BRAKING SYSTEM

Kinetic energy: energy that wants to stay in motion. Depends on vehicle weight and
velocity attained by the vehicle. Power delivered by the engine is typically used to gain
this kinetic energy.
A vehicle brake is a brake used to slow down a vehicle by converting its kinetic energy
into heat. The heat energy is then dissipated finally into the atmosphere. We apply
brakes to stop a car. Friction resists movement between brake surfaces which changes
motion energy to heat energy. Temperature in brake linings can exceed 300°C (600°F).
The stopping distance depends on the braking force. The required braking force
depends on:
 Velocity of the vehicle
 Total weight of the vehicle
 Coefficient of friction between road-tire interface
There are two coefficient of frictions to consider here – one at road-tire interface and
the other at the shoe/pad and metal interface inside the wheel. Coefficient of friction at
road-tire interface varies depending on : Vehicle speed, road surface condition, tire grip
condition etc. Temperature, rubbing speed, amount of wear etc. influences the friction
coefficient at the brakes. Unability of the brake to maintain its frictional coefficient is
called „Fading of the Brakes‟. This may happen due to high temperature, wetness or
high level of wear. If the braking force applied causes a friction force at the brake
shoes/pads exceeding that at the road-tier interface(rolling resistance) a „Wheel-Lock‟
condition occurs, causing the wheel to slide instead of rotating and the vehicle to skid.

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SKIDDING OF TIRES

An automobile skid is an automobile handling condition where one or more tires are
slipping relative to the road, and the overall handling of the vehicle has been affected.
Instead of rolling on the roads the tires trend to slide during skidding, loosing steering
and traction control. This happens when the wheels decelerate faster compared to the
vehicle and the wheel reaches lock condition.

The causes of skidding (loss of traction) can be divided into three groups: (1) conditions
of the road, (2) conditions of the vehicle, and (3) actions of the driver.

1 – Conditions of the Road

 Ice, snow, or frost.

 Wet road, particularly when the road surface has drops of oil and particles of
rubber – especially with the first rain after a long dry spell.
 Mud on the road, which can be found near farm entrances, outside building sites,
and truck crossings. Packed wet leaves, which occur in the fall.
 Broken or uneven road surfaces and sand/gravel commonly found on curves.
Adverse camber on curves (when the road is banked the wrong way on a curve)
or when the curve is flat – loss of traction can occur even if the road surface is
dry, but especially when the surface is slippery.

2 – Conditions of the Vehicle (mainly brakes and tires)

 Brakes should be evenly adjusted so that on application of the brakes the vehicle
slows down in a straight line. If the brakes pull one way or the other, a skid can
easily occur. Front wheels being out of alignment also can cause a skid by pulling
the vehicle one way or another when the brake are applied.
 Tires should have good tread, and preferably the front and rear pairs should be
well matched, and the tire pressure should be correct. If there is a different
pressure in one tire from that in the opposite one, the effect can be similar to that
of unevenly adjusted brakes because one tire will drag more than the other tires.

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3 – Actions of the Driver (misuse of the four main controls)

 Steering wheel – sudden steering action on a slippery surface.

 Accelerator – abrupt or sudden changes in the vehicle’s speed.
 Brakes – panic stops and applying your brakes too hard – especially on hills,
curves, or wet surfaces.
 Clutch – sudden engagement of the clutch when on a slippery surface.
 Combinations – skids are most often caused by excessive speed, coupled with
too sharp a turn for the vehicle or braking when turning, or "normal" speed
coupled with ice or snow or gravel on the road, etc.

4 – Hydroplaning

 Hydroplaning takes place while driving on wet roads. At speeds up to 35 MPH (55
km/h), most tires will "wipe" the roadway surface (in much the same manner a
windshield wiper clears the windshield) of up to about ¼ inch of water. However,
as the speed increases, the tire cannot "wipe" the road as well, and they start to
ride up on the water, just like a set of water skis. In a standard passenger vehicle,
partial hydroplaning starts at about 35 MPH and increases with speed up to about
55 MPH, at which point the tires can be totally up on the water. In a severe
rainstorm, for example, with less than 1/8 inch of tire tread, the tires may not
touch the road at 55 MPH. If this is the case, there is no friction available to
brake, accelerate, or corner. A gust of wind, a change of road camber, or a slight
turn can create an unpredictable and uncontrollable skid.

