Lecture Note-Research Methods and Scientific Writing-2021

Research Methods and
Writing Skills
For GIS MSC Program
By
Mikias Biazen (PhD)
Wondo Genet
2021
Research Methods by Mikias Biazen (PhD) 1

Objectives
This course enables students to:
• gain clear understanding on basic concepts of
research methods and methodology
• developing a sound proposal
• writing of research reports based on the
analysis and findings of researches in different
field of studies
• impart clarity on the skills required to carry out
research projects and seminar presentations
successfully.
Learning Outcomes:
After completion of the course the students will be able to:
• Define what a research means and familiar with the types
of research
• Explain the needs for a scientific research,
• identify and prioritize research needs or problems
• prepare project proposal,
• analyze different socio-economic data and write up
scientific report,
• Develop critical thinking in identifying the most
important data sources for a particular use;
• Explain the different sampling and data collection
techniques and apply in practice
• Make use of appropriate in-text citations and bibliography
• Acquire the necessary skills to formulate research
problems Research Methods by Mikias Biazen (PhD) 3
Meaning of Research
• Once can define research as
– a scientific and systematic search for pertinent information on
a specific topic.
– The Advanced Learner’s Dictionary of Current English lays
down the meaning of research as “a careful investigation or
inquiry specially through search for new facts in any branch of
knowledge.”
– Redman and Mory define research as a “systematized effort
to gain new knowledge.”
– Some people consider research as a movement, a movement
from the known to the unknown. It is actually a voyage of
discovery.

Meaning of Research
• We all possess the vital instinct of inquisitiveness

for, when the unknown confronts us, we wonder
and our inquisitiveness makes us probe and
attain full and fuller understanding of the
unknown.
• This inquisitiveness is the mother of all
knowledge and the method, which man employs
for obtaining the knowledge of whatever the
unknown, can be termed as research.

Meaning of Research
• Research is an academic activity and as such the term
should be used in a technical sense.
• According to Clifford Woody research comprises
– defining and redefining problems,
– formulating hypothesis or suggested solutions;
– collecting, organizing and evaluating data;
– making deductions and reaching conclusions; and
– at last carefully testing the conclusions to determine
whether they fit the formulating hypothesis.

Meaning of Research
• D. Slesinger and M. Stephenson in the Encyclopedia
of Social Sciences define research as “the
manipulation of things, concepts or symbols for the
purpose of generalizing to extend, correct or verify
knowledge, whether that knowledge aids in
construction of theory or in the practice of an art.”

Meaning of Research
• Research is, thus, an original contribution to the
existing stock of knowledge making for its
advancement.
• It is the persuit of truth with the help of study,
observation, comparison and experiment.
• In short, the search for knowledge through objective
and systematic method of finding solution to a
problem is research.
• The systematic approach concerning generalization
and the formulation of a theory is also research.

Meaning of Research
• As such the term ‘research’ refers to the systematic
method consisting of :
• articulating the problem,
• Formulating a hypothesis,
• collecting the facts or data,
• analyzing the facts and
• reaching certain conclusions either in the form of
solutions(s) towards the concerned problem or in
certain generalizations for some theoretical
formulation.
Objectives or Purpose of Research
• The purpose of research is to discover answers to questions through the
application of scientific procedures.
• The main aim of research is to find out the truth which is hidden and
which has not been discovered as yet.
• Though each research study has its own specific purpose, we may think of
research objectives as falling into a number of following broad groupings:
1. To gain familiarity with a phenomenon or to achieve new insights into it
(studies with this object in view are termed as exploratory or formulative
research studies);
2. To portray accurately the characteristics of a particular individual,
situation or a group (studies with this object in view are known as
descriptive research studies);
3. To determine the frequency with which something occurs or with which
it is associated with something else (studies with this object in view are
known as diagnostic research studies);
4. To test a hypothesis of a causal relationship between variables (such
studies are known as hypothesis-testing research studies).

Objectives or Purpose of Research
• Research generates new knowledge

• Research helps finding solutions to problems.
• Research brings to light information that might never
be discovered fully during the ordinary course of life.
• Research establishes generalization, general laws and
theories in various fields, e.g. law of gravitation.
• Research verifies and tests existing facts in order to
improve our understanding.

Motivation in Research
• What makes people to undertake research? This is a question of
fundamental importance.
• The possible motives for doing research may be either one or more of
the following:
1. Desire to get a research degree along with its consequential benefits;
2. Desire to face the challenge in solving the unsolved problems, i.e.,
concern over practical problems initiates research;
3. Desire to get intellectual joy of doing some creative work;
4. Desire to be of service to society;
5. Desire to get respectability.
• However, this is not an exhaustive list of factors motivating people to
undertake research studies.
• Many more factors such as directives of government, employment
conditions, curiosity about new things, desire to understand causal
relationships, social thinking and awakening, and the like may as well
motivate (or at times compel) people to perform research operations.

Sources of Knowledge
• We know a lot about the world in general and our
environment in particular.
•
• How do you think we acquire such knowledge?

• Let you discuss with your friends and list some ways of acquiring knowledge.
• Some of the sources of knowledge include the following.

a. Authority
b. Personal experiences
c. Logical reasoning
d. Common sense
e. Science

Personal experiences
• We see, hear, taste, smell, and touch.
• sensory experience (knowing some thing by
receiving stimuli through our body
parts/exteroceptors/ such as the eye, ear, or any of
the nerve endings in the skin
Limitation:
• Individuals may react differently to the same
situation
• Experience doesn’t provide answers to all
problems we face

ii. Authority – expert opinion
• When knowledge is obtained from individuals who are taken as qualified
producers of knowledge, the source of the knowledge is said to be an
authority.
• In earlier times elders and philosophers (like Plato, Aristotle) were
accepted as sources of knowledge.
• Knowledge about religion will be obtained from priests and sheiks. They
are authorities who possess information on the religions.
Limitation:
• Experts may not be right
• Experts may disagree on issues
• Experts may not know everything
iii. Reasoning (Logic)
• This is a thinking process in which one will go from general
statements to specific statements.
• It is a means to evaluate the correctness of any given conclusion or
idea by going from the known to the unknown.
• Here knowledge will be obtained based on some rules and forms
of logic.
It can be classified in two ways.
A. Deductive
B. inductive reasoning
• Deductive reasoning thinking process in which one proceeds from
general to specific statements using prescribed rules of logic.

Deductive Approach
Data
Collection
Hypothesis confirmed or refuted
In this approach the research process is cyclical, i.e.

results feedback into the system and inform future
research
Inductive Reasoning
• In this case you will go from specific to general ideas. Here conclusions
will be given by observing particular instances (situations) and generalizing
from them to the whole phenomenon.
• Consider the following points
 Mammals are mortal
 Insects are mortal
 Birds are mortal
 Fishes are mortal
 Plants are mortal
 Reptiles are mortal
• What possible conclusion can you have from the above specific
points?
• So, the possible conclusion that can be given is:
• All living things are mortal
Inductive

Reasoning

Research Problems
• A research problem is a statement about an area of concern, a
condition to be improved, a difficulty to be eliminated, or a
troubling question that exists in scholarly literature, in theory,
or in practice that points to the need for meaningful
understanding and deliberate investigation.
• However, research problems are of three types: descriptive
(pertains to issues which need studying), relational (research
questions which focus on the relationship between two or
more factors), and causal research (problems that look at cause
and effect).

