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Medieval Period :

The history of medieval Kamrup after the rule of the Pala dynasty is disconnected.
No inscription or coin,nor any contemporary comprehensive historical account of his
period has yet been discovered. But the history of Medieval Kamrupa has come to
light on the basis of certain legitimate historical study/investigation. It seems that
during this period Kacharis became powerful and advanced towards the west up to
the boundary of the present district of Kamrup. Owing to the expansion of Kachari
power, the Kamarupa kings were, it seems, compelled to remove their capital from
Guwahati further west to Kamatapur as already mentioned earlier. There after,the
kingdom of Kamata came into existence.

Kachari dynasty:
Founder- Manik.

The late Pandit Hem Chandra Goswami stated that Maha Manikya was a king of
the Barahi Kacharis and that he ruled about the middle of the fourteenth century
at Dimapur. It is evident that Kachari or Bodo sovereignty was exercised in Assam
in different places. As Sir Edward Gait says,''the Kacharis are believed to be very
closely allied to the Koches, and also so far, at least as language is concerned,
to the Chutiyas, Lalungs and Morans of the Brahmaputra valley, and to the Garos
and Tipperas of the Southern Hills.

Having regard to their wide distribution, and to the extent of country over which
Bodo languages of a very uniform type are still current, it seems probable that at
one time, the major part of Assam and that some at least, of the Mlechcha kings
mentioned in the old copper-plate inscriptions belong to the Kachari or some
closely allied tribes.
Captain Fisher, the first Superintendent of Cachar, who took great pins in
ascertaining the early history of the Kacharis, was of opinion that in the remote
past, this rude tribe gradually acquired and empire over Assam, Sylhet, Mymensing
and the Valleys to the east of the Brahmaputra, their original seat being at
Kamarupa, and that their rule ultimately embraced everything from Kamrup down to
the sea. But there is no authentic epigraphic or historical account discovered on
the mater uptil now. The founder of the Kachari kingdom is said to be one
Manik. Tradition states that there was a powerful Kachari kingdom at Sadiya
founded by one Manik and his son-in-law Mukuta ruled after him. Kacharis belong
to the broadly constituted Bodo group of Tribeto-Burman races.

Diversity of option exists regarding their pre-Assam habitats. About their first home
in Assam it is believed that they lived originally in a land called Kumkuli
(Kamrup)by which flowed a river in a great Valley. From there they were driven
out and got to place called Kundilo (Kundil or Sadiya).The Kachari Kingdom of
Sadiya as per chronicle, bounded by Sadiya on the east, the River Dikhou on the
west, the south bank of the river Dihing on the north and Kenduguri on the
south, was probably the first attempt of the Kacharis to build up an independent
State after their expulsion from Kamrup. But the history of origin of Chutiya and
Kachari is still controversial, though the old legends traced their origin as the
Chutiya rulers traced their descent from Raja Bhismak, father of Rukmini; at least
the southern Branch, from Bhima and Herambha Rakshasi.

The legend says that the first king of Herambha branch of Kachari was Susampha.
According to another legend the earliest Kachari king was one Birahas, who
abdicated in favour of Bicharpatipha, prior to the establishment of the Kachari
capital at Dimapur; the venue of Government had shifted between Sonapur, Banpur,
and Lakshindrapur. The kingdom of Cachar, of which Tamradhwai Narayana was
the ruler during the reign Rudra Singha, and Govinda Chandra at the time of
British occupation, is only one of the numerous states brought to existence by the
political genius of the Kachari people. It seems that the rulers of Barahi Kachari,
at one time ruled over the Kapili Valley also .It was during the reign of Maha-
Manikya-a Barahi king who ruled in their earlier part of the fourteenth century that
Sri Madhab Kandali composed the Assamese version of the Ramayan in verses. The
Kacharis,who have been described as ''the original autochthones of Assam had built
up political and administrative units, vestiges of which have lingered till this day.

The first note-worthy conflict between the Ahom and Kachari occurred in the reign
of Suhungmung Dihingia Raja (1497-1539A.D.). In the battle the Kacharis were
defeated. The legend says that among the spoils of war was the Assamese
Cleopetra Garama Kunwari,who extended her hand from king of Gauda to Kachari
Raja and finally to Ahom king Dihingia Raja. Her son Madan Konwar was also
taken to the Ahom capital. After the death of Dersong-pha, the Kacharis lived
from sometime without an overlord. And as desired by them, the Ahom king
appointed Madan Konwar as their Raja at Cachar, with the name Nirbhayanarayan
and the Kachari Rajya became an annual tributary state to the Ahom king. During
the reign of Swargadeo Rajeswar Singha the refractory Kachari Raja Sandhikari
and the fugitive Manipuri Raja were produced before the Ahom Monarch by
Kirtichandra Barbarua. It was through the intervention of the Ahom Victors that the
Kacharis obtained a ruler of their own together with the necessary paraphernalia of
sovereignty. The Ahom kings regarded the Kachari Raja as their vassal, and
always resented any move on the part of the Kachari Rajas which tended to
repudiate their time-honoured obligations to the Ahom king. The Ancient Tripura
kingdom in the Kapili valley: Like the Ahom kings of Assam the rulers of the
kingdom known as Tripura also maintained regular historical account of their
dynasty. Legends say that, Madhava Kandali alias Kaviraj Kandali composed the
Assamese Ramayana by order of Shri Mahamanikya, the Barahi Raja. Whether this
Barahi Raja was a king of the Barahi Kacharis as supposed by Late Pandit Hem
Chandra Goswami or some other person who ruled Tripura is a controversial
matter. The Tripura kings trace their descent from Drukyo, the son of Yajati. It is
said that Pratardana, who was twentyfifth in descent from Drukyo, conquered the
Kiratas and founded a kingdom the capital of which was on the bank of the river
Kapili. The Sanskrit Rajamala describes that the ancient kingdom of Tripura, called
Trivega comprised the Kapili Valley, the North-Cachar Hills and also the modern
district of Cachar to the west of Manipur.

Vincent Smith writes that a king of the Ka-pi-li kingdom named ''Yue-Ai'' sent an
embassy to China in the year 428 A.D. And he identifies Ka-pi-li with the Kapili
of Assam. It seems, therefore, very likely that he was the king of the ancient
Tripura dynasty and that this kingdom in Kapili Valley lasted till, at least, the fifth
century A.D. It further appears that the Kapili Valley is still knows as Davaka.
Hence, this tract has been identified with the kingdom mentioned as Davaka in
Samudra Gupta's inscription of the fourth century A.D. It seems, therefore, that
through the Tripura kings may have themselves called this kingdom Trivega, it was
well known to outsiders as 'Kapili' or 'Davaka' and both these names still persist;
one attached to the river and the other applied to the valley of this river. Tripura,
the son of Daitya; and Trilochan the son of Tripura, were both powerful kings.
Dakshin was the second son of Trilochan. The eldest son Drikpati having married
the daughter of the sonless king of Herembha (Hedamba) succeeded to the throne
of his father-in-law. When Trilochan died, the younger brother of Dakshin, together
with the help of nobles raised Dakshin to the Tripura throne. There upon Drikpati,
the king of Hedamba, claimed both the kingdoms by right of succession and fought
a great battle where Dakshin and his brothers surrendered to the king of Hedamba.
The ancient Trivega, Kapili or the Davaka kingdom became absorbed in the
Hedamba kingdom in about the fifth century A.D. The copper plate inscription of
Harjaravarman has been found at Hayungthal within the Kapili Valley indicating that
in the ninth century A.D. the area of Kapili Valley was absorbed within the
Kamrupa kingdom.
Ratnapha, who was twenty second in descent from Adi Dharmapha, first assumed
the surname Manikya. Mahamanikya was the great grandson of Ratnamanikya and
can be placed in the middle of the fourteenth century. On the other hand, Pandit
Hem Chandra Goswami has placed Madhava Kandali and his patron,the Barahi Raja
Maha Manikya, also in the middle of the fourteenth century. As the royal families
of Tripura and Cachar claimed relation with each other and also because
ethonologically they belong to the same group,it is very likely that during the
fourteenth century Barahi Kingdom extended over Kapili Valley, Cachar, North
Cachar and also Tripura and that Mahamanikya ruled over this vast kingdom, in
the middle of that century. His Highness the Maharaja Manikya Bahadur of Tripura
is therefore, the lineal representative of one of the oldest ruling houses in the whole
of India.

Bhuyan Chiefs :

It was the thirteenth century when a line of Chutiya kings ruled the country east
of the Subansiri and the Disang, and the Kachari kingdom was flourishing in
central Assam on the south bank of the Brahmaputra, and prohably extended at
least half way across the Nagaon district. Towards the west of the Kacharis on the
south bank of the Brahmaputra and of the Chutias on the north, a number of
petty chiefs called Bhuyans held sway over a vast territory. The boundary between
the tract ruled by these chiefs and the kingdom of Kamarupa altered from time to
time. A powerful prince might bring many of them under his control, but they
regained there independence under weak prince. Gait mentioned that these chiefs
were remembered in Assamese legends as the Bara-Bhuyans.

As correctly stated by Gait, each chief was independent of the others within his
own omain, but they eem to have been in the habit of joining their forces
whenever they were threatened by a common enemy. But why the Bara (twelve)
number is always mentioned both in Bengal and Assam is still controversial.

Gait explained the term ''Bhuyan'' as nothing to do with caste. It meant the ''lord
of the Land''. Sri Sankardeva himself used the word ''Bhowmik''as a synonym of
the term 'Bhuyan'. It was the practice in Eastern India for kings to appoint twelve
advisers of Governors. Naranarayan had twelve ministers of state, twelve Dolois
were placed in charge of the hilly portion on the Jaintia Raja and there were
twelve state councillors in Nepal. The number thus became connected in the
minds of the people with all dignitaries ranking next to Raja and so came to be
used in a purely conventional sense. There were various stories about the Bara-
Bhuyan, which often refer to entirely different groups of chiefs and they are to a
great extent mere legends.

According to H.N. Dutta Barua the petty Chieftains were known as 'Bhowmik'
during the time of Pala kings. Their domain was called 'Bhuma'. Perhaps, the
word Bhuyan thus originated from the term ''Bhuma''.This view is supported by the
fact that assamese who came from Kanauj became a Bhowmik under king
Durlavanarayan of Gaud. Subsequently, he came to be known as Siromoni Bhuayn.

The Guru Charita and the Sankar Charita version of the origin Bara-Bhuyan of
Nagaon is that, after the war between Durlavnarayan and Dharmanarayan,
Kamateswara and Gaudeswara respectively, a treaty was executed between the two
kings and Dharmanarayan sent seven families of Brahmins and seven families of
Kayasthas to Durlav Narayan, who settled them on the frontier as wardens of the
marches. The ablest of these seven Kayastha families was Chandibar who
subsequently became their leader. Their head quarters were at Paimaguri. Once
the Bhutiyas raided their territory and carried off many people including the son of
Chandibar. Chandibor and other Bhuyas pushed the raiders and compelled them to
release the captives. Chandibar subsequently settled at Bardowa in Nagaon where
his great grandson Sankardeva was born. According to Sarbananda Rajkumar a
branch of the Bara-Bhuyans set up numerous petty kingdoms on the north bank of
the Brahmaputra, extending from the Subansiri in the east, down to the Barnadi in
the west. Another branch of Bara-Bhuyan ruled over certain areas which now form
part of Nagaon district south of the Brahmaputra.

Nakul Chandra Bhuyan supports the tradition which links Bara-Bhuyans with
Samudra and Samanta connected with Dharmapala and Arimatta. Probably, there
were two branches of Bara Bhuyans one of which is connected with Chandibar and
his group; and other with Samudra whose sons were Santanu and Samanta. Prior
to the fifteenth century, these Bara- Bhuyans maintained their independence against
the Kachari and Chutiya kings. But with the entrance of the Ahoms into the
power-race, the glory of the Bhuyans started declining. From the middle of the
fifteenth century the Ahom kingdom expanded towards the west at the expense of
the Bara-Bhuyans, Kachari and Chutias. In 1535 A.D. the Ahom king, the
Dihingia Raja defeated the Bara-Bhuyans and ransacked their territory and made
them feudatory chiefs.

In the field of religion and culture the period had a unique position. The period
witnessed an efflorescence of the Assamese mind, symbolised by Sri Sankardeva a
member of Bara- Bhuyan's family by whose message of love and forgiveness the
whole of eastern India was carried off its feet. During the time, when Assam was
divided among the Bhuyans, Ahoms, Koches, Kacharis, Jayantias,Chutias and Nagas,
Shri Sankardev, the great saint poet of Assam, stepped up the epoch making
Neo-Vaishnavite movement in Assam.

