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Literature Searching

Throughout your years of study you will be asked to research and find information relating to a wide
range of topics. This information has then to be read (see Critical Reading) and appropriate notes
made (see Note-taking) for later use possibly in an essay, report or exam or just for interest. The
information on this page is based around searching for appropriate sources of information for an
essay.

Helpful hints

• Think about the title and what it is asking you to write about.
• Ask your self whether you have looked for information in all the relevant places.
• Check that you know how to find the information once you know where it is. E.g. what do
you do if the book or journal is in short loan or is not on the shelf or is in another library?
• Check that the information is relevant to the essay.
• Remember that an essay at this level will use several sources of information not just one or
two.

You need to include in your bibliography all the information someone else would need to find that
piece of information.
Some sources of information you may use for your literature search include:

• OPAC Computer Catalogue

• CD-ROM
• Videos
• Journals
• Geographical Abstracts
• Internet
• Textbooks
• Lecture notes
• GeoCal module
• As a Liverpool Hope undergraduate you are eligible to use the University of Liverpool Library.
Library services available to you from the Shepard-Worlock Library include inter-library loans,
book reservations and the short term loan collections.

Introduction

It will soon become apparent, if it hasn’t already, that not all lectures are fascinating and stimulating,
and that not all lecturers are born with a gift for public speaking.

However, the information and ideas that they are trying to impart are just as important, and any notes
that you take in the lectures must be understandable to you, not only five minutes after the lecture
has finished, but in several months’ time, when you come to revise from them. The question, then, is
how to retain your concentration and produce a good set of notes.

There are a few misconceptions on the part of students as to what can be expected of a lecture
session. Firstly, that the responsibility for the success of the lecture is entirely the tutor’s, and that the
student’s role is to sit and listen or to take verbatim notes. Secondly, that the purpose of a lecture is to
impart information which will be needed for an exam question. And thirdly, that attending the lecture,
and taking notes, is an individual, even competitive, activity.

This page aims to correct these ideas, and to help you develop successful note-taking strategies.

Ideas for more effective note-taking

Before the lecture

• If you know the subject of the lecture, do some background reading before hand. This way,
you will go into the lecture with a better understanding, and find it easier to distinguish the
points worth noting.
 • Read through the notes of the previous lecture in the series just before the present one
begins. This helps orientate your thoughts to the subject in hand, especially if you have just
come from a lecture on a completely different subject.

During the lecture

• Think of a lecture as an active, learning process, rather than a passive, secretarial exercise.
Writing verbatim what the lecturer says, or copying everything down from overheads, does
not involve much thought, and subsequent reading of these notes often makes little sense.

• Pages of continuous prose are the least helpful for revision. Some things said in the lecture
are obviously more important than others, and the notes you take should reflect this. Try to
give them some structure, by using headings and sub-headings, by highlighting or
underlining key ideas and realising the links between them. Alternative noting forms to linear
notes, such as flow diagrams or star charts, can be used, although these are often more
helpful to revise your notes (see After the Lecture).

• In some situations, you may be directed in the amount of note-taking necessary. For
example, the lecturer may start off by giving you some references on the subject he/she is to
lecture on. A good strategy to adopt in this case would be to note down carefully the
references, then just listen to the lecture, making brief notes about the main points or
specific examples. Taking notes from books is far easier than in lectures, as you can go at
your own pace, stop and think about something, re-read a section etc. Use the lecture to try
and understand the concepts being explained.

• Or, the lecturer may give hand-outs to accompany the lecture. In this case, you don’t need
to make copious notes of your own. Again, listen to what is being said, and annotate the
hand-out with any extra information. It gives you more time to think, and perhaps raise
questions of your own.

• On the subject of questions, it is commonly believed by students that lecturers are not to be
interrupted when they are in full flow. You may find that this isn’t always the case, and there
is nothing wrong with asking individual lecturers if they mind taking questions during the
lecture. It is best to establish this at the beginning of the course of lectures.

• However, there is also the problem of speaking out in front of your peers, perhaps asking
something foolish, or not having the time to frame your question well. In this case, write
down the question in the margin of your notes, to ask the lecturer later, or check with friends
or in a textbook. It is far easier to recall the question you wanted to ask in this way, rather
than rely on remembering after the lecture has finished (or even when you come to revise
from your notes!)

After the lecture

• The best time to review your lecture notes is immediately following the lecture, although this
is not always possible if, for example, you have to go straight to another one. However, the
sooner you do it, with the lecture still fresh in your mind, the better chance you have to
produce a good set of notes for revision.