Sources of Research Problems
• Professional Experience (day-to-day professional task)
• Social problems like unemployment, crimes, female
genital mutilation , etc
• Theory deduction
• Funding agencies (identified problems by agencies)
• Past researches and literature review
• Casual observation
• Related literature (Research reports, research abstracts,
written materials)
• Current social and economic issues
• Personal interest and experience
• Replication of previous studies
• Clarification of contradictory research results
Characteristics of Research Problem
1. Is the Problem Researchable?

The problem should be one that can effectively
be solved through the process of research.
Consider the following question.

•
2. Is the Problem New?
• There is no purpose in studying a problem that had
already been adequately investigated by other researchers.
• You should not unnecessarily spend time on a problem
already investigated by some other researcher.
• To avoid such duplication, it is necessary to carefully
examine the record of previous studies completed in one's
field.
• But this does not to mean that a problem, once
investigated, should not be touched again.

3. Is the Problem Significant?
•
• This is related to the value of the problem. You need to question the
contribution of dealing with a problem in adding new knowledge to what
is known.
• Research should not be conducted only for its own sake.
• It needs to have some practical contributions. For example consider the
following problem.
•
• "The Relationship between School Size and Number of Students"
or
• "The relationship between shoe number and height"

4. Is the Problem Feasible?
• There should be some important preconditions to conduct a
research effectively.
– What preconditions, do you think, should be taken in to account before conducting
a research?
1. Research Competency - the researcher should have good
knowledge about the problem area he/she is studying.
2. Interest - there should be interest on the part of the researcher
in conducting his/her study.
3. Financial Considerations - a researcher needs to have the
necessary financial resources
4. Time Requirements - A researcher should select a problem that
he/she can investigate in the time he/she has/
5. Administrative Considerations - The researcher must be sure
about the availability and accessibility of data.
Types of Research
• The basic types of research are as follows:
(i) Descriptive vs. Analytical
• Descriptive research includes surveys and fact-finding
enquiries of different kinds.
• The major purpose of descriptive research is description of
the state of affairs as it exists at present.
• In social science and business research we quite often use
the term Ex post facto research for descriptive research
studies.

Types of Research……………..
• The main characteristic of this method is that the researcher
has no control over the variables; he can only report what
has happened or what is happening.
• Most ex post facto research projects are used for descriptive
studies in which the researcher seeks to measure such items
as, for example, frequency of shopping, preferences of
people, or similar data.
• Ex post facto studies also include attempts by researchers to
discover causes even when they cannot control the variables.
• The methods of research utilized in descriptive research are
survey methods of all kinds, including comparative and
correlational methods.
• In analytical research, on the other hand, the researcher has

to use facts or information already available, and analyze
these to make a critical evaluation of the material.
(ii) Applied versus Fundamental
• Applied (or action) research aims at finding a
solution for immediate problem facing a society or
an industry, etc. e.g. Agriculture
• It is not done to gain knowledge for its own sake but
to solve specific and practical problems that are
faced.
• It usually involves adaptation, conversion, or
processing of knowledge to develop useful
innovation or technology that is derived from basic
or fundamental research
• Fundamental (basic or pure) research
• is concerned with generalizations and with the formulation of
a theory.
• a research activity pursued with the aim of discovering or
creating new knowledge regardless of its immediate
application.
• Its primary purpose is to advance the frontiers of knowledge
and is conducted without practical end in mind.
• It is mainly driven by the researcher’s curiosity or interest. The
commitment and devotion of the researcher is important.
• Basic research is often conducted in universities than in
research systems
(iii) Quantitative vs. Qualitative
• Quantitative research:
• is concerned with the measurement of amount or
quantity.
• It is applied to phenomena that can be expressed in
terms of quantity.
• assigns numbers to the phenomena.
• It is a description of phenomena by using some
mathematical or statistical manipulation

• Qualitative research
• is concerned with qualitative phenomena.
– For example, reasons for human behavior,
attitude or opinion research.
• produces narratives or textual description of
phenomena under study.
• It is a description of phenomena by using words

Quantitative vs qualitative research
Items Quantitative research Qualitative research
Type of data Phenomena described Phenomena described in a

numerically narrative way
analysis Descriptive and inferential Identification of major items
statistics
Scope inquiry Specific question or Broad thematic concerns
hypothesis
advantage Large sample, statistical Rich, in-depth narrative
validity, accurately reflects description of sample
the population
disadvantage Superficial understanding of Small sample, not
participants’ thoughts and generalizable to the
feelings population at large

(iv) Conceptual versus Empirical
• Conceptual research
• is related to some abstract idea(s) or theory.
• It is used to develop new concepts or to
interpret existing ones.
• Empirical research
• is data based research, coming up with
conclusions, which are capable of being
verified by observation or experiment.

(v) Some other classifications of research

• These will be variations of one or more of the above.
• We can have field setting research or laboratory
research or simulation research depending upon the
environment in which it is to be carried out.
• Clinical or diagnostic research which follow case study
methods or in-depth approaches to reach the basic
causal relations. They use very small samples.
• Exploratory or formalized: The objective of
exploratory research is to test hypothesis. Formalized
has substantial structure and specific hypothesis to be
tested.


Research Approaches
• There are two basic approaches to research, viz.,
quantitative approach and the qualitative
approach.
• The former(quantitative) involves the generation
of data in quantitative form which can be
subjected to rigorous quantitative analysis in a
formal and rigid fashion.
• This approach can be further sub-classified into
inferential, experimental and simulation
approaches to research.
• The purpose of inferential approach to research is
to form a data base from which to infer/ deduce/
summarize characteristics or relationships of
population.
– This usually means survey research where a sample of
population is studied (questioned or observed) to
determine its characteristics, and it is then inferred
that the population has the same characteristics.
• Experimental approach is characterized by much
greater control over the research environment
and in this case some variables are manipulated
to observe their effect on other variables.
• Simulation approach involves the construction of an
artificial environment within which relevant information
and data can be generated.
– This permits an observation of the dynamic behaviour of a system (or its
sub-system) under controlled conditions.
– The term ‘simulation’ in the context of business and social sciences
applications refers to “the operation of a numerical model that represents
the structure of a dynamic process. Given the values of initial conditions,
parameters and exogenous variables, a
– simulation is run to represent the behaviour of the process over time.”
– Simulation approach can also be useful in building models for
understanding future conditions.

• Qualitative approach to research is concerned with
subjective assessment of attitudes, opinions and
behaviour.
• Research in such a situation is a function of
researcher’s insights and impressions.
• Such an approach to research generates results either
in non-quantitative form or in the form which are not
subjected to rigorous quantitative analysis.
• Generally, the techniques of focus group interviews,
projective techniques and depth interviews are used.

Significance of conducting research
• “Learning to research will promote careful,
critical and systematic thinking.
• Learning to write, however, promotes effective

communication of the ideas and insights gained
in the research.”

Significance…
• Research is a way of knowing.
• When we want to know something and there is
no one who knows about it or the people
disagree or when we are not ready to accept the
answer of somebody, then we do research.
• We also conduct research when the existing
literature on a subject does not answer being
given.

Significance…
• Individuals, groups and corporations do research
– when they want answers to questions for which the
authorities have no answers or
– where there is inconsistency in the answers given.
• Generally, research is done to settle disputes
about the nature and operation of some aspect
of the universe we live in.
• Research is a disciplined way of coming to know
something about our world or ourselves.

