Automotive Battery

BATTERY OPERATION
The automotive battery supplies electric current to operate the starting motor and ignition system while
starting the engine. It also acts as a voltage stabilizer by supplying current for the lights, radio, cooling
fans and other electrical accessories when the alternator is not handling the load. In addition, the
battery supplies a small current to the volatile memory in the electronic control module (ECM) while the
ignition key is off. The battery is an electrochemical device. It uses chemicals to produce electricity.
The amount of electricity it can produce is limited. As the chemicals in the battery are depleted, the
battery runs down and is discharged. It can be recharged by supplying it with electric current from the
vehicle alternator or from a battery charger. The depleted chemicals are restored to their original
condition as the battery becomes recharged.

Maintenance Free Battery Conventional 6-Cell Flooded Battery

The "flooded/wet cell" type, indicating liquid electrolyte, is typically inexpensive and long-lasting, but
requires more maintenance and can spill or leak. Some flooded batteries have removable caps that
allow for the electrolyte to be tested and maintained. The “Maintenance-free” battery is one of the most
popular types of batteries. The battery design uses plates that are freely suspended. These plates are
insulated from each other as the negative plate is completely sealed. These are maintenance free and
sealed so no gases are replaced. The fluid in the battery will last until the battery dies and you do not
have to keep topping it off.

The open-circuit voltage is measured when the engine is Open-Circuit voltage

off and no loads are connected. It can be approximately Approximate Relative
charge acid density
related to the charge of the battery: 12 V 6V

As a battery ages, it begins to wear out and lose specific

12.66 V 6.32 V 100% 1.265 g/cm3
gravity. Also, some chemical actions in a battery continue
when the battery sits idle. This self-discharge causes the 12.35 V 6.22 V 75% 1.225 g/cm3
electrolyte to lose specific gravity. If the hydrometer test
shows less than 50 points (0.050 SG) difference between 12.10 V 6.12 V 50% 1.190 g/cm3

cells, charge the battery. If there is more than a 50-point 11.95 V 6.03 V 25% 1.155 g/cm3
difference, replace the battery.
11.70 V 6.00 V 0% 1.120 g/cm3

ME 467 : Automobile Engineering Dr. Md. Ehsan © 2019 ME, BUET

BATTERY CONSTRUCTION

The battery case is molded plastic. The plates are welded to plate straps to form plate groups. To
make a battery cell, a positive plate group (Pb-An) fits into a negative plate (Pb-Ca) group. Porous
separators are placed between the plates. This prevents positive and negative plates from touching
while allowing electrolyte to circulate between the plates.

The assembly of plate groups and separators is an element. The elements fit into compartments in the
battery case to form cells. Heavy lead connectors attach to the cell terminals and connect the cells in
series. A plastic cover forms the top of the battery. Some batteries have openings in the cover from
which filler plugs or vent caps are removed to add water. Maintenance free bat-series do not have
removable vent caps.

Some batteries are top-terminal batteries. They have the main terminals or posts in the cover. The
positive terminal post is larger than the negative terminal post. Other batteries are side-terminal
batteries. They have the terminals on the side of the battery.

ME 467 : Automobile Engineering Dr. Md. Ehsan © 2019 ME, BUET

The 12-volt battery has six cells connected in series. This means the cell voltages add together to
produce the battery voltage. Each cell has a voltage of about 2.15 volts at full charge. A fully charged
battery has a maximum voltage of about 12.9 volts.

CHEMICALS IN BATTERY
The battery is a lead-acid storage battery. The chemicals in it are sponge lead (a solid), lead oxide (a
paste), and sulfuric acid (a liquid). These three substances can react chemically to produce a flow of
current. The lead oxide and sponge lead are held in plate grids to form the positive and negative
plates. The grids are made of lead with other elements, such as calcium, added.

The sulfuric acid is mixed with water to form the electrolyte. This is the liquid in a battery. The
electrolyte is about 60 percent water and 40 percent sulfuric acid in a fully-charged battery. As the
battery discharges, the electrolyte loses sulfuric acid and becomes mostly water. This allows the
weakened electrolyte in a discharged battery to freeze in cold weather. That is why the battery should
be kept fully charged during the winter months.