The great Shri Sankardeva was born at Bordowa in Nagaon district in 1449 A.D.

Taking advantage of Koch invasions of the Ahom territory about the middle of the
sixteenth century, the Bhuyans discontinued to pay tribute to the Ahoms. It was
Pratab Singha (1603-1641 A.D.) who finally subdued the Bhuyans whose domain
extended between the Bharali and the Subansiri. In 1623 A.D. the Bara-Bhuyans
again came to declare their independence and one of the Bhuyan chiefs Uday
declared independence during the reign of Pratap Singha. A great number of
followers arrested and executed and the followers getting frustrated submitted
themselves to the power. Thenceforth the Bhuyans between the Subansiri and the
Bharali, were bereft of all their powers.

Koch king (of Kamrup):

Founder - Bisu/ Biswa Singha

The Bhuyan chiefs, who were undoubtedly the feudal barons of the later Kamrupa
rather Kamatapur combined against the common foe, attacked Danial's Garrison at
Hajo and destroyed it. Thereafter, for about a decade or more, there was not a
common king for Kamatapur in ancient Kamarupa empire, and the petty Bhuyans
again became independent and ruled the country.

In 1515 A.D. Bisu, The son of Haria Mandal, through his courage took advantage
of small Bhuyan principalities and strifes amongst them forced his way to the
front,and subsequently became king under the name Biswa Singha. Bisu, the
founder of Koch kingdom of Kamrup had a humble origin and defeated the Bhuyans
of Ouguri and Luki but was repulsed by the Bhuyan of Phulguri. But later on,
Bisu took advantage of the Bhuyan's soldiers being engaged in a festival and
caught the Bhuyan unprepared and killed them. Thereafter,he subdued the Bhuyan
chiefs of Bijni and other places as also defeated a confederacy of Bhuyan chiefs
headed by the Bhuyan of Karnapur. Then he took Gauhati by defeating the
Bhuyan of Pandu and later on turned his attention to the Bhuyan's of Northern
Kamrupa. Thus,the entire country from Karatoya to Barnadi was brought under his
sway by defeating Narayan Gomatha or Head-Bhuyan, Gandhabar Bhuyan of
Baushi and their confederacies in Bajali and Kshetri areas.

According to DarrangRaj Vansavali, written by Suryakhari,the Bar Bhuyans and Saru

Bhuyans subdued by Bisu were Brahmans. The Bhuyans of Ouguri was also a
Brahmin and Chuti Bhuyan was a Doivogya. It is found from Guru Charita that,
Narayan Gomatha and other Bhuyans of North Kamrup,who were subdued by the
first Koch king were Kayasthas. The account of Koch kings was brought to light by
the Vansabali of the Darrang Rajas, which ends abruptly with the death of
Parikshit.

According to M. Neog, Biswa Singha, the first Koch king conquered Darrang
together with other principalities viz., Dimarupa, Beltola, Rani, Luki, Boko, Chaygaon,
Barnagar, Karaibari, Athiabari etc. Gait, however, holds that the river Barnadi formed
the eastern boundaries of Biswa Singha's territory. S.K. Bhuyan also confirms this
view and holds that the Karatoya in the west to the Barnadi in the east was the
Koch territory under Biswa Singha.Viswa Singha subdued the petty princes who
surrounded him, founded a magnificent city in Koch Bihar and set his state in
order. Viswa Singha died after a region of 25 years and was succeeded in 1540
A.D. by his Malla Deva, who assumed the name of Nara Narayan. The reign of
this prince reached the zenith of the Koch power and his armies, which were led by
his brother Sukledwaja met with almost unvarying success. In this capacity, he
displayed such skill and promptness of action that he was nick-named ''Chilarai''
or the ''Kite-king'', during his expeditions against the people of Assam. Nara
Narayan's conquering tour against the Ahoms was successful under Chilarai, his
commander-in-Chief and he ascended to the north bank of the Brahmaputra as
far as Dikrai river. Then followed two other engagements at Kaliabar and Sala in
which, also the Ahoms were defeated. But in the last engagement on the bank of
the Pichala river, Suklengmung, the Ahom king ousted the Koch army inflicting a
disastrous defeat. In course of these operations the Koches constructed an
embankment road from their capital at Koch Bihar to Narayanpur in the south west
of present Lakhimpur district, a distance of some three hundred and fifty
miles(560km.). The worked was carried out under the supervision of Gohain
Kamal, the kings brother, and is known to this day as ''Gohain Kamal Road''.
Nara Narayan entered the Ahom capital Gargaon, (the modern Nazira) but the
outcome of the war was an absolute defeat for the Koches many of them were
slain and their arms were captured. The decisive defeat of the Koches at the
hands of Ahoms had not discouraged them at all and the two brothers proceeded
with conquest and compelled the rulers of Manipur, Jayantia, Tipparah, Sylhet,
Khyarim and Dimarua to accept the Koch suzerainty. But the tide of fortune turned
when at attack was made on the kingdom of Gaud. It was Kala Pahar, who
fought successfully and repulsed the first attack on Gaud by Nara Narayan in
1565., when the ever victorious Koch prince Chilarai was captive in the hands of
the Sultan of Gaud. Naranarayan would not, however, accept this defeat as final
and a few years later joined with the Emperor Akbar in second attack upon the
Badshah of Gaud, and Gaud was divided between the Emperor of Delhi and the
Koch king. Shortly before this expedition Nara Narayan had restored the famous
temple at Kamakhya, which had been injured by the Muhammadan invader
Kalapahar in 1565 A.D.

Decline of Koch kingdom, Raghu Rai, 1581-1603 A.D.:

As for a long time Naranarayan had no male offspring, Chilarai's son Raghu Rai
was regarded as his heir. But in his late age, Naranarayan begot a son called
Lakshmi Narayan. Raghu Rai, losing hope of succeeding to the throne withdrew
from the capital to Barnagar in the Barpeta Sub-division of the Kamarupa district.
Naranarayan endeavoured to compel him to return, but his soldiers were defeated
and the king weekly resolved to divide his kingdom. Raghu Rai thus, came into
possession of the country now included the the Mangaldai Sub-division and the
district of Kamrup and Goalpara. He rebuilt the Manikut of Haygrib temple at Hajo,
which had been destroyed by Kalapahar. On Naranarayan's death Lakshmi Narayan
ascended the throne. Raghu Rai was succeeded by his son Parikshit in 1603 A.D.
The prince mounted cannon at Pandunath, to the west of the Kamakhya hill, and
built a town at North Guwahati,whose fortification can still be traced for many
kilometres even at the present day. A struggle for independence was continued by
Parikshit involving him in incessant hostilities with Lakshmi Narayan. Lakshmi
Narayan made his submission to Mughal and Parikshit to Ahom. Ultimately in 1614
A.D. Parikshit surrendered to the Mughal emperor after a long and desperate war
and his dominion upto the Barnadi was annexed to the Delhi empire with
headquarters at Hajo. Parikshit's son, Chandra Narayan alias Bijit Narayan was
confirmed by the Mughals as the Zamindar of the territory between the Sonkosh
and the Manah with establishment at Bijni. In 1615 A.D., Parikshit's brother Bali
Narayan fled away and sought shelter under the Ahom king Pratap Singha. He
was cordially received by the latter. In 1616AD the Ahom king Pratap Singha
inflicted a crushing defeat on the invading Muslims on the bank of the Bharali in
Darrang district and appointed Bali Narayan as the tributary Raja of Darrang and
renamed him Dharma Narayan. His brother Gaj Narayan was set up as a tributary
chief of Ahoms at Beltola.

Dharma Narayan helped the Ahoms to fight the Mughals and at first succeeded in
wresting out a part of Goalpara and Kamrup for the Mughals but subsequently had
suffered a retreat and defeat. In 1639, a treaty between the Mughal Commander
Allah Tar Khan and the Ahom General Momai Tamuli Barbarua was signed to fixed
the boundary between the two powers at the Barnadi on Darrang-Kamrup boundary
on the north bank and Asurar Ali near Gauhati on the south bank of the
Brahmaputra.

Assam in the Ahom Age (1228-1826):

Founder - Sukapha

The Advent of the Ahoms :

It has now been well-established that the Ahoms were a section of the Tai race.
Historically, these people are known for their valley-dwelling and wet-rice-growing
character. The particular branch to which the Ahoms belong is known as the Tai-
mao, or the Mao section of the Tai but widely known through the Burmans as the
Shan. Ahom chronicles,or buranji, make specific mention that the Ahoms were led
by Prince (Chao-lung) Sukapha who left Mong Mao-lung in 1215 A.D. Sukapha's
followers included several nobles (thao-mong),a number of officers of various
ranks, 9000 men, woman and children. After a westward march for thirteen years
and staying at several places for periods ranging from one to three years, they
arrived at the Patkai in 1228 A.D. Posting a governor at the Khamjang valley,
their first territorial unit, situated on the shore of the Nongjang lake, Sukapha and
the rest of his party at first followed the Namrup, then the Buri Dihing (Nam-
jin), thereafter the Brahmaputra, and the Dikhow before finally arriving at
Charaideo, which became his permanent capital. On the way,he also organized
several other territorial units along the bank of these rivers. In this way a small
kingdom bounded by Patkai, the Buri Dihing, the Brahmaputra, the Dikhow and
the Naga hills was founded in Upper Assam over which Sukapha ruled till his
death in 1268 A.D.

This territory was peopled chiefly by the Morans and the Borahis, and a few
villages of the Chutiyas and the Kacharis evidently of Bodo origin; Nagas were
also included in the hilly region of the Patkai. Sukapha won over the chiefs of
Morans and the Borahis, and even encouraged intermarriage with them, and
appointed some of them in various capacities in the royal household.

The Early Ahom State:

From the thirteenth to the fifteenth century A.D.,Ahoms were busy mainly in
consolidating their newly acquired territory and also protecting it from neighbouring
powers. However,the reign of Sukhangpha(1293-1332), the fourth Ahom king,
saw the first war with the ruler of Kamata kingdom. The reason for the war is not
given in the buranji. It was brought to a close when the Kamata ruler sued for
peace by offering a princess, Rajani by name. This event indicates the growing
strength of the Ahom power. Tao-Kham-thi (1380-89),the seventh king, led a
successful expedition against the Chutiya king for murdering his brother Sutupha
(1369-76) at a regatta.

The reign of Sudanghpha (1398-1407), better known as ''Bamuni Konwar'' for his
birth in the house of a Brahmin at Habung, is important in several respects. It
was for the first time that Brahmanical influence had its entry into the Ahom royal
palace, The capital was transferred to Charagua near the bank of river Dihing. On
the report of some nobles who were dissatisfied with Sudangpha for his
subordination to Hindu influence, the Tai rulers of Mong Kwang (Mogaung) sent
an expedition to annex the Ahom kingdom. In the battle fought at Kuhiarbari, the
invaders were forced to retreat and came to terms in a treaty concluded on the
shore of the Nongjang Lake in 1401 A.D. By this treaty the Patkai was fixed as
the boundary between Assam and Mong. Sudangpha suppressed a revolt of the
Tipamiyas, and he also asserted his sovereignty over the three eastern
dependencies viz.,Tipam, Aiton and Khamjang. The reigns of four successive Kings
Sujangpha (1407 22), Suphokpha (1439-88), and Supempha (1493-97),
covering a period of ninety years were comparatively peaceful barring a brief war
with the Dimasa Kacharis in 1490 A.D. The bordering Nagas, who made some raids
were kept in check.

Expansion of the Ahom Kingdom :

The real expansion of the Ahom kingdom began with Suhummong (1497-1539)
better known as Dihingiya Raja, as he belong to the Dihingiya phoid (clan) of
the royal family. By this time the Brahmanical influence grew considerably in the
Ahom court so much so that the king is said to have received the Hindu title
Swarganarayan, an equivalent of chao-pha In Tai and the Saka era was also
adopted. He transferred his capital to Dihing.

A census of population was done during his reign.