Research methods and research methodology
• Research methods may be understood as all

those methods/techniques that are used for
conduction of research.
• Research methods or techniques*, thus, refer
to the methods the researchers use in
performing research operations.
• In other words, all those methods which are
used by the researcher during the course of
studying his research.

• Research methods can be put into the following three
groups:
1. In the first group we include those methods which are
concerned with the collection of data. These methods
will be used where the data already available are not
sufficient to arrive at the required solution;
2. The second group consists of those statistical
techniques which are used for establishing
relationships between the data and the unknowns;
3. The third group consists of those methods which are
used to evaluate the accuracy of the results obtained.

• Research methodology is a way to systematically
solve the research problem.
• It may be understood as a science of studying
how research is done scientifically.
• In it we study the various steps that are generally
adopted by a researcher in studying his research
problem along with the logic behind them.
• It is necessary for the researcher to know not
only the research methods/techniques but also
the methodology.
Research, scientific method and theory
• Research and scientific method are closely

related.
• Research as we have already stated, can be
termed as an inquiry into the nature of, the
reasons for and the consequences of any set of
circumstances.
• On the other hand, the philosophy common to all
research methods and techniques, although they
may vary considerably from one science to
another, is usually given the name’ scientific
method’.

• Scientific method is the pursuit for truth as
determined by logical considerations.
• The Ideal of science is to achieve a systematic
interrelation of facts.
• So scientific method attempts to achieve this
ideal by experimentation, observation, and
logical argument from accepted postulates
and a combination of these three in varying
proportions.

• Research and theory are very closely
interrelated in two ways:
• a) Theory guides research by providing
guidelines and basic assumptions.
• b) Research provides the way of establishing,
formulating, strengthening and revising
theory.

• Theory is a supposition or system of ideas
explaining something, especially based on
general principles independent of the particular
thing to be explained.
• A theory is an idea of how things relate to each
other.
• Theory construction is based on a systematic
approach employing clear, explicit and formal
procedures in all aspects of the research process
Reasoning: Basis for discovering knowledge
• The sole aim of all research is to discover

knowledge or facts.
• In fact, there are two ways of seeking the
unknown in men’s long history.
• These are deductive logic and inductive logic.

Reasoning
• a) Deductive logic
• Deductive logic relies up on logical reasoning
and begins with a major premise.
• Essentially it looks for self-evident and
universally accepted truth.
• Example: Human being is mortal.
– David is human being.
– Therefore, David is mortal.

Deductive Approach
Data
Collection
Hypothesis confirmed or refuted
In this approach the research process is cyclical, i.e.

results feedback into the system and inform future
research
Reasoning
• b) Inductive reasoning:
• It is commonly called scientific method.
• It does not begin with a preconceived
conclusion or a major premise, but with an
observation, i.e. by looking at phenomena.
• It is still the most valid and commonly used
method for problem solving and the
resolution of unanswered questions.

Reasoning
• Usually the following steps are followed in scientific
method:
– Identify the problem that defines the goal of the quest.
– Gathering data with the hope of resolving the problem
– Positing a tentative hypothesis both as a logical means of
locating the data and as an aid to resolving the problem.
– Empirically testing the hypothesis and interpreting the
data.
• Example: David is mortal.
– All human beings are mortal.

Inductive

Reasoning
• The inductive approach is chosen because
may be there is no established theory on
which to base and, the research is trying to
develop one
• Because of this the approach is sometimes
called exploratory research

Reasoning

Characteristics of research
1. Research begins with a question in the mind of the
researcher.
2. Research demands the identification of a problem, stated in
clear, unambiguous terms.
3. Research requires a plan
4. Research deals with the main problem through appropriate
sub-problems
5. Research seeks direction through appropriate hypothesis
based up on obvious assumptions.
6. Research deals with facts and their meaning
7. Research is circular.

Characteristics…
1. Research begins with a question in the mind of
the researcher.
– Human being is a curious (questioning).
– Every where we look, we see phenomena which
arouse our curiosity, which cause us to wonder, to
speculate, to ask questions.
– By asking questions we strike the first spark of an
inquisitive attitude which is a prerequisite for
research.
– An inquisitive mind is the beginning of research.

Characteristics…
2. Research demands the identification of a problem,
stated in clear, unambiguous terms.
– Successful research begins with a clear, simple
statement of the problem that the researcher seeks to
resolve.
– We must clearly outline what we are attempting to
research (the goal of the research)

Characteristics…
3. Research requires a plan
– Research is not aimless, undirected, in the hope that
you may ‘come across’ the solution to your problem.
– Research demands a definite aggressive plan. i.e. your
activity must have direction as a result of conscious
planning and design

Characteristics…
4. Research deals with the main problem through
appropriate sub-problems.
– It is important to subsume the lesser problems, which
are collectively component parts of the whole.
– It is expected, therefore, to divide the main problem
into sub-problems all of which, when resolved, will
result in the solution of the main research problem.

Characteristics…
5. Research seeks direction through appropriate
hypothesis based up on obvious assumptions.
– After the problem and the attendant sub-problems
are defined, each of the sub-problems is then
viewed thorough logical construct called a
hypothesis.
– A hypothesis is a logical supposition, a reasonable
guess, which may give direction to your thinking and
then aid in resolving it.
– That is, it gives direction in search of the facts.

Characteristics…
6. Research deals with facts and their meaning
– Often we’ve posited hypotheses, which suggest the
direction in which the facts may be discovered.
– The next step is to collect whatever facts seem to
be appropriate to the problem and to organize
them into meaningful aggregates, so that they can
be interpreted.
– The significance of the data depends upon the way
in which the facts are regarded as useful.
– Different researchers frequently drive different
meanings from the same set of data.
Characteristics…
7. Research is circular.
– Problem situation (central problem),
– Sub-problems (research universe)
– facts pertinent to the solution of the problem
– Construction of tentative hypothesis
– Collected facts organized, Analyzed, interpreted
– Solution of the problem

Characteristics…
• Research is a systematic and critical investigation
into a phenomenon/problem
• Research is a purposeful investigation
• Research uses scientific methods
• Research is objective and logical
• The purpose of research is not to arrive at an
answer which is personally pleasing, but rather
one which will stand up the test of criticism.

Research Philosophies
• There are two main research philosophies (or
positions) – positivist and phenomenological.
• Although there can be overlap between the
two , both positions may be identifiable in any
research project.

Positivist and phenomenological philosophy
Positivistic
(can also be referred to ‘Quantitative’, ‘Objectivist’,
‘Scientific’, ‘Experimentalist’ or ‘Traditionalist’)
Phenomenological
can also be referred to as ‘Qualitative’, ‘Subjectivist’,
‘Humanistic’ or ‘Interpretative’

Characteristics
POSITIVISTIC PHENOMENOLOGICAL
• An approach that seeks out the • It approaches research from the
facts or causes of any social perspective that human behaviour
phenomena in a systematic way. is not as easily measured as
• Belief that the study of social phenomena in the natural sciences.
behaviour should be conducted in • Human motivation is shaped by
the same way as studies factors that are not always
conducted in the natural sciences observable, e.g. inner thought
• Seek to identify, measure and processes, so that it can become
evaluate any phenomena and to hard to generalize on observation
provide rational explanation for alone.
the goal of establishing causal • Furthermore, people place their
links and relationships between own meanings on events; meanings
the different elements (or that do not always coincide with
variables) of the subject and relate the way others have interpreted
them to a particular theory or them.
practice.