The state of charge of a vent-cap battery is determined with the hydrometer. The built-in
hydrometer or charge indicator in a maintenance-free battery provides this information. The charge
indicator is a built-in hydrometer. Its appearance shows the condition and state-of-charge of the
battery. If the indicator is light yellow or clear, the electrolyte level is low. Install a new battery. If the
charge indicator shows light yellow or clear, do not try to charge, load test, or jump start the
battery! It could explode.

ME 467 : Automobile Engineering Dr. Md. Ehsan © 2019 ME, BUET

The electrolyte thickens slightly (gains specific gravity) as its temperature goes down. Some
hydrometers have a thermometer and a scale to aid in adjusting the reading for temperature. The
electrolyte thickens slightly (gains specific gravity) as its temperature goes down. Specific gravity
changes four (0.004) points for every 10°F [5.6°C] change in temperature.

ME 467 : Automobile Engineering Dr. Md. Ehsan © 2019 ME, BUET

 Indicator of Maintenance-Free Battery

BATTERY RATINGS
AMPERE-HOUR CAPACITY(Ah): This is the amount of current that a battery can deliver for 20 hours
without the temperature-corrected cell voltages dropping below 1.75 volts per cell.

RESERVE CAPACITY (RC): This is the length of time that a fully charged battery at 80°F [27°C] can
deliver 25 amperes. A typical rating is 125 minutes. This indicates the battery can be discharged at 25
amperes for 125 minutes if the alternator is not working.

COLD-CRANKING RATE (CCR): This is a measure of the ability of a battery to crank an engine when
the battery is cold. There are two ratings. One is the number of amperes the 12-volt battery can deliver
for 30 seconds when it is at 0°F [-18°C] without the battery voltage falling below 7.2 volts. A typical
rating for a battery with a reserve capacity of 125 minutes is 430 amperes.

A second cold-cranking rating starts with the battery temperature at —20°F [-29°C]. This rating allows
the final voltage to drop to 6 volts. A typical rating for a battery with a reserve capacity of 125 minutes
is 320 amperes.

Automotive and Deep Cycle Batteries

Automotive batteries and deep cycle batteries are lead-acid batteries that use exactly the same
chemistry for their operation. The difference is in the way that the batteries optimize their design:

A car's battery is designed to provide a very large amount of current for a short period of time. This
surge of current is needed to turn the engine over during starting. Once the engine starts, the
alternator provides all the power that the car needs, so a car battery may go through its entire life
without ever being drained more than 20 percent of its total capacity. Used in this way, a car battery
can last a number of years. To achieve a large amount of current, a car battery uses thin plates in
order to increase its surface area.

A deep cycle battery is designed to provide a steady amount of current over a long period of time. A
deep cycle battery can provide a surge when needed, but nothing like the surge a car battery can. A
deep cycle battery is also designed to be deeply discharged over and over again (something that
would ruin a car battery very quickly). To accomplish this, a deep cycle battery uses thicker plates.

ME 467 : Automobile Engineering Dr. Md. Ehsan © 2019 ME, BUET

REMOVING AND INSTALLING BATTERY

Disconnect the ground (-ve) cable from the battery first. To remove a nut-and-bolt cable clamp, use
a box wrench or battery pliers. Loosen the clamp bolt. Then pull the clamp from the terminal. Do not
use other pliers or an open-end wrench. There is not enough room and they could break the battery
cover. If the clamp sticks, use a battery-clamp puller. Do not pry the clamp off with a screwdriver or pry
bar. You could break the cover. To detach the spring-ring cable clamp, squeeze apart the ends of the
rings with pliers. Next, disconnect the insulated (+ve) cable from the battery. Loosen the hold-down
clamps and remove the battery. When installing the battery, do not reverse the terminal connections.
Reconnect the insulated(+ve) cable first, then the ground (-ve) cable. Tighten the hold-down
clamps. Do not over-tighten. Never install a battery backward. The reversed polarity may cause high-
current flow which would damage electrical components.

