 900 3819 1196
1000 3576 1419 1000 4184 1212
1100 3842 1451 1100 4529 1230
1200 4085 1486 1200 4852 1251
1300 4301 1526 1300 5152 1274

FIELD CURRENT 50 AMPS FIELD CURRENT 60 AMPS

AMPS TORQUE LB·FT SPEED (RPM) AMPS TORQUE LB- SPEED (RPM)
200 915 1062 200 953 1012
300 1404 1063 300 1468 1012
400 1888 1065 400 1980 1012
500 2365 1068 500 2487 1013
600 2835 1072 600 2987 1015
700 3296 1077 700 3482 1018
800 3747 1063 800 3968 1021
900 4186 1090 900 4445 1025
1000 4613 1098 1000 4913 1030
1100 5025 1107 1100 5370 1035
1200 5423 1118 1200 5814 1041
1300 5804 1130 1300 6246 1049

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 DRIVE BASICS

CONSTANT TORQUE LOAD

100 % 1-------------' 100 % f-----------r.

TORQUB HORSEPOWER
DEMANDED DEMANDED
BY TIlE BYTHE
LOAD LOAD

100 % 100%

CONSTANT HORSEPOWER LOAD

100 .. 100.. -----)~--------

TORQUE HORSBPOWER
DeMANDED DeMANDIID
BY TIlE BYTHB
LOAD LOAD

BASB
BAS.
100 100
SPE1ID ..

DC MOTOR TORQUE & HORSEPOWER

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CONTROL .,.0( CONTROL ):1
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I HORSEPOWER
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)0
 ADVANCED ELECTRICIANS SCR MAINTENACE COURSE

DYNAMIC BRAKE INPUT CIRCUIT

FIRING REFERENCE
+O.5V MAXIMUM OUTPUT
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CD DB ON - -5V + or - 2V

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THIS CIRCUIT
IS~
.j:> TO UNDERSTANDING DYNAMIC
BRAKE ELECTRONICS
~
 HALL EFFECT
In 1879, Hall at John Hopkins University, discovered that if a
strip of gold leaf, carrying an electric current longitudinally,
was placed in a magnetic field, with the plane of the strip
perpendicUlar to the direction of the field, the points directly
opposite each other on the edges of the strip acquired different
electric potentials; and that if such points were joined through a
sensitive galvanometer, a feeble current would be indicated.

If one looks along the strip in the direction of the current,

with the magnetic field directed downward, then, with strips of
antimony, cobalt, zinc, or iron the electric potential drop is
toward the left and is said to be positive; while with gold,
silver, platinum, nickel bismuth, copper and aluminum, it is toward
the left, and the effect is called negative.
Because of the extremely small voltages obtained from various
types conductors used in sUbsequent investigations made at the
time, this effect remained somewhat of a physical curiosity until
the development of semiconductors that produced Hall voltages
several orders higher than that obtainable with pure conductors.
This information will discuss the basic principles of the Hall
effect, the electrical and the physical characteristics of the Hall
generator.

In figure 1 is shown a semiconductor crystal in which an axial

current flows which is initially assumed to be exclusively due to
holes. If a magnetic field is now applied perpendiCUlar to the
crystal's axis as illustrated, the current, which was uniformly
distributed through the cross section is now crowded toward the
bottom of the crystal.

\ \\
,\ \
\

S'
I
-
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Hole & I /
Current S' /
/
---------r---_---z
&.
'rl'/
/
Z

Figure #1. Diagrams il1ustrating Hall Effect

9
The crowding indicated is due to the fact that the holes are
subjected to a downward force equal to I X H, where I is the
current flowing through the semiconductor and H is the applied
magnetic field. The transverse gradient of the hole concentration
thus produced, gives a rise to an upward electric field, (Ey) ,
which opposes the downward force of the magnetic field. Since
there can be no resultant current flow in the y direction, the
crowding continues until the electric field, (Ey), produces force
that is equal but opposite to that of the of the magnetic field at
which time an equilibrium distribution of the current is set up.
Referring to figure #2, it can be seen that with no magnetic field
applied, there is no "y" component of the electric field and all
points in the "y" direction are at the same potential. This is
represented by the equipotential surface which are perpendicular to
the axis of current flow.
Equipotential Surfaces

y
Syc O : I
II
- - - - - - - If-f---o-- --z
I I Sj;-S
I I
-:i'=O I I -:i' /
/ /
Z Z

Figure #2. Equipotential surfaces in the Hall generator

with a magnetic field applied, and with current due to holes, the
field Ey is produced which in conjunction with the externally
applied field, Ex, produces a resultant field tilted up from the
axis by an angle 8. This gives rise to a tilt in the equipotential
surfaces or what is the same thing as a potential difference across
the crystal in the "y" direction. This potential difference can be
measured with a sensitive voltmeter and in the Hall generator
becomes the output voltage. If the current is due to electrons,
the effect is the same but with an opposite tilt of the
equipotential surfaces. As an example of the magnitude of the Hall
voltage, consider that germanium, properly doped, will produce at
least 110 millivolts per kilogauss at 0.2 watt input. As a
comparison consider that copper under similar conditions will
produce only 0.024 millivolts/kilogauss.

10
Mathematically, the Hall voltage is given by:

-8
IeB sin e x 10 equation (1)
T

Where VH = Hall voltage in volts.

RH = Hall coefficient in cm3 jCoulomb (Directly
proportional to carrier mobility and inversely
proportional to the conductivity of the
material) .
T = Thickness of the element in centimeters.
Ie = Control current in amperes.
B = Magnetic field density in gauss.
e = Angle between Ie and B
The Hall Generator

Construction details of the Hall generator are given in figure 3.

Here ohmic contacts have been attached to each of the four edges of
a slice of indium arsenic or indium antimonide. When a voltage of
the polarity shown causes a current flow in the direction indicated
(xl, a magnetic field perpendicular to the faces of the element
will produce a Hall voltage output with the polarity shown. (VA)
The magnitude of this voltage will be in accordance with equation
(1 I .
Semiconductor
Wafer

Figure #3. Construction details of a Hall generator

The most important characteristic of the Hall generator is that it

mUltiplies the input signals. This capability also permits
measurements of various parameters. The application utilized by
Ross Hill Controls is the measurement of DC current. This is
accomplished by holding Ie constant.

11
 E

LOAD
CURRENT
IRON CORE

A. SPROCKET SLIP

IA

LOAD
CURRENT

B. ACTIVE FIELD SUPPLY

56-0010-8

Figure IV-3. HED Configurations

RHCC SCR Drive System Technical Manual Unique Devices 12

SPROCKET SLIP DETECTOR 200D310 REV.F

THE DESIGN PHILOSOPHY OF THE SPROCKET SLIP DETECTOR IS TO AVOID OVERSPEEDING

AN UNLOADED SERIES MOTOR, WHEN OPERATED IN PARALLEL WITH ANOTHER SERIES MOTOR

ON THE SAME SCR. SINC~ EACH SERIES MOTOR ON THE MUD PUMP IS INDEPENDENTLY

COUPLED TO THE PUMP BY A CHAIN, A BROKEN CHAIN UNLOADS ONE MOTOR. THE DC

MODULE CANNOT SPEED CATCH THE UNLOADED MOTOR BECAUSE "N" FEEDBACK APPEARS
NORMAL DUE TO THE CURRENT AND VOLTAGE OF THE LOADED MOTOR. THE UNLOADED

MOTOR COULD REACH DESTRUCTION RPM. THEREFORE, THE SPROCKET SLIP DETECTOR

IS AN OVERSPEED DETECTION CIRCUIT, NOT A DIFFERENTIAL CURRENT DETECTOR AS

PREVIOUSLY THOUGHT.

THE PARAMETERS CONCERNING OVERSPEED OF A SERIES TRACTION MOTOR ARE:

A. THE MOTOR CANNOT OVERSPEED BELOW 50A.

B. THE MOTOR CANNOT OVERSPEED, IF CURRENT IS OVER 300A.

(REFER TO SPROCKET SLIP SCHEMATIC)

A 50A OFFSET IS ESTABLISHED BY THE VOLTAGE DIVIDER OF R25, R26, and D4.

THE VOLTAGE AT THE CATHODE OF DIODE D4 AND D3 DURING CIRCUIT OPERATION IS

SHOWN IN FIGURE #1.

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13
THE VOLTAGE AT THE CATHODE OF D4 IS DEVELOPED BY HED INPUTS TO 21 AND 22

AS THE GRAPH IN FIGURE 1 ILLUSTRATES. THIS VOLTAGE CAN BE CALCULATED USING

THE HED INPUT OF .035V/l00A AND THE GAIN OF 2-1 WHICH IS APPROXIMATELY 30.

Dl AND D2 ARE USED TO INSURE THE SMALLEST ARMATURE CURRENT IS DETECTED. ONCE

THE OUTPUT OF Dl OR D2 EXCEEDS THE LEVEL THAT REPRESENTS 300A ABOUT 3.125V,
SPROCKET SLIP CANNOT OCCUR.