After a serious of armed conflict caused by boundary dispute, the Chutiya king was
defeated and killed and his kingdom centering Sadiya was annexed to the Ahom
dominion as a province over which was placed a governor titled Sadiya Khowa
Gohain. He also defeated the Kacharis of the Doyang-Dhansiri Valley and brought
their territory under the Ahoms as a province called Marangi, and placed a
provincial governor titled Marangi Khowa Gohain. This was in 1526. The Kachari
royal family moved to Maibong leaving Dimapur. After sometime, on an appeal, the
Kachari king at Maibong was given recognition as Thapita-sanchita (established
and preserved) by Suhummong. The same king also brought the Bhuyans on the
north bank under Ahom control. It was during the reign of Suhummong that the
first major invasion of Assam by the Pathan rulers of Bengal occurred. After an
initial expedition by Bir Malik and Bar Ujir, the two Bengal generals, Turbuk was
commissioned by the Sultan of Bengal. In a major encounter, the Ahom side lost
several of their generals and many soldiers. However, in a renewed naval war after
sometime, the Ahom side gained superiority leading to the defect and the death of
Turbak. A large number of arms,cannons,horses and soldiers were captured by the
Ahoms. The defeated army was pushed through Kamrup and Kamata where the
people co-operated with the victors. The ruler of Kamata, Durlabhendra accepted
Ahom protection by offering his daughter. The Ahom army marched westward as far
as the Karatoya, the eastern frontier of Bengal, and built a small brick temple on
its bank. Thus by 1534, the Ahom army liberated Kamrup and Kamata king.
Suhummong established relation with Manipur and Orissa; and Viswa Singha, the
rising Koch chief visited his court and acknowledged his allegiance. By his great
zeal and enterprise, Suhummong extended the Ahom dominion from the eastern
confine of Sadiya to the Karatoya, and successfully failed the invasions of Assam
by the Muslim rulers of Bengal. Due to the expansion of the Ahom dominion during
his reign, non-Ahom population in the Ahom kingdom greatly increased. The reign
of Suklenmong (1539-52) and Sukhampha (1553-1603) were mainly important
for Koch expeditions to the Ahom kingdom. The first was conducted by Viswa
Singha which, however, did not materialise as the Koch army. The second major
invasion led by king Naranarayan, with his younger brother Sukladhwaj popularly
known as Chilarai occupied the Ahom capital Garhgaon. However, the Koch army
soon returned after a peace treaty. This was the last Koch invasion of the Ahom
kingdom.

The Period of Ahom-Mughal Conflict

The history of the Ahoms during the seventeenth century was mainly the history of
the Ahom-Mughal conflict which arose of the imperial ambition of the Mughal
emperors to extend their dominions to further east beyond Bengal, and if possible
to seek routes to China and Tibetat the same time to collect certain articles such
as gold dusts, long pepper, elephant teeth, musk, lack, etc., obtained in Assam
which were valued greatly by the royalty and nobility in the Mughal courts. The
absorption of the Koch kingdom into the Mughal dominions made the Ahom kingdom
coterminous. The long reign of Susengpha (1603 41) better known as Pratap
Singha was important in the history of Assam in several respects. The Mughal
claim on the Koch territory to the east of Barnadi and the trading adventures of
certain Mughal merchants caused conflict and tension along the border leading to
the first serious battle with the Mughal army and navy at Bharali near Tezpur in
which the enemy side was completely routed. This was in 1616 A.D( Jahangir's
time). A vivid description of the plight of the Mughal soldiers is given in the
Baharistan-i-Ghayli by Mirza Nathan, a Mughal general. About 1700 men of the
enemy side were killed, double this number were wounded and 9000 men were
taken as prisoners. This was followed by a series of campaigns against the
Mughals. In 1618, there was another serious battle at Hajo in which the Ahoms
lost nearby 4000 boats, and an equal number of men were killed. The war,
however, did not stop, but continued with occasional outburst, and the pendulum of
victory moved from one side to another in Kamrup. Ultimately, peace was restored
by a treaty concluded by Momai Tamuli Barbarua and Allah Yar Khan in 1639 where
by the Barnadi on the North and the Asurar Ali on the south were fixed as the
boundary between the Ahom and Mughal territories. It did not, however, last for a
very long time. During the early years of Pratap Singha's reign, the Kachari king,
who was always considered thapitasanchita status by the Ahom kings, was bold
enough to show his defiance by declining to comply a request for passage of a
Jaintia princess through his country. An Ahom army led by Sunder Gohain was
badly defeated and the general himself was killed by the Kacharis led by Prince
Bhimbal in 1606 A.D. Soon, however, relation with the Kachari king was restored.
Pratap Singha also cultivated good relations with the Jaintia king. Pratap Singha
introduced certain reforms in the administration and reorganized the paik. Two very
important posts that of the Barbarua and the Barphukan were created; the former
was placed as the head of the secretariat and judiciary immediately under the king;
the later was placed in charge of lower Assam west of Kaliabor, and also head of
diplomatic relations with the west. Several other new posts of lesser important were
also created. A census of population was undertaken, and the paik system was
extended to newly acquired territories. All free adult population were registered as
paik for state services. A squad for four paiks constituted the lowest unit called got,
and twenty such units were commanded by a Bora, one hundred by a Saikia
,and one thousand by a Hazarika. Departments were usually headed by Phukan,
Baruah, Rajkhowa according to their importance. Among other notable works of
Pratap Singha included construction of several important roads, bridges, excavation
of tanks and ramparts. He also built several towns. The king was liberal and
catholic in his religious policy. The short reigns of his two immediate successors
Surampha (1641-44) and Suchingpha (1644-48)were not of much importance.
The reign of Sutamla, better known by his Sanskrit title Jayadhwaj Singha(1648-
63)was marked by a major invasion of Assam by the Mughal army headed by Mir
Jumla, the newly appointed Nawab of Bengal. It was apparently a retaliatory action
taken against the occupation of Sarkar Kamrup by the Ahom army by taking
advantage of the confusion that ensued following the disposal of Shah Jahan by
his son's. The large army of infantry and cavalry supported by a strong navy
mostly manned by Europeans chiefly the Portuguese and the Dutch proceeded
towards the capital of Assam by overrunning the defenses put up at Hatichala-
Baritala, Pancharatan-Jogighopa and Pandu-Saraighat. After the occupation of the
fort at Samdhara following a stiff battle and a keenly contested naval victory near
Kaliabor on the Brahmaputra, the Mughal army advanced towards the Ahom
capital, Garhgaon, Jayadhwaj Singha with his family and close associates evacuated
the capital, and retreated to Namrup hills close to the Patkai. The Mughal army
occupied Garhgaon, and established outposts at several places in Upper Assam;
Mir Jumla himself made his headquarters at Mathurapur. However, when the rainy
season started, these outposts had been cut off by flood and became isolated
while the Mughal navy with big war boat which remained at Lakhnow could not
help them. The Ahom army then started to harass by adopting guerilla method of
warfare. Due to disruption of communication, the Mughal army was placed under
great hardship; the physical as well as moral condition began to deteriorate. The
health of Mir Jumla became worse as he had been suffering from consumption.
Under the circumstances, a peace proposal initialed by the Ahom side was
ultimately agreed upon. The treaty of Ghiladharighat at Tipam on the Buri Dihing
was drawn up on Jan.9, 1663 by which Jayadhwaj became a tributary of the Mughal
Emperor. He agreed to pay a huge war indemnity, the cessation of all territory west
of the Bharali on the north bank on the state of 'Dimarua', Beltola west of the
Kallong on the south bank of the Brahmaputra. Jaydhwaj Singha's daughter
accompanied by the daughter of Tipam Raja was sent to Delhi and the sons of the
ministers were sent as hostage with the Mughal till full payment was made. Mir
Jumla and his army left Assam. Soon after his return to Bakotha, as Garhgaon
was despoiled by the Mughals, Jayadhwaj Singha passed away in 1663. He was
the first Ahom king to embrace Hinduisim by receiving initiation from a Vashnava
priest. He made large revenue free land grants with paiks to several Hindu satras
(monasteries). One of the notable achievements of Jayadhwaj Singha's reign was
the planned settlement of villages in certain tracts of the country. However, Mir
Jumla's invasion caused devastation of the economic and social condition of the
kingdom. Mir Jumla was accompanied by a news reporter ( waqia navis) named
Mirza Mahammad Wali, Poetically known as Shihabuddin Talish, who left a very
valuable account of Assam, its climate, population, manners and customs, products,
and of its capital Garhgaon. A few excerpts may be of interest. ''Although most of
the inhabitants of the neighbouring hills pay no tax to the Rajah of Assam,yet they
accept his sovereignty and obey some of his commands.'' ''From Lakhaugarh to
Garhgaon,also, there are roads,houses and farms in the same style; and a lofty
and wide embanked road has been constructed upto Garhgaon for traffic.'' The
people of the country are free from certain fatal and loathsome diseases such as
leprosy, white leprosy, elephantiasis, cutaneous eruptions, goitre and hydrocele,
which prevail in Bengal.'' ''It is not the custom here to take any land tax from the
cultivators; but in every house one man out of the three has to render service to
the Raja.''

''In all the past ages no(foreign) king could lay the hand of conquest on the skirt of
this country, and no foreigner could treat it with the foot of invasion.'' ''And all the
people of his country, not placing their necks in the yoke of any faith, eat
whatever they get from the hand of any man, regardless of his caste, and
undertake any kind of labour.'' ''Their language differs entirely from that of all the
people of Eastern India.'' ''They cast excellent matchlocks and bachadar artillery,
and show a great skill in this craft. They make first rate gunpowder..'' ''The
common people bury their dead with some of the property of the deceased, placing
the head towards the east and the feat towards the west.''
Talish also left a vivid and valuable description of Garhgaon, and the royal palace.

Chakradhwaj Singha (1663-70) himself to be a person of indomitable courage

and firm determination who refused to put on the gown (siropa) sent by the
Mughal court to him as a tributary king. ''Death is preferable to a state of
subordination to Bangal'' he uttered.

Preparations for war were soon complete, and Kamrup was again recovered by a
strong Ahom navy, and infantry under the Command of Lachit Barphukan in 1667.
The Mughal occupational army was badly mauled. Following this several fortifications
had been raised on both banks surrounding Guwahati to protect it against any
further attack. Having received the news of Mughal reverse, the Mughal Emperor
Aurangzeb despatched a Rajput general Raja Ram Singh, son of Raja Jay Singh of
Amber with a large force with order to chastise the ''wicked tribe''(the Ahoms).
Ram Singh advanced towards Guwahati by occupying several posts which the
Ahoms evacuated for strategic reasons to concentrate at Guwahati. Ram Singh
made his camp at Hajo. The Ahom army under Lachit Barphukan and other
generals including Atan Buragohain foiled every attempt of Ram Singh to occupy
Guwahati by war and diplomacy,and the war dragged on for several years with
loss on both sides. In the meantime, Udayaditya ascended the throne in 1669.
The Battle of Saraighat fought in 1671 was the last determined attempt of Ram
Singh which met ignominious defeat at the hands of the Ahom. The defeated army
was pushed back beyond the Manaha river. It may be mentioned that in the war
against the Mughals, many of the neighbouring hill people sent their contingents
and successfully fought against the invaders. From the death of Ramdhwaj Singha,
the successor of Udayaditya Singha, in 1675 to the accession of Gadadhar Singha
in 1681, there ensured a period of weak and unstable government during which
several weak and young kings were placed on the Ahom throne the quickly
removed by ministers and high officials for their own selfish gains than for the
welfare of the kingdom . By taking advantage of the situation, Laluk Barphukan,
the Viceroy of Lower Assam at Guwahati treacherously handed Guwahati over to the
Mughals. The first major achievement of Gadadhar Singha (1681-96), who was
installed king at Kaliabor by the nobles and officers, was the expulsion of the
Mughals from Guwahati and Kamrup by defeating them at the Battle of Itakhuli.
They were pursued down to the Manaha, which henceforth became the Ahom-
Mughal boundary till 1826. The king then suppressed all conspiracies to weaken
the power of the Monarch, and reduced the tribes who created troubles in the
border. He also controlled the growing power of the Hindu religious heads, but he
was no bigot in his religious policy. Possessing a towering personality, Gadadhar
Singha restored the authority of the king, and brought peace and order to the
country.

Rudra Singh's reign (1696-1714) marks new turning point in the history of
Assam. Inherited from his father a strong monarchy and a peaceful kingdom,
Rudra Singha now found time and resources to build a new capital at Rangpur near
the present town of Sibsagar on the Dikhow by importing artisans and masons,
and know-how from Bengal. When the Rajas of Cachar, who was treated by the
Ahoms as thapita-sanchita, and Jaintia showed signs of insubordination, they were
captured and brought before Rudra Singha and were compelled to acknowledge the
sovereignty of the Ahoms. The king had planned to invade Bengal with the support
of the rulers and chiefs of the neighbouring states like Tripura, Koch Bihar, Burdwan
and Nadia. When all preparations were complete and the vast army assembled at
Guwahati for the march, Rudra Singha suddenly fell ill and passed away in that
city. The king is known for his liberal policy; he allowed to grow trade with
Bengal, and also imported several cultural items like dress, festival, songs, etc.,
from that country. This resulted in a slow cultural synthesis.