With today’s lesser crowned roadways, especially freeways, hydroplaning is an

increasingly important factor in automobile accidents. A driver can normally predict
areas where hydroplaning will occur, but not always; you may suddenly find yourself in a
hydroplaning situation. If you do, the best thing to do is to take your foot off the
accelerator and allow the vehicle to slow down without braking. If you skid while your
vehicle is only partially hydroplaning, you should be able to regain control by correcting
(steering and counter steering) for the particular type of skid that occurs. On the other
hand, if you’re totally hydroplaning, about all you can do is release the accelerator and
ride out the skid without braking.

To prevent hydroplaning, it is most helpful to have properly inflated good tires with deep
tread, at least 1/8 inch. The tread allows the water to escape from under the tires and
tends to prevent complete hydroplaning at normal highway speeds. However, when the
depth of the water exceeds the depth of the tire tread, complete hydroplaning can be
expected at speeds from 50-55 MPH (85 km/h).

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BRAKING DISTANCE

The stopping distances on the graph above are calculated based on the following assumptions:

 In an emergency the average driver takes approximately 1.5 seconds to react

 A modern vehicle with good bakes and tires is capable of decelerating at approximately 7
2
m/s once brakes have been applied
 A dry road that is sealed and level has a coefficient of friction of approximately 1
 A wet road that is sealed and level has a coefficient of friction of approximately 0.7.

The stopping distances in the graph above are generic and may be influenced by a number of driver,
vehicle and environmental factors:

Driver factors Vehicle factors Environmental factors

Attention Vehicle age Road surface
Fatigue Type and condition of brakes Road gradient
Impairment due to alcohol and Type and condition of tyres, Road alignment
drugs including tyre pressure Weather conditions
Vision issues Safety features fitted to the vehicle
Driver age and experience (e.g. ABS, ESC, EBA, etc.)
Hazard perception ability Vehicle weight
Towing a trailer or carrying a
heavy load

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HYDRAULIC CIRCUIT OF BRAKES
The basic hydraulic system consists of four components - brake pedal, master cylinder,
wheel cylinders and wheel brakes.

Brake pedal depression  Moves piston in master cylinder

 Fluid under pressure is pushed to slave cylinder located at each wheel
 Fluid pressure moves piston wheel cylinder, applying brakes

Pascal’s Law: Pressure in an enclosed system is equal and undiminished in all

directions Force (Pressure x Area) applied to brake linings increases with larger
diameter wheel cylinder

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Modern systems most commonly used, usually has six main stages: the brake pedal,
the brake boost (vacuum servo), the master cylinder, the apportioning valves, and finally
the wheel brakes themselves.

In a four-wheel car, requires the master cylinder to be divided internally into two
sections, each of which pressurizes a separate hydraulic circuit. Each section supplies
pressure to one circuit. The combination is known as a dual master cylinder. Passenger
vehicles typically have either a front/rear split brake system or a diagonal split brake
system. A front/rear split system uses one master cylinder section to pressurize the front
caliper pistons and the other section to pressurize the rear caliper pistons. A split circuit
braking system is now required by law in most countries for safety reasons; if one circuit
fails, the other circuit can still stop the vehicle.

A combination valve has - metering, pressure differential and a proportional valve.

Metering valve used on front disc brakes when car has rear drum brakes. It prevents
front brakes applying until rear shoes overcome spring pressure and contact drums. The
pressure differential valve is the device that alerts you if you have a leak in one of your
brake circuits. Proportioning valve, prevent rear wheels from locking during hard stop.

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Two types of automotive brakes are in use – drum and disc type.