• Revising your notes does not mean writing them out neatly!

• Try swapping notes with a friend, to check the accuracy/omissions of your own, and your
understanding of the key points.

• If you feel that your notes are incomplete, or if you jotted down any questions during the
lecture, follow this up by asking your tutor, or by reading round the subject.

• Transforming your lecture notes by using a different noting form can sometimes make them
clearer, e.g. a flow diagram

• Highlight key points; produce summaries for revision purposes.

 • Think how this topic relates to previous ones, or to other courses that you are studying, and
begin to recognise themes and relationships.

• Meet with a few friends after lectures, to discuss the lecture topic and answer each others
questions. Discussion with your peers often leads to a better understanding of a subject,
which in turn makes it easier to remember. Your group could also establish a reading
syndicate, whereby reading lists can be divided between members, who each take notes on
their allotted texts and give copies to the rest of the group.

Storing your notes

• A little time spent at this stage in organising your notes will make life much easier when you
come to revise from them some months later.

• Numbering pages, making a contents page, or using dividers in your file will all make your
notes more accessible.

Note-taking strategies as a flow diagram

Character types

Some first thoughts about learning

Pause for a few minutes and try to answer the question:

 How do I learn things?

If you talk to other students you will probably find that there are many different approaches. You will
also find that you learn different things in different ways. Some things you will learn by reading (e.g.
influence of location on crime) others are best learnt by doing (e.g. how to survey a fieldwork site).

Many factors influence how well we learn. Not only is it what we wish to learn important, but also why
we want to learn (motivation). There is also a great deal of research into the influence that our own
personality has upon the quality of our learning.

When we work in a group, we are brought into contact with others who will have different ways of
learning. Some people are very methodical and have a logical approach to problems, others bring an
intuitive approach and will want to move quickly to test new ideas. We also react in different ways
when we join a group. Some students are willing to propose ideas from the start, while others prefer to
get to know the other members of the group before they say anything.

A group brings together people with a wide range of characteristics and abilities. The strength of
groupwork is that problems can be tackled from different angles which use the diverse skills of its
members.

Think about the different types of personality within different groups.

 What would be the best way to form an effective group?

- Grouping together similar characters?

- Having a range of types?

Write down the different strengths and weaknesses of various characters, and how
they could each have something useful to offer to the group.

The aim of this exercise was to show you how we are all different, with different positive
attributes and ways of working. You will spend many hours working with other students as
a group and it is essential that you feel comfortable with each other, in order to function
as an effective team.

Character types

Some first thoughts about learning

Pause for a few minutes and try to answer the question:

How do I learn things?

If you talk to other students you will probably find that there are many different approaches. You will
also find that you learn different things in different ways. Some things you will learn by reading (e.g.
influence of location on crime) others are best learnt by doing (e.g. how to survey a fieldwork site).

Many factors influence how well we learn. Not only is it what we wish to learn important, but also why
we want to learn (motivation). There is also a great deal of research into the influence that our own
personality has upon the quality of our learning.

When we work in a group, we are brought into contact with others who will have different ways of
learning. Some people are very methodical and have a logical approach to problems, others bring an
intuitive approach and will want to move quickly to test new ideas. We also react in different ways
when we join a group. Some students are willing to propose ideas from the start, while others prefer to
get to know the other members of the group before they say anything.

A group brings together people with a wide range of characteristics and abilities. The strength of
groupwork is that problems can be tackled from different angles which use the diverse skills of its
members.
Think about the different types of personality within different groups.

 What would be the best way to form an effective group?

- Grouping together similar characters?

- Having a range of types?

Write down the different strengths and weaknesses of various characters, and how
they could each have something useful to offer to the group.

The aim of this exercise was to show you how we are all different, with different positive
attributes and ways of working. You will spend many hours working with other students as
a group and it is essential that you feel comfortable with each other, in order to function
as an effective team.

Ground rules

• Take 5 minutes to brainstorm ideas on the theme:

"How could I wreck group sessions and make sure they are an ordeal for the group and the
tutor?"

Write down your list of ideas.

In a brainstorming session, ideas are not thought about in depth. Just write down any words or phrases
which come to mind, without any questioning of exactly what they mean.

• Now take another 5 minutes to go through the list of ideas asking:

"If that is how I can wreck the session, how can I make it work?"