Follow the safety cautions listed below when working with batteries, and testing or charging them:
1. The sulfuric acid in the electrolyte is corrosive. It can cause serious bums if it gets on your skin. It
can blind you if it gets in your eyes. Wear eye protection when working with, testing, or charging a
battery. If you get battery acid on your skin, flush it off at once with water. Continue to flush for 5
minutes. If you get battery acid (electrolyte) in your eyes, flush them with water at once. Then go to
the school nurse, a doctor, or hospital emergency room.
2. Gases released from the battery during charging are highly explosive. Ventilate the area. Never
allow sparks, an open flame, or burning cigarettes around a battery being charged or a battery that
has recently been charging. The flame might cause an explosion or fire and spray you with
electrolyte. Even a spark from improperly connecting or disconnecting a battery or battery charger
could cause an explosion.
3. Never wear rings, bracelets, watches, or hanging necklaces around batteries. If the metal
accidentally shorts the battery, a very high current can flow. You could be seriously burned.
4. A battery that is so discharged that the engine will not crank is a dead battery. Starting the engine
of a car that has a dead battery by using a charged battery in another car is called jump starting. A
wrong step can injure you and damage electrical and electronic components.
5. When disconnecting a battery, always disconnect the negative or ground cable first. If you then
accidentally ground the insulated terminal or a feed or "hot" wire, it is not a short across the battery.
6. If the battery has vent caps, make sure the vent holey are open before charging. Cover the caps
with a damp cloth. Discard the cloth after the battery is charged.
7. Never lean over a charging battery.
8. Do not charge a frozen battery or a maintenance-fret battery in which the charge-indicator dot
shows light yellow or clear. The battery could explode!

ME 467 : Automobile Engineering Dr. Md. Ehsan © 2019 ME, BUET

The Charging System:
 Restores to the battery the charge removed to crank the engine.
 Handles the load of the ignition, lights, radio, fans and other electrical and electronic
equipment while the engine is running.
The charging system includes the alternator with regulator, battery, and connecting wires

Alternator
The alternator converts mechanical energy from the engine into electrical energy. It usually mounts on
the side of the engine. The engine crankshaft pulley drives the alternator through a belt at two to three
times crankshaft speed. A regulator, usually on or in the alternator, prevents the alternator from
producing excessive voltage. Some manufacturers call the alternator a generator or ac generator.

In the alternator, the strength of the magnetic field and the number of loops are increased. Instead of a
permanent magnet, the rotor usually consists of pole pieces with a field coil or winding between them
(Fig. 30-6). When current flows through the winding, it becomes an electromagnet. Current flows in
and out of the winding through two brushes riding on slip rings. Each slip ring connects to one end of
the winding. The current produces a magnetic field which rotates as the rotor turns. The strength of the
magnetic field varies with the amount of current flowing. The stationary loops or conductors are
assembled into a laminated iron frame. The assembly is the stator. As the rotating magnetic field cuts
through the windings, an alternating current is induced in the stator.

Many automotive alternators have a fan

behind the drive pulley. Vent holes in
both end frames allow the fan to pull
ventilating air through the alternator.
The cool air enters through the rear or
slip-ring end frame. The air picks up
heat from the rectifier diodes, passes
through the alternator, and then exits
through openings in the front or drive-
end frame.

ME 467 : Automobile Engineering Dr. Md. Ehsan © 2019 ME, BUET

RECTIFYING ALTERNATOR CURRENT
Most automotive electrical equipment requires direct current (dc). However the alternators producing
AC are far more efficient compared to dynamos producing DC power. Therefore, the ac produced by
the alternator must be-changed or rectified to dc. A set of six diodes forms a six-diode rectifier inside
the alternator. A diode is a one-way check valve for electric current. Current can flow through in one
direction but not the other. The loops in the stator are grouped into three sets or legs which form a
delta-connected stator or a Y-connected stator. The six diodes connect to the three legs to produce a
flow of direct current from the dc output terminal of the alternator. This is the BAT terminal on most
alternators.

Typical Alternator Circuit

ME 467 : Automobile Engineering Dr. Md. Ehsan © 2019 ME, BUET

REGULATING THE ALTERNATOR
A voltage regulator prevents the alternator from producing excessive voltage. The regulator limits the
current flow through the field winding on the rotor. This controls the strength of the rotating magnetic
field. When the voltage starts to go too high, the regulator reduces the current. This weakens the
magnetic field and prevents any further rise in voltage. Most charging systems now have a solid-state
electronic regulator. It is built into the alternator, attached to it, or separately mounted in the engine
compartment.