DRUM BRAKES

A drum brake is a vehicle brake in which the friction is caused by a set of brake shoes
that press against the inner surface of a rotating drum. The drum is connected to the
rotating wheel hub.

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DISC BRAKES

The disc brake is a device for slowing or stopping the rotation of a road wheel. A brake
disc (or rotor), usually made of cast iron or ceramic, is connected to the wheel or the
axle. To stop the wheel, friction material in the form of brake pads (mounted in a device
called a brake caliper) is forced mechanically, hydraulically, pneumatically or
electromagnetically against both sides of the disc. Friction causes the disc and attached
wheel to slow or stop.

During a stopping, vehicle weight shifts to front brakes, so front breaks wear out faster.
Braking causes the car's weight to shift forward, and as a result about 70% of the work
is done by the front brakes. All cars now a days use disc brakes for the front wheels, but
many cars still use drum brakes in the rear.

Disc brakes are generally considered superior to drum brakes for several reasons. First,
they dissipate heat better (brakes work by converting motion energy to heat energy).
Under severe usage, such as repeated hard stops or riding the brakes down a long
incline, disc brakes take longer to lose effectiveness (a condition known as brake fade).
Disc brakes also perform better in wet weather, because centrifugal force tends to
fling water off the brake disc and keep it dry, whereas drum brakes will collect some
water on the inside surface where the brake shoes contact the drums.

By fitting disc brakes to the front wheels and drum brakes to the rear wheels,
manufacturers can provide most of the benefits of disc brakes while lowering costs.
(Drum brakes are less expensive to make than disc brakes, largely because they can
also double as a parking brake, whereas disc brakes require a separate parking brake
mechanism.) Even so, a car with four-wheel disc brakes (versus front disc/rear drum)
will still provide superior braking performance in wet weather and on long down-hill
gradients.

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BRAKE PADS(DISC) / SHOES(DRUM) LININGS

Brake pads are the components that truly convert the kinetic energy of the car to thermal
energy by friction. There are numerous types of brake pads, depending on the intended
use of the vehicle, from very soft and aggressive (such as racing applications) and
harder, more durable and less aggressive compounds. The five most important
characteristics that are considered when selecting a brake pad material are as follows:

 The materials ability to resist brake fade at increased temperatures

 The effects of water on brake fade (all brakes are designed to withstand at least
temporary exposure to water)
 The ability to recover quickly from either increased temperature or moisture
 Service life as traded off vs. wear to the rotor/drum
 The ability of the material to provide smooth, even contact with the rotor or drum
(rather than a material that breaks off in chunks or causes pits or dents).

Brake linings are composed of a relatively soft but tough and heat-resistant material with
a high coefficient of dynamic friction (and ideally an identical coefficient of static friction)
typically mounted to a solid metal backing using high-temperature adhesives or rivets.
The complete assembly (including lining and backing) is then often called a brake pad or
brake shoe. The dynamic friction coefficient "µ" for most standard brake pads is usually
in the range of 0.35 to 0.42. This means that a force of 1000 Newtons on the pad will
give a resulting brake force close to 400 Newtons. There are some racing pads that
have a very high µ of 0.55 to 0.62 with excellent high temperature behaviour. These
pads have high iron content and will usually outperform any other pad used with iron
discs. Unfortunately nothing comes for free, and these high µ pads wear fast and also
wear down the discs at a rather fast rate. However they are a very cost effective
alternative to more exotic/expensive materials.

Today, brake pad materials are classified as belonging to one of four principal
categories, as follows:

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Non-metallic materials - these are made from a combination of various synthetic
substances bonded into a composite, principally in the form of cellulose, aramid, PAN,
and sintered glass. They are gentle on rotors, but produce a fair amount of dust and
have a short service life.

Semi-metallic materials - synthetics mixed with some proportion of flaked metals.

These are harder than non-metallic pads, and are more fade-resistant and longer
lasting, but at the cost of increased wear to the rotor/ drum which then must be replaced
sooner. They also require more force than non-metallic pads in order to generate
braking torque.