VOLTAGE FEEDBACK IS INPUT TO 23. THE OUTPUT OF Z3 IS -5V, WHEN BRIOGE VOLTAGE
IS 750V. RESISTOR R39 HAS BEEN SELECTED TO PREVENT SPROCKET SLIP UNDER NORMAL
OPERATING CONDITIONS. A LIGHT OR UNLOADED MUD PUMP COULD BRING SPEED
CATCHING INTO PLAY WITHOUT INVOKING SPROCKET SLIP. ALSO, THE CONTRIBUTION
TO INVERTING INPUT OF 24, FROM 23 THROUGH R39, WILL NOT REPRESENT AN OVERSPEED
CONDITION AS LONG AS BRIDGE VOLTAGE IS BELOW 230VOLTS. SPROCKET SLIP OCCURS
WHEN PIN 2 OF 24 SEES A NEGATIVE GOING INPUT SUFFICIENT TO DRIVE ITS OUTPUT
POSITIVE THUS TURNING ON TRANSISTOR Ql. TRANSISTOR Ql, ENERGIZES KIA OPENING
THE N.C. CONTACTS IN SERIES WITH K2. THIS DROPS OUT K2 AND OPENS MUD PUMP

CONTACTORS.

DO'S AND DON'Ts

1. MOST S.S. PROBLEMS ARE CAUSED BY IMPROPERLY PHASED HEDS OR IMPROPERLY
INSTALLED INTERCONNECTS. THE OUTPUTS FROM 21 AND 22, AS ARMATURE CURRENT
FLOWS, SHOULD MOVE IN A POSITIVE DIRECTION.

2. IT IS POSSIBLE THAT EITHER 21 OR 22 MAY HAVE AN OFFSET CAUSED BY MOUNTING

HED TO CLOSE TO ARC SHOOT OF CONTACTOR.

3, DO NOT CORRECT S.S. PROBLEMS BY INSTALLING A RESISTOR IN R-28. THIS

MAY PREVENT S.S. DETECTOR FROM OPERATING.

-2-
14
4. DO NOT JUMPER 5.5. CONTACTS TO CURE PROBLEM, UNLESS RIG CANNOT
OPERATE. DO NOT LEAVE RIG WITH 5.5. CONTACTS JUMPERED UNLESS FIELD
SERVICE SUPERVISOR IS NOTIFIED AND GIVES APPROVAL. BE SURE TO FOLLOW UP
ON 5.5. PROBLEMS, IF PROBLEM CANNOT BE CORRECTED DUE TO LACK OF PARTS.

15
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The Intrinsic Safety Primer

I
i ' I : .;'j .~

1
---------~---- -

RST 5 9/92
- I
The Intrinsic Safety Primer

Question I: What is Intrinsic Safety?

Answer: Intrinsic Safety is an explosion prevention design tech-

nique applied to electrical equipment and wiring for hazardous
locations (where a flammable or combustible material is present.) Fuel
The technique is based upon limiting electrical and thermal energy
to a level below that which is required to ignite a specific hazardous
atmospheric mixture.

Question 2: How is Intrinsic Safety defined'?

Answer: According to the National Electrical Code, "Intrinsically

Safe wiring shall not be capable of releasing sufficient electrical or
thermal energy under normal or abnormal conditions to cause COMBUSTION
ignition of a specific flammable or combustible atmospheric mix-
ture in its most easily ignitible concentration."

Question 3: Can you explain how Intrinsic Safety works?

Oxygen Ignition
Answer: Understanding Intrinsic Safety starts with the Combus-
tion Triangle (Figure I). Fuel, oxygen and a source of ignition must
be presentatthesame time for combustion to occur. Intrinsic Safety
Figure 1: Combustion Triangle
assumes that the fuel-la-air mixture is present in its most easily
ignited concentration and restricts the electrical and thenna! energy
sources of ignition, at all times, to levels incapable of causing
ignition.

Question 4: Does Intrinsic Safety assure there will be no

ignition ofa flammable or combustible mixture in a hazardous
location?

Answer: Intrinsic Safety reduces the risk of ignition by electrical

apparatus or connecting wiring in hazardous locations. Require-
ments for an Intrinscially Safe system do not include reducing risk
of explosion related to mechanical or electrostatic sparking,
chemical action, radio waves or lightning strikes. Protection
against such events should be employed as well. To date no
explosion can be attributed to an Intrinsically Sare system. As
defined by insurance organizations the probability that an explo-
sion would occur from an Intrinsically Safe system is 10- 18 , far
superior to all other protection techniques.

2
2
 The Intrinsic Safety Primer

Question 5: Can you explain what is meant by "energy levels

incapable of causing ignition"?

Answer: When "energy levels incapable of causing ignition"are

discussed it is recognized that there is an energy level at which a
flammable or combustible mixture can be ignited. Energy below
lhal "lower explosion limit" cannot ignite the flammable or com-
bustible mixture. The concept of Intrinsic Safety is based on the
principle of maintaining energy levels below thai point under both
normal and abnonnal conditions.

The principleofcombusrion is such that a minimum ignirionenergy

must be introduced into a specific flammable or combustible
mixture before it can become the self-propagating combustion
wave called an explosion. If the energy supplied is less than the
minimum ignition energy, the combustion wave will not occur.
Intrinsic Safety requirements are based on minimum ignition
energy levels established by test data for various flammable or
combustible mixtures.

Question 6: Do Intrinsically Safe circuits always operate below

minimum ignition energy levels?

Answer: Yes. Itshould be recognized that it is not possible to make

r all hazardous location electrical circuits Intrinsically Safe. The

power (energy) requirements of some circuits are well above the
minimum ignition levels. As a rule. those electrical circuits with
power requirements of approximately ::; 1 watt may be made
Intrinscially Safe. Today, the vast majority of inslrumentation
manufacturers have included devices which operate at Intrinsically
Safe levels within their product lines.

Question 7: How were the minimum igniton energy levels

established?

Answer: Most ignition energy level data was developed as a result

of efforts by the British to reduce hazards in underground coal
mines. That was years ago and testing continues to this day all over
the world. Test procedures are somewhat involved. This data is
available in table and curve form while the curve (graph) format is
the most widely used and accepted. While the interpretation of the
resulting data is not a matter of universal agreement, the ignition
curves are widely published and generally accepted.

(
3
3
The Intrinsic Safety Primer

Question 8: Where can the ignition curves be obtained?

Answer: They are published in most Intrinsic Safety Standards

such as ANS/IUL 9/3 in the United States and CSA 22.2 Number
157 in Canada. The three most widely referenced curves are shown
at the right. The Resistance Circuits Ignition Curren IS, Figure 2.1,
depict the levels ofenergy required to ignite various hazardous gas-
lo-airmixtures in their most easily ignited concentrations. Because
all electrical circuits store energy which may be released under
certain conditions, capacitance and inductance must be considered
as potential energy sources capable ofigniting ahazardous mixture.
Figures 2.2 and 2.3 plot those capacitive and induclive levels
(respectively) at which ignition of a hazardous mixture will occur.
" rnA L.L.l--'--4.LU"l--'-LJ
In the case ofall three referenced curves, energy levels below those lOV SOV lDDV 20QV

shown by the curves are of insufficient magnitude to ignite the

referenced hazardous mixture. In order to provide a secure factor
for the application of Intrinsic Safety, safety factors are applied 10 Figure 2.1: Resistance Circuits Ignition Currents
the energy levels depicted by the curves.

10,000
Question 9: How are the most easily ignited gas concentrations
determined?
,"""
Answer: Laboratory testing is one method used. The easiest
ignited concentrations are also determined as a calculated percent- "" / ' C+400
age of volume-to-air somewhere between the lower and upper Capacrmnce
C + ISO
explosion limits of a specific flammable or combustible mixture. " C+5.60

'"
0.0\ ILy--'---::"Ly:'-'..-',-='"""vLL.':,,,,,,,±-"yLL.L
Open-Circ:u~ Vollalle IV ocI

Figure 2.2: Capacitance Circuits Ignition Voltages

(Note C + 0, 5.6,etc. is Capacitance plus series resistance)

'H

'''''''H

10mH

'''''''''~
2mH

, mH

0.5mH

O. I mti L.L.l.j.UWJ.<J.W.:'-'...L.LUWIJ,i.
10mA SOmA 500mA \ A
$hof1·Circ:ui\
QJrr8f1\ [I sci

Figure 2.3 Inductance Circuits Ignition Currents

4
4
 The Intrinsic Safety Primer

Question 10: How are hazardous locations defined?

Answer: According to the National Electrical Code. Article 500,

hazardous locations are defined by Class, Group and Division.
Differentiation by Class and Group is in accordance with the laws
of physics while Division classification is based both on environ-
mental and physical plant conditions.

Relative to the application of Intrinsic Safely it is important to

define the actual Class and Group into which any proposed Intrin-
sically Safe electrical circuits are 10 be installed. As Intrinsic Safety
is a technique for worse case hazardous locations, consideration of
Division is not necessary. Shown by the ignition CUlVes, all
flammable mixtures do not require the same energy levels to ignite.
Because Intrinsic Safety maintains energy levels below that re-
quired to ignite aspecific hazardous mixture it is important to know
what the energy allowances are for operational and safety consid-
erations.

Question 11: The Resistance Circuits Ignition Currents on

page 4 (Figures 2.1, 2.2, 2.3) identify only four hazardous
mixtures. Are there more flammable or combustible materials
than that?