Make a new list of how to succeed.

• These two lists can be used to think about negotiating group ground rules. Generate a list of
ground rules which would help a group to work together.

 Some example ground rules are given below:

1. Students and tutor will arrive and finish on time

2. All group members will have done any agreed preparation
3. Group members should encourage everyone to contribute and value all opinions
4. No-one should dominate the discussions
5. Anyone can remind the group of these negotiated rules

Every group needs ground rules, many of which are never stated explicitly, e.g. whether
you can swear, what you should wear, if you always need to show up etc.
It is helpful, when establishing a new group, to set ground rules which will make your
group into an effective and pleasant unit, where everyone knows what is expected of
them.

Ground rules

• Take 5 minutes to brainstorm ideas on the theme:

"How could I wreck group sessions and make sure they are an ordeal for the group and the
tutor?"
 Write down your list of ideas.
In a brainstorming session, ideas are not thought about in depth. Just write down any words or phrases
which come to mind, without any questioning of exactly what they mean.

• Now take another 5 minutes to go through the list of ideas asking:

"If that is how I can wreck the session, how can I make it work?"

Make a new list of how to succeed.

• These two lists can be used to think about negotiating group ground rules. Generate a list of
ground rules which would help a group to work together.

 Some example ground rules are given below:

1. Students and tutor will arrive and finish on time

2. All group members will have done any agreed preparation
3. Group members should encourage everyone to contribute and value all opinions
4. No-one should dominate the discussions
5. Anyone can remind the group of these negotiated rules

Every group needs ground rules, many of which are never stated explicitly, e.g. whether
you can swear, what you should wear, if you always need to show up etc.
It is helpful, when establishing a new group, to set ground rules which will make your
group into an effective and pleasant unit, where everyone knows what is expected of
them.

Student diversity exercise

Below are descriptions of three different student characters. Read each one and imagine that you are
working in a group with this person. Write down any strengths and weaknesses that you think that this
person would have in a group-work situation. If you have identified any problems, what strategies
would you suggest to overcome them? An example case study is given below.

John

John is 18 and passed his A levels with good grades. He is very quiet, but always attentive and makes
detailed notes in class. He is uncomfortable when asked a question, and tends to respond with ‘don’t
know’ answers. He is punctual, well-organised and always does the preparation work asked.

Your assessment: John already has some important skills, such as time management, organisation and
reliability. He needs to develop his self-confidence and realise he has a useful contribution to make.

Strategies: John might be encouraged to speak out by doing a ‘round’ of the group, when everyone
has a chance to speak and the group isn’t dominated by one or two outspoken individuals. Lots of
positive feedback on any contributions made by John will boost his self-confidence. Giving him a role
such as time-keeper or scribe will help him to value his positive qualities.

Frank

Frank is 45 and left school with no formal qualifications. He has worked as a lorry driver for most of his
working life. When he was made redundant, he did an access course which got him a university place.
He has a lot of experience to offer other group members, but he has fixed views about things and also
doesn’t feel he needs skills training.

Write down your assessment and strategies to overcome any problems you have identified
Val

Val is 33 and a mother of two children aged 5 and 7. After her A levels, she worked in an office, until
her first child was born. Now that her youngest child is at school, she has decided to return to study.
She is fascinated by her subject, and really enjoys the group sessions where she has the chance to
engage in challenging discussion. Despite her motivation though, she is quite anxious about coping
with undergraduate work and feels (wrongly) that she is not as competent as the recent school-
leavers.

Write down your assessment and strategies to overcome any problems you have identified

Attia

Attia is an 18 year old Muslim. She has achieved good A level grades at a single sex school. She comes
from a closely-knit family which has high expectations of her undergraduate career. It is part of her
cultural practice to show deference to male family members and so her confidence in presenting and
defending her own ideas and views is low. She is also unused to being with students who have very
different expectations, motivations and experiences to her own.

Write down your assessment and strategies to overcome any problems you have identified

Group Work

Why work as a group?

Students who work in co-operative groups often do better than those who work alone, or
competitively. Working in a group can provide opportunities which, as an individual learner, are not so
readily available:

• Another member of the group may have knowledge or experience

which may help you
• A sense of responsibility to fellow students can provide good
motivation and encouragement - for example, you may be more likely to do
the preparation work if you know that your other group members are
depending on you for one aspect of the group task
• More complex problems can be solved by breaking them down into
separate tasks for group members - for example, a reading list could be
shared out and group members make their notes available to others
• Discussing a subject with others can often help your
understanding.