Later Ahom Kings :

The first half of the eighteenth century was peaceful,and the reigns of two kings
Siva Singha (1714-44)and Pramatta Singha (1744-51), saw the unprecedented
growth of Hindu religious proclivities, and the building of Hindu temples. A great
number of endowments of land and man were made for sustaining these. Siva
Singha's queen Phuleswari, who acquired great influence over him, even dared to
insult Vaishnava mahantas by forcing them to bow down to the Goddess Durga.
From this time onwards, the Ahom kings became more attached to Sakta faith
which introduced a new element inthe social and political life. The traditional Ahom
religious institutions fell into negligence ,and the Ahoms who remained stuck to
their own religion and customs, became a degraded class. At the same time
,cultural penetration from Bengal continued unabated. The reign of Rajeswar Singha
(1751-69), a younger brother of Siva Singha saw the rise of Kirti Chandra
Barbarua to power and status. One of the important events of his reign was the
despatch of the Ahom army against the Burmese in Manipur whose legal ruler Jai
Singh (known as Bhagya Chandra in Manipur) was driven away by them and
who came to Assam through Kachari country. Jai Singh strengthened his relation
with Rajeswar Singha by giving his daughter Kuranganayani in marriage to the
latter. This followed the policy of his predecessors by making endowment of land
and men to religious persons and institutions. Lakshmi Singha's reign (1769-
1780)was disrupted by the revolt of the Moamarias, the followers of the
Mayamara Mahanta of orthodox Vaishnava persuasion. Several causes are attributed
to the revolt of which one is the physical punishment meted by Kirti Chandra
Barbarua to Nahar, the chief of the Morans who came to make annual offer of
elephant which was found lean and haggard. Nahar was mortified at this and was
looking for support to taker revenge on the Barbarua. Already Phuleswari's action
had inflamed the situation. The climax was reached when the Moamaria Gossain
was abused by the Barbarua for being indifferent to him. The Morans were then
ready to fight. They were joined by three exiled Ahom princes. The rebels
advanced towards the capital Rangpur and after defeating the royal troops at
several engagements they arrived at Rangpur. The king who attempted to flee was
pursued and captured, and was put in confinement at the temple of Jaysagar.
Ramakanta was declared king and Nahar became the Barbarua. The Morans
preserved the entire structure of the Ahom govt. However, after a few months, the
Moran rule was overthrown and the insurgents were punished. King Lakshmi Singha
was released from captivity and was restored. Like his predecessors, the king
made a number of grants of rent free land with men, and built several temples.

Decline and fall of the Ahom Kingdom :

The Kingdom began to decline from the time of Gaurinath Singha (1780-95). In
1782, the Moamarias insurrection rose again with renewed vigour and increased
violence. They advanced to Garhgaon and created panic among the population. The
advance was halted and the rebels were treated with severity and many were
executed. Such a step aggravated the situation. After a brief pause, the
disturbances caused by the Moamarias swept down across the north bank. After
defeating the royalists, the Moamarias advanced towards the capital. Assistance was
sought from Manipur, Kachari, Jaintia and the chiefs of Rani, Beltola, Luki. Before
the help arrived, the rebels occupied Rangpur; Gaurinath Singha with the members
of his family sailed downstream, and reaches Nagaon, and then to Guwahati. At
Rangpur, the Moamarias set up Bharath Singha as king; but the Hatisungi Morans
set up Sarbananda as their king of the territory to the east of Dihing and both
minted coins in their names. Krishnanarayan of Darrang had also organized a large
force and occupied North Guwahati.

Purnananda Buragohain shifted the centre of administration of Dichoi, later known

as Jorhat,which became the new Ahom capital. Under the circumstances, Gaurinath
Singha appealed for help of men and materials to the East India company's
authorities through Raush, a salt merchant and Mr. Dauglas, Commissioner of Koch
Bihar. In response to this, Lord Cornwallis, the Governor General despatched
Captain Thomas Welsh with sepoys who arrived at Goalpara in early November,
1792; and from there, on receiving urgent message from the king moved upstream
the Brahmaputra. The meeting between the king and Capt. Welsh took place at
Nagarberra on the Brahmaputra. Advancing further, Captain Welsh suppressed the
rebellious elements at Guwahati and on the north bank. He also pacified
Krishnanarayan, the rebellious prince at Darrang and expelled many of the
Burkendazes who assisted him. Sometime later he advanced to Jorhat, and then to
Rangpur where he defeated the Moamarias, and restored the authority of Gaurinath
Singha at Rangpur in 1794. In the midst of this success, Capt. Welsh was
recalled by Sir John Shore, the new Governor General, and he left Assam. During
his stay in the kingdom, he concluded a commercial treaty in 1793 by which
commerce between Assam and Bengal was sought to be put on ''reciprocal
basis''. The Report of Capt. Welsh which he submitted to his government in
response to certain queries gives certain important information in regard to the
system of Ahom govt., trade and commerce, products, etc. Although Gaurinath
Singha is depicted by some as cruel and vindictive, he had certain pieces of
good work like the abolition of human sacrifice at the Kechaikhati temple at Sadiya.
Kamaleswar Singha's reign (1795-1810) witnessed localised revolts at several
places in Kamrup which was successfully suppressed,at Sadiya by the Khamtis,
Pani Noras, Miris and others, fresh Moamaria insurrection in league with the Daflas.
In spite of these, he connected the new capital Jorhat by constructing several new
roads like the Na-ali, the Rajabahar Ali,the Mohabandha Ali, the Kamarbandha
Ali,etc. and also built a copper-house at Kamakhya.

The reign of Chandra Kanta Singha (1810-18) saw the Burmese invasion.

Friction between Purnananda Buragohain and Badan Chandra Barphukan and a

conspiracy by Satram to overthrow the former led the latter to go to the Burmese
capital Amarapura where he pleaded for assistance against the Buragohain .
Bodoupaya, who had already had his eyes on Assam, seized the opportunity to
send an army of about sixteen thousand men with Badan Chandra to Assam. The
Burmese army after defeating the Assamese army at several engagements arrived at
Jorhat. Chandra Kanta Singha was retained as king, and Badan Chandra assumed
power as minister. The Burmese then retired to their country with large presents.
But soon the assassination of Badan Chandra, and installation of Purandar Singha
by ousting Chandra Kanta Singha, once again brought the Burmese under the
command of Ata Mingi to Assam in 1819. On their advance, Purandar and his
prime minister Rudinath fled to Guwahati, and Chandra Kanta Singha was once
again restored to the throne despite his mutilation of person caused in the
meanwhile. After the departure of the Burmese, Chandra Kanta Singha sought to
raise a fort at Jaipur against further Burmese invasion. However, a Burmese force
sent by their Monarch with presents of ornaments and dress to Chandra Kanta
Singha seeing such preparations killed Patalong under whose supervision the fort
was raised. Thinking this hostile move on the part of the Burmese army, Chandra
Kanta fled to Guwahati and did not come back in spite of Burmese assurance.
This was in 1821. The Burmese then set up an Ahom prince, Jogeswar Singha.
Chandra Kanta Singha crossed the border and entered Bengal where he tried to
collect arms and men to fight the Burmese. At the battle of Mahgarh, Chandra
Kanta's army was badly defeated, and he once again entered the British territory.

The period from 1821 to 1824 is called period of Burmese rule.

During this period, the Burmese devastated the country and committed atrocities by
plunder and killing. The Burmese also threatened the Goalpara frontier of Bengal
by demanding the surrender of Assamese refugees including Chandra Kanta Singha,

and their supporters who often gave trouble of them across the border. In that
time, the border conflict in the East India Company's Chittagong frontier with the
Burmese empire took serious turn. Anticipating a threatened invasion of Bengal, the
prized possession of the Company in India, lord Amherst,the Governor General
decided to declare war on Myanmar (Burma).
War was declared on the 5th of March 1824. This is the First Anglo Burmese War
which lasted for nearly two years. Immediately after the declaration of war, the
British army entered Goalpara frontier of Assam and after defeating the small
Burmese garrisons in Lower Assam, it advanced to Upper Assam. By taking
advantage of a dissension among the Burmese commanders, the British occupied
Rangpur in 1825 and drove the Burmese and their allies, the Singphos out of
Assam. A section of the Burmese army surrendered to the British remained in
Assam. Immediately on the occupation of Assam by the British, martial law was
declared; David Scott was appointed as civil officer in charge of civil matters, and
Col. Richards in charge of the army, and the British started their administration.

By Article II of the Treaty of piece and friendship which was concluded between the
British and the Burmese at Yandabo on 24 February 1826, the Burmese monarch
renounced all claims upon and promised to refrain from all interference with, the
principality of Assam and its dependencies. As Assam was already occupied by the
British during the Anglo-Burmese war, it was kept under British occupation and
started introducing British administration.

The Ahom system of Administration : [very important]

The system of Government was partly monarchical and partly aristocratic. The king
or Swarga-Maharaja as he was called, was the supreme head of the State. All
honours, titles, offices, decisions and war-measures emanated from him, but he
had to act according to the advice of the five hereditary councilors of State,

1. Buragohain,

2. Bargohain,

3. Barpatra-gohain,

4. Barbaruah and
5. Barphukan.

The state of Jaintia, Cachar, Khrim and Manipur were in friendly alliance with the
Ahom Government. The province of Darrang enjoyed complete autonomy in its
internal administration, as well as the other vassal states. There were six
establishments of princes introduced by Suhummong Dihingia Raja at Charing,
Tipam, Tungkhung, Dihing, Samaguri and Namrup. Each of these princes had their
own estates and dependents. All of them were entitled Raja and belonged to the
royal family which started with Sukapha, the first Ahom king. Subsequently,the title
of Charing Raja was reversed for the heir apparent while the title of Tipam Raja
and Namrupia Raja were meant for other nearest blood relations of the reigning
monarch.

Ambition for the throne nurtured by some of these families without any political and
military training became the cause of the downfall of Ahom rule in Assam. The
Patra-mantries occupied important position in the political administration and enjoyed
enormous powers. The Barphukan governed as viceroy or deputy to the king, in
the tract between the Brahmaputra and the Kalang in Nagaon, but after extension
of the Ahom kingdom in the westward direction he was put in charge of the
country from Kaliabor to Goalpara with his headquarters at Guwahati. He had
conduct diplomatic relations with Bengal, Bhutan and chieftains of Assam frontiers.
Other local governors such as Sadiya Khowa Gohain, Marangi Khowa Gohain, the
Solal Gohain and the Kajali Mukhia Gohain,etc., were appointed for the
administration of the outlying areas of the country. Besides, there were other
position recruited from respectable Ahom families for high posts. Among them, the
highest rank was of the Phukan, next in rank were the Baruas.

There were twelve Rajkhowas, a number of Khatakis and Dolois. Adult

population of Assam was divided into Khels, Khels into Paiks and areas were
constituted into Chamuas for revenue administration. It was not the usual practice in
Assam to pay the revenue in cash. It was paid through services or paiks etc. The
currency of Assam consisted of gold and silver coins.

The liberal and practical outlook shaped the religious of the Ahom monarchs. The
image of ''Chom-Cheng''which Sukapha had brought with his from his ancestral
home was the tutelary deity of the Ahom rulers till the end of their rule.

The general success of the Ahoms in their dealings with the hill tribes was
admitted by the Mughal chronicler Shihabuddin Talish who accompanied Mir-Jumla's
expedition in 1662-63A.D. He wrote-''Although most of the inhabitants of the
neighbouring hills pay no tax to the Rajah of Assam yet they accept his sovereignty
and obey some of his commands.'' Regarding the military system of the Ahoms,
Ram Singh, the Mughal general had to admit that every Assamese soldiers was an
expert in rowing boats, in shooting arrows, in digging trenches and cannons and
that he did not see such specimen of versatility in any other part of India. This
proves that the orginasation of army under the Ahom rulers was efficient and
effective.

Law and justice was in action during the Ahom reign. The criminal law was
characterised by sterness and comparative harshness. The penalty for rebellion was
various forms of capital punishment.

The Modern Period :

Annexation of Assam :

The condition of Brahmaputra valley at the time of the expulsion of the Burmese
was most deplorable. During the transition period the civil administration of Assam
was entrusted to David Scott with the title 'Agent of the Governor General for the
whole eastern frontier' from Cachar and Sylhet in the south to Sikkim in the north.
He was at the same time Special Civil Commissioner of North-East Rongpur, ie.,
Goalpara and the Garo Hills. Mr.Robinson says,''Hithero the affairs of the province
had been conducted on much the same system that previously prevailed before the
conquest. The officer-incharge exercised a general superintendence and specially
devoted their attention to fiscal business whilst the criminal and civil duties were
performed by councils of the Assamese gentry under the name of Panchayat
.There were two or three such Panchayats in each division of the province.
Appeals lay from the court of one Panchayat to that of the next superior court and
finally to the court of the Commissioners.''