The alternator does not need a current regulator. With the voltage regulator limiting current flow
through the field winding, no further increase in speed can cause more current to flow in the stator.
This protects the alternator against overload.

ALTERNATOR BELT
The multi-groove belt drives the alternator at high speed using torque from the crankshaft. Proper
tension in the belt is needed to ensure proper charging of the alternator, which can be ensured by the
adjustment of the belt tensioner. Worn belt can also cause less tension and insufficient charging,
indicated I the dash board.

Alternator Charging

Good belt Worn Belt

ME 467 : Automobile Engineering Dr. Md. Ehsan © 2019 ME, BUET

ELECTRONIC CONTROL MODULE (ECM)

The electronic engine control system includes the ECM and various sensing devices or sensors that
report to it. A sensor is a device that receives and reacts to a signal. This may be a change in
pressure, temperature, or voltage. Some sensors report the amount of air entering. The ECM then
calculates for how long to open the injectors. Some times ECM is also termed as Electronic control
unit ECU.

Sensors that report to the ECM include:

 Engine speed.
 Throttle position.
 Intake-manifold vacuum or manifold-absolute pressure (MAP).
 Engine coolant temperature.
 Amount and temperature of air entering engine.
 Amount of oxygen in exhaust gas.
 Atmospheric pressure.

The ECM continuously receives all this information or data. The ECM checks this data with other
data stored in look-up tables in its memory. In pulsed fuel-injection system the ECM decides when to
open the injectors and for how long. For example, when the engine is idling, the ECM might hold the
injectors open for only 0.003 second each time they open. The opening and closing of an injector is its
duty cycle. How long the ECM signals the injector to remain open is the injector pulse width. Varying
the pulse width varies the amount of fuel injected. Suppose more fuel is needed because the throttle
has been opened for acceleration and more air is entering. Then the ECM increases the pulse width.
The continuous-injection system (CIS) is another type of fuel-injection system. It is used in a few
vehicles. The injectors are open continuously. Changing the pressure applied to the fuel varies the
amount of fuel injected.

In addition to fuel metering modern ECM is also used to control - ignition spark advance, EGR valve
control, shifting of electronic automatic transmissions transaxles, application of anti-lock braking
system and passenger safety airbags etc. Depending on how expensive the car is, there can be all
sorts of other computers. For example:

ME 467 : Automobile Engineering Dr. Md. Ehsan © 2019 ME, BUET

  There is probably a computer controlling the automatic transmission
 If the car has anti-lock brakes, a computer is reading the wheel speed and controlling the brakes
 Many air bag systems have their own computers
 A car with keyless entry or a security system has a computer for these systems
 Advanced climate control systems often have computers
 Some cars now have motorized seats and mirrors that can remember settings for multiple drivers
 Cruise control systems use computers

ME 467 : Automobile Engineering Dr. Md. Ehsan © 2019 ME, BUET

 SENSORS

ENGINE-SPEED SENSOR

The engine-speed sensor is usually a crankshaft-position sensor that tells the ECM how fast
the engine crankshaft is turning. The ECM uses this data to control fuel metering, ignition
spark advance, and the shifting of electronic automatic transmissions and transaxles.

Crankshaft-position sensors are either Hall-effect sensor or magnetic sensors. A Hall effect
sensor is a transducer that varies its output voltage in response to a magnetic field. Hall
effect sensors are used for proximity switching, positioning, speed detection, and current
sensing applications A Hall-effect switch is used to determine crankshaft speed, the ECM
counts the number of crankshaft rotations per second. The crankshaft harmonic balancer
carries vanes. As the vanes pass between the permanent magnet and the transducer, the
magnetic field acting on the transducer is repeatedly interrupted. This turns the transistor
OFF and ON, switching the signal voltage to the ECM from 12 volts to less than 1 volt. The
ECM counts these voltage pulses to determine crankshaft speed.