Philosophies…
Positivistic Phenomenological
• Surveys • Case Studies
• Experimental Studies • Action Research
• Longitudinal Studies • Ethnography
• Cross-sectional (participant
Studies • observation)
• Participative Enquiry
• Feminist perspectives
• Grounded Theory

CHAPTER TWO
THE RESEARCH PROCESS AND

ITS ELEMENTS

THE RESEARCH PROCESS
Upon completion of this session, students will be able
to:
• Describe the standard procedures followed in research
process
• Explain the components of the research process and
their roles
• Learn how to progress step-by-step in solving
(investigating) a problem using the scientific method
• Understand the key terms and concepts commonly
used under sampling, research design, data collection
& analysis, and measurement
Research is a process
• Research process consists of series of actions
or steps necessary to effectively carry out
research and the desired sequencing of these
steps.
It has a beginning and an end
The process is cyclical not linear
 The various steps involved in a research
process are not mutually exclusive, nor are
they separate and distinct.

Research process in flow chart
FF
Review
concepts &
theories
Defining
research Design research
Formulate Analyze Data Interpret &
problem (Including sample Collect Data
hypothesis (III) (Test hypothesis if report (VII)
(I) design)(IV) (Execution) (V)
any) (VI)
Review
previous
research
findings
F
F
Where
F = feed back (Helps in controlling the sub-system to which it is transmitted)
FF= feed forward (Serves the vital function of providing criteria for evaluation)
Research Process
• The chart indicates that the research process consists of a
number of closely related activities, as shown through I to
VII.
• But such activities overlap continuously rather than
following a strictly prescribed sequence.
• At times, the first step determines the nature of the last
step to be undertaken.
• If subsequent procedures have not been taken into account
in the early stages, serious difficulties may arise which may
even prevent the completion of the study.
• One should remember that the various steps involved in a
research process are not mutually exclusive; nor they are
separate and distinct.
• They do not necessarily follow each other in any specific
order and the researcher has to be constantly anticipating
at each step in the research process the requirements of
the subsequent steps.
Research process
However, the following order concerning various steps
provides a useful procedural guideline regarding the research
process:
1) formulating the research problem;
2) extensive literature survey;
3) developing the hypothesis;
4) preparing the research design;
5) determining sample design;
6) collecting the data;
7) execution of the project;
8) analysis of data;
9) hypothesis testing;
10) generalizations and interpretation, and
11) preparation of the report or presentation of the results,
• i.e., formal write-upResearch
of conclusions
Methods by Mikias Biazenreached.
(PhD) 77
1) Formulating the research problem
(Identification of research problem/Topic)
• There are two types of research problems:-

– those, which relate to the state of nature and
– those, which relate to relationships.
• It requires understanding the problem
thoroughly, and rephrasing it into meaningful
terms from analytical point of view.
• This could be done through
– discussion with colleagues, consulting experienced
person,
– reviewing literature.

Formulating the research problem/topic
• Important questions when planning a study:

– Is the topic researchable, given time, resources and availability of
data?
– Is there a personal interest in the topic in order to sustain attention?
– Will the results from the study be of interest to others (e.g. In the
state, region or nation)?
– Is the topic likely to be publishable in a scholarly journal (or attractive
to evaluating bodies)?
– Does the study Fill a void? Replicate? Extend? Or Develop new ideas
in the scholarly literature?
– Will the project contribute to career goals?
• These factors need to be considered before one proceeds with a study.
• It is also important to obtain reactions from colleagues, experts in the
field, academic advisors, etc

• What is the problem and its significance?

• On what conceptual framework to base the
study?
• What tentative hypothesis?
• Does the researcher have access to tools,
equipment, lab. money, time, data etc to
conduct the study?

Try to seek answers to the following questions:
• What available information and knowledge on the nature, causes
and magnitude of the problem are there?
• What are the gaps in knowledge?
• What makes the problem worth studying?
• Will the solution of the problem advance knowledge appreciably, or
of measurable practical value?
• Will the study duplicate the work already done?
• What are the reasons that the problem was not studied up to now?
• Does the solution to the problem has any practical, theoretical
significance?
• What are the social, political, economic, technical, environmental or
theoretical implications of the study?

2) Extensive Literature survey/review
• Reviewing is examining the published literature in
the area of inquiry to understand the current
state of knowledge in that area to:
– know what have been published on a topic by
accredited scholars and researchers
– know the state of knowledge, the advances and gaps
as well as current controversies/debates on an issue
• It is all available relevant literature, published
and unpublished incl. books, articles and others

Individual assignment 2
Literature Review
1. Explain what does it mean a literature review?
2. What are the purposes of a literature review?
3. What are the procedures for reviewing literature
4. List the major sources of literature
5. Write the reasons why a researcher needs to review
related literature.

3) Development of working hypotheses
• Working hypothesis is tentative assumption made in order to draw out and test its logical or
empirical consequences.
• Hypothesis should be very specific and limited to the piece of research in hand because it has to
be tested.
• The role of the hypothesis is to guide the researcher by delimiting the area of research and to
keep him on the right track.
• It sharpens his thinking and focuses attention on the more important facets of the problem.
• It also indicates the type of data required and the type of methods of data analysis to be used.
• How does one go about developing working hypotheses?
• The answer is by using the following approach:
– (a) Discussions with colleagues and experts about the problem, its origin and the objectives
in seeking a solution;
– (b) Examination of data and records, if available, concerning the problem for possible
trends, peculiarities and other clues;
– (c) Review of similar studies in the area or of the studies on similar problems; and
– (d) Exploratory personal investigation which involves original field interviews on a limited
scale with interested parties and individuals with a view to secure greater insight into the
practical aspects of the problem.

4) Preparing the Research Design
A) Meaning of research design
• Research design is the decision regarding what, where, when, how much,
by what means concerning an inquiry or a research study.
• It is the arrangement of conditions for collection and analysis of data in a
manner that aims to combine relevance to the research purpose with
economy in procedure
• Research purposes may be grouped into four categories, viz.,
– (i) Exploration,
– (ii) Description,
– (iii) Diagnosis, and
– (iv) Experimentation.
• The overall plan for obtaining an answer to the research question or for
testing the research hypothesis

Research Design…………….
• RD is the conceptual structure within which
research is conducted;
• RD constitutes the blue print for the collection,
measurement and analysis of data.
• RD is needed because it facilitates the smooth
running (sailing) of the various research
operations, thereby making research as efficient
as possible

Will have been chosen based on:

• Research question/hypothesis.
• Strengths and weaknesses of alternative
designs.
• Feasibility, resources, time frame, ethics.

B) Important concepts relating to research design
• Dependent variable (DV) is a variable, which depends
up on or is a consequence of other variable.
• DV is a variable that is casually influenced by another
variable (i.e. independent variable)
– It is a variable which is the consequence of other variable
– It is a condition that appears or disappears as the researcher
applies or varies an independent variable
– A condition that the researcher is trying to explain
– It is the desired outcome

• Independent variable (IV) is the variable, which is
antecedent to the dependent variable.
– For example, if we say height depends up on age, then
height is dependent variable and age is an independent
variable.
• IV is a variable which has a casual impact on
another variable (i.e. on dependent variable)
• It is a presumed cause of change in observed
phenomena
• It is a condition that the researcher applies to
examine the behavior of phenomenon under study

• Continuous variables: Phenomena, which can
take any quantitatively different values, even in
decimal points.
– Age is an example of continuous variable.
• Discrete variables (non-continuous) – those
phenomena, which are, expressed only on the
basis of integer (whole numbers),
– e.g. number of children

• Extraneous variable: Independent variable

that is not related to the purpose of the study,
but may affect the dependent variable, is
termed as extraneous variable.
• Whatever effect is noticed on DV as a result of
EV is technically described as an ‘
experimental error’.