In judicial cases, the executive officers were both magistrates and judges trying the
accused with the assistance of the Panchayat but referring all heinous offences
accompanied with their options to Mr. Scott for his final judgement. The revenue
administration was carried on just in the same manner as it had existed before the
conquest. David Scott had introduced the improved method of assessing land
revenue but it could be completed he breathed his last in August,1831.

Thus the history of the State under the British rule began after the appointment of
David Scott. The promise made by the British on the eve of the Anglo-Burmese war,
that they had no intention of annexing any portion of the Brahmaputra valley and
preferred to stay as conquerors only, had became doubtful. And, as a result,
rebellion broke out. The first rebellion broke out. The first rebellion started by
Assamese nobles against the newly founded authority with demand to withdraw the
new administrative system of revenue, which reduced many of them to abject
poverty. British occupation of lower Assam could not but be viewed with serious
concern by the Khasi Chiefs who held the low hands, commonly known as nine-
duars north of their hills. The initiative was taken by Barmanik, the ruler of
Khyrem, who in August 1828 descending down upon the plains of Dimarua a few
kilometres from Guwahati seized collection made by the revenue officers and
publicly demanded his independence on the duars. Next year the second rebellion
had broken out the Eastern Assam under the leadership of the ex-nobility of
Assam. But the British Government somehow managed to put off their joint
rebellion. Nearly all the principalities of Brahmaputra Valley and the hilly regions of
Cachar and Jaintia were annexed to the company's dominion in Assam one by one
in the courses of two decades.

Accordingly David Scott, agent to the Governor General, North-East Frontier,

extended British suzerainty over Cachar under an agreement with Raja Govinda
Chandra in early March,1834.

Raja Ram Singha of Jaintia later in his agreement with Scott, acknowledged the
authority of the British Government. Thus the process began, though slowly, for the
extension of British dominion into Assam or the North-East Frontier. The people
submitted to the inevitable;in fact,they ''hailed with unbounded joy''their deliverers
who saved them from the tyranny of the Burmese and offered them the most loyal
co-operation. Even Maniram Dewan, later an arch-enemy of the British, Heavily
welcomed the advent of the English.

Scott's policy of conciliating the former official aristocracy proved a dismal failure.
And towards the close of 1828 the Ahom, the Khasis, the Singphos and also the
Bhutias in the north were committing on the British subjects. The repeated uprising
and the administrative confusion of the period demanded above all a change from
an imperfect British administration. T.C. Robertson succeeded Scott as the agent of
the Governor in 1832. However, in 1832, Upper Assam except Sadiya and Mattak
territories was made over to the Ahom prince Purandar Singha, who set up as a
vassal king. In October, 1838, Purandar Singha's territory was taken over by the
British on recommendation of Mr.Jenkin, East India Company's Agent, and Assam as
a whole became a ''nonregulated'' province of the Indian Empire. This was done
contrary to their earlier assurances with purely commercial motive. Purandar Singha
was unnecessarily humiliated and it could have been done only with tacit consent
of the rival group of Purandar Singha. The same tactics were followed by the
British in finally annexing Cachar in 1830 and Sadiya were annexed to British India
in 1842. Likewise Jaintia, which was kept under the rule of a vassal king for
some years, was annexed in 1835 and Manipur was restored to its ruling dynasty.

Along the southern frontier of Bhutan there were eighteen mountain passes, called
Bhutan duars, By means of these passes the Bhutan highlanders held their sway
over this border and established their de facto right over this whole belt of border
territory. As a result of incessant outrages committed by the Bhutias on the British
subjects, the British Government attached all the Assam duars in 1841 A.D. as the
only means of security and peace in this part of frontier. These duars were the
main channels of trade between Tibet and Assam. Hostilities with the Mishimis
started from a simple incident, when in 1854A.D., French Missionary M. Kich and
his friend N. Bourri crossed the Mishimi country into Tibet. On their return they
were murdered by the Mishims. The Mishimis were defeated in a series of attacks
and in 1843 A.D., the rebels made their submission to the British. The Lushais
committed their first raid in 1849 A.D. and the punitive expedition that followed
was so successful that they gave no further trouble till 1858 A.D. Meanwhile, T.C.
Robertson had felt that multifarious activities of a far flung frontier to the frontier
provinces was not justified. He realised the necessity of European officers in Assam
for good supervision and on his recommendation in March, 1833, the supreme
Government accorded its approval for the division of the province into four districts-
Goalpara, Kamrup, Darrang and Nagaon; over each was placed a Principal Assistant
vested with the powers of a Collector, Judge and Magistrate.

For many years after British occupation of Assam, Guwahati remained the
headquarters of the province, but on the erection of Assam into a separate
province under a Chief Commissioner, the headquarters of the new administration
was shifted to Shillong. The district boundaries underwent changes since its
formation into separate districts in 1833 A.D.The Dhansiri river originally formed the
boundary in the east and the district of Sibsagar included some areas of the
present Karbi Anglong district, North Cachar Hills and Naga Hills. In 1853 A.D.,
North Cachar was separated from a sub-division and in the next year the territory
of Tularam was added to North Cachar sub-division. During 1867 A.D.,the Naga
Hills and a large part of Karbi Anglong were combined together into a separate
district,and the sub-division of North Cachar was abolished, and considerable area
of North Cachar sub-division was placed in charge of the Deputy Commissioner of
Cachar.

The province of Assam was created in 1874 A.D. with a view to relieving the
Lieutenant Governor of Bengal of a part of his huge administrative responsibility.
The head of the newly created province was given the title of ''Chief
Commissioner''. In 1905 A.D., Lord Curzon combined the eastern district of Bengal
with Assam but this was reversed in 1912 and Assam was restored to its former
territorial position. In 1921,in accordance with the provisions of the government of
India Act, 1919, Assam was given the status of a Governor's province.

Condition of the Province on the eve of British occupation and its effects:

The peace and tranquility of the province in the event of British occupation was
disturbed by the disputed succession. Anarchy prevailed in the later Ahom period
resulting in maladministration in the State. The situation was further aggravated by
the successive rebellions, the province of Assam had been depopulated to the
extent of half of her population, and under the stress of protracted wars and
oppression, the peasants had to give up cultivation and depend mostly on wild
roots and plants. Famine and pestilence stalked the land. ''Mills's report on
Assam''stated that, it was not to set the clock back, as desired by Maniram or
the people of his thinking, but to consolidate the possession of the British and to
tighten their grip over the administration. David Scott organised the administration to
his best capacity and introduced British system in general outline and spirit with
accommodation for indigenous system prevalent at that time. The general
administration of Assam including justice was vested in the Commissioner of Assam
with his headquarters at Guwahati. A Deputy Commissioner was posted there in
1939 to relieve the commissioner as Civil and Sessions Judge. Each district was
placed in charge of a Principal (Senior) Assistant assisted by a Junior Assistant
and a Sub-Assistant.

In 1861, deputy Commissioner was redesignated as Judicial Commissioner;

Principal Assistant as Deputy Commissioner;

Junior Assistant as Assistant Commissioner and

Sub-Assistant as Extra Assistant Commissioner.

There was a separate civil judicial establishment consisting of one Principal Sadar
Amin six Sadar Amins and seventeenth Munsiffs. The separate establishment of
Sadar Amin and Munsiffs was abolished in 1872.

David Scott was mainly responsible for working out the principles of administration
in both upper and lower Assam. The British administration in Lower Assam actually
began in 1824-25. The revenue collections increased in each succeeding year and
this must have reduced the people to dire straits. The British introduced new
method of revenue administration. The new system placed paraganas under
Choudhuries who were entrusted with the collection of revenue and administration
of justice in petty criminal cases in their respective paraganas. The Choudhury was
in the nature of a revenue collecting contractor, for he had to pay six months'
revenue to the Government before any collection could be made. Revenue was
assessed as per the category of the cultivated area. Besides revenue, the people
was subjected to pay a per capita poll tax of Rs.2/-. On failure to pay taxes,
property of the defaulting tenants was confiscated with the result that peasants at
times could not save their hearth and home. So mounting resentment grew
amongst the Assamese peasants who, in fact, were in great need of undisturbed
rehabilitation for some considerable length of time. The introduction of a new
judiciary system by the foreigners also contributed to the suffering of the people.
To protect lives and properties in the interiors, there existed a police establishment,
the thana with a thanadar or daroga in charge. He was empowered to arrest
suspected persons, to detained them and even to hold preliminary trial before
sending them to sadar station.

Under the Chartered Act of 1833 Special lease grants and Fee simple lease grants
were introduced in respect of revenue administration to encourage tea plantation
and a company called Assam company was established by the British. By 1858,
almost the entire erstwhile Lakhimpur and Sibsagar were covered by this company
for tea plantation and subsequently expanded its operation to Cachar. Expansion of
tea industry necessitated import of labour from outside the State. Mill gives the
figure of such immigrants in Assam in 1881 to be 3 lakhs which reached over 6
lakhs by 1901.

The commercial treaty of Gaurinath Singha with Captain Welsh in 1793 had opened
the gates to the merchants of Bengal to enter into the interior of the province.
Avenues of employment both in office and trade caused a steady inflow of
population from the districts of Sylhet, Dacca, Mymensingh and Rangpur to Assam.

After it came under British administration, the policy adopted by the British in the
other parts of India was pursued in Assam. So, the British, in order to supplement
the Chartered Act of 1833, encouraged the establishment of English schools in
Assam as they needed English knowing people to help running of administration.
The Assamese people who were then enjoying a respite after a long and bitter
struggle with the Burmese invaders, were totally unaware of these developments.
Besides, there were very few English educated people in Assam. In April, 1831,
Government of Bengal made Bengali in place of Persian the language of the court.
The influx from Bengal not only made the revenue and judicial departments their
sole preserve, but their services became equally indispensable to the newly started
Government schools for dearth of local teachers specially to impart instructions in
Bengali which had since been made the medium of instruction in Assam. Finally,
Assamese was abolished from the schools and courts of Assam in 1839.
Anandaram Dhekial Phukan who was one of the few English educated Assamese
was appointed as Assistant Commissioner. His enlightened mind saw that the lot of
the peasantry could not be improved without knowledge of modern scientific
applications and a better mode of living which cannot be acquired without Western
education. He laid stress on the necessity of raising the standard of education and,
his was the first voice of protest against the imposition of Bengali as the medium of
instruction, and pleaded for its replacement by Assamese.

Concrete steps were, however, taken by the Christian missionaries who not only
carried on a propaganda through their mouth piece the Arunodoi but also set up a
few schools for girls. The first missionary school was started at Sibsagar by Rev.
Nathan Brown and O.T. Cutter in 1840 and this was followed by the schools set
up by Bronson at Nagaon (1843) and Mrs. Barkes at Guwahati in 1850. With the
spread of western ideas the need was gradually felt for the formation of political
association and organisation to ventilate the grievances of the people. The
Chartered Act of 1833 was a handy instrument of the British colonialists who
already began spreading out their financial tentacles to serve the interest of the
empire and colonialism. Assam began to suffer from the basic evils of foreign
domination as other parts of India did.

The Freedom Movement : [ very important ]

Anti British movement-Later phase,

The question of revenue collections dominated the relationship between the

Government and the people throughout the 19th century. The rule of the East India
Company ended in 1858 and the whole of India came under the direct control

of the British Crown. The assessment of land revenue was increased, and income
tax, stamp duties, etc., were also imposed by the new administration. The
Government carried on trade in opium and salt in the State and earned
considerable profit thereby. The people of Assam who were not accustomed to
payment of revenue in cash began to resent. The British Government undoubtedly
introduced beneficial measures like abolition of cruel practices as chopping off ears,
noses, abductions of young women, forced labour, etc., but the evils far
outweighed these few good measures, Thus in 1853, Moniram Dewan petitioned
Mills.''Illustrious Sir, we are just now, as it were,in the belly of a tiger''. Moniram
Dewan was responsible for associating Assam with the rebellion of 1857. Being
disillusioned with the British he turned a rebel in 1857 when the class interest of
a section of the Indian feudal class coincided with the broad national interests
against foreign rule. The sepoys of Assam like infantry battalions both at Dibrugarh
and Guwahati remained absolutely passive and strictly loyal to the British.