A Magnetic crankshaft sensor in the side of the block of an engine has a notched timing disc
on the crankshaft causes voltage pulses in the sensor as the crankshaft rotates. These
pulses are sent to the ECM. Another type of engine-speed sensor counts the voltage pulses
from the ignition distributor. These trigger the high-voltage surges that produce the sparks at
the spark plugs. Counting the number of pulses per second tells the ECM how fast the
engine is running.

ME 467 : Automobile Engineering Dr. Md. Ehsan © 2019 ME, BUET

THROTTLE-POSITION SENSOR

The throttle body contains the throttle valve. The assembly usually mounts on the intake
manifold. The throttle valve connects by linkage to the accelerator pedal in the driver's com-
partment. Depressing the accelerator pedal opens the throttle valve. Then more air flows
through and enters the engine. The ECM must always know the position of the throttle valve.
The ECM must match fuel flow with air flow to feed the engine the proper air-fuel mixture. A
throttle-position sensor (TPS) on the throttle body continuously reports throttle position to the
ECM. The position of the throttle valve is also important in the control of idle speed and in the
shift patterns of automatic transmissions and transaxles. On some engines, when the throttle
valve closes during deceleration, the ECM shuts off fuel flow. This prevents an over-rich
mixture during deceleration.

Most commonly used rotary throttle-position sensor is a variable resistor or potentiometer. It

has a coil of resistance wire in the form of a half circle. One end connects to ground. The
other end connects to a 5-volt source from the ECM. The wiper blade has a contact that rides
on the coil and connects to the throttle-valve shaft. As the throttle-valve position changes, the
wiper blade moves along the coil. When the throttle valve is closed, the blade is at the
grounded end of the coil. Only a small voltage signal is sent to the ECM. As the throttle valve
moves toward the open position, the wiper blade swings toward the 5-volt end of the coil.
This sends an increasing voltage signal to the ECM. The voltage tells the ECM the exact
position of the throttle valve.

INTAKE-AIR FLOW MEASURING SENSOR

The amount of air flowing into the intake manifold must be accurately measured. The ECM
must have this information to calculate the amount of fuel to be injected. Air flow can be
measured:
1. Indirectly using throttle position, engine speed, and intake-manifold vacuum or MAP.
2. Directly by vane, air-flow sensor plate, hot-wire induction, or heated film.
Following sections describe these methods.

ME 467 : Automobile Engineering Dr. Md. Ehsan © 2019 ME, BUET

INDIRECT MEASUREMENT OF AIR FLOW

Information about engine speed and engine load can tell the ECM how much air is entering
the engine. Using this information to regulate fuel feed is called speed-density metering. It is
used in fuel-injection systems that do not directly measure mass air flow. The speed is the
speed of the engine. The density is the density of the air or air-fuel mixture in the intake
manifold values are used to calculate the intake air flow.

INTAKE-MANIFOLD VACUUM SENSOR (MANIFOLD ABS. PRESSURE, MAP)

Most electronic-engine control systems include a manifold-absolute pressure (MAP) sensor

that is attached to the intake manifold on a car's engine. It senses the pressure (vacuum)
changes in the intake manifold. This information is sent as a varying voltage signal to the
ECM. The MAP sensor responds to changes in the intake manifold pressure (vacuum) and
provides a reading of "engine load". Inside the MAP sensor there is a resistor that moves in
relation to intake manifold pressure. The resistor varies the voltage between about 1V to 4.5V
(depending on engine load) and that voltage signal is returned to the ECM to determine fuel
delivery and is also used some times to determine if the EGR Valve is operating properly.

DIRECT MEASUREMENT OF AIR FLOW

Four methods of measuring air flow directly are vane, airflow sensor plate, hot-wire induction,
and heated film. Each continuously measures the actual amount of air flowing through the air
flow meter. This information is then sent to the ECM.

i. VANE The vane type air-flow meter is used in some pulsed fuel-injection systems such as
the Bosch L system. The spring-loaded vane is in the air-intake passage of the air-flow
meter. Air flowing through forces the vane to swing. The more air, the farther the vane
swings. A vane-position sensor works like the rotary throttle-position sensor. Depending on
its position, it sends varying voltage signals to the ECM. This tells the ECM how much air is
flowing through. The ECM then adjusts fuel flow to match.