Fully metallic materials - these pads are used only in racing vehicles, and are
composed of sintered steel without any synthetic additives. They are very long-lasting,
but require even more force to slow a vehicle and are extremely wearing on rotors. They
also tend to be very loud.

Ceramic materials - Composed of clay and porcelain bonded to copper flakes and
filaments, these are a good compromise between the durability of the metal pads and
the grip and fade resistance of the synthetic variety. Their principal drawback, however,
is that unlike the previous three types and despite the presence of the copper (which
has a high thermal conductivity), ceramic pads generally do not dissipate heat well,
which can eventually cause the pads or other components of the braking system to
warp. However, because the ceramic materials causes the braking sound to be elevated
beyond that of human hearing, they are exceptionally quiet.

There are environmental factors that govern the selection of brake pad materials. For
example, the bill SSB 6557 [3] adopted in Washington State in 2010 will limit the amount
of copper that is allowed to be used in friction materials, to be eventually phased out to
trace amounts, because of the negative impact of high copper levels on the aquatic life.
Other materials like antimony compounds will be monitored as well.

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POWER ASSISTED BRAKING
For power assisted braking a vacuum booster or vacuum servo is used in most modern
hydraulic brake systems which contain four wheels. The vacuum booster is attached
between the master cylinder and the brake pedal and multiplies the braking force
applied by the driver. These units consist of a hollow housing with a movable rubber
diaphragm across the center, creating two chambers. When attached to the low-
pressure portion of the throttle body or intake manifold of the engine, the pressure in
both chambers of the unit is lowered. The equilibrium created by the low pressure in
both chambers keeps the diaphragm from moving until the brake pedal is depressed. A
return spring keeps the diaphragm in the starting position until the brake pedal is
applied. When the brake pedal is applied, the movement opens an air valve which lets in
atmospheric pressure air to one chamber of the booster. Since the pressure becomes
higher in one chamber, the diaphragm moves toward the lower pressure chamber with a
force created by the area of the diaphragm and the differential pressure. This force, in
addition to the driver's foot force, pushes on the master cylinder piston. A relatively small
diameter booster unit is required; for a very conservative 50% manifold vacuum, an
assisting force of about 1500 N is produced by a 20 cm diaphragm with an area of 0.03
square meters. The diaphragm will stop moving when the forces on both sides of the
chamber reach equilibrium. This can be caused by either the air valve closing (due to
the pedal apply stopping) or if "run out" is reached. Run out occurs when the pressure in
one chamber reaches atmospheric pressure and no additional force can be generated
by the now stagnant differential pressure. After the run out point is reached, only the
driver's foot force can be used to further apply the master cylinder piston.

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ABS : ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM
Anti-lock braking system (ABS) is an automobile safety system that allows the wheels
on a motor vehicle to maintain tractive contact with the road surface according to driver
inputs while braking, preventing the wheels from locking up (ceasing rotation) and
avoiding uncontrolled skidding. ABS generally offers improved vehicle control and
decreases stopping distances on dry and slippery surfaces.

Typically ABS includes a central electronic control unit (ECU), four wheel speed
sensors, and at least two hydraulic valves within the brake hydraulics. There are four
main components of ABS: speed sensors, valves, a pump, and a controller. The ECU
constantly monitors the rotational speed of each wheel; if it detects a wheel rotating
significantly slower (more than a threshold rate) than the others, a condition indicative of
impending wheel lock, it actuates the valves to reduce hydraulic pressure to the brake at
the affected wheel, thus reducing the braking force on that wheel; the wheel then turns
faster. Conversely, if the ECU detects a wheel turning significantly faster than the
others, brake hydraulic pressure to the wheel is increased so the braking force is
reapplied, slowing down the wheel. This process is repeated continuously and can be
detected by the driver via brake pedal pulsation. Some anti-lock systems can apply or
release braking pressure 15 times per second. Because of this, the wheels of cars
equipped with ABS are practically impossible to lock even during panic braking in
extreme conditions.