A number of skills are developed working as part of a team, such as:

• interpersonal skills, e.g. assertiveness, debate

• oral communication skills
• self appraisal, i.e. thinking about your own
performance/contribution to the group task

as well as specific skills related to the group task, such as:

• critical reading
• time management
• negotiation
 • decision-making

These personal and transferable skills are what employers say they want from graduates, and in some
work areas they can be more important than subject knowledge.
How to be a group
Your group may have been decided by your tutor, or chosen randomly by yourselves. Your group size,
and mix, will probably change depending on the nature of the task in each seminar. Whatever the
situation, it is important to consider the group dynamics.
In order to work effectively together, some effort must be made to get to know one another, to
appreciate each others strengths (and weaknesses!) and to decide how you can best work as a group.
How I work in groups

List some of the situations where you have previously been part of a group: e.g. sporting
activity, hobby, school/college society, mother & toddler playgroup

Think about the way you work in group situations by writing down your responses to the
following points:

In a group I tend to .....

In a group I prefer not to ......

I like groups where......

I don’t like groups where....

In this group I’d like to be.....

How I’d like this group to be for me.....

Group roles

As you have already discovered, any group of people is made up of a variety of personality types, who
will each have things they like doing best, and their own way of working and thinking. This can be very
useful in group work where there can be a number of different roles to play.

For instance, you may be full of imaginative ideas, but unable to concentrate on one thing for long
enough to carry it through, whereas someone else in the group may be more methodical and better at
organising things, and can turn your ideas into plans. You may be confident and good at speaking, like
organising other people but reluctant to do the leg-work, whereas another member may not wish to
have responsibility but be conscientious, able to meet deadlines and be happy to do what is asked.

It is important to decide who will perform what function, otherwise the session may drift aimlessly and
nothing will get done. Assigning group roles, outlined below, can help prevent the discussion from
wandering from the point, or from one or two people dominating the proceedings.

Some roles need to be specifically allocated, such as a leader, to guide the team towards a
conclusion, a note-taker, to keep a record of ideas and decisions, a time-keeper, to allocate times to
specific tasks and remind the team to keep to them, or a spokesperson, to deliver your ideas and
findings to the whole group. These roles need not be taken by the same people each week, and it can
be good practice to have a go at different ones, even the ones you don’t think you’d be good at. And
don’t forget that the other group roles, i.e. the team workers, are equally as important at getting the
task in hand done.

Remember that you cannot always take on the role that you want. A group with more than
one leader is as likely to fail in its task as one without a leader. By taking on a role that
you do not think you can do well, you are more likely to benefit, from the acquisition of
new skills.
 Think about what you are good at and decide which of these roles (leader, note-taker, time-
keeper, spokesperson, team workers) best suits you, and why?

Which of the above roles would you least like to do. Why?

Working as a group can be an exciting and fruitful experience, but it can also, if poorly managed,
strain the best of relationships. It helps to decide certain things before you start, for example:

• What exactly is the task?

o What are we supposed to learn? What skills to develop?
o What are we supposed to produce?
o What criteria will be used to assess it?
o What are the deadlines?
o Are there any guidelines?
• What do we want from the team project?
o How high a mark are we aiming for?
o Do we want to enjoy it or just get it done?
o How much time do we want to spend on it?
o Do we have other priorities?

This second set of questions may vary for each team member, and some agreement is needed for the
team to work together effectively.

• How will we avoid falling out with each other?(Setting ground rules will help)
• What role(s) am I and the other group members going to take for this task?
• How are we going to manage the task?
o Have we set a timescale?
o Have individual tasks been shared out fairly?
o Is everyone happy with what they have to do?

How was it?

After a group work session, think about how it went. If it didn’t go well, try and identify the reasons
why. You may decide:

• We weren’t clear about what we were supposed to be doing

• One group member dominated the discussion
• We wandered off the point
• We each stuck to our views instead of trying to reach a
compromise

Try and think of how to go about things differently, and suggest these ideas at the next session,
whether you are in the same group or not.
Evaluate your own performance as a group member.

• How did you help the group in its task?

• What didn’t you do that would have helped?

Use these insights to improve your role in the next group session.

Self/Peer Evaluation

This is not an idea thought up by your tutors to save themselves time, but an important part of your
learning process.