The Commissioner of Assam in the middle of August 11857 got information from
Holroyd, the intelligence Officer, that several officers of the Assam Light Infantry
with the detachment at Golaghat had entered into a conspiracy with the young
prince, Kandarpeswar. Major Jenkins lost non time and drew the attention of
Government of India to the seriousness of the situation and urged it to despatch,
as hurriedly as possible, European force to save the province from the revolutions.
The simultaneous outbreak of the sepoys in scattered areas rendered it difficult to
send reinforcements into Assam. To tide over the immediate crisis a small
European force of 104 sea-men,half of them raw recruits, was despatched under
Lieutenant Davis on board the Haroonghatta on Sept', 1857. Moran Dewan from
Calcutta sent secret letters through rebel conveyers to individuals in Assam to win
over these sepoys whose brethern in different parts of India fought the British. In

Nagaon, Mr. Morton, the Principal Assistant, destroyed the bridges over the rivers
Missa and Diju and cut off the communication with Jorhat lest the mutineers get
into the district from that direction. Enthusiastic stories of the fall of British power
in different parts caused a great deal of excitement among the hillmen as well.
The people at large were in a discontented state,Though not organised. At such a
time the Government tightened up security measures and enforced operation of Act
XIV. A large number of arrests took place. The potential rebels were tired,many
were executed while others were deported. Kandarpeswar Singha was arrested and
despatched to Calcutta and kept confined as a state prisoner in Alipur. This was
followed by the arrest of Moniram in Calcutta and his collaborators, both officials
and non-officials, Dutiram Baruah, Mayaram Nazir, Marangikhowa Gohain, Bahadur
Gaoburah, Shaikh Formud and several others. This ended the endeavours made by
Moniram to overthrow the British Government in Assam. The great rebellion of 1857
left Assam without much convulsions.

Queen Victoria's proclamation in 1858, ending the Company rule and establishing
direct Government under the Crown promised to respect the rights of the native
princes, but exception was made in the case of Assam and the wrong of 1838
was not undone. Struggle against expatriation's and for land reforms entered the
countryside. The land revenue assessment which had remained unchanged for the
last twenty to thirty years was enhanced in 1894 and as such the ryots of
different places viz.,Rangia and Lashima in the Kamrup district and the ryots of
Patharughat in the Mangaldoi district were the first to react against the
enhancement of revenue of land. The aggrieved,both Hindus and Muslims,met in
their Raijmel and protested against the new measure.

Movement of a serious nature occurred for nearly two decades. The renaissance
movement of the post 1857 period and the series of aggrarian outbreaks during
the last four decades of the 19th century contributed to the growth of a conscious
national movement for freedom from foreign rule.

Freedom Movement in the post – 1857 period :

The great rebellion of 1857 was directly responsible for the birth of the national
movement in the country. The uprising of 1857 had imposed severe financial strain
on the British Indian Government. The deficit in budget in 1858-59 compelled
them to introduce new taxes as a result,on the advice of Jam es Wilson,in
1860,income-tax was introduced and this was extended in the following year to the
province of Assam. New economic forces were brought into play and the new
social forces though expressing themselves in their different ways,contributed to the
growth of the conscious national forces. After 1857,the character of the struggle
against the foreigner changed but the struggle was continued with renewed intensity
depending upon the growth of consciousness from area to area,and Sabhas and
Raijar mels became the most popular institution for solving all sorts of problem
faced by the indigenous people of this State.

The uprising at Phulguri was the earliest popular movement in Assam organized
with the object to compelling the Government to yield to the will of the people by
the withdrawal of unpopular measures of taxation. Though the movement failed,the
precedent was not lost upon the people and was followed up in other parts soon
after.

In 1861, Hopkinson sought to double the tax on land on the plea of utilising the
excess revenue on works of public utility. The proposal did not receive the
approval of the Board of Revenue,and in 1865, Hopkinson renewed his proposal in
a different from proposing to raise the revenue on land with the object of
equalising the rates in all the districts. He also wanted to raise the rates of
''house-hold and garden lands.'' Hopkinson's proposal, on this occasion, received
the approval of the Government of Bengal and consequently rates of rupti and
non-rupti lands increased from 25 to 50 per cent in almost all the districts.

From early 1869, mels were frequently held at Gobindapur, Hadira, and Bajali in
Kamrup. A no tax campaign on a vigorous scale was launched by the ryots of
Rangia and Lachima in the district of Kamrup and Patharughat in Darrang. During
the month of December,1892,people belonging to Tahsils of Pati Darrang
,Nalbari,Barama,Bajali and also of the five mouzas of upper Borbhag and Sarukhetri
in their mels resolved not to yield to any sort of Government pressure and
excommunicate those who would pay revenue to the Government. The movement
started with the looting of the Rangia bazar.

The firm resistance of the ryots and the apprehension of further troubles compelled
McCabe to strengthen security measures. Without prior permission of the Deputy
Commissioner,meetings of the mels were banned. But this could not suppress the
people. Troubles of serious nature broke out again at Patharughat, where the
police chased the ryots ,firing continuously along the Mongaldoi road and scores of
them lay dead and wounded. There was also firing at Rangia to disperse a huge
and rebellious gathering which demonstrated their resentment against imposition of
enhanced revenue.

The popular uprising,was termed by the British as the ''Assam riots'',and it

considered as a very serious affair and the suppressive measures of the
Government were viewed very seriously. The editorial in the Indian Nation declared
that ''the burden which now press upon the land in Assam are considerably heavier
than on land owned by Zamindars in Bengal.'' The Amrita Bazar Patrika observed
on its editorial that ''in the Deccan the furry of the ryots was directed against
money lenders,in Bengal against indigo-planters in 1860, in Pabna against
Zaminders in Assam,at this movement,it is open rebellion against the Government.''

Direct British rule after the Queen's proclamation changed the form of Government
but internal administration changed only for the worse. The multiplication of taxes,
like stamp duties, income-tax, etc., could not but be a matter of serious concern
to the agricultural ryots,and consequently the Phulaguri riot of 1861 took place
where the tribal peasants of the area demonstrated a popular discontenment
protesting against the gradual enhancement and introduction of new taxes by the
British and finally engulfed the entire rural population of Assam by 1893-94.

Impact of the rising :

The peasant movement of Assam had its echo in the Imperial Legislative where

Dr.Rash Bihari Ghosh questioned the propriety of realising land revenue by the
agency of special constables. The authorities could give only vague replies to the
pointed questions. Though the risings failed at last,the lessons were not lost. The
national movement was baptised in this economic struggles and it found political

outlet with the birth of national consciousness.

With the spread of western education during the last part of the nineteenth century
a new awakening surcharged the patriots of the land. The public grievances were
forwarded to the Government for consideration through Raijmels of the different
parts of the province. The year of 1885 was recognized as the birth year of
Indian national Congress. Before the birth of this organization,The Ryot sabha was
formed by a group of enlightened people primarily to protest against the
enhancement of land revenue and to ventilate other public grievances in the
province. Though the Indian National Congress was not started in Assam in
1885,the delegates from different Raijmels or sabhas of different districts of the
province were sent to attend the congress Session wherever it held. Devicharan
Baruah was the first Assamese to joined in the second Indian National Congress
held in 1886.

British authority had a mortal fear of the authority of the mels which they
compared with the Nihilist organization. The Raij-mels increased popular
consciousness and confidence in strength. The Ryot-sabha or Raij-mels were
active in districts like Sibsagar, Nagaon, Darrang, Kamrup and Lakhimpur. The
mels in Assam played an important role in making the people conscious of the
utter helplessness in which they lived under the alien rulers.

The Tezpur Ryot Sabha was established in and around 1884 at the initiative of the new
elites,the Ryot Sabha had a wide base in the villages. It collected small
subscriptions from hundreds of peasants and in 1887 built the Tezpur Town Hall,
the first of its kind in Assam.

The Assam Desh Hitaishini Sabha in 1885, at Sibsagar and Gyan Pradayini Sabha
in 1857, at Nagaon with object of spreading advanced knowledge among people
were formed under supervision of Anandaram Barua and Gunabhiram Barua.

The foundation of the Sarbajanik Sabha held at Jorhat in 1884 by Jagannath

Barua is a landmark in the history of political association in Assam. The Sarbajanik
Sabha desired abolition of the cultivation of the poppy by gradual doses and also
urged upon educational policy of the Government. The Sabha not only demanded

large employment of the natives of the soil,but also emphasised on the

improvement of their service condition and emoluments. All these Sabhas desired
reintroduction of Assamese as the medium of instruction by which the scope of
education would be widened and thus the ''Jonaki Age'' in Assamese literature
began.

The impact of the west replaced the blind faith of age-long beliefs,customs and
conventions by a spirit of rationalism. Orthodoxy continued to be the order of the
day,but its gradually relaxed. The outlook of the orthodox sections gradually
changed and before the close of the century students from the high caste Hindus
were seen proceeding to the Presidency College at Calcutta for higher courses in
English education though the aim of English education was primarily for the
purpose of creating a set of clerks to run Governments offices. The establishment
of the Cotton College at Guwahati in 1901 contributed to the spread of higher
education. The educational policy of the Government was also viewed with serious
concern by the Jorhat Sarbajanik Sabha.

During the years 1874-1905, Assam has no legislature of its own and the people
then had no chance of participating in legislative activities of any kind. In
March,1990,Lord Curzon paid a visit to Assam. It afforded the European planting
community the golden opportunity to represent their interests for expansion of
industrial and commercial undertaking in Assam. In an address of welcome,
J.Alstone, the Superintendent,Assam Frontier Tea Company Limited, Dibrugarh,
appealed to the Viceroy to improve the lines of communication and means of
transport in the province and also to conduct a survey of the mineral resources in
the neighbouring hill tracts. As Assam has no legislative council of its own,a
permanent seat for Assam in India Legislative Council was pleaded for.

The demographic changes also took place during the years 1874-1905, in the
Assam Valley. The epidemic appearing in the Brahmaputra and the Surma Valleys
caused retardation of agricultural growth in the province,and the influx of immigrants
more than neutralized the decline in the indigenous population. Nonindigenous elements
came to constitute at least one quarter of the population of Assam proper in 1901.
The composition and distribution of population affected the peasant's economy
adversely.

The period of preparation and growth of political consciousness :(1901-1918):

The year of 1903 was recognized in the Assam history with redmark, as the
educated gentry of Assam led by Manik Chandra Baruah, Ghanashyam Barua,
Jagannath Barua, Faizner Ali and others of an All-Assam Political Organization gave
birth to the Assam Association. Raja Probhat Chandra Barua of Gauripur, Assam,
was one of the chief promoters who presided over the inaugural session at
Dibrugarh, Karmabir Nabin Chandra Bardoloi presiding over the 1917 session of the
Association at Dibrugarh, elaborately described the necessity of the Association and

remarked,''organise, knock at the door and you find the door opened.'' Further,the
Association strongly expressed the feelings of popular resentment against the
Rowlatt Acts and the Jalianwalla Bagh massacre in Punjab,in April,1919.

Presiding over its Goalpara session in December, 1918, T.R. Phookan said,''The
Government is bad and bureaucratic. It should be democratic. The English officers
and English traders and also section of Indians do not advocate popular
Government and Lord Sydenhem and others say that Indians are not fit for self
Government. But one cannot learn swimming without plunging in water. If India is
not fit for self Government even after a century and half of British rule, who is
responsible for this?'' The members of Assam Association later distinguished
themselves as leaders of the freedom struggle and introduced an element of
extremism into the politics of the Association and replaced it in 1921,by the
provincial Congress Organisation.

The Assam Association focused its active attention on all questions of public
importance in the province. It served as the mouth-piece of the people of Assam
in presenting to their''needs and grievances,hopes and aspirations.'' It launched a
strong agitation against the unpopular grazing-tax imposed by the Government of

grazing of cattle in the forest reserves of Assam. The Association also kept a
vigilant eye over the opium policy of the Government. The growth of nationalism in
the 19th century Assam was a two track process;people were increasing by turning
as much to the great nationalism at the all-India level as to the little nationalism
at the Linguistic regional level. Towards the close of the nineteenth century,a
partition of Bengal was imminent and Assam's status as a separate province also
came to came to an end on 16th October,1905,and Fuller was promoted as the
first lieutenant Governor of the new-born composite province of Eastern Bengal and
Assam.

The anti-partition agitation was meanwhile in full swing in Bengal and the Surma
valley. The province of ''Eastern Bengal and Assam came into being consisting of an
area of 275937.5346 square kilometres and a population of 31 million souls'' as
Mr. Fuller mentioned in his speech addressed at Guwahati Municipality on Nov.
1,1905. He assured the people of Assam that the proposed change will not affect
their privileges. The Assam Association and the Jorhat Sarbajanik Sabha organised
protest meeting against this undesirable tagging. Meetings were held at Dhubri,
Gauripur, Goalpara, Guwahati and Dibrugarh against the formation of the new
province in the following years. This anti-partition movement strengthened people's
belief in Swadeshi and Swaraj. British goods were boycotted totally and the shops
were started in different places of Assam for the sale of Swadeshi goods.