Anti-lock braking systems use different schemes depending on the type of brakes in
use. They can be differentiated by the number of channels: that is, how many valves
that are individually controlled—and the number of speed sensors.

Four-channel, four-sensor ABS : This is the best scheme. There is a speed sensor on
all four wheels and a separate valve for all four wheels. With this setup, the controller
monitors each wheel individually to make sure it is achieving maximum braking force.

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Three-channel, four-sensor ABS : There is a speed sensor on all four wheels and a
separate valve for each of the front wheels, but only one valve for both of the rear
wheels. Older vehicles with four-wheel ABS usually use this type.

Three-channel, three-sensor ABS : This scheme, commonly found on pickup trucks

with four-wheel ABS, has a speed sensor and a valve for each of the front wheels, with
one valve and one sensor for both rear wheels. The speed sensor for the rear wheels is
located in the rear axle. This system provides individual control of the front wheels, so
they can both achieve maximum braking force. The rear wheels, however, are
monitored together; they both have to start to lock up before the ABS will activate on the
rear. With this system, it is possible that one of the rear wheels will lock during a stop,
reducing brake effectiveness. This system is easy to identify, as there are no individual
speed sensors for the rear wheels.

Two-channel, four sensor ABS : This system, commonly found on passenger cars
from the late '80s through early 2000s (before government mandated stability control),
uses a speed sensor at each wheel, with one control valve each for the front and rear
wheels as a pair. If the speed sensor detect lock up at any individual wheel, the control
module pulses the valve for both wheels on that end of the car.

One-channel, one-sensor ABS : This system is commonly found on pickup trucks with
rear-wheel ABS. It has one valve, which controls both rear wheels, and one speed
sensor, located in the rear axle. This system operates the same as the rear end of a
three-channel system. The rear wheels are monitored together and they both have to
start to lock up before the ABS kicks in. In this system it is also possible that one of the
rear wheels will lock, reducing brake effectiveness. This system is also easy to identify,
as there are no individual speed sensors for any of the wheels.

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Anti-lock braking systems (ABS) are active safety features designed to help drivers
retain steering control by preventing wheels from locking up during an episode of heavy
braking. Wheel lock means that the wheels of the vehicle have stopped rotating and as
a result the vehicle begins to slide. Whether on wet or dry roads, heavy application of
the brakes on a vehicle without ABS can result in wheel lock. One of the most
dangerous aspects of wheel lock is the corresponding loss of steering control. Once the
wheels stop rotating, drivers no longer have any control over the direction of the vehicle.
Therefore, although the vehicle may still be sliding, drivers are not able to steer to avoid
anything that their vehicle may be sliding towards. By preventing wheels from locking in
the first place, ABS ensures that drivers will be able to steer after an episode of hard
braking.

Like many other safety features, realizing the full benefits of ABS depends largely on
whether or not drivers interact appropriately with it. ABS does not compensate for
unsafe driving or very poor road conditions. In order to ensure the ideal performance of
ABS, drivers must continue to use caution and good judgment behind the wheel.

BRAKE FLUID

Brake fluid is a low viscosity hydraulic fluid used in hydraulic brake and hydraulic clutch
applications in automobiles. It is used to transfer force into pressure, and to amplify braking
force. Most brake fluids used today are glycol-ether based, but mineral oil and silicone based
fluids are also available. Most brake fluid sold in North America is classified by the US
Department of Transportation (DOT) under its own ratings such as "DOT 3, 4 and 5".

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SUSPENSION SYSTEM
The suspension system is located between the wheel axles and the vehicle body or
frame. Its purpose is to:
1. Support the weight of the vehicle.
2. Cushion bumps and holes in the road.
3. Maintain traction between the tires and the road.
4. Hold the wheels in alignment.