ME 467 : Automobile Engineering Dr. Md. Ehsan © 2019 ME, BUET

ii. AIR-FLOW SENSOR PLATE The air-flow sensor plate is used in mechanical continuous-
injection systems. The plate is in the intake-air passage of the air-flow meter. As air flow
increases, the plate moves higher. This lifts a control plunger in the fuel distributor to allow
more fuel flow to the injectors. The added fuel flow matches the additional air flow.

iii. HOT-WIRE INDUCTION A platinum wire is in the path of the incoming air through the air-
flow meter. The wire is kept hot by an electric current flowing through it. However, the air flow
cools the wire. The more air that passes through the air-flow meter, the more heat that is lost
from the wire.

The system keeps the wire at a specific temperature by adjusting current flow. If more air
flows through and takes more heat from the wire, the system sends more current through.
This maintains the temperature. The amount of current required is therefore a measure of
how much air is flowing through. The ECM reads this varying current as air flow.

iv. HEATED FILM The heated film consists of metal foil or nickel grid coated with a high-
temperature material. Current flowing through the film heats it. Air flowing past the film cools
it. Like the heated wire, the system maintains the film at a specific temperature. The amount
of current required is a measure of air flow.

ATMOSPHERIC-PRESSURE AND AIR-TEMPERATURE SENSORS

Changing atmospheric pressure and air temperature change the density of the air. Air that is
hot and at low atmospheric pressure is less dense. It contains less oxygen than an equal
volume of cooler air under higher atmospheric pressure. When the amount of oxygen
entering the engine varies, so does the amount of fuel that can be burned. Some systems
include an atmospheric-pressure sensor. It is also called the barometric-pressure sensor or
BARO sensor. It is similar to the MAP sensor. However, the barometric-pressure sensor
reads atmospheric pressure. The air-temperature sensor is a thermistor. Its electrical
resistance decreases as its temperature increases. Both types of sensors send varying
voltage signals to the ECM so it knows the atmospheric pressure and air temperature.

ME 467 : Automobile Engineering Dr. Md. Ehsan © 2019 ME, BUET

COOLANT-TEMPERATURE SENSOR

The coolant-temperature sensor (CTS) is a thermistor that continuously reports engine

coolant temperature to the ECM. This is a varying voltage signal that the ECM uses in
different ways. If coolant temperature is low, the ECM signals the fuel-metering system to
supply additional fuel for cold-engine operation. The ECM also may alter ignition timing to suit
engine temperature. Most transverse engines use an electric engine-cooling fan. When the
engine is cold, no cooling is needed. The fan does not run. When the engine gets hot, the
signal from the coolant-temperature sensor may cause the ECM to turn on the fan.

OXYGEN SENSOR
The oxygen sensor or 02-sensor is installed in the exhaust manifold or exhaust pipe. It
measures the amount of oxygen in the exhaust gas. The sensor is part of the emissions
control system and feeds data to the ECM. The goal of the sensor is to help the engine run
as efficiently as possible and also to produce as few emissions as possible. The oxygen
sensor is about the size of a spark plug and produces a small voltage when exposed to
oxygen. This varying voltage is sent to the ECM tells whether the air-fuel mixture is rich or
lean. The voltage varies with the amount of oxygen in the exhaust gas. Oxygen-sensor
voltage is between 1.30 and 0.15 volt. When the voltage is close to 0.45 volt, the air-fuel ratio
is close to the ideal 14.7:1. If the voltage is higher than 0.45 volt, or higher, the oxygen
content is low. The air-fuel ratio is rich. If the voltage is less than 0.45 volt the oxygen content
is high. The air-fuel ratio is lean.
The oxygen sensor will not work unless it is hot. It must be between 200° and 800°C. The
oxygen sensor will not produce a voltage signal when the engine is cold. While the engine is
warming up, the electronic-engine-control system is in open loop "mode." The ECM ignores
any voltage signal sent by the oxygen sensor. Instead, the ECM uses data from the lookup
table to maintain an air-fuel ratio that allows the engine to run. As soon as the engine and
oxygen sensor reach operating temperature, the oxygen-sensor voltage signal is sent to the
ECM. The ECM switches to closed loop mode and begins using the oxygen-sensor signal to
compute injector duty cycle. The engine may receive a rich mixture while running in open
loop. This produces excessive pollutants in the exhaust gas. To reduce open-loop time, many
oxygen sensors have an electric heating element inside. This causes the oxygen sensor to
reach operating temperature more quickly.If the engine idles too long, the oxygen sensor
may cool off and stop producing a voltage signal. This puts the system in open loop. When
engine speed increases, the oxygen sensor quickly reaches operating temperature. It again
sends voltage signals to the ECM which switches to closed loop.