Answer: Yes, the four hazardous mixtures shown represent the

( basis for all flammable or combustible mixtures subject to ignition
from electrical sources. All are found, as shown in the Hazardous
(Classified) Locations chart on pages 6 and 7, in Class I with
Hydrogen identified as Group B; Ethylene identified as Group C;
Propane being Group D and as a separate cutve yet still identified
as Group D, Methane.

Acetylene: Group A and Hydrogen: Group B share the same

required energy levels relative to ignition. They require less energy
for ignition than Group C which requires less energy for ignition
than Group D. Within Class II Group E, metal or electrically
conductive dusts, Group F, Coal Dust and Group G, electrically
nonconductive dusts, generally grain or agricultural dusts are
identified. As Groups A and B shane the same ignition cutve
Groups C, Ethylene and Group E, metal or electrically conductive
dusts share the same ignition cutve. Groups D, Propane; F. Coal
Dust and G, electrically nonconductive dusts as well as Class III
materials share the same ignition curve.

A complete listing of hazardous mixtures defined by Group can be

found in National Fire Protection Association document NFPA497
M.

(
5
5
The Intrinsic Safety Primer

Hazardous (Classified) Locations In Accordance with Article 500, National Electrical Code - 1990 (Figure 1-1)

Class I
Flammable Gases or Vapors

I
I I
Division 1 Division 2

• Exists under normal conditions • Liquids and gases are in closed contain -
• May exist because of: ers or the systems are:
- repair operations - handled
- maintenance operations - processed
-leakage - used
• Released concentration because of: • Concentrations are normally prevented
- breakdown of equipment by positive mechanical ventilation.
- breakdown of process • Adjacent to a Class I, Division 1 loca-
- faulty operation of equipment tion.
- faulty operation of process
which causes simultaneous fail-
ure of electrical equipment

I
I
.
~

Group A: Atmospheres containing Acetylene

Group B: Atmospheres such as Butadiene, Ethylene Oxide, Propylene Oxide,

Acrolein, or Hydrogen (or gases or vapors equivalent in hazard to
hydrogen such as manufactured gas.)

Group C: Atmospheres such as Cyclopropane, Ethyl Ether, Ethylene, or gases or

vapors equivalent in hazard.

Group 0: Atmospheres such as Acetone, Alchohol, Ammonia, Benzine, Benzol,

Butane, Gasoline, Hexane, Laquer Solvent vapors, Naptha, Natural
Gas, Propane or gases or vapors equivalent in hazard.

6
6
 The Intrinsic Safety Primer

C Class II
Combustible Dusts

I
I I
Division 1 Division 2

· Combustible
Exists under normal conditions · Not normally in the air.
· - mechanical mixture produced by:
failure of equip-
· terlere
Accumulations normally sufficient to in-
with normal operation of electri-
ment or machinery cal equipment or other apparatus.
- abnormal operation of equip-
ment and provide source of ig-
· In the air as a result of infrequent mal-
functioning of:
nilion from: - handling equipment
- simultaneous failure of electri- - process equipment
cal equipment
- simultaneous failure of opera-
· Accumulations are sufficient to interfere
with the safe dissipation of heat from
tion of protection devices electrical equipment.
- other causes · Accumulations may be ignitible by ab-
· electrically conductive dusts may be
present
normal failure of electrical equipment.

I
I
•
Group E: Atmospheres containing combustible metal dusts (regardless of resis-
tivity), dusts of similarly hazardous characteristics« 100 kQ/ em} or
electrically conductive dusts.

Group F: Atmospheres containing combustible Carbon Black, Charcoal

or Coke Dusts which have> 8 % total volatile material or if these
dusts are sensitized so that they present an explosion hazard
and having a resistivity> 100 K Q/cm but,; 100 MQ/cm.

Group G: Atmospheres containing combustible dusts having a resistivity

> 100K Q/cm or electrically nonconductive dusts.

Class III
Ignilible Fibers or Flyings

Division 1 I Division 2

• Fibers or materials producing combus- Not Grouped

tible flyings are manufactured, stored or
handled
• Fibers are handled except during the
manufacturing process or are stored,
• Manutacturers such as textile mills,
except during the process of manufac
cotton related mills or clothing plants. ture.
• Fibers and flyings include Rayon, Cot-
ton, Sisal, Hemp, Jute and Spanish
Moss

7
7
The Intrinsic Safety Primer

Question 12: After reviewing the Hazardous (Classified) Loca-

tions chart on pages 6 and 7, it seems like Division 2 does not
pose that much ofa risk. Are explosion protection methods still
required?

Answer: Yes. Whether Division 2 is identified as either immedi-

ately adjacent to a Division 1hazardous location arone in which the
hazardous mixture is present under abnonnal conditions. it is still
a hazardous location. Intrinsic Safety is a worse case explosion
protection technology which is acceptable for Division 1; there-
fore, for Division 2 as well.

Question 13: What does the Intrinsic Safety definition mean by

normal or abnormal conditions?

Answer: When Intrinsically Safe systems are discussed as being

safe under normal or abnormal conditions it is inferred that regard-
less of a circuit's condition. power levels will not be of sufficient
magnitude to ignite a specific hazardous mixture. When discussing
an electrical measurement orcontrol circuit in a hazardous location,
abnonnal conditions, commonly referred to as fault conditions,
would generally be considered to be those circumstances in which
the circuit has failed in an unsafe manner creating the risk of
explosion. To Intrinsic Safety. because of its design, these condi-
tions are considered to be nonnal and expected. Theconditions may
,be the opening, shorting or grounding of field wiring or the (
application of higher voltages than were intended for the circuit,
each or collectively increasing the potential ofigniting a flammable
or combustible mixture. A normal condition is considered to be the
normal allowance of energy sufficient to power and operate the
electrical measurement or control circuit.

_____________________8
8
 The Intrinsic Safety Primer

-
- Question 14: The definition of Intrinsic Safely identifies both
'C:.eleclrical and thermal energy as potential causes of ignition. Hazardous Auto-Ignition Temperature
How does thermal energy relate to the ignition of a specific Mixture [0 C]
flammable or combustible mixture? --
Acetone 540
Answer: ll1ere are tempemtures at which a flammable orcombus- Acetylene 305 I
tible mixture will autoignite. The minimum temperature at which Ammonia 630
ignition takes place is called the "Autoignition Temperature". Benzine 220
Intrinsically Safe systems will not allow sufficient thermal energy Benzol 555
at levels by which aspecific flammable or combustible mixture will Butane 365
autoignite. Figure 3 identifies common hazardous mixtures and Butylalchohol 340
their auto-ignition temperatures. Carbon Disulphide 95
Carbon Oxide 605
Question 15: How is Intrinsic Safety insured? Cyclohexane 430 ,,
I
Diesel Fuel 220 to 300
Answer: There are a number of approaches to the design of an Ethane 515
Intrinsically Safe system. All are governed by standards which Ethylacetate 460
provide construction requirements for the complete Intrinsically Ethylalchohol 425
Safe electrical circuit. These standards have been discussed earlier Ethylchloride 510
as those containing the ignition curves. The common objective of Ethylene 425
these standards and different approaches to Intrinsic Safety is to Ethylether 180
provide separation, by means of an electrical assembly, between Ethyl Glycol 235 I

, Intrinsically Safe (protected) and Nonintrinsically Safe (unpro-

tected) wiring. Devices used to provide this separation between
Intrinsically Safe and Nonintrinsically Safe wiring are called
.•Associated Apparatus. In all cases they limit energy into a hazard-
.,pus location under specified fault conditions.
Fuel Oil
Hexane
Hydrogen Aeroxide
Hydrogen Disulphide
Methane
Methanol
220 to 300
240
560
270
595
455
I
I
!
I
Question 16: What are the Associated Apparatus which Methyl Chloride 625
provide this separation? Napthaline 520
Phenol 595
Answer: Associated Apparatus fall into two basic categories, Propane 470
isolated and non-isolated, both restricting unsafe energy levels yet Tetraline 425
not inhibiting the flow ofenergy necessary for the nonnal operation
of the electrical circuit.
Toluole
..
535
I
Figure 3: AutOlgmtlOn temperatures of some hazardous mIx-
tures.
Intrinsic Safety Barriers are the most commonly used Associated
Apparatus. They are a network of components which allow
electrical signals to flow undernonnal working conditions but limit
energy to a level incapable of igniting a flammable or combustible
mixture under fault conditions. By design, they are a passive type
of device.

Galvanic Isolation Devices are a more active counterpart of the

Intrinsic Safety Barrier and provide electrical isolation between
Intrinsically Safe and Nonintrinsically Safe wiring. Because of
their more active nature they can function as signal conditioning
devices as well as providing Intrinsic Safety.

9
9
The Intrinsic Safety Primer

Question1?: What is an Intrinsic Safety Barrier and how does

it work?