The suspension system allows the vehicle to travel over rough surfaces with a minimum
of up-and-down body movement. It also allows the vehicle to corner with minimum roll or
tendency to lose traction between the tires and the road surface. This provides a
cushioning action so road shocks have a minimal effect on the occupants and load in
the vehicle. Road shocks are the actions resulting from the tires moving up and down as
they meet bumps or holes in the road.

COMPONENTS OF SUSPENSION SYSTEM

Springs Shock Absorbers Structural Members
The suspension-system components include the springs and related structural parts that
support the weight of the vehicle body on the axles and wheels. The springs and the
shock absorbers are the two main parts. The springs support the weight of the vehicle
and its load, and absorb road shocks. The shock absorbers help control or dampen
spring action. Shock absorbers allow the basic spring movement, but quickly dampen
out the unwanted bouncing that follows.

AUTOMOTIVE SPRINGS
Four types of springs are used in automotive suspension systems. These are coil, leaf,
torsion bar, and air spring. The softness or hardness of a spring is its spring rate. This
is the load required to move a spring a specified distance. The spring that compresses
uniformly is said to have a linear spring-rate. Variable-rate springs do not move or
deflect at a constant or linear rate. Coil spring made by winding the coils from a tapered
rod provides a variable spring-rate.

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COIL SPRING: The coil spring is made of a length of round spring-steel rod wound into
a coil. Typical coil springs have uniform cross section and linear spring rate. Some coil
springs are made from a tapered rod. This gives the spring a variable spring rate. As
the spring is compressed, its resistance to further compression increases.

Coil spring suspensions offer more range of suspension movement, progressive spring
rate and allow the user a wider tuning envelope through the suspension range. Coil
spring suspensions also usually perform better, having better engineered geometry than
leafs. Coils more costly and are not generally favored for very heavy vehicles. Coils on
axle setup isn't nearly as stable or strong as a proper leaf spring.

TORSION BAR: The torsion bar is a straight rod of spring steel, rigidly fastened at one
end to the vehicle frame or body. The other end attaches to an upper or lower control
arm. As the control arm swings up and down in response to wheel movement, the
torsion bar twists to provide spring action. Apart from packaging space and durability,
torsion bars do have one advantage over coil springs. By rotating a torsion bar relative
to the frame, a driver can easily raise or lower his vehicle by several inches for either
more ground clearance or for a pavement-scraping ride. This adjustability makes torsion
bars perfect for off-road vehicles (SUVs, Tanks) which is where you'll normally find
them. However it cannot provide progressive spring rate.

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LEAF SPRING: Leaf springs can be single-leaf and multi-leaf springs. These have
several flexible steel plates of graduated length, stacked and held together by clips. In
operation, the spring bends to absorb road shocks. The plates bend and slide on each
other to permit this action. Leaf springs need shackle or slider to accommodate length
change. leaf spring suspensions are much simpler and does not require the complicated
suspension geometry of the coil-spring set-up. Leaf springs are also much sturdier, and
are capable of handling much higher loads with less deflection than coils. Since these
spring attach at fixed points on the chassis, they give very little room for adjustability of
suspension geometry. These springs also flex a great deal less than coil springs,
resulting in a loss of wheel-to-ground contact under extreme conditions.

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AIR SPRING: The air spring is a rubber cylinder or air bag filled with compressed air. A
plastic piston on the lower control arm moves up and down with the lower control arm.
This causes the compressed air to provide spring action. If the load in the vehicle
changes, a valve at the top of the air bag opens to add or release air. An air compressor
connected to the valve keeps the, air springs inflated. An internal end-stop prevents
damage of suspension in case of air leakage.

SPRUNG AND UNSPRUNG WEIGHT

The total weight of the vehicle includes the sprung weight and the unsprung weight. The
sprung weight is the weight supported by springs. The unsprung weight is the part not
supported by springs. In a ground vehicle with a suspension, the unsprung weight
includes the mass of the suspension, wheels or tracks (as applicable), and other
components directly connected to them, rather than supported by the suspension. It
includes the mass of components such as the wheel axles, wheel bearings, wheel hubs,
tires, and a portion of the weight of driveshafts, springs, shock absorbers, and
suspension links. If the vehicle's brakes are mounted outboard (i.e., within the wheel),
their weight is also considered part of the unsprung weight. The mass of the body and
other components supported by the suspension is the sprung mass.