• An important aspect of a good research design
is to ‘control’ or minimize the effect of
extraneous variable.
• If dependent variable is not free from the
influence of extraneous variable, the
relationship between dependent and
independent variables is said to be
‘confounded’ by an extraneous variable.

• e.g. time as an extraneous variable in the
evaluation of professors’ performance by
students
– If survey was made early in the semester – higher
evaluation
– If survey was made late in the semester – lower
evaluation
– Here time is a confounding variable.

C) Different research designs
– Commonly Used Research Designs are:
– 1) Experimental design
– 2) Surveys design
• Cross-sectional design
• Longitudinal design
– 3) Case research design

1) Experimental design
• It is used in natural science – in lab
experiments.
• Its use not common in social studies
• it is often seen as a benchmark because it
engenders considerable confidence in the
robustness and trustworthiness of causal
findings.
• it is considered to be very strong in internal
validity

2) Survey design
• Field surveys are non-experimental designs that
do not control for or manipulate independent
variables or treatments, but measure these
variables and test their effects using statistical
methods.
2a) Cross-sectional surveys design:
• "captures" information at one moment in time
from a single group of respondents at a single
point in time without any attempt to follow-up
over time”

Limitations of cross-sectional:
• Anytime we are pursuing an analysis of
change, we want to know if situations or
conditions have changed over time.
2b) Longitudinal Research Designs
• collects data at two or more points in time. In
so doing, longitudinal research is better
equipped than cross-sectional research to
address the question of change.

• In a longitudinal design the researcher has

several options to consider:
– the fixed-sample panel design,
– repeated cross-sectional design (trend analysis), and
– an event-based design

3) Case Research Design
• Case research is an in-depth investigation of a
problem in one or more real-life settings (case
sites) over an extended period of time.
• It is a detailed and intense analysis of a single
case.
• It is concerned with the complexity and
particular nature of a case under study
• e.g. observation of - single community

d) Common concerns of research designs

i. Reliability
– The quality of measurement, its consistency or
repeatability
– A measure is considered reliable if it gives the
same result over and over again, or each time it is
used, given that there is not significant change in
the variable being measured
• e.g. how reliable is a scale that is used to measure the
weights of animals for the study?

ii. Validity
• Three key issues are raised under validity
• How can we trust statements or claims of
measurements? i.e. the question of measurement
validity
• How can we trust causal statements about the
world? i.e. the question of internal validity
• How can we trust that our findings can be
applicable beyond the study that produced them?
i.e. the issue of external validity
5) Determining sample design
• Who will be studied?
• How will they be recruited?
• How will they be allocated to study groups?
1. Who Will be Studied

A. Specify eligible subjects
• Target population: Geographic characteristics
• Accessible population: demographic
characteristics
• Inclusion/Exclusion Criteria
Sample design………………
• Examples
1. Adherence on Antiretroviral treatment among adult HIV
positive people at the Adare hospital between January 1
and March 30, 2016.
• Target population: Hawassa city, Adare Hospital
• Accessible population: HIV +ve patients
• Inclusion Criteria:
Age > 16
Amharic-speaking
Registered patients
Exclusion Criteria:
Age <16

B. How will they be selected
Sampling: the process of selecting a portion of the

population to represent the entire population.
• Keys to Success
• Clear description of study population.
• Appropriate inclusion/exclusion criteria.
• Justification of study population and sampling
method (bias).
• Clear description of sampling methods.
2. How Will They Be Recruited?
Describe what methods will be used to recruit
subjects.
Important to document that the study will be
feasible and that there will be no ethical
problems.

• Key terms and concepts

• Population
• a universe of units from which a sample is drawn
– such a universe can be made of persons or
group of persons, things, events, or phenomena
• Census
• An enumeration of the entire population. Data
that is collected from all units in the population is
treated as a census.

• Sample
• a segment or a part or a subset of a population that is
selected for investigation
• A sample is drawn with the aim of making inference
concerning certain facts about the population called
statistical inference
• The quality of estimates about the population depends
on the sample procedure employed
• Sampling frame
• The list of all units in the population from which a
sample is selected

• Representative Sample
• A sample that reflects the population
accurately such that it is a microcosm of the
population

• Sampling error
– The difference between the sample and the population regardless of the
use of probability sampling method
– Use of probability sampling can reduce sampling error but cannot
eliminate it.
• Non-sampling error
• The difference between the population and the sample that arises either
from deficiencies in the sampling approach (e.g. inadequate sampling
frame) or from non-response, poor question wording, poor interviewing or
flawed data processing of data
• Non-response
• happens when some members of the sample refuse to cooperate, or
cannot be contacted, or for some reasons cannot supply the required
information

Sample design/Sampling methods
Two categories: probability or chance sampling and
deliberate or non-probability sampling
A. Probability/chance sampling
- It is a method in which every sampling unit in a
population has an equal chance of being included or
selected for the sample independent of any other event
in the selection process
- Random selection is its typical feature or a key factor
- The fact that all members of the population have equal
chance of selection makes it representative of the
population, but it does not provide a perfect
representation of the population
Sampling methods……………
There are different types of probability sampling
i. Simple random sampling
ii. Stratified random sampling
iii. Cluster sampling
iv. Systematic sampling
i) Simple Random Sampling
- Simplest form of probability sampling
- Appropriate for small population
- List of all units of the population or sampling frame is
prepared, and from it the required sample is randomly
chosen
- Gives each unit of the population an equal chance of
inclusion in the sample
Example: suppose we decide to interview n number of farm
households from a population of N. the probability of
inclusion is n/N. this is called the sampling fraction.
Simple random sampling
Simple random sampling, as the name suggests, is an entirely random method of
selecting the sample.

Key steps
- Define the population
- Devise a comprehensive sample frame excluding those who do not
meet the criteria
- Decide sample size (n)
• For example sample size (n) can be determined based on Yamane
(1967) sample size determination formula which is presented as
follows:
N
n= Where: n=Sample size
1+N e 2
N= total population
e=Sampling Error
- OR list all the households (items) in the population and assign them
consecutive numbers from 1 to N
- Using a table of random numbers or a computer program, select n
number of households (items) that is between 1 and N
ii) Systematic Random Sampling
- A variation to the simple random sampling
- The first element to the sample is selected using
a table of random numbers between 1 & N/n
(where N denotes the total population and n the
desired sample size) from the sample frame
- Then the rest of the elements for inclusion in the
sample will be systematically selected via a
sample interval that is calculated by dividing the
population (N) by the desired sample size (n)
Systematic sampling is when you choose every “nth” individual to be
a part of the sample. For example, you can select every 5th person to
be in the sample .