Answer: An Intrinsic Safety Barrier is a current and voltage

limiting assembly. It is designed and constmcted to the standards
previously mentioned so that it may be considered a "Protective
Assembly." A Protective Assembly, according to standardANSII
UL 9 JJ is "an assembly that is so unlikely to become defective in
a manner that will lower the intrinsic safety of tile circuit that it may
be considered not subject to fault when analysis or tests for intrinsic
safety are conducted." Reference to the basic circuit diagram,
Figure 5 shown at the right will help explain the function of an
Intrinsic Safety Barrier.

Intrinsic Safety Barriers commonly use resistors 10 limit current

into a hazardous location while Zener Diodes are used for voltage
limitation. Figure 4: Basic Circuit of the Intrinspak • Series 9001 positive
potential de Intrinsic Safety Barrier
When operating conditions are nonnal the Intrinsic Safety Barrier
will allow electrical signals to travel in the circuit. In the event of
fault voltage being applied to tl,e nonintrinsically safe terminals of
the Intrinsic Safety Barrier the Zener Diodes [Zl] will shunt the
resulting excessive current to a reference point in the nonhazardous
location which is detennined to be ground. Thus, the Zener Diodes
become the identified voltage source for the intrinsically safe part z, ~ z, : path of
: faull current
of the circuit. The current limiting resistor [R2] will then allow only
a defined current to flow in the intrinsically safe system securely
limiting energy levels below those which are required to ignite a
specific hazardous mixture. As Zener Diodes alone are not consid-
'$' IPA o-------+--+----t PAr~

ered to be "protective components," they are applied redundantly

[Z2]with the addition of a fuse to protect against excessive current.
Resistors and Zener Diodes with their corresponding fuses are
designed to the criteria of "protective components" set forth by
Intrinsic Safety design standards.
Figure 5: Basic Circuit of the Intrinspak • Series 9001 showing
Shown in the basic circuit diagram of the Intrinsic Safety Barrier path of fault current.
(Figure 5) the path ofa fault current due to high voltage is identified
by the broken line. When high current enters the safety barrier
circuit as aresultofhigh input voltage a fault condition exists. Zener
Diode [Zl] becomes a conductor after its breakdown voltage is
reached and current will be diverted to ground as shown. Should
current continue to increase beyond the fuse rating, the fuse will
open-circuit arresting current flow altogether.

--- ID
10
 ./:;;>-",', ~
The Intrinsic Safety Primer ,
! •• ~. ~ ~ •

Question 18: Since the fuse plays such an integral part in the
provision oflntrinsicSafety and is, by nature, designed toopen-
circuit, is it replaceable'!

Answer: Yes. Since 1988 the standards have allowed for the use
oflnllinsic Safety Baniers with replaceable fuses. ANS/IUL 913
states,"if it is accessible for replacement, the fuse on a fuse-
protected shunt diode banier shall not be replaceable by one of a
higher rating." lnllinsic Safety Baniers in which fuses can be
replaced have those fuses contained in assemblies to insure any
replacement is with one of equal current rating. These assemblies
employ tamper-proof keying systems.

QuestionI9: Is it possible to replace a fuse ofan Intrinsic Safety

Barrier in which one of the Zener Diodes has been damaged?

Answer: No. It is important to understand that unless the power

rating of a Zener Diode is exceeded. no damage can occur. In the
construction specifications for Intrinsic Safety Barriers relative to
the Zener Diode/Fuse relationship a very explicit set of parameters
exist to identify the proper matching of these components. These
specifications employ safety factors for both Zener Diode and Fuse
selection individually and collectively. The fuse will reliably open-
circllit at less than 1/3 of the powerrating oftlle Zener Diodes such
that a Zener Diode cannot be damaged. To determine the power
rating of the Zener Diodes to be used in an lnllinsic Safety Banier
the following formula is adhered to:

in which:

Z" ~ Minimum Power Rating of the Zener Diodes

V DC ~Maximum Zener Diode Open-Circuit Voltage
I F ~ Fuse Current Rating

(
--- 11
II
The Intrinsic Safety Primer

12
 REvlS!ONS
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I BASIC ACTIVE FIELD SUPPLY DIAGRAM I

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MPIA
600 VAC
OR OV
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90V
CI'2 MPlB
150V
B¢ /

Field Loss
L Console
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+
EFFECT
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 SCR FIELD SUPPLY REGULATOR

ROSS HILL CONTROLS utilizes the field supply regulator card to control
the firing of field supply SCRs. This is done to regulate field current to
a Shunt Motor. ~llien two Shunt motors are run off an SCR bridge, establishing
load sharing could be a problem. However, we will force armature currents to
share, by changing the field current of one of the motors, while the other
motor's field is held constant. The field supply with SCR control is known
as the active field. We will use the difference in armature currents to
develop an error signal to adjust the firing of SCRs in the active field supply.

MPlA

600V

MPlB

FIELD SUPPLY
REGULATOR CARD

SCR 1 SCR 2

K2 K7 K2 K7

23
1
 -2-

In order to develop an error signal based on the difference in armature

currents. One cable going to the A & B motor armature is run through the
center of an HED. This device (HED) is perfect for this application, since
it responds to direction as well as current magnitude. The currents to the
"A" motor and the liB" motor flow in opposite directions. Therefore, equal
currents to each motor would allow their effects to cancel and the HED output
would be zero. ROSS HILL CONTROLS in the past has used an HED with a 24 mil
gap and a non linear output dependent amps, see DWG. 400891. Newer systems,
+
produced within the last three years, use HEDs with an output - .035V/IOO amps.
HEDs require a bias supply.

I'~"AC::J'
-I ~
IISVA 2.2 ~
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The field supply regulator card power supply is developed by using trans-
+
former T3 & DBI (bridge rectifier) . The output of DBI is - 24V DC. The
+ .
24V 1S applied through the parallel combination of R41 and R61 to Pin 5
(Ic +). The -24V is applied through the parallel combination of R42 and
R64 to Pin 6 (Ic -). Since the impedance of the HED is less than 5 ohms,
the bias current is dependent on supply voltage and value of R41, R42, R61
and R64. Therefore, the HED bias current would be approximately:

48V
I = 160 rna
3000hms

24
 -3-

The error signal output from the HED is input to Pins 12 & 13 of the regulator
card. The differential amplifier Z2 has a gain of GIN = RF R12 390K
19.5 (we will assume 20.) RIN 20K

TO ARMATURE \-E::------.p------K
IMBALANCE CKV- }----,
D19 RIB
RIO Rll ~MK 10K
HED (+) 121---Jy'\11'0vK~-"Vl"0"K"---<II-2-'\1VV-'" ,. D20
10K
3 Z2
Rl7
10K 10K
HED (- ) 13 I--JYV\r-....J'y'V'.r---1~., PHASE INVERTING
R13 R14 BUFFER
R16
~91iK SELECT

IA . 9 f-------------... OV
COMMON
D6

Assuming a difference in armature currents of lOOA, the error signal would

+
be - .035V/IOOA. If the "B" motors armature current is greater, the polarity
of the error should move the firing reference in a positive, less negative
direction, to increase field current. Increasing field current would pro-
duce a greater CEMF in the armature causing a reduction in armature current.
The error signal would be a po sit i ve. 035V input to Pin 2 of amplifier Z2.
We have already calculated the gain of Z2 to be 20. Therefore, a -.035 input
to Pin 2 (inverting input of Z2) would produce a positive output at Pin 6 of
Z2.of:

+.035X{-20) = -.7V the output of Z2 (from Pin 6) is applied to anode of

D-20, anode of D6 and phase inverting buffer Z3. (to pin 2 of Z3)

The armature current imbalance circuit is operated by a positive input.

Diode D20 can feed a positive output into the imbalance detector circuit of
Z7. If we assume the error input from HED to Pin 2 of Z2 is a +.035, (indi-
cating I-A 11 motor armature current is lower than the liB" motor by 100 amps) ,
the output of Z2 becomes +.035 x (-20) = -.7V. Since the imbalance circuit
only works on a positive input, the inverting buffer 23, inverts the negative
output of Z2 to a positive signal and feeds it through D-19 to imbalance

25
 -4-

detector Z7.

In older systems, the field supply card does not include the armature
current imbalance circuit. In addition, the output of the HED is larger,
see attached DWG. 400891. The gain of amplifier Z2 was only 10. Therefore,
. . + +
the output of Z2 for a d~fference of 100A is approx~mately (-.061)xlO = -.61V.

We will discuss the imbalance detector circuit later.

GAIN OF Z2 200K = 10
20K

AtltPS VH\VOLTS) Rl2

RIO Rll
200K
1.0 . Obi I
A
(+) 12
2
2.0 .//4 10K 10K
6
5.0 .174 ....,... 3
Z2 OUTPUT

4.0 .227 10K 10K

5.0 .zeO I
A
(-) 13
Rl4
Rl3
b.O .3% R16
Rl5
7. 0 .378 CIRCUIT OF REV "All 200K
SELECT

8.0 .405 200C2BO

9.0 OV
.420
10.0 .~32

HALL EFFE'CT DEVIC.E 2/2.0 hs

100 TURNS
0- IDA Dc...
6AP = .024 INC.HES

26
 -5-

The output of Z2 is also applied to anode of Diode D6. Diodes D6 & D7

create a gate turned on by A -16V jumpered from Pin 8 to Pin 10 (V FWD).
This would be necessary to allow the error signal to pass through the gate
(D6 & D7) into comparator op Amp Z6.