The unsprung weight is kept as low as possible. The roughness of the ride increases as
unsprung weight increases. To take an extreme example, suppose the unsprung weight
equals the sprung weight. As the unsprung weight moves up and down, due to the
wheels meeting road bumps and holes, the sprung weight would move up and down the
same amount. For this reason, the unsprung weight should be only a small part of the
total weight of the vehicle.

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ME 467 : Automobile Engineering Dr. Md. Ehsan © 2019 ME, BUET
SOME SUSPENSION TERMINOLOGIES
Upper control arm Ball Joint Shock Absorber Stabilizer Bar

Lower Control Arm Knuckle Joint Damper Sway Bar

Double wishbone Strut Assembly Anti-Roll Bar

Knuckle
Joint

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BALL JOINTS
The ball joint is a flexible ball-and-socket that mounts in the outer ends of the front-
suspension control arms. It provides a pivoting joint that attaches the steering knuckle to
the control arms, which can move only up and down. This allows the steering knuckle
and wheel to turn in and out for steering. A MacPherson-strut front suspension uses only
a single ball joint. It is in the outer end of each lower control arm. The ball joint is
basically a stud with threads on one end and a ball on the other. The ball seats in a steel
socket, with a nylon or sintered-iron bearing between the two. Some ball joints have a
spring that applies a force to the ball to take up any play. The ball joint is sealed by a
rubber dust cover that keeps out dust and water, and keeps in lubricant. Many ball joints
can be lubricated through a grease fitting or removable plug.

STABILIZER / SWAY / ANTI-ROLL

A stabilizer bar helps control body roll when cornering or driving on rough or uneven
surfaces. The front stabilizer bar or sway bar is a type of torsion bar. It usually connects
between the two lower control arms. When the vehicle moves around a curve, the body
leans outward. This causes the lower-control arms to move in opposite directions,
twisting the stabilizer bar. However, the stabilizer bar resists being twisted. This stiffens
the suspension during turns so less leanout or body roll results. Stabilizer-bar action
may also occur if one tire hits a bump or pothole while the other does not. A stabilizer
bar has no affect while the vehicle is traveling straight ahead on a smooth surface. Many
rear suspensions include a rear stabilizer bar or antiroll bar. Its operation is similar to
that described above.

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ME 467 : Automobile Engineering Dr. Md. Ehsan © 2019 ME, BUET
 DIFFERENT ARRANGEMENTS OF SUSPENSION SYSTEMS

FRONT SUSPENSIONS:

1. COIL SPRING ON LOWER CONTROL ARM

2. COIL SPRING ON UPPER CONTROL ARM

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 3. COIL SPRINGS ON TWIN I-BEAM AXLES

4. MACPHERSON-STRUT FRONT SUSPENSION

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 5. TORSION-BAR FRONT SUSPENSION

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 6. LEAF-SPRING FRONT SUSPENSION

REAR SUSPENSIONS:
1. LEAF-SPRING REAR SUSPENSION

2. COIL-SPRING REAR SUSPENSION

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 3. STRUT-TYPE REAR SUSPENSION

4. TORSION-BAR REAR SUSPENSION

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SHOCK ABSORBER / DAMPER

Figure above shows the construction of a simple shock absorber. It is basically an oil-
filled cylinder or tube in which a piston moves up and down. This forces the oil or hy-
draulic fluid in the cylinder to flow through small fluid passages or orifices in the piston.
The resulting fluid friction limits spring bounce.

A shock absorber may mount separately or inside a shock-absorber-and-strut assembly.

Both types work the same way. The piston divides the cylinder into upper and lower
fluid chambers. The orifices or holes in the piston are restricted by spring-loaded check
valves or disks that deflect under pressure. The more easily the fluid flows through the
holes, the softer the ride. Smaller holes have greater restriction and provide a stiffer ride.