ME 467 : Automobile Engineering Dr. Md. Ehsan © 2019 ME, BUET

ME 467 : Automobile Engineering Dr. Md. Ehsan © 2019 ME, BUET
VEHICULAR SAFETY: SRS AIRBAG
An SRS airbag is an extra safety measure that’s commonplace in vehicles these
days. The SRS stands for Supplemental Restraint System, and it’s intended to
provide protection above that offered by the seatbelt in the event of an accident.
The airbag module is designed to inflate extremely rapidly then quickly deflate during
a collision or impact with a surface or a rapid sudden deceleration.

All modern vehicles have at least one airbag for the driver, which is in the steering
wheel, and many also have an airbag for the passenger. Modern vehicles may
contain multiple airbag modules in various configurations including:

 Driver airbag module

 Passenger airbag module
 Side curtain airbag module
 Seat-mounted side impact airbag module
 Knee bolster airbag module
 Inflatable seat-belt modules
 Front Right Side Airbag Sensor
 Front Left Side Airbag Sensor
 Pedestrian airbag module AIRBAG SYMBOL

If your vehicle is in an accident where it hits another vehicle or object, or is hit, the
airbag sensor (also known as the airbag ECU) will signal the airbag to open. The
SRS airbag is tested by the car’s computer every time the vehicle is switched on. A
light will come on in the dash board, either a figure of a person with an airbag or just
reading SRS. Once checked and found to be fine, the light will switch off again. If the
light remains on, the car can still be driven, but the airbag won’t operate.

The airbag's inflation system reacts sodium azide (NaN3) with potassium nitrate
(KNO3) to produce nitrogen gas. Hot blasts of the nitrogen inflate the airbag. The
airbag system ignites a solid propellant, which burns extremely rapidly to create a
large volume of gas to inflate the bag. The bag then literally bursts from its storage
site at up to 200 mph (322 kph) -- faster than the blink of an eye! Fraction of a second
later, the gas quickly dissipates through tiny holes in the bag, thus deflating the bag
so you can move. The time it takes for the airbag to finish deploying is approximately
0.03 seconds. That deployed airbag will deflate and the total time it takes is about 0.1
seconds. Even though the whole process happens very fast, the additional time is
enough to help prevent serious injury. The powdery substance released from the
airbag, by the way, is regular cornstarch or talcum powder, which is used by the
airbag manufacturers to keep the bags pliable and lubricated while they're in storage.

ME 467 : Automobile Engineering Dr. Md. Ehsan © 2019 ME, BUET

 INFLATION OF DRIVER’S AIRBAG FITTED BELOW THE STEERING WHEEL

AIRBAG ASSEMBLY FITTED BELOW THE DASH BOARD

ME 467 : Automobile Engineering Dr. Md. Ehsan © 2019 ME, BUET

ME 467 : Automobile Engineering Dr. Md. Ehsan © 2019 ME, BUET
MALFUNCTION INDICATOR LIGHT (MIL)
When certain troubles develop in the electronic control system, the ECM stores in its memory
a number or trouble code for each fault. This turns on a malfunction-indicator light (MIL) in
the instrument panel. A CHECK ENGINE, SERVICE ENGINE SOON, or similar light alerts
the driver that service is needed.