A similar gate of D4 & D5 would allow the error signal from inverting
buffer Z3 to go to the comparator Z6, if the -16V were jumpered to Pin 11
(V REV). This has limited applications to jobs where the field must be
r~versed for bridge regeneration.

After the amplified error from Z2 goes through gate D6 & D7, resistor
R28 (75K) is used to adjust the amount of error signal needed by Z6 to change
firing reference for 0 or minimal differences in armature current. This is
the dynamic or operating balance obtained by changing R28. 75K is the normal
value for R28. However, resistor R28 must be field selected. This may be
necessary because of varying motor characteristics.

D19
To Imbalance
detector Z7
D20
RlO Rll Rl2
9 8
2 10K 10K
6 2 +16V
3 2 D4 R47
6
R17 Z3
3
22K
ill R13 Rl4
Rl6
R15 Select
I Common 390
A D6 D7
9 OV
R48
V FWD +16
47K R20
R49
4.7K
+16
47K R21

4.7K

One of three inputs to

-16V
Z6, pin 2, that will
determire firing
reference.
 -6-

The static SCR field currents should be equal I

FA
= I FB , with no

armature current flowing. The firing point of the SCRs in the active supply
is still determined by the putput (firing reference) of Z6. We will set our
static firing reference with a current command and current feedback signal.
The current command signal is developed by using a 50:1 CT which is monitoring
passive field current. The C.Tl output is rectified by bridge (BR1) and the
negative voltage output from the hridge is developed across the 5 ohm SSw
burden resistor. This negative voltage is approximately 4.5 volts, when
passive field supply current is 50 amps. The voltage at R27 goes through R29
to Pin 2, inverting input, of Z6. Thus, the current command signal would
drive Z6 to its maximum positive output of +.5V, calling for maximum field
current. The feedback signal is developed by CT2, A 50:1 C.T., bridge (BR2)
and a 5 ohm SSw burden resistor. This negative voltage is applied to Pins 18
and 19 of the regulator card. From Pin 18, the negative feedback signal goes
through D14 to charge C4 and is applied to Pin 3 of Z4 (a non-inverting buffer).
D14 is used to isolate C4 from the 5 ohm burden resistor. This prevents C4
from discharging too quickly. Since the active supply is SCR controlled, there
will be more time that no current is flowing in CT2. This creates voids in
the feedback voltage. C4 is used to help fill in voids in the feedback signal
that the passive supply signal (current command) does not have.

CT 1 50:1
~tt-tL---lJ--....... To MP1A
KAX 80 Field

CT 2 50:1
o MP1B
R29 Field
R27 22K 22K 2
Z6
LOSS "
CKy.
5 SSW 5 5 W V

2
6
R22 22K

~~OK ~~2 28 0v
 -7-

The output of Z4, still negative, is applied through R24 to inverting

input of buffer amplifier Z5. The output of Z5 is positive, i t goes through
R30 to summing junction of Z6. The input to Pin 2 of Z6 has a negative current
command and a positive current feedback. R31 can be selected to adjust the
amount of voltage feedback brought into summing junction of Z6 so that both
fields have equal current. Typical values of R31 run from lOOK to 150K.
R27 22K R29 22K (- )
6

DB ( +)

l~~O
( Current command)