ME 467 : Automobile Engineering Dr. Md. Ehsan © 2019 ME, BUET

Shock-absorbers may have a variable-damping strut. During normal driving, grooves in
the strut tube allow fluid to pass around the piston. When the wheel suddenly drops into
a pothole in the road, the tube extends more than normal. Now the piston is above the
grooves. The fluid can pass only through the holes in the piston. This increases the
resistance to piston movement and reduces the impact of the suspension against its
stops.

ME 467 : Automobile Engineering Dr. Md. Ehsan © 2019 ME, BUET

SEMI ACTIVE SUSPENSION
Semi active suspensions only vary shock absorber firmness to match changing road or
dynamic conditions, on the other hand active suspensions uses some type of actuator to
literally raise and lower the chassis independently at each wheel.

Adaptive/semi-active systems can only change the viscous damping coefficient of

the shock absorber, and do not add energy to the suspension system. Though limited in
their intervention (for example, the control force can never have different direction than
the current vector of velocity of the suspension), semi-active suspensions are less
expensive to design and consume far less energy. In recent times, research in semi-
active suspensions has continued to advance with respect to their capabilities.

Solenoid/valve actuated type is the most economic and basic type of semi-active
suspensions. They consist of a solenoid valve which alters the flow of the hydraulic
medium inside the shock absorber, therefore changing the damping characteristics of
the suspension setup. The solenoids are wired to the controlling computer, which sends
them commands depending on the control algorithm (usually the so-called "Sky-Hook"
technique). Another fairly recent method incorporates “Magnetorheological Dampers”.
In this system, the damper fluid contains metallic particles. Through the onboard
computer, the dampers' compliance characteristics are controlled by an electromagnet.
Essentially, increasing the current flow into the damper raises the compression/rebound
rates, while a decrease softens the effect of the dampers. Information from wheel
sensors (about suspension extension), steering, acceleration sensors and some others
is used to calculate the optimized stiffness. The fast reaction of the system allows, for
instance, make softer passing by a single wheel over a bump in the road.

ME 467 : Automobile Engineering Dr. Md. Ehsan © 2019 ME, BUET

ACTIVE SUSPENSION SYSTEM
Most suspension systems are passive or reactive. For example, a tire hitting a bump or
dropping into a hole may not stay in contact with the road surface. The suspension
system then reacts by compressing or extending the spring. These actions affect
handling and ride quality, and send shock and vibration to the vehicle body.

An active suspension system uses hydraulic actuators instead of springs and shock ab-
sorbers. The hydraulic actuator is a device that converts the hydraulic energy in a
pressurized fluid into mechanical motion. The system uses the hydraulic pressure to
keep each tire pushing against the road surface with a constant force. This force
changes as the tires move up and down. It also changes when the center of gravity
shifts during vehicle cornering, and when front-end dive and rear-end squat occur
during braking and acceleration.

A sensor in the actuator signals the computer when the tire-force changes. Other
sensors on the vehicle signal changes in steering position, acceleration and
deceleration, and body stability. An on-board gyroscope serves as a yaw sensor. It
detects any swerving or wandering away from a straight-ahead course. The computer
receives these inputs and then signals the proper servo valve. It sends high-pressure
hydraulic fluid through a computer-controlled valve in the double acting actuator that
raises or lowers the wheel so the tire maintains the same force against the road. This
keeps the vehicle level while providing the best possible ride and handling.

All these actions occur almost instantly, and go unnoticed by the driver. By acting
instead of reacting to an irregular road surface, most of the tire-and-wheel movement is
absorbed in the suspension system. Little shock and vibration reaches the vehicle body
and its occupants. Vehicles with active suspension may also have springs, these are
usually soft and easily overridden by the more powerful actuators. The springs
allow the vehicle to be driven if the hydraulic system fails.

ME 467 : Automobile Engineering Dr. Md. Ehsan © 2019 ME, BUET