Evidently the anti-partition agitation turned into a popular movement based on

Swadeshi boycott and national education. The Muhammedan population of both
Valleys also joined the movement. Though the tussle between Bengal and Assam
continued on language, employment, and land issue; the people of Assam and
Bengal joined hands on the thresh hold on nationalistic movement in the struggle
for freedom from British toke.
At Guwahati in 1905 an attempt was made by Ambika Giri Roy Choudhury and
Gobinda Lahiri to organise the local students in Swadeshi spirit. A group of
Assamese students volunteered to work as labourers in Railway stations and
steamer ghats and to donate their earnings to the common found organised for
Swadeshi cause. Even the Pandas of Kamakhya ceased to use beet-sugar and
liver pool salt. Ambika Giri Roy Choudhury, Tringuna Barua and few others attracted
towards the cult of terrorism under the influence of Barin Ghose and Khudiram, but
this movement ended with Ambika Giri Roy Choudhury being interned at Barpeta
for a long stretch of 8(eight)years from 1907 to 1915.

In Nov. 1912 the first Assam Lagislative Council was created with 13 nominated
and 12 elected and 12 elected members with the Chief Commissioner as the
Chairman. The provincial council had no power to control the budget of the
province though the representatives were allowed to criticise it. The budget,in
fact,was an estimate from which the Government could at any time depart. No
nation-building programme could be undertaken by the Council due to this prevalent
rigidity of financial system. Tarun Ram Phukan and Radha Govinda Das (Sylhet)
resigned on the ground of the futility of the Council. Phani Dhar Chaliha, a
planter's representative also resigned in protest against a deregatory remark from
the Chairman. Of the leading members,mention may be made of Kamini Kumar
Chanda, Manik Chandra Baruah, Padmanath Gohain Baruah, Radha Binode Das,
Muhammad Saadullah and Raja Prabhat Chandra Baruah. Padmanath Gohain Baruah
criticised the policy of the Government in giving undue representation to the
planters in the Local Boards, and he argued that their interest in Local Boards
was not so ''universal''as those of native population.

When the Morley-Minto reforms opened the problem of the minorities in India,It
was but natural that members belonging these communities would plead for their
special needs and requirements in the Council. Deprecating the predominance of
the official elements in the Local Boards, Muhammad Saadullah demanded
communal representation of the Muslims in these bodies. As a result,power and
responsibilities of legislators were greatly circumscribed.

An event of considerable importance to be recorded was the formation of the

Assam Student Conference in 1916,the first session of which was held amidst great
enthusiasm at Guwahati under the presidentship of the great Assamese literature
and patriot Lakshminath Bezbaruah. The Assam Students Conference helped to
create a cadre of student leaders who played important part in the Non-co-
operation and subsequent movements. Leaders like Chandranath Sarma. Omeo
Kumar Das,Hem Chandra Barua, Padmadhar Chaliha came into prominence first as
student leaders.

A demand for full provincial status for Assam was being voiced by Assam
Association for very long time and expected the aspiration to be materialised
through proposed constitutional reforms of 1918. A deputation from Assam.
Association, headed by N.C. Bordoloi was sent to London to represent Assam's
case before the Selbourne committee of house of Lords. As the result of the
meeting,Assam acquired the status of a full fledged Governor's province under the
Government of India Act,1919. Gradually,affected by the Jaliwanwalla
massacre,political pivots of Assam were being drawn by the non-co-operation
movement and call for Hindu-Muslim unity made by Mahatma Gandhi under
Congress banner. Assam was prepared to march with the rest of India towards the

common goal of freedom and the struggle for freedom in Assam formed an
inseparable part of the India struggle.

Assam was thus slowly drawn into the orbit of the new action-oriented all-India
political agitation. Non-co-operation and Dyarchy on Trial (1918-1947): Assam had
played a significant role in the struggle for freedom though in the earlier stages,her
political development was too slow due to want of intellectual contact with the rest
of India as a result of backwardness in English education and lack of
communication. As a response to the call of non-co-operation, Kaliram Barman of
Guwahati withdrew nomination paper after scrutiny and Kumudram Bora, an already
elected member to the council resigned.

1919 was an eventful year in the political history of India. Gandhiji launched the
Non-co-operation movement on 1st August 1920, which was the direct outcome of
Khilafat movement. In Assam, both the Hindus and Muslims equally responded to
the cause of Khilafatist. In response to the Khilafat movement, Guwahati, Goalpara,
Jorhat, Sibsagar and North Lakhimpur observed hartals and held public meetings
respectively.

Although, Nabin Chandra Bordoloi and others did not support Gandhiji at
Calcutta(Sept.1920);had apparently realised the direction in which the wind was
blowing. And after returning the Guwahati, Bordoloi started a propaganda campaign,
seeking the support of the Assamese intelligentsia to the non-co-operation
movement.

The Assam Association held district-level meetings at Nagaon, Sibsagar, Jorhat,

Dibrugarh throughout October,1920 and discussed the non-co-operation issue. While
the issue of non-cooperation was being hotly debated,N.C. Bordoloi, the general
secretary of the Association,C.N. Sarma and Tarunram Phukan moved from one
corner of the province to the other to mobilize public opinion. The Guwahati Bar
Association at the initiative of young lawyers,even decided to boycott the Viceroy's
visit. Almost all the district level Associations took decision to boycott Council
elections also raised objection to take titles, honour and honorary posts from British

Government.
The boycott agitation of the students had almost automatically led to the demand
for setting up national schools and national colleges in the province. Finally,a
national school was established in Feb.1921, in the premises of the residence of
Rohinikumar Choudhury, at Bharalumukh, Guwahati. Such establishment was followed
in other parts of the province.

The outbreak of the World War I had disturbed the equilibrium of the commercial
world. The Secretary of food stuff and other necessaries gave rise to economic
crimes like theft and burglary in many places of both the valleys. Phanidhar
Chaliha in his speech in the council held on 13th March 1918, urged upon the
Government to take necessary step. In March1918, the retail price of salt in the
Assam Valley was fixed by a notification and similar measures followed soon in the
other valley and the hills districts. The deep rooted economic malady had hit the
labour population of the plains districts. The Chargola exodus, a well-known
historical episode in which the tea labourers of the tea gardens of the Cachar
district were brutally treated by European planters, enraged the nationalist leaders
who took up their cause. And finally, an economic struggle at the beginning,the
sporadic strikes later on culminated into a mass political action in the form of a
collective escape from the bonded labour system. It was the product of an
interaction between the Gandhian impact on primitive minds and the incipient class
militancy. There were strikes in Dibrugarh, Sibsagar and Darrang. Labour of entire
Assam raised general complaints about low wages,excessive work-load,inadequate
facilities of leave,high prices of food and cloth in the State. Prolonged labour
troubles caused some anxiety in the official circles.

As proposed by all-India Congress Committee, the Congress leaders of Assam kept

fully alive the tempo of Civil Disobedience. Based on the Civil-Disobedience
movement, the Congress Working Committee urged upon the people to be prepared
to face all sorts of hardships and indignities with calm fortitude and unflinching
devotion to the cause of Swaraj. To meet the Purna Swaraj, large number of
people began to enrol themselves as volunteers,strengthen the National Volunteer
Corps. Soon, Phukan and Bordoloi, the top leaders of the Assam Congress were
arrested on 30th Nov., 1921, followed by arrest of quite a number of leaders. In
terms of arrests and convictions, the sub-division of Tezpur, Golaghat, Guwahati,
Sibsagar and Sylhet suffered badly. The economic depression of the thirtees was
so wide spread that the phased Civil Disobedience Movement tended to grow into
an anti-imperialist mass revolt. Not only British rule, but land-lordism and
capitalism also came under fire from the emergent leftist youths. The peasants
refused to pay land-revenue to British agents. A number of police and Government
official resigned from Government services. ''Saptahik Assamiya''a weekly published
from Guwahati was prosecuted for defamation of British officer,for publishing a
report on defilement of Sundaridiya Satra at Barpeta by Captain Calvert,in course of
his repressive operation. Jails were filled with non-co-operators. The British
Government exerted its full strength to repress the participants and to suppress the
movement by use of arms,and finally succeeded in qualling the agitation.

In 1922, after the Choiri Choura riots in Uttar Pradesh, Mahatma Gandhi called a
halt to the movement and the Congress Working Committee endorsed the decision.
Since then,the leaders of Assam began to stress on the constructive programmes
such as temperance work,spinning of yarns and weaving of khaddar, being
prosecuted withdrawal. In 1922, Omeo Kumar Das attendent the All-India Congress
committee meeting and related to it the story of severe repression which was then
going on in Assam. Two-member committee of Dr. Rajendra Prasad and Pandit
Madan Mohan Malaviya came to Assam to study the political situation in Assam. The
two leaders visited several places in Assam and were deeply impressed with the
progress of the movement in Assam and the contribution made by the people,in
the shape of suffering and sacrifice for the attainment of freedom. Orthodox non-
co-operators of Assam stood firm in their commitment to the implementation of
constructive programmes, as a result of which the Swaraja party in Assam was
formed within Congress in 1923. As the result of the movement, the British
Government in Assam agreed to introduce measures for gradual decline of opium
consumption in Assam. This was the most important achievement so far Assam
was concerned. The next achievement of importance was introduction of Local self
government Act and passing of Assam Municipal Act,1923, with provision for more
elected members and elected chairman.

Election to the Legislative Council was held in 1923, which was more than one
surprise for the Congress and the country. The Swarajya party contested almost all
the seats and their candidates everywhere received support from the local Congress
and Khilafat organisation. Tarun Ram Phukan was elected to the Indian Legislative
Assembly unopposed. Out of the 39 elective seats of the Assam Council only 13
members of the previous council could retain their seats. The Swarajya party failed
to secure absolute majority in the council and therefore, carried on negotiation with
the Independents. With a view to wrecking the constitution and attacking the
Government inside the council,the first meeting of newly elected council decided to
form Assam Nationalist Party in 1924,as happened elsewhere in India. This policy of
infiltration proved fruitful as in April,1924,the Assam Legislative Council succeeded in
cutting the salary of ministers from Rs.3,500/- P.M. to Rs.1500/- P.M. And the
opium Prohibition Act was also passed on 3rd March,1925.

But split occurred in the Coalition party in March 1925 last,and the Swarajists
realized that they could no longer command a majority. The Assam Court
Fees(Amendment)Bill in the Assam Stamp(Amendment)Bill of 1925 were
passed,despite the opposition of the Swarajists. Finally, they lost the majority and
the All India Congress Committee in 1926 too directed the Swarajists to stage
walk-out in all the legislative bodies.
The forty-first Congress Session was held from 26thto 28th Dec.1926,under the
presidentship of S.Srinivas Iyenger, at Guwahati. The Swarajist no changers and
the responsive co-operators, all came to the Guwahati Session. In December,
1929, in response to the call for Civil Disobedience movement launched by the
National Congress, Assam spontaneously celebrated 'Independence Day' on
26thJan,1930. In Feb,1930, the old leaders resigned their offices in the Provincial
Congress. At this critical hour Bishnuram Medhi came forward to save the
situation,who volunteered to shoulder the responsibility of the Congress presidentship
in Assam. In April,1930,after the historic Dandi March of Mahatma Gandhi,the
Assam Congress to joined in the Civil Disobedience Movement. The national week
of ''war against salt tax''was observed and the law breaking movement spread by way
of violating the Forest Laws. The struggle in Assam took the form of a boycott of

foreign cloths, excisable drugs and the shops selling such goods. Picketing was
resorted to.

Sri Bishnuram Medhi helped by Tyagbir Hemchandra Barua, Dr. Bhubaneswar Barua,
Omeo Kr. Das, Sidhinath Sarma, Pitambar Goswami, Gormur Satradhikar, Lakhidhar
Sharma and others conducted the movement very successfully. Srimati Chandra
Prabha Saikiani and Srimati Durgaprava Barua took up picketing in front of Cotton
College Guwahati. The arrest of the national leaders included a spirit of
earlessness amongst the general mass. The authority clamped section 144Cr. P.C.
in Nagaon, Tezpur and Dhubri to suppress this popular consciousness. But people
from different places participated in the protest demonstration. As a result,police
attacked the crowd with lathis and batons in such places. The movement got
spontaneous support from the rural mass. Stream of innumerable Satyagrhis faced
lathi charge, arrest and other tortures and went to jail. Meanwhile the student
unrest begun in protest of Government circular demanding from the students and
guardians an undertaking to abstain from joining politics.
Some public high schools like Kamrup Academy, Barpeta Bidyapith, etc.,were
established by the Nationalists. The movement dragged on till May,1934,and most
of the leaders like Nobin Chandra Bordoloi were sent to jail for the 2nd time. To
cripple movement, the Government also adopted a policy of penal action after
arrests. Most of the active members of the Civil Disobedience movement were
convicted. The persons that were convicted in proportion to arrest made in Assam
up to 31st March,1932,were males 885,females 54 and convicted males 672 and
females 42.