,,,{ciJ --Jr-----4.~ OV
~o
ov
Field Loss Detectoj
OV
D9

( Current Feedback) 2 R25 10K R30

R22 22K 47K

R31
CT R23 SELECT
220K FOR STATIC
BALANCE

-16V

+16V Rl
FIELD LeSS CIRCUIT
10K
R2 R4 27K
Sel
+1.4-1.5VDC
R2 & R3 Selected For 12-1BA F.L.
FL+
OV Dl
R3
Sel
R5
9.1
OV
~~~K Cl
.1
I
R7 220K
R6 10K
. . . - - - - -...._--+1 FL-

2
6 RB 3. 3K
Zl
3 Ql
R43
D2
R45 1M
OV
10K
R9
OV 100

OV

Field loss discussion on page 8.

29
 -8-

THE FIELD LOSS CIRCUIT

D8 and D9 act as a auctioneering circuit to pass the lowest of the

two signals representing field currents of IIA" & liB" motors, to the field
loss circuit.

Zl is the field loss comparator. The output of Zl will normally be

held positive by the negative voltage coming through Dl (from either D8 or
09) that represents amount of field current. As long as the negative input
from Dl exceeds the positive voltage of the voltage divider consisting of
R4 & R5, Zl will maintain its positive output. A positive output from Zl
will turn on Ql and Q2 which energizes the field loss relay. When either
motor's field current drops below 16-20 amps, the negative voltage from Dl
will no longer offset the positive voltage on Pin 2 of Zl. Zl will now switch
from an output of +16V to -leV, feedback resistor R43 provides enough hystersis
to insure that Zl changes states. The negative output of Zl is applied through
R8 to base of transistor Ql, turning off Ql and Q2 to drop the field loss relay.
Diode D2 limits the amount of negative voltage we can apply to base of Ql to
one diode drop.

As soon as field current is re-established, the output of D1 returns to

a negative voltage sufficient to switch Zl back to a positive output, Ql and
Q2 are turned on and the field loss relay pulls in.

ARMATURE CURRENT IMBALANCE

FL(+) D16 +24\

R60
R54
2.2K
220K
D3
.-----+--\l5
FL(-)

.....--/Q2

R9
100

~o
 -9-

We previously discussed the development of the signal that would

represent the difference in armature currents. The following summarizes
what we have learned about the armature current difference circuit.

A. B Motor I greater than A Motor I .

A A
1. Therefore, must increase field of B motor.
2. To do this, HED output must be + on Pin 2 of Z2.
3. Output of Z2 will be negative.
4. Increased negative into Pin 2 of Z6 causes firing reference
to move in a positive direction.
5. Result, increased field current lowers I in B motor.
A

B. B Motor I less than A Motor I .

A A
1. Therefore, must reduce field of B motor.
2. To do this, HED output must be - on Pin 2 of Z2.
3. Output of Z2 will be positive.
4. Increasing.positive into Pin 2 of Z6 causes firing reference
to move in a negative direction.
5. Result, reduced field current, greater I in B Motor.
A

The voltage output of Z2 depends on the amount of imbalance. The output

of Z2 with a difference of 50, 100 and 200 amps would be:

AMPS DIFFERENCE HED OUTPUT GAIN OF Z2 OUTPUT OF Z2

50 A ~.0175V +
-.35V
20
100 A ~.035V +
20 -.7V
200 A ~.070V 20
+
-1.4V

The voltage at the anode of D20, when positive, is sent to imbalance

circuit. If output of Z2 is negative, it is inverted by Z3 and goes via
D19 to imbalance circuit.

The voltage at the anode of D21 will follow the positive voltage at
anode of either D19 or D20. The imbalance detector Z7 normally has a positive

(See diagram of imbalance circuit on page B)

31
 -10-

output that keeps transistor Q3 biased off. When the card is first energized,
Z7's output is affected more by -16V through R59 (22K) than the +16V through
R50 (lOOK) causing output to switch positive. Z7 is held in this state
(positive output) by feedback established using divider R55 (360K) and R56
(39K) to Pin 3. Amount of feedback is 39K/399K = .0977 .
. 0977 x 16V = 1.56V

Therefore, to cause Z7 to switch, the imbalance signal from Z2 must

exceed 1.56V. The difference in armature currents should exceed 200 amps
to switch Z7's output negative. Assuming an imbalance great enough to switch
21· to a negative output, this turns on Q3 a driver for imbalance indicator
lamp and drops out field loss relay. This is accomplished by applying the
negative output of Z7 to base of Ql through resistor R60 and diode DIS. Z7
must be reset back to a positive output. Applying -16V to Pin 24 of card
will do this through resistors R53 and R54.

The purpose of D22 is to prevent C12 from intergrating positive noise

pulses, by allowing a path for C12 to discharge between pulses.

THE FIRING PULSE CIRCUIT

The firing circuit used on this card is similar to the firing circuits
in the AC and DC module. The two firing circuits on the regulator card
obtain their sync or timing voltage from the AC from Power Transformer T3.
We will break down circuit #1 for our discussion. Circuit #2 is identical.
0
But, AC sync is 180 out of phase with AC sync of #1.

# 1. RIal and CIOI act as a

T3 AC-l RIal lK filter for incoming AC.

CIOI

~
DIal
1.0
115VAC OV

AC-2

32
 6----- +
24V -11-

# 2. AC-l RlOl During time incoming AC is posltlve,

24V peak, diode 0101 is cut off.
Capacitor CI02 will attempt to charge
0101 to +16V through 0103 and RI02. The
+16V is going to be about 2x stronger
than -16V CI02 sees through RI03.
However, DI04 will clamp maximum
DI03 positive across CI02 to one diode drop.

CI02

OV

# 3. v -24V When AC sync voltage swings to negative

peak (24V) , 0101 now turns on applying
A -1 RIOI lK negative to anode of DI03. DI03 is
CIOI 0101 now off, allowing CI02 to charge towards

OV
.I 1.0 -16V through RI03.

AC-2
0103
,.---.....---+ ***
C102

_+__+----UV
-16V
# 4. CI02 woula charge to -16V from +.5V
in 5RC time constants. T = RC
RI03 CI02
6
68 x 10 3 x .47 x 10-
-2
T = 3.196 x 10 Sec

T .032 Sec or 32 ms.

I
I CI02 can charge towards -16V for
I 8.33 ms the time of ~ cycle of AC
I
I sync input.
I
-JC==:::::::~~-=-~-=--=-=--=--=--t-+O. 5V
OV-
8.33/32ms .26 x 16.5V

I 4.29V Charge on CI02 in 8.33 ms.

I I
I ***
I !Firin g Ramp
I
I I
I
I I I
I __ J _ __ r--
I 4 • 3V
I I I

33
 +16V

# 5. Dll The output of Z6 is the firing

reference. The positive swing of
Z6 is limited to +.5V by D . The
urrent Cornman C6 ( .1 ll
9 (negative) limit on the negative output of Z6 is
R34 200K established by R32, R33 and DIO. The
negative output of Z6 will continue to
urrent Feedba'k 2 increase until DIG is forward biased.
5, R30 (Pos) 6 R36 4.7K
Z6 This will occur, when junction of R32
3 and R33 reaches -.5V. To find limit
mature Current C7 of Z6's negative output, set junction
rror (HED) R28i
l- I
R35
.4~I of R32 and R33 at -.5V.

Signal may be + or - 22K Therefore, drop across R33 is 4.02V

when junction of R32 and R33 is -.5V.
OV The limit is -4.02V + .-5V or -4.52V.

The output of Z6, (from Pin 6), can

vary from +.5V to -4.5V. This is the
firing reference it will be applied
to Pin 2 of ZlOl.

E 32 l6.5V The firing ramp is on Pin 3 of ZlOl.

R
I 32 l6.5V
R
16 K
-3
I 32 1.03 x 10 Amps
R

I 33 I
R R32
-3 3
,E 33 1.03 x 10 x 3.9 x 10
R

E = 4.02V
R 33

Limit of Z6 is 4.02 +.5 = 4.52V

34
 -13-

FIRING CIRCUIT

500 /lsec

.....__...:+ I_V
OV+0 .~S==~-F-=====--'::::==-_
R'] R~
22.
.... L
II \.V ,~2......JL i Voltage at CI04
--- - --==-
RIO'
IK
PIRING. C.KT NO.. t.
+I(,V
--~ I RI08 and Rl09
Time X varies
(101
1',.0 -20V I
ov ......
RI02.. 3'-K
0101
DI02
+1C#V....-V'VV~...._ ... ---;=."..
R\08
",,-
"III
2'" .,
Tt:: 5<.R1
.. 1 c.....T E I
I
-- I
depending on
where firing
reference crosses
RIO<\
10K
2
, ~ z 2~~~
I
I firing ramp.

tJ
FUo52eOK +0.5
C'01..
.~7 ~it
CI03
.00' R.IO~ -1. 0 Waveform at base
2.2. "-
0'-' ov 001 I I of transistor
I QIOI
I I

RIOl 0'0':;
Z20rl..
-I~V -I~V

The OP Amp ZIOI operating as a switch will nromally have a output of +16V
at Pin 6. This is due to the negative firing reference on Pin 2. When the
firing ramp causes Pin 3 to become more negative than Pin 2, ZlOl's output
(at Pin 6) switches to -16V. RIOS provides hystersis for a more positive
switching action. Capacitor CI04, Rl08 and RI09 differentiate the output of
ZIOI creating a 500 )Jsec. negative pulse that will turn on transistor QIOI.
As QIGl is turned on, ~t drives base of QI02 in a less negative or positive
direction, turning on QI02. QI02 conducts through firing transformer TI causing
a negative pulse to be developed at Pin I of TI. This pulse is inverted to a
positive output in secondary of TI and applied between gate and cathode of
field supply SCR. The width of the firing pulse is fixed at 500 />A sec. ZIOI
will maintain a negative output due to ramp being more negative than firing
reference, butthis is not felt by QlOl because of Cl04. Diode DI02 is a clamp
to further insure a noise pulse does not switch 7.101 back to positive output
before full firing pulse width is obtained.
35
Subject: Testing of Armature Current Balancing Circuit for DC. Shunt Motors on a
common shaft connected in parallel

Applications: 1400-1600hp Mud Pumps and Propulsion Drives using two shunt motors
in parallel to one SCR Bridge

Procedure:

1. Follow normal procedure of DC. start-up, that is, testing of SCR's, Contact
sequence, Drillers Console and Motor Control Center (testing of blowers, chain
oilers, charging pumps, etc.)

2. Disconnect MP1B motor armature at SCR or House and ring-out power & control
cables. This is easily accomplished by reading continuity through each armature
then grounding each with a jumper through the inspection plate to the brushes of
each motor. Control cable destination can be checked by running "A" motor Blower
in Hand then "B" Blower.

3. Next, fuse power supply for fields & check supply voltages at SCR Field Supply
Regulator PC. Energize fields, check field currents (voltage may be used, GE752
fields approximately 1.8 ohms, depending on temperature) to see if they are within
5%. Adjust R 31 if required. Turn fields on and off to observe field loss relay
drop-out. FLR drop-out can be checked closely by decading down on R 31, thusly
reducing active field unti 1 drop-out occurs. (approx. 25 amps).

4. Re-connect MP1B-Al lead and isolate A2 lead from ground. Run Mud Pump slowly
and start loading. Pump should lock-out on Armature Current Unbalance at approx.
150 amps. Check Unbalance Light and Reset operation. Note, Zero Throttle Interlock
will also indicate because contact line was broken.

5. Jump across Reset Pushbutton for MPl and load to approximately 200 amp load.
Measure HED input to F.S.R. PC. Board, pins 12 & 13. Pin 12 should read Negative
40mv per 100 amps load, under this condition. Next, jump pins 12 &13 of PC. Field
currents should be balanced as in step #3. Remove HED jumper and observe Active
Field Current (MP1B field) reduce in value, approximately 5% per 100 amps of load
(current flowing through HED.). I F-50-.05I
A

36
6. Continue running as in step #5. Now measure SCR output to MP1B-Al and A2
(line side) and output of MP1B motor/generator MP1B-Al & A2 (load side, isolated
motor lead A2). These voltages should have the same polarity and be nearly equal.