Example
 suppose the study population size (N) =10,000
 sample size (n)=1000
 Sample interval (i) = 10,000/1000 = 10
 First element to the sample = x, is randomly picked
between 1 and 10 (the sample interval)
 Then the rest of the elements for inclusion is done
by picking every ith element from the list (x, x+10,
then every 10th item on the list)
- The system requires that there is no inherent
ordering to the list (the sample frame) so that to
minimize bias
iii) Stratified random sampling
- Used if the population does not constitute a homogenous group
and there is a need to get representative sample from the groups
Steps in setting a stratified random sample
 Decide sample size
 Stratify the population into homogenous non-overlapping sub-
groups using criterion such that N1+N2+N3+…+Ni=N
 Decide how many items to pick from each groups or stratum
proportionally
 Then select items from each stratum by using simple random or
systematic random sampling method

Stratified random sampling involves a method where the researcher divides a more
extensive population into smaller groups that usually don’t overlap but represent the
entire population.
8 15

- Stratified random sampling enables or ensures that the resulting
sample will be distributed in the same way as the population in
terms of the stratifying criterion
- It is advantageous in that it enables to represent, in addition to
overall population, key subgroups such as minority groups
Note
 Stratified random sampling is conducted when it is relatively
easy to identify and allocate units to strata. Otherwise, it is not
feasible
 One more stratifying criteria is required e.g. faculty & sex of
students
 Availability of relevant information is a key factor

iv) Multi-Stage Cluster Sampling
- Selecting sample in clusters or groups rather than take
individual units…….. homogenous
- Sample units are clusters or groups where groups of items or
individuals having similar characteristics are put together in
one cluster
- Hence, the sampling frame is made of list of clusters or
groups such as schools, villages, plants in plots, fields,
animals, geographical contiguous households, etc
Multi-stage cluster sampling method is used when
- The population is widely distributed geographically or occur
in natural clusters (grazing lands, city blocks, schools,
hospitals, college students in dormitories)
- If obtaining a complete list of elements is difficult or costly
or impossible
B. Non-probability/deliberate sampling techniques
• Types of non-probability
– Purposive sampling
– Convenience sampling
– Judgmental sampling
- a sampling alternative that is used when using
probability sampling is not possible for some
reasons
- It is a selection of a sample based on some
judgment or knowledge rather than on random
selection
- As non-probability sampling is not based on
random selection, the method does not allow
statistical inference
Probability sampling Non-probability sampling
Samples are selected on the basis of the
The samples are randomly selected.
researcher’s subjective judgment.
Everyone in the population has an equal Not everyone has an equal chance to
chance of getting selected. participate.
Researchers use this technique when
Sampling bias is not a concern for the
they want to keep a tab on sampling
researcher.
bias.
Useful in an environment having a Useful in an environment that shares
diverse population. similar traits.
Used when the researcher wants to This method does not help in representing
create accurate samples. the population accurately.
Finding the correct audience is not
Finding an audience is very simple.
simple.
ii) Snowball sampling
- The researcher identify a person or group of
persons who meet the criteria (i.e. relevant for
the study), establish contacts, wins their support
and trust, and based on these, approach others
as samples
- Used in the studies of the homeless, drug users,
criminals, etc
Weakness
- Avoids individuals who are ‘loners’ or who are not
‘well-connected’
6) Collecting the data
• In dealing with any real life problem it is often found that data at
hand are inadequate, and hence, it becomes necessary to collect
data that are appropriate.
• There are several ways of collecting the appropriate data which
differ considerably in context of money costs, time and other
resources at the disposal of the researcher.
• Primary data can be collected either through experiment or through
survey.
• If the researcher conducts an experiment, he observes some
quantitative measurements, or the data, with the help of which he
examines the truth contained in his hypothesis.
• But in the case of a survey, data can be collected by any one or
more of the following ways:

Data Collection…………
(i) By observation: This method implies the collection
of information by way of investigator’s own
observation, without interviewing the respondents.
• The information obtained relates to what is
currently happening and is not complicated by
either the past behaviour or future intentions or
attitudes of respondents.
• This method is no doubt an expensive method and
the information provided by this method is also
very limited.
• As such this method is not suitable in inquiries
where large samples are concerned.
(ii) Through personal interview: The investigator

follows a rigid procedure and seeks answers to a
set of pre-conceived questions through personal
interviews.
• This method of collecting data is usually
carried out in a structured way where output
depends upon the ability of the interviewer to
a large extent.

(iii) Through telephone interviews: This method of
collecting information involves contacting the
respondents on telephone itself.
• This is not a very widely used method but it plays
an important role in industrial surveys in
developed regions, particularly, when the survey
has to be accomplished in a very limited time.

(iv) By mailing of questionnaires: The researcher and
the respondents do come in contact with each other if
this method of survey is adopted.
• Questionnaires are mailed to the respondents with a
request to return after completing the same.
• It is the most extensively used method in various
economic and business surveys.
• Before applying this method, usually a Pilot Study
for testing the questionnaire is conduced which
reveals the weaknesses, if any, of the questionnaire.
• Questionnaire to be used must be prepared very
carefully so that it may prove to be effective in
collecting the relevant information.
(v) Through schedules: Under this method the
enumerators are appointed and given training.
• They are provided with schedules containing relevant
questions.
• These enumerators go to respondents with these
schedules. Data are collected by filling up the
schedules by enumerators on the basis of replies
given by respondents.
• Much depends upon the capability of enumerators
so far as this method is concerned.
• Some occasional field checks on the work of the
enumerators may ensure sincere work.
• There are also other methods of data

collection such as:
• Focus Group Discussion (FGD)
• Key informant Interview (KII)

7) Execution of the project
• Execution of the project is a very important step in the
research process.
• If the execution of the project proceeds on correct lines,
the data to be collected would be adequate and
dependable.
• The researcher should see that the project is executed in
a systematic manner and in time.
• If the survey is to be conducted by means of structured
questionnaires, data can be readily machine-processed.
In such a situation, questions as well as the possible
answers may be coded.
Project Execution………..
• If the data are to be collected through

interviewers, arrangements should be made for
proper selection and training of the interviewers.
• The training may be given with the help of
instruction manuals which explain clearly the job
of the interviewers at each step.
• Occasional field checks should be made to
ensure that the interviewers are doing their
assigned job sincerely and efficiently.

8) Analysis of Data
- Data analysis requires critical thinking.
- Important to start from the research objectives and
the types of data collected for the study
- Focusing on the research problem, the hypothesis or
the research questions helps to organize the data for
analysis
- Data analysis is divided into two: Quantitative and
qualitative

Types of Data Analysis
Depending on the types of data, data analysis can be divided into Quantitative Data
Analysis and Qualitative Data Analysis
Data Analysis
Data
Preparation
1. Quantitative Data 2. Qualitative Data
Analysis Analysis
• Grounded
a) Descriptive Data b) Inferential Data theory
Analysis Analysis Content
Analysis
• Hermeneutic
Analysis
•Single variable •General
(Univariate) analysis Linear Model
•Correlation (GLM)
(Bivariate) analysis • Others

9) Hypothesis testing
• After analyzing the data as stated above, the
researcher is in a position to test the hypotheses, if
any, he/she had formulated earlier.
• Do the facts support the hypotheses or they happen

to be contrary? This is the usual question which
should be answered while testing hypotheses.
• Various tests, such as Chi square test, t-test, F-test,

have been developed by statisticians for the purpose.
Hypothesis testing…
• The hypotheses may be tested through the use of one or
more of such tests, depending upon the nature and
object of research inquiry.
• Hypothesis-testing will result in either accepting the

hypothesis or in rejecting it.
• If the researcher had no hypotheses to start with,

generalisations established on the basis of data may be
stated as hypotheses to be tested by subsequent
researches in times to come.