If a single sensor fails, the ECM may substitute a value for the failed sensor. This allows the
engine to appear to run normally. A fault that turns on the malfunction-indicator light may also
put the engine into its limp-in mode. This means that the limited operation strategy (LOS)
chip in the ECM has taken over. It provides basic instructions to the microprocessor if part of
the electronic control system fails. The engine runs, but with fixed ignition timing and air-fuel
ratio. The injector pulse width does not change. This allows the vehicle to be driven but with
greatly reduced performance. The vehicle can "limp in" for service instead of being towed.
The technician can retrieve the stored trouble code from the ECM memory. To use the code,
the technician then finds the chart for that number in the vehicle service manual. The chart
explains how to find and correct the fault.

Extracting Trouble Codes:

1. Turn the ignition switch to ON. Do not start the engine.
2. Using a jump wire, short terminals T and E1 of the check connector.
3. Read the diagnostic code as indicated by the number of flashes of "CHECK" engine
warning light.

Check Connector (Located Under hood)

ME 467 : Automobile Engineering Dr. Md. Ehsan © 2019 ME, BUET

 Diagnostic Trouble Code Blinks (TOTOTA)

Diagnostic Trouble Codes (DTC) – 1991 Toyota

12 Engine RPM Signal.

13 Engine RPM Signal.
14 Ignition Signal.
16 ECT Control Signal.
21 Oxygen Sensor (OS) Signal.
22 Water Temperature Sensor (THW) Signal.
24 Intake Air Temperature Sensor (THA) Signal.
25 Air/Fuel ratio lean.
26 Air/Fuel ratio rich.
27 Sub-oxygen sensor signal.
31 Air Flow Meter Signal.
32 Air Flow Meter Signal.
41 Throttle Position Sensor (TPS).
42 Vehicle Speed Sensor (VSS) Signal.
43 Starter Circuit Signal.
51 Switch Condition Signal.
52 Knock Control Signal.
71 EGR system malfunction.

ME 467 : Automobile Engineering Dr. Md. Ehsan © 2019 ME, BUET

ONBOARD DIAGNOSTICS SYSTEM (OBD)

On-board diagnostics (OBD) is an automotive term referring to a vehicle's self-diagnostic and

reporting capability. OBD systems give the vehicle owner or repair technician access to the
status of the various vehicle subsystems. The amount of diagnostic information available via
OBD has varied widely since its introduction in the early 1980s versions of on-board vehicle
computers. Early versions of OBD would simply illuminate a malfunction indicator light or MIL
if a problem was detected but would not provide any information as to the nature of the
problem. Modern OBD implementations use a standardized digital communications port to
provide real-time data in addition to a standardized series of diagnostic trouble codes (DTC),
which allow one to rapidly identify and remedy malfunctions within the vehicle.

Currently used OBD-II is an improvement over OBD-I in both capability and standardization.
The OBD-II standard specifies the type of diagnostic connector and its pin-out, the electrical
signaling protocols available, and the messaging format. It also provides a candidate list of
vehicle parameters to monitor along with how to encode the data for each. There is a pin in
the connector that provides power for the scan tool from the vehicle battery, which eliminates
the need to connect a scan tool to a power source separately. The OBD-II standard provides
an extensible list of DTCs. As a result of this standardization, a single device can query the
on-board computer(s) in any vehicle. OBD-II Diagnostic Trouble Codes are 4-digit, preceded

ME 467 : Automobile Engineering Dr. Md. Ehsan © 2019 ME, BUET

by a letter: P for engine and transmission (power train), B for body, C for chassis, and U for
network. The OBD-II specification provides for a standardized hardware interface—the
female 16-pin (2x8) J1962 connector. Unlike the OBD-I connector, which was sometimes
found under the hood of the vehicle, the OBD-II connector is required to be within 2 feet (0.61
m) of the steering wheel. The EOBD (European On Board Diagnostics) regulations are the
European equivalent of OBD-II.

More recently Bluetooth technology is used for wireless communication between vehicle ECU
and OBD scanner. Such devices first establish wireless communication with vehicle ECU and
then run diagnostics checks for DTC codes. A number of OEM or 3rd party software (eg.
TORQUE) can be used for problem identification as well as real time monitoring of engine
and vehicle performance with the help of Laptops or Android devices.

ME 467 : Automobile Engineering Dr. Md. Ehsan © 2019 ME, BUET

ME 467 : Automobile Engineering Dr. Md. Ehsan © 2019 ME, BUET