Observe that when the HED jumper is removed the terminal voltage of MP1B Motor/
Generator is reduced. (approximately 3% per 100amps load).

EXPLANATION: Under these conditions Motor "B" is a generator running at open

circuit conditions, driven by Motor "A" at the same speed. Since all the current
is flowing through motor "A" and the HED, the corrective action of the HED & Field
Supply Regulator (when jumper is removed) is to reduce the Counter EMF. of motor
"B" so that it would tend to carry some of this current if it were actually
connected to the line in parallel with "A". The polarity of "B" proves it is
connected for the proper rotat ion wi th respect to "A" and that it can safe Iy be
connected (small differential voltage) in parallel with "A" without Bucking.

NOTE: Excessive loads on Mud Pump will cause lock-outs due to Field loss of
Active field supply in Steps #5 & #6 even with Reset jumper installed.

7. Repeat steps #5 and #6 with alternate SCR assigned. This will prove other
cable through HED.

CAUT ION: Lock-out Mud Pumps or turn off all SCR's before handling power cables.

8. Re-connect MP1B-A2 Motor lead and remove jumpers. Start load test of Mud Pump
at preferably low speed and high pressure. Check armature balance as load
increases with a clamp-on Amprobe (DC). Improved balance can be accomplished by
slight adjustments to R31 or R29.

CAUTION: Do not make significant resistance changes in Step #8 while pump is

running. That is if R31 needs reducing, don't open it, parallel a high resistor
to R29 instead or shunt down and start over.

9. For Mud Pump #2, Repeat all of the above steps. For propulsion motors or
other applications, follow a similar procedure.

REMEMBER: Large circulating armature currents can cause extensive damage to

equipment without exceeding SCR current limits. When measuring armature currents
be sure I (total) = I
A
+ 1
B
and NOT 'T = 'A - I
A
(ci rculating current condition).

37
 STORAGE RECmlMENDATIONS FOR RHCC SCR SYSTEMS

SUMMARY Items which may deteriorate are listed below together

with maintenance suggestions.

SCR House Exterior Items

1. The air conditioner radiator should be protected
from physical damage by placing a plywood sheet across
the face of the radiator.
If storage location is near the ocean, the radiator
should be covered to avoid salt damage.
2. The Steel House should have any scratched or bare
metal recoated with a zinc-rich pai~t. This is espe-
cially important in a salt atmosphere, within a half a
mile of a saltwater shoreline.
3. Insulation on electrical cables will deteriorate
with ultra-violet exposure from sunlight. Cables should
not be left exposed to sun, dew and rain.

Interior of SCR Room and Consoles

1. Salt deposits build up rapidly inside a closed
container such as drillers console or SCR House stored
on a platform at the shoreline as follows:
- each night the container cools and draws in moisture
laden air.
- by morning, the internal temperature is below the
dew point, so the moisture condenses onto the cool
surfaces.
- During the next day, the temperature rises and the
water evaporates, leaving behind a salt residue.
Recommendation - Install a heater to ensure that the inside of the
house or console never falls below dew point.
Place two heaters inside the house, one at each end. Use
1500 watt (approx.) portable electrical heaters with self
cQntained fan and thermostat. Set the thermostat to approx.
80 0 F. Such units are available from any drug store, or
purchase "Titan" brand "Milkhouse Heater", 110 volts, 1500
watts Model T760B. Available from W.W. Grainger Inc.,

38
 Stock #2H934, Price Approx. $30.00 each.

Recommendation - If the location has very high daytime temperatures,

include a thermostat to shut off the heater if the inside
ambient rises above 1000F.
Where very low temperatures will occur, it is desirable
that internal temperatures not fall below -60 0 C.

AC Generators &DC Drilling Motors

Moisture and salt build up inside the microscopic cavities
inside the electrical windings of the machine, by the same
process as explained in the previous paragraph.
Recommendation - most motors and generators are equipped with heaters,
rated at l20V. Make certain they are permanently energized
when the rig is idle.
Alternately, if there are no internal heaters, use one of
the above heater-blowers to move warm air through the motor.
Conseguences: Failure to keep out salt and moisture will result in
wlnding-to-winding shorts and winding-to"ground shorts.
Unless the motor thereafter is dried out completely before
power is applied, an immediate burnout of the windings will
occur.

Before Restarting the Rig

"Meggar" the AC generators, DC motors, and the SCR AC main
bus bar. Preferably, use.a "500 volt meggar" or an equiv-
alent high potential test instrument (1000 volt max.). If
the resistance readings from winding to ground are less
than about two megohms, use two or more heater-blowers to
dry out the winding or cubicle. If the weather is cold,
it may be necessary to cover the machine and the process
may take a couple of days.
Consequences: Failure to measure ground leakage resistance before
reapplying power has destroyed an untold number of machines,
which could otherwise have been brought back to 100% service.
It requires both a salt and moisture to produce ground
leakage, so the absence or-either will allow proper machine
operation.

39
 "RECOMMENDED PRACT ICE FOR GROUND ING OF ELECTR I CAL

POWER SYSTEMS ON SCR TYPE DRILLING RIGS"

SCOPE

This practice is only appl icable to those land drilling rigs which

utilize DC traction motors powered by SCR (silicon-controlled-rectifier)

'conversion equipment. The recommended procedures contained herein are derived

from IEEE standards No. 142-1972 and 141-1976 as well as CSA standard C22.1-

1975 Canadian Electric Code) and ANSI standard C2-1977 (National Electric

Code); therefore, parts of this practice may be appl-icable on dri II ing rigs

which util ize other power system configurations. The application of this

practice to other systems must be at the discretion of a qualified electrical

engineer or other technician.

INTRODUCT ION

Any grounding practice for application on oilwel I dri Iling rigs must

reflect not only the normal considerations used in the design of industrial

and commercial power systems; it must also consider the special needs of the

drill ing industry. The objectives normally included when grounding practices

are decided include:

1. Transient overvoltage control.

2. Ground fault current control.

3. Power system continuity.

4. Personnel protection.

5. Equipment protection.

The special characteristics of dril I ing rigs which must be considered in

establishing grounding practices include:

40
 -2-

1. The drilling rig is essentially an agglomeration of portable

equipment, and the portabi lity should not unnecessarily be reduced

by the grounding system.

2. Due to the probability of encountering high pressure pockets

of flammable or hazardous gasses, power system continuity must

be maintained whenever possible.

3. Remote operating locations and minimal crew levels.

UNGROUNDED AND HIGH RESISTANCE GROUNDED SYSTEMS

A review of the available literature indicates that only two systems

provide the requisite system continuity by minimizing currents in initial

ground faults. 80th ungrounded and high resistance (Ro ~ Xco!3) grounded

systems 1imit the intensity of the first ground fault. Ungrounded systems,

however, do not limit transient overvoltages. Also, a ground fault on one

phase of an ungrounded system will cause the other phases to have an effective

phase to ground voltage of 1.73 times that present on a grounded system. This

overvoltage condition may result in equipment or conductor failure due to

insulation breakdown.

SOLIDLY GROUNDED SYSTEMS

Solidly grounded power systems depend on the normal circuit interruptors

to clear all ground faults. This is possible because sol idly grounded systems

have ground fault currents approximately equal to the system short circuit

current. Solidly grounded systems are unsuitable for drilling rigs because

any ground fault will result in the faulted circuit being disconnected when

the instantaneous trip element in a (properly sized) circuit breaker senses

41
/
 the high single-phase ground fault current.

Additionally, solidly grounded power systems are totally unsuitable for use

with SCR conversion equipment. The basic elements of an SCR conversion system

are shown in fig. #1. As may be expected, any DC ground fault is a "three

phase" AC ground fault. This is because either side of the DC ci rcuit is

successively connected to all three phases through the SCR bridge, and thus

all three phases are successively grounded.

GENERATOR

l
(-) c (+)

DC MOTOR

_--_-.J
FIGURE n _.
If the generator were solidly grounded, as in figure #1, the generator would

thus have a large magnitude DC current imposed on its windings (and on the

windings of any transformers connected to the generator). This DC current would

quickly saturate the windings of the generator (and transformer), resulting in

the destruction of the generator. The only way generator failure could be

prevented would be the application of very fast ground fault relaying to

disconnect the generator or generators. Such a relaying system would result in

42
 -4-

complete power system shutdown each time a DC ground fault occurred, and might

still be insufficiently fast to prevent generator (and transformer) damage.

Ground fault relaying and subsequent circuit breaker operation would require

at least 5 cycles, and depending on the type of relaying used, as long as 20

cycles (B3 to 333 mi 1iseconds) to clear the fault.

SYSTEM GROUNDING

The recommended procedure for grounding the 600 Volt AC system, and thus

the 750 Volt DC system, is high resistance grounding. The generator(s) are

delta connected instead of wye connected, and a system neutral is derived and

grounded through a high resistance selected to limit fault current to less than

5 amperes. One method of simultaneously providing the above functions, plus

detecting ground faults is the method shown in figure #2. With the system

shown, all three lamps (Ll, L2, L3) wi 11 normally be dimly illuminated. If an

AC ground fault occurs, the lamp connected to the faulted phase will be dimly

m
illuminated and the other phase lamps wi 11 be brightly lighted.

GENERATORS

( ( (

AC
GND.
f\Z FAULT

TEST

I" DC --
GNDJAULT
--- ---
I
I

FIGURE 1/2 43
 -5-

In the case of a DC ground fault, all three lamps wil I be brightly illuminated.

Pressing the test button will cause all three lamps to light equally, slightly

brighter than normally.

Resistors Rl, R2 and R3, if sized at approximately 2000 ohms, will limit