Between 1930 and 1938,in spite of occasional difference amongst the

leaders,Congress organisation got very strong. But,as in a bid to open up fallow
waste lands in Assam for cultivation,influxes of landless peasants from East Bengal
were being invited to Assam by the then Assam Ministry headed by Sir Md.
Saadullah, and because flow of innumerable jobseekers continued to Assam
unabated,a section of Assamese nationalists got alarmed and Ambika Giri Roy
Choudhury, a staunch nationalist to the core,founded''Assam Sangrakshini Sobha''
and without seceding from the Congress, began to voice through this organisation,
demands ''for vindication of right of the Assamese people,the children of the soil
as against aggression of outsiders. As most of these people from East Bengal
were Muslims there was a general sympathy of a section of Assam Muslims to
them. As a result a section of Assam Muslims barring the Assamese Muslims, the
old east Bengal Muslims and Hindus did not take part in the Civil Disobedience
Movement of 1930-32. Assam Sangrakshini Sabha was later on converted into
Assam Jatiya Mahasabha. All those ryot sabhas organised by Assam Sangrakshini
Sabha became the strong holds of Assam during the later movements sponsored
by the National Congress under the guidance of Mahatma Gandhiji.

Rani Gaidinliu played major role in the Civil Disobedience in Assam. Gaidinliu
organised a revolt against the constituted authorities. The meetings of the Assam
Provincial Ryot Sanmilan,Assam Association and Ryot Association were held in
different places of Assam and devoted mainly to non political matters in 1933. The
political movement of the Civil Disobedience Movement was restarted after the
declaration of the communal award. Instead of ideal of purna swaraj heading the
list of priorities,the Harijan suddenly gained prominence at this point time. In fact,
after the Poona pact, the upliftment of the Harijan and the removal of
untouchability was taken up by the Congress leaders in Assam with immense
fervour.

The persuance of Congress decision to let the reforms introduced by the

Government of India Act,1936,Assam Congress also participated in 1937 election
and won 33 seats in a House of 108 and formed the largest single upon in the
Assembly. But non-acceptance of ministry being the Congress policy then , a
Coalition Ministry was formed by the other groups with Sir Saadullah as the Chief
Minister. Sir Saadullah being associated with the legislature and the British
administrative machinery for more than 15 long years, he was naturally the most
likely selected one for the position by the Governor of Assam. But on 13th
Sept.1938, this ministry had to face acute discomfort due to its communal policies
and total neglect of the preservation need of the ''the children of the soil''and in
order to avoid defeat in no-confidence vote in the Assembly, Sir Saadullah had to
resign. Thereafter, the Congress Coalition Ministry was formed with Gopinath
Bordoloi as its head. This Ministry took up the causes of labour in the Assam Oil
Company labour Dispute, and this won over the industrial labour also to the side
of Congress organisation. But in the meantime, in Sept., 1039, the Second World
War broke up and a consequence of the Congress refusal to be a party in the
Imperialistic War,during Oct.-Nov.1039, the ministry in Assam resigned,and on
17.11.39,Md. Syed Saadullah again formed a Coalition Ministry . This, however,
created acute problem as Sir Saadullah was always a very ardent supporter of the
British. In December, 1941, in protest against a Government circular for participation
of students in the War Fund Exhibition held at Guwahati Judge Field, a student's
demonstration was held by the students of Cotton College. Police attacked students
with lathi. Such lathi charges took place in other places of the country also.

Rohini Choudhury, a number of the Coalition Ministry of Syed Saadullah resigned

from ministry in protest of police atrocity on students. On 24.12.41 the Saadullah
ministry also had to resign The British Government organised Village Defence party
to courterpoise Santi Sena organization of Congress. But, in fact, the Village
Defence parties organised by the Government were wallowed up by the Santi-
Senas in rural areas.

In Oct.1940, on refusal of the Viceroy to concede to the National Government as

demanded by Congress a campaign of individual Satyagraha was launched under
the leadership of Mahatma Gandhi in Assam, Gopinath Bordoloi, Bishnuram Medhi,
Omeo Kumar Das and many others also took part in the satyagraha and got
arrested. In the meantime, the allies of the British advanced towards India,and Sir
Stafford Cripps had to come to India in March,1942 and put forward an offer of
Dominion. Congress refused and took up the famous ''Quit India'' resolution on 8th
August, 1942. Assam jumped into the movement with a quick stride and on 9th
August,1942, Md.Tayabullah, Fakaruddin Ali Ahmed, Bishnuram Medhi, Debeswar
Sarma, Dr. Harekrishna Das, Lila Barua with many others were arrested by the
British as preventive measure. Gopinath Bordoloi and Sidhinath Sarma who were
away at Bombay in connection with the All India Congress meeting got arrested at

Dhubri immediately on their return. All organisations including Ryot-sabhas which

subscribed to the Congress fund were declared unlawful. But the tremendous pace
of the growing movement could not be halted. The abrupt official action intensified
the Quit India Movement. Acting under their local leaders,the people stood up in a
massive protest against the Government's action. Santi Sena organisations were set
up throughout the State under the leadership of local Congress Socialists.
Mahendra Nath Hazarika, Lakshmi Prasad Goswami, Sankar Barua built up an
underground resistant movement. A Mritya Bahini or death squad was formed in the
State under the leadership of Mahendra Nath Hazarika. The party carried out some
serious acts of sabotage throughout the State.

In Darrang district, Jyoti Prasad Agarwala, Gohon Chandra Goswami went

underground and carried out sabotage at various places by organizing Mrityu Bahini.

To suppress the movement,the police restored to severe from of violence. Firing

was restored to on many occasions.

Firings caused death to many people including Kanaklata, Taleswari, Numali, and
Khahulis who were all teen aged girls. The judgement in the Dhekiajuli firing case
contained severe structures on the police which even the High Court saw no
grounds to relax. Victim of police atrocities in North Lakhimpur and Dibrugarh were

Madhuban Chutia, Bhogeswar Chetia and Pohor Gogoi.

In Sibsagar, the individual Satyagraha movement was started by Moulana Tayebulla,

the President of the Asom Pradesh Congress Committee. Entire Sibsagar district
responded to the call of ''Quit India Movement''. The police made lathi charge on
processions in every place. Many were arrested and imprisoned or detained.
Kushal Konwar, who was believed to be innocent,was however,declared to be guilty
of sabotage and awarded capital punishment by the court that tried him. He was
hanged in Jorhat Jail in 1943. The Government also levied collective fines on the
people of different district in the Province to undermine the movement.

In Kamrup district at Bahjani in Nalbari sub-division and Bajali in Barpeta sub-

division, the village Panchayats were formed and schemes of Panchayat
administration was drawn up. Madan Barman and Rawta Kachari lost their lives in
the police firing in Bajali. People's hatred against repressive bureaucracy mounted
up. Rising high prices and food shortage added fuel to the fire and they put all
efforts to paralyse the Government. The district of Nagaon played the most
important role in the ''Quit India Movement''. At Barhampur, a village situated about
11 Kms east of Nagaon town, there was a huge gathering, upon which Police
opened firing. As a consequence, Phuleswari Konwari, Lakhimi Hazarika, Thagi Sut
and others embraced death for the cause of the country. Supply to military was
stopped for a mouth and hats and bazars were closed down. Huge agglomeration
of troops took place throughout the state. But in Spite of all,sabotaging by the
guerilla Santi Senas remained unabated.

In 1943, the Azad Hind Fauz organised by Subhas Chandra Bose who, attempted to
win freedom of India with the help of the Germans and the Japanese, advanced to
India through Burma and entered Assam. This alarmed the British Government in
India,and in May,1944, prompted release of Mahatma Gandhi who was in sick-bed
in jail. In January,1945,Mahatma Gandhi visited Guwahati along with four other
leaders of Assam and performed mass-prayers. This was his last visit to Assam.
The stormy days of the Quit India Movement passed over. The message of the
movement failed to convince the British Government about the necessity of leaving
the shores of India soon.

In the meantime,the cry for a separate country for Muslims who are the religious
in India,grew very strong and as a result of the communal policy undertaken by
the pro-Muslim league Saadullah ministry in Assam and the increasing number of
mutually apathetic East Bengal Hindu and Muslim immigrants entry into Assam ,rose
a strong communal feeling amongst the people of Assam and the Assam Muslims
also felt leaning towards the Partition of India Movement. In December,1945, Pandit
Nehru made a swift tour to Assam making an impact in the public mind in favour
of the Congress. So the congress won over 50 seats out of 108 in the election,
two Independents joined later making the number 52 and the congress ministry with
Gopinath Bordoloi as the Prime Minister was formed on 10th Feb.,1946.
The Muslim League went for secret organizational activities to constitute ''Banglo-i-
Islam'' comprising Bengal Bengal with its hinterland or Assam as envisaged by the
Pakistan National Movement since 1940 for the Millat of Islam. Then came the
Cabinet Mission to India,with a view to settle the Indian Problem. The mission
introduced the grouping system in May,1946,as a result of which the Assam
Provincial Congress rose enblock to resist against Assam's inclusion in the Grouping
system which would have made Assam in future a majority state. Assam Jatiya
Mahasabha also did the same and organised mass agitation throughout the state.
One secret document was acquired from Khidirpur Dock(Bengal)by Assam Jatiya
Mahasabha which,showed underground conspiracy of Maulana Bhasani group from
eastern Bengal to invade Assam through population migration. So Syed Saadullah
and Gopinath Bordoloi participated in the constituted Assembly on behalf of Assam
and became instrumental in incorporating the sixth schedule I the constitution
thereby,to set disintegration of population and geographical Assam afoot for future.
This India was divided into India and Pakistan. Pakistan won freedom on the
midnight of 14th August,1947,and India on the midnight of 15th August,1947.

Marked events of national importance have taken place in the province of Assam
after independence. Lying in the north eastern frontier of India,Assam has witnessed
in course of ages great migrations and assimilations of people of different races
into her hills and valleys. The Ahoms came from beyond the Patkai. The Daflas,
Miris and Nagas, among others, also settled in the plains. Later immigrants from
Bengal and other parts of India also came and settled in Assam, till the advent of
the British.

The present set-up of Assam is not a matter of mere accident. Undivided Assam
at the time of independence, covered a large region comprising the entire
Brahmaputra Valley, Khasi and Jaintia Hills,united North Cachar and Mikir Hills, Mizo
and Naga Hill districts along with North East Frontier Border and Manipur, making
the State a great assembly of hill tribes and plain tribes. But in the twentieth
century, ethnic consciousness grew among the different ethnic groups, who started
agitation and they raised the demand for their independent status and their own
states and gradually, the Central Government conceded to their demands one

after another. Nagaland with the area covered by the Naga Hills district and the
division of the North-East Frontier Area was created in 1960, and by virtue of the
North-Eastern Assam Reorganisation Act, 1971 (Act no.81 of 1971) enacted by
Parliament, a new state known as Meghalaya was formed comprising autonomous

districts of the Khasi and Jaintia Hills, the Garo Hills and the Shillong Municipal and
Cantonment area, and a new union territory if Mizoram comprising the territories of
the Mizo district in the state of Assam was constituted. The new state of
Meghalaya and the union territory of Mizoram came into being on 21st January
1972 and ceased to form part of the existing state of Assam. The hill tracts
following the North-Eastern Frontier Agency (NEFA) of Assam was constituted into
a new union territory known as Arunachal Pradesh with the territories as specified
in Section 6 of the North-Eastern Areas (Reorganisation) Act, 1971. Finally, the Act
created five states and two union territories in the north-eastern region of the
country. The five states are Assam, Meghalaya, Manipur, Tripura and Nagaland, and
the two union territories are Arunachal Pradesh and Mizoram. The new units were to
have their own government except the union territories and a common High Court
for all. Furthermore, as a result of the 1971 war, East Pakistan seceded from
Pakistan and emerged as Bangladesh, an independent country.

** Good Luck **
 NOTE:
 Bhaskaravarman, the greatest king of this dynasty as well as of ancient
Assam
 Kamarupa, during the rule of Harshadeva of Salastambha dynasty reached the
highest point of its military glory.
 Harjaravarman, great-great-grandson of Harshdeva( sixth king of
Salastambha dynasty) was perhaps the first of this line of kings to perform his
coronation ceremony according to Vedic rites
 First Muslim army to enter Kamarupa was led by Mahammad-bin-Bakhtiyar
in 1205-06A.D..
 Jayadhwaj Singha was the first Ahom king to embrace Hinduisim by
receiving initiation from a Vashnava priest.

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