10) Generalisations and interpretation
• If a hypothesis is tested and upheld several

times, it may be possible for the researcher to
arrive at generalization, i.e., to build a theory.
• As a matter of fact, the real value of research
lies in its ability to arrive at certain
generalizations.

Gene…. and interpretation………..
• If the researcher had no hypothesis to start

with, he might seek to explain his findings on
the basis of some theory. It is known as
interpretation.
• The process of interpretation may quite often
trigger off new questions which in turn may
lead to further researches.

11) Preparation of the report or the thesis
• Finally, the researcher has to prepare the report of
what has been done by him/her.
• Writing of report must be done with great care keeping
in view the following:
1. The layout of the report should be as follows:
(i) the preliminary pages;
(ii) the main text, and
(iii) the end matter.
• In its preliminary pages the report should carry title
and date followed by acknowledgements and
foreword.
• Then there should be a table of contents followed by a
list of tables and list of graphs and charts, if any, given
in the report. Research Methods by Mikias Biazen (PhD) 156
Report Preparation…………….
• The main text of the report should have the following parts:
a) Introduction: It should contain a clear statement of the
objective of the research and an explanation of the
methodology adopted in accomplishing the research. The
scope of the study along with various limitations should as
well be stated in this part.
b) Summary of findings: After introduction there would
appear a statement of findings and recommendations in
non-technical language. If the findings are extensive, they
should be summarised.
c) Main report: The main body of the report should be
presented in logical sequence and broken-down into
readily identifiable sections.
d) Conclusion: Towards the end of the main text, researcher
should again put down the results of his research clearly
and precisely. In fact, it is the final summing up.
• At the end of the report, appendices should be
enlisted in respect of all technical data.
• Bibliography, i.e., list of books, journals,
reports, etc., consulted, should also be given
in the end. Index should also be given
specially in a published research report.

2. Report should be written in a concise and
objective style in simple language avoiding
vague expressions such as ‘it seems,’ ‘there
may be’, and the like.
3. Charts and illustrations in the main report
should be used only if they present the
information more clearly and forcibly.
4. Calculated ‘confidence limits’ must be
mentioned and the various constraints
experienced in conducting research operations
may as well be stated.
CHPATER THREE
SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH PROPOSAL

WRITING
Developing a Research Proposal
• A well-developed research proposal is a critical
first step for researchers needing to seek
approval, support or funding.
• The following session will discuss the
components and strategies on how to develop a
good proposal.

Learning Objectives
• Explain the meaning, function, purpose, and
components of a research proposal.
• Describe methods of writing a research
proposal.

Meaning of research proposal
• Research proposal is coined from two words
research and proposal
• Research is defined as ‘original and creative
intellectual activity, carried out in the laboratory,
the library or the field, which tries to discover
new facts and to appraise and interpret them
properly in the light of previous knowledge.
• With constantly increasing understanding it
revises previously accepted conclusions, theories
and laws, and makes new applications of its
findings, Whether it seeks to extend knowledge
for its own sake or to achieve results with specific
or social value

Meaning…
• A research proposal may be defined as a
written document requesting both
authorization and funds to undertake a
specific project in laboratory, library, field etc.,

Cont’d
• There is no a hard and fast format in scientific
research proposal writing. It varies from one
organization to another, from one country to
another.
• Though the format varies, the essence expressed
in different format remains the same.
• Even the research proposal formats of short,
medium and long term researches are the same.

Major components of scientific research proposal
• Title • Methodology
• Abstract – Research design
• Study Background – Description of the Study area
– Introduction – Sampling procedure and sample
– Statement of the problem size determination
– Objectives – Type of data and sources
– Hypothesis/ Research questions – Method of data collection
– Significance e of the study – Method of data analysis
– Scope and limitation of the • Work plan
study • Budget/Logistics
– Operational definition of Terms • References
• Literature review • Annex/ appendices
– Theoretical review
– Empirical review

1. Title
• The title should be as explicit as possible.

• It should be clear, concise, descriptive, short and the most
important words should be first.
• The title should also be descriptive and may even contain
information about the variables/relationships that will be
studied.
• The title should catch the reader's interest.
• Should capture and reflect the content of the research
proposal.
• Should enable the readers to understand the concepts
methodologies and outputs of the study.
• It should include the location or locations.
Class activity 1 – evaluate the following titles of
students proposal
1. Factors Influencing Academic performance of Female students: The case of
Misha woreda, Southern Region
2. Factors Affecting Women’s Economic Empowerment At Household Level: The

Case Of Dawro Zone, Mareka District, SNNPR, Ethiopia
3. Assessment Of Domestic Violence Against Women And Its Determinant

Factors The Case Of Kedida Gamela Woreda, Kambata Temebaro Zone,
Southern Ethiopia
4. Factors Affecting Women’s Use Of Mico-Creadit: The Case Of Kacha Birra

Woreda, Southern Ethiopia
5. The impact of problem-based learning strategies on test scores in a physics

classroom.

2. Abstract
• Abstract is an effective summary of the
project that should include the research
question, the rationale for the project, the
objectives of the project and a short
description of the overall research design and
methodology.
• Proposals are often pre-screened using the
abstract, therefore, it is an important piece.

Abstract…cont’d
• Provides a precise of the whole problem to be
investigated
• Provides the information of a lengthy proposal
in just one page, one paragraph
• Abstracts are often limited in length to
approximately 200-250 words, therefore, it is
important to be clear and concise


INTRODUCTION
Background of the study

3. Introduction
• Should include a statement of the research problem
and should frame the research question, providing the
necessary context or background for the question.
• This section should address the significance of the
project and it is often helpful to provide historical
background information to accomplish this goal.
• The introduction also includes major issues or sub-
issues and any hypotheses that have been formed.
• The introduction sets the stage for the reader in terms
of understanding the importance of the project.

Introduction…cont’d
• Provide the contemporary context in which your
proposed research question occupies the central
stage.
• We put here very broad statements regarding the
topic; we cite some general literature here, from
theoretical, historical, global, national issues
surrounding the topic.
• General, broad statements relating the importance
of the problem under study are also put here.

• Should give the general background and purpose
that give rise to the need for research activity.
• Review of previous work to reveal what is known
of subject (gaps in knowledge and current trends)
i.e., references to previous work, results and
other background material should be included if
possible.
• Some questions to be addressed here may
include.
The introduction generally covers the following elements:
 State the research problem
 Briefly describe the major issues and sub-problems to be
addressed by your research.
 Present the rationale of your proposed study and clearly
indicate why it is worth doing
 Identify the key variables of your experiment.
 State your hypothesis or research questions
 Set the delimitation or boundaries of your proposed
research in order to provide a clear focus.
 Provide definitions of key concepts.

What is A Research Problem?
• A research problem, in general, refers to some
difficulty which a researcher experiences in
the context of either a theoretical or practical
situation and wants to obtain a solution for
the same.

Cont’d
• a research problem is one which requires a
researcher to find out the best solution for the
given problem, i.e., to find out by which
course of action the objective can be attained
optimally in the context of a given
environment.