the maximum ground fault current to approximately 300 miliamperes.

It is important to realize that high resistance grounded systems, like

ungrounded systems, only limit the ground fault current of the first ground

fault. The second ground fault will have approximately the same magnitude as a

phase to phase fault. It is therefore essential that the first ground fault be

removed from the system at the soonest opportunity. Fai lure to do so may

expose personnel working on the system to unacceptable hazards. Whenever

possible, maintenance personnel should be equipped with signal injection

apparatus or other similar equipment to facilitate the identification of the

faulted circuits.

Distribution equipment supplied by transformers must also be suitably

grounded. It may be advisable to provide delta-delta transformers for 480 Volt

systems and a high reactance grounding system similar to that provided on the

600 Volt bus. A high reactance grounding system will allow critical 480 Volt

motors, such as charging pumps and dril ling mud degassers, to remain on line

even if a ground fault occurs. Where distribution equipment is fed from more

than one transformer and a tie breaker is provided, as in figure #3, two detection/

resistor systems mustbe provided.

Low voltage, transformer-fed distribution equipment (208/120Volt) is usually

solidly grounded for economy and personnel safety. This procedure is generally

acceptable due to the non-essential character of the loads on such systems.

44
 -6-

f---(---(

-----+-+-+--------:~----..------
.......-+--1-----
_ _ _ _ _~-I-_I_---.>__---:'1'---+____1~---~~+_--­
______..+-.1_-+-_...-__A:....-_ _+--+_~----1J---

FIGURE #3

EQUIPMENT GROUNDING
The function of the equipment grounding system are to provide personnel

protection by preventing inadvertantly energized equipment enclosures or

housings from creating macroshock hazards due to dangerous voltage levels, and

to provide good ground return paths to assure the proper functioning of system

45
 -7-

grounding methods.

In the case of fixed structures, both the Canadian and National (U.S.A.)

Electric Codes provide complete data for equipment grounding methods. In

fixed structure power systems, metallic raceway (conduit) is predominantly

employed for the containment of power conductors, and also functions as the

equipment ground conductor. The reasons that conduit predominates as a ground

conductor are cost, efficiency, and EMI (electro-magnetic-interference) control.

It is important to note that one reason conduit is used as a ground conductor

is the increase in ground and phase conductor impedances due to increased

reactance if the ground conductor is separated from the phase conductors by

more than two inches.

Because of the portable nature of drilling rigs, conduit is not practical

for drilling rig power systems. The best alternative to conduit is a ground

conductor in three-phase power systems si the inclusion of adequately sized

ground conductors in multi-conductor cables. Minimum sizes for ground conductors

in a given circuit are provided in tables in both the Canadian and National

Electric Codes. (In practice, the drill ing industry generally uses multiple-

conductor cables with full size ground conductors included). The use of three

conductor cables and a separate ground cable from remote buildings or skids is

inadvisable because of the increased conductor reactances noted in the preceding

paragraph.

It should also be noted that the recently proposed procedure of requiring

a five conductor cable for three-phase, four-wire services is essentially

ineffective. Five conductor cables were proposed for these services because

it was·believed that the neutral/ground conductor could accidentally become

46
 -B-

open circuited without being noticed, and thus present objectionable personnel

and equipment hazards. It is very unlikely that such an open circuit would go

undetected because such a condition would disrupt the single phase loads which

comprise a major portion of the loads on three-phase, four-wire circuits. The

only case in which an open circuit would be undetected would be if the transformer

neutral should become ungrounded, in which case a fifth wire would not meet the

expressed objective of maintaining the integrity of the equipment ground system.

Direct current traction motors are normally supplied by single conductor

power cables which do not provide a ground return path. Because reactance does

not affect either the ground or phase conductor resistance in DC circuits, the

ground conductor need not be in close proximity to the phase conductors. Since

a second ground fault on the DC circuits supplied from a full wave SCR bridge

will have a magnitude approximately equal to the phase to phase fault current

available on the AC system supplying the SCR conversion equipment, a ground

return path capable of carrying that current for a short time (less than five

cycles) wihtout thermal distress must be provided. The power system shown in

figure #4 shows the flow of current in the case of a second ground fault on the

DC system.

GROUND BUS

----------
EARTH PATH
FIGURE #4

47
 -9-

If the grounding conductors and ground bus shown are not properly connected,

the higher resistance of an "accidental" ground connection may prevent the

circuit protective devices from clearing the circuit. Whi Ie the fault con-

tinues to exist, personnel stepping from one skid to another or from earth to

a skid, may experience hazardous voltages and curre.nts.

It is recommended that a bare copper conductor or braid sized not less

than 2/0 AW~ connect all traction motors to the bui lding or skid on which they

are mounted, and that all of the buildings or skids on the rig be interconnected

with 2/0 AWG (minimum) braid or bare copper conductors. This ground grid must

be connected to the power equipment bui lding and thus to the ground bus of the

generator/SCR equipment. Wherever possible, connections of this ground conductor

system should be made by welding (thermit) procedures. Mechanical connections

must be protected from corrosion, and should be inspected regularly. It is a

good practice to periodically test and verify the low resistance of all connections

in this ground cable system. Any resistance greater than .03 ohm creates a

shock hazard in excess of 50 volts at 1600 ·amps ground fault current.

EARTH CONNECTION

Although the terms "earth" and ground are often used interchangeably,

is is important to remember that "earth" potential and "ground" potential are

not necessarily the same. (Airplanes, for example, have ground busses and

ground potentials.) Because the typical SCR powered drilling rig util izes

both high resistance or high reactance and solidly grounded power systems,

ground and earth potentials can differ by as much as 100 volts (or more in some

cases). Therefore, all system grounds should ·be connected to earth to eliminate

lOs tep'" and "touch" personne I hazards.

48
 All ground systems should be connected to an easily accessible common

ground point. This point may be in the form of a bus, s~ud, or lug to which

~n earth/ground connection is made.

It is required, by code, that the earth connection have an impedance

less than 25 ohms. Depending on the resistivity of the soil in the area, a

copper ground rod one-half inch in diameter, driven eight feet into the earth

usually provides an adequate ground. Tables I, 2, 3 and 4 should allow the

experienced engineer or technician to determine the type of ground conductor

required for most conditions. Connections to any earth electrode must be

made using an approved method, whether welded or mechanical.

49
 H£'si!'livily of Uiffcr('nl Soils

l{('~i.~tanre in Olum HI'si~tidt \. f/

~oil 'I-·in (llUIH·mm) hy ~·fI (I.~:l·m) Hods Ilk",' IMlI/m:lj

Fills Avera"e Minimum Muimum An'rage Minimum ~Ia);imum

A~hf's.
wasl,.
einders, brine
,., 3.f> , I 2,170 r,no 7000
CI"y. ~hal(', Ilumho.
1".1m 2,' 2 9X 4060 340 16300
Samt'. wilh v:,ryinlr
1Jr11"(lrli,,".~ uf
sands ltn,ll:r:,vrl 93 6 HIIO 15 HOO 1020 13:'") 000
Gr;l\'f'I, .",,"d, slnnl'li,
\\'lth Jiltle clay or
loam [If.·\ 3f, 2701) 9·\ 000 f,~1 ()()O ·lfl/'l QU()

TABLE #1

Effecl of ~Ioislurc ContenL on EHret of TC'lllp('rallll'c on

IlcsisliviLy of Soil Hcsislivily of Soil·

MU~~~~;~C:~'l~nl ~e~i~I~;I~:~I';~~l~i~~-IH/~li)' Rrl'i~li\'ily

Percent by WeiKhl Tor Soil Sandy Loam Temperature Jl/rm'

o
--------
>]OOOv lOr. >1000;< 10 6
"c ~F
---'---
(filII 1m 3 )
- ---
2.• 2f,Q oon 150 000 20 1,1( non
; 1 (,f, QUI) ·I:J 000 III f.O 9!100
10 r,:,\ ono 1H 500 o (w;1ter) 3:! 1:1 KOU
I f, 19 uno 105110 o (ice) 32 30 OI)(J
20 1200n 6:\00 -!) 23 79 nllu
.10 6·100 ,1200 - I fl I-I 330000

·Sandy JO;lIll, I fi.2 percent moislure.

TABLE #2 TABLE #3

50
-...- -----'
 Formulas for Calculalion of Rt"sislances to Ground*t

Hemisphere
""ZT R .-.!!.....
radius a 2,.

Ont' grou nd rod

0
It'ngth L, radius a
R . -• - ( In 4L
2/fL
- - 1)
0
,

R • -• - ~In -H - 1) + - • ( 1 - - 8 + -
I.'
Two ground rods 2 J.'
-... )
0 0
•
> L; spacing • 4.. L a h. 3s 5,·
~ 4L I .~2
00
Two wound rod!>
S. -: L; ,pacing,
p 4i. S ,4
R' - - In - + I n - -2 + -..-----2+ - - -
4 .. L a , 2L ,}6L 512£.4
)
p ~ 41.
4

-- BUTlt'd horizontal wire

length 2 L, depth ,/2
4L lI:,l
R- - - I n - + l n - - - 2 + - - - -
4/fL a •
1
.---
2L 16L 1 512/. 4
)
p ~ 21~
L
Ri~ht·"nJ:lf'
turn of wire
lenRth of arm L, depth ,/2
R' -
hi.
2L S ,.4
1 0 - + In- - 0.2373 + 0.214G- + 0.1035 ""2 - O. 0424
a, L L
"
L:4 )
p ~ 2L
J
A Thrce'point star
length of arm I., depth 5/2
2/. s li s4 \
R - - - I n - + In-+ l.071 - 0.209 - + 0.23M M - 0.05.1 4 ")
It "I. a, L L /.

+ Fuur'lloint slar
If'nRth of arm L, depth sl2 R . - - ~n - + In-+ 2.912 - 1.071 -+ 0.645 I i - 0.145 4'"
8d.
112£.21.
a I L L
5" S
I.
' .~ , )
- 1·.
.~....
)
*
Six'point slar P (2L 21.
leni:th of arm /., depth ,/2 R - - - In- +10- +6.851-3.128-+ 1.75H-y-0,490.·
12.L a' I. /.' I.

Eillht'poinllil;u p (21~ 2L
,
If .. :t .<
)
* length of arm L, depth ./2 R ' - - In-+ln-+10.98-5.51-+3.26--1 1 7 - '
16/ft. a ., L /.J J. '

Rill~ of wire
0 di",ml'ler of rinR U, dil\mt'tt'r
of wire d, depth ./2 2" D d
• ("D 40)
R'-,- In-+ln-
•

-- Burit'ri hurizontal ..trill

lenlClh 2/., .'cction Q by b,
dt'pth ./2. b < a/8
R' - -
p

4.. L
( ·IL 01 _ "rlh .1/. .• .~'J. .. 4
In- + --'--1+ln--1 + - - - - , ' - - - ,
Q 2(Q+b) , 21~ 16/. ft12l. )
R • ...! + ...!...- (I _ 2. ~ + 33 ~ ... )
Burir.d hurizontal ruund plate
@ rildius Q, depth ,/2 & 4u 12&1 40,4

Buril'd v('rtiral rount! plate 1

P P ( 7 a 99 o· )
radiuJ; Q, depth 1012 R.;+;;;; I+;;i+;w~'"

.&>p. Ref 1.
tApproxim<lle formulas includinll erfc{'l~ of im.1J!es. Dimensions must be in cenlimt'ten to give re,istance in ohms.
p. relistivity of earth in ohms per cm 3 (Mn/m 3 ),

TABLE #4

51