Practising self-evaluation will enable you to adopt a reflective learning style, whereby you will
become better able to judge the effectiveness of your own performance, and to become aware of your
improvement in a particular skill over time. Indeed, there are some aspects of your work that no-one
else can judge as well as yourself, for example, your motivation, or the amount of effort that you put
into a task.

It may help you to keep a reflective diary, where you record not what work you have done, but how
you went about doing it, and what you felt about doing it. The diary will focus on the process of
learning, rather than the outcome, and will help you to learn about yourself and be able to monitor the
improvements in your activities. It would also be a useful source of evidence of your achievements.

Peer evaluation will help you to develop your critical skills, and also help you to judge your own
performance. By making a critical appraisal of someone else’s work, it can help you to understand
what is required of you. It is very important, however, that you are clear about the criteria on which
the evaluation is based, so that everyone is judged equally.

Self or peer evaluation can lead into self or peer assessment, whereby feedback is given and
received, and grades awarded for work.

Try this self-evaluation exercise:

• Write down, on individual cards or Post-It notes, 7 or 8 qualities or skills that you possess

• Put them in order depending on how well you can do them

• Now try another order, for example, how important you think they are

This has been a simple practise at self-evaluation, but have you learnt anything about yourself that
you hadn’t thought of before?

Try this group evaluation exercise:

Answer these questions as a group:
1. It was clear who was the group leader Yes / No
2. It was clear who was the timekeeper Yes / No
3. It was clear who was the spokesperson Yes / No
4. We identified clearly what the task involved Yes / No
5. We completed the task satisfactorily within the time given Yes / No

Answer these questions individually:

1. What I liked most about the group was....

2. What I liked least about the group was....

3. Next time I think we should....

4. Next time I think I should....

Working as a team involves contributions from different members for the mutual
resolution of a task.

Team evaluation exercise

Think about a particular exercise you have taken part in where you had to work as part of a team.
Consider the points below relating to how your group worked together on the set task:
Everyone in the group contributed to the discussion Yes / No
We were clear about what we had to do Yes / No
It was difficult to stick to the time Yes / No
Everyone’s opinion was valued Yes / No
One person dominated the discussion Yes / No
Everyone had done the preparation required Yes / No
The group made a valuable contribution to the team task Yes / No
I was happy with my contribution Yes / No
We would do things differently next time Yes / No

• You may find it useful to arrange a group meeting to discuss how you worked together on a
particular exercise.
• The responses that you have made above can be used as a basis for this discussion. During
the meeting each member should have the opportunity to give and receive feedback on how
the group worked together. Be positive, but consider how you would improve things the next
time. Even if you felt it went wonderfully, there are always things you might change.
• Think about what worked well with this group, and write down one suggestion for doing
something differently next time you work in a group.

Ten ‘Dos’ and ‘Don’ts’ for a student working in a group

(compiled using comments made by current first year Geography undergraduates at Liverpool Hope)
DO:

1. Contribute to the group by putting forward ideas and getting involved in discussion.
2. Co-operate with other members of the group.
3. Select specific roles for every group member (e.g. Spokesperson, Leader, Time-keeper,
Scribe etc.)
4. Take on your given role within the group.
5. Organise meeting times and stick to them.
6. Share the workload equally.
7. Respect the values and opinions of others.
8. Communicate and share ideas with each other.
9. Encourage others to speak.
10. Value diversity.

DON’T:

1. Sit back and do nothing.

2. Think that others will do the work.
3. Take lead and ignore others.
4. Be afraid to speak.
5. Expect all your own ideas to be used.
6. Leave people out of the discussion.
7. Become distracted from the subject.
8. Be aggressive, interrupt or criticise unnecessarily.
9. Ignore other members of the group.
10. Allow one person to dominate.

References and Links

Gibbs, G (1994) Learning in Teams: A Student Manual
Web resource link: Effective Groupwork

Arons, Arnold B. "'Critical Thinking' and the Baccalaureate Curriculum." Liberal Education 71.2
(1985): 141-157.

First asks, What is involved in critical thinking? Answers: Asking "how do we know?
What is the evidence?" Being aware of gaps in knowledge. Distinguishing between
fact and conjecture. Distinguishing between an idea and the name of that idea, and
providing definitions. Looking for (hidden) assumptions. Performing hypothetico-
deductive reasoning. Knowing inductive and deductive reasoning. Intellectual self-
reliance. Being aware of own thinking process. Then discusses why one should
bother with critical thinking, bemoans the lack of it in American students, and
discusses how to increase or decrease it in students.

Carpenter, C. Blaine, and James C. Doig. "Assessing Critical Thinking Across the Curriculum."
Assessing Students' Learning. New Directions for Teaching and Learning no. 34. Ed. J.H. McMillan. San
Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1988.
 Defines critical thinking. Discusses several standardized tests to assess critical
thinking. Then outlines efforts to define, assess, and teach/strengthen critical
thinking at several colleges and universities

McPeck, John E. "The Meaning of Critical Thinking." Critical Thinking and Education. New York: St.
Martin Press, n.d. 1- 23.

Defines critical thinking as thinking with scepticism about a subject or field. Requires
that the thinker have the skills associated with practioners in that field. Critical
thinking can include certain aspects of problem solving and various skills. Argues
that critical thinking can be taught using drills and practice, but not with just any
drills--only drills that encourage the use of critical thinking. Students must be
motivated to use their critical thinking skills.

Nelson, Craig E. "Critical Thinking and Collaborative Learning." New Directions for Teaching and
Learning 59 (Fall 1994): 45-58.

Nelson introduces key aspects of the pedagogy of critical thinking and their
relationships with collaborative learning. He suggests that it is important to learn
how to explain why incorrect responses occur, in addition to providing the
disciplinary expectations of a subject. Students need to move beyond a dualistic
approach (yes/no answers) or a multiplistic approach (all answers are equally valid)
to one of contextual relativism, where they learn the criteria for judging alternatives
in a specific discipline. Nelson includes some examples of in-class exercises to
accomplish this level of critical thinking.

Learning without thought

Critical Thinking is labor lost
Confucius

Critical Thinking is "the careful, deliberate determination of whether

we should accept, reject, or suspend judgment about a claim, and the
degree of confidence with which we accept or reject it."
From Critical Thinking by Moore and Parker.

Strategies for Critical Reading

Ask yourself the following questions:

• What is the issue?"

• What conclusion does the author
reach about the issue?"
• What are the author's reasons for
believing as he does?"
o Be alert to bad reasoning
(i.e. pity, fear, misuse of statistics
etc.) that can fool you.
• Has the author used facts or
opinions?
o Facts can be proven.
o Opinions cannot be
proven and may or may not be
based on sound reasoning.
• Has the author used neutral words
or emotional words?
o Critical readers look
beyond the language to see if the
reasons are clear.

Characteristics of Critical Thinkers

• They are honest with themselves

• They resist manipulation
 • They overcome confusion
• They ask questions
• They base judgments on evidence
• They look for connections between
subjects

• They are intellectually independent

Problem-based learning (PBL) is based on the idea that:

• knowledge is most effectively remembered in the context in which it is learned

• acquiring and integrating new knowledge requires effective recall of prior knowledge

With PBL, the learner is actively involved in the learning process from the beginning of the
learning experience, and must integrate new knowledge with previous learning to achieve the
goals set for each problem.
*Adapted from Bachelor of Health Sciences, Degree Programme in Occupational Therapy, Curriculum Guide, McMaster
University, 1995, with permission.

PBL is becoming a popular method of learning for health

professionals as health professionals must:

• respond quickly to needs of patients who have complex disorders

• adapt to changes in health care policy and procedures
• access new information from many different sources
• be responsible for their own continuing professional education

PBL helps in the development of professionals by training learners as independent, critical

thinkers who have expertise in analyzing problems, gaining new information and integrating
this with prior knowledge.
*Adapted from Bachelor of Health Sciences, Degree Programme in Occupational Therapy, Curriculum Guide, McMaster
University, 1995, with permission.

Premises of PBL

• involves self-directed or independent learning; the student is responsible for directing

his or her own learning goals, methods and progress

• usually practised in a group setting, where students work together on their learning
objectives

• PBL is problem-based; the starting point for the learning process is a problem or a
case

• PBL involves a tutor or facilitator, whose role is to support the group of students as
they define and explore their learning

*Adapted from Bachelor of Health Sciences, Degree Programme in Occupational Therapy, Curriculum Guide, McMaster
University, 1995, with permission.

Problem-based learning (PBL) vs. Problem solving

Problem-based learning:

• "the process of acquiring understanding, knowledge, skills and attitudes in the context
of an unfamiliar situation, and applying such learning to that situation" (Engel)

Problem solving:
• "making decisions in the face of a situation in which the nature and interplay of its
components are not immediately obvious or fully identified" (Engel)