Selecting the Problem
• The research problem undertaken for study
must be carefully selected.
• The task is a difficult one, although it may not
appear to be so.
• Nevertheless, every researcher must find out
his own salvation for research problems
cannot be borrowed.
• A problem must spring from the researcher’s
mind like a plant springing from its own seed.
Selecting…
• The following points may be observed by a
researcher in selecting a research problem or
a subject for research:
• (i) Subject which is overdone should not be
normally chosen, for it will be a difficult task
to throw any new light in such a case.
• (ii) Controversial subject should not become
the choice of an average researcher.

Selecting…
• (iii) Too narrow or too vague problems should
be avoided.
• (iv) The subject selected for research should
be familiar and feasible so that the related
research material or sources of research are
within one’s reach.

• (v) The importance of the subject, the qualifications and the
training of a researcher, the costs involved, the time factor are few
other criteria that must also be considered in selecting a problem.
• In other words, before the final selection of a problem is done, a
researcher must ask himself the following questions:
• (a) Whether he/she is well equipped in terms of his background to
carry out the research?
• (b) Whether the study falls within the budget he/she can afford?
• (c) Whether the necessary cooperation can be obtained from those
who must participate in research as subjects?
• If the answers to all these questions are in the affirmative, one may
become sure so far as the practicability of the study is concerned.

• (vi) The selection of a problem must be
preceded by a preliminary study.
• This may not be necessary when the problem
requires the conduct of a research closely
similar to one that has already been done.
• But when the field of inquiry is relatively new
and does not have available a set of well
developed techniques, a brief feasibility study
must always be undertaken.

Technique Involved in Defining a Problem
• Defining a problem involves the task of laying

down boundaries within which a researcher
shall study the problem with a pre-
determined objective in view.

The techniques…
• The technique for the purpose involves the
undertaking of the following steps generally one after
the other:
• (i) statement of the problem in a general way;
• (ii) understanding the nature of the problem;
• (iii) surveying the available literature
• (iv) developing the ideas through discussions; and
• (v) rephrasing the research problem into a working
proposition.
• A brief description of all these points will be helpful.

As the first substantial step, it
should…
• Provide the context for the research paper;
• Generate questions which the researcher
hopes to answer;
• Hook the reader and establish a persuasive
context for what follows;
• Answer the questions: “What is the problem?”
and “Why is this problem worth my
attention?”

Conti……………..
• Limit scope by focusing on some variables and

not others;
• Provide and opportunity for you to
demonstrate why these variables are
important

Writing your problem statement
1. The ideal
• A persuasive problem statement consists of three
parts: 1) the ideal situation, 2) the reality, and 3) the
consequences.
• By comparing the ideal scenario and the situation as
it exists, will persuade the reader that a problem
exists, and then emphasize the consequences of
ignoring or addressing the problem
• In order for the reader to understand the problem or
need, they first need to know what the ideal
situation would look like.
• Think for a moment, if your problem or need did
NOT exist, what would the situation be like
• Describe this for the reader
2. The reality
• Obviously the current situation is not ideal.
• Now that you have defined the ideal for the
reader, you can let them know what the problem
or need is.
• Describe the current situation.
• Remember as a researcher you are dispassionate
and nonjudgmental.
• Stick to the facts about the current situation.

3. Consequences
• Your reader now knows what the ideal situation
would be, and how the current situation is
different from the ideal.
• Explain the consequences of not correcting this
situation.
• If you did not undertake this research and the
situation remained uncorrected, what would be
the negative results?

4. Proposed solution
• The reader now understands what the ideal
would be, why the current situation is not ideal,
and the consequences of not correcting the
current situation.
• All that is left is to explain the solution you
propose to test and how it will help correct the
current situation.

Example of ideal
• In an ideal setting, a student's grade in a course
should be a judgment of the student's knowledge in
that subject area.
• In order for students to make healthy dietary
choices, parents, the primary educators and
providers of food items, need to have knowledge of
the importance of quality nutritional food and
healthy food choices.
• The mission of the organization is to promote the
appropriate use of technology to assist all students
and staff so that they can become more
independent, self-confident, and productive
learners.

Examples of reality statement
• Unfortunately, this is not always the case. Many teachers
use grading systems that do not reflect the student's
knowledge of the topic at the end of the course.
• A student is often offered a single assessment event to
show their mastery of a concept.
• American children are more overweight and the incidence
of chronic illness is higher than at any time in our nation’s
history. While, parents have abundant information at their
fingertips, students’ lack of knowledge of quality,
nutritional food choices is at an all time low.
• The computer applications class and technology class are
the only classrooms with their own computer technology.
All other classes are required to share one computer lab of
thirty computers and sixty mobile laptop computers for a
student population of over 1,100.

Examples of consequence statement
• If the student has not mastered the material in the allotted
time, they will receive a negative grade for that unit of
information.
• This is not an accurate view of the student’s knowledge,
because they may learn more about a topic throughout the
rest of the course.
• When parents, and in turn students, continue to make
unhealthy food choices because of their lack of knowledge
an “undue burden of poor health” continues to be placed
on the next generation
• The current situation, of limited technological resources,
causes a roadblock to classroom projects and student
learning opportunities.

Examples of solution statement
• Retesting is a method where a student is allowed to test on a topic more than one time.
• As the course progresses, the student may learn the material. Retesting allows this
student to show mastery of the material if they learn it after the original test. By
incorporating a retest policy, the ideal situation should occur.
• The grade awarded to the student at the end of the semester would be an accurate
assessment of the student’s knowledge of the topic.
• In order to determine the nutritional knowledge/lack of nutritional knowledge of

parents and students enrolled in BlahBlah Virtual Academy, a ‘pre-test’ survey will be
administered to both parents and students. Upon completion of a series of monthly
‘nutrition workshops’ via Class Connect (a virtual classroom) a ‘post-test’ will be
administered to those that participated in the workshop.
• One solution would be to supply students with their own laptop computers for use in
the classroom. This would allow flexibility of instruction and curriculum, allowing for an
eLearning environment.
Formatting
You have four statements to make in this problem
statement but they should NOT be labeled
statement 1, statement 2; or Ideal Situation,
Current Situation.
• The problem statement should be in paragraph
form with the ideas flowing from one phase to
the next seamlessly.
• Examples used on previous slides are shown as
full problem statements in the slides which
follow.

Conti…………….
• STATEMENT 1 (Description of the Ideal Scenario)
– Describe the goals, desired state, or the values that
your audience considers important and that are
relevant to the problem.
• (BUT)
– Connect statements 1 and 2 using a term such as
"but," "however,“ "Unfortunately," or "in spite of";
• STATEMENT 2 (The Reality or the current
Situation)
• Describe a condition that prevents the goal or
state discussed in statement 1 from being
achieved or realized.
Conti……………..
• STATEMENT 3 (The Consequences for the
Audience)
– Show how the situation in statement 2 contains
little promise unless something is done. Then
emphasize the benefits of research by projecting
the consequences of possible solutions.

First full example
• In an ideal setting, a student's grade in a course should be a judgment of the
student's knowledge in that subject area. Unfortunately, this is not always
the case. Many teachers use grading systems that do not reflect the
student's knowledge of the topic at the end of the course. A student is often
offered a single assessment event to show their mastery of a concept. If the
student has not mastered the material in the allotted time, they will receive
a negative grade for that unit of information. This is not an accurate view of
the student’s knowledge, because they may learn more about a topic
throughout the rest of the course. Retesting is a method where a student is
allowed to test on a topic more than one time. As the course progresses, the
student may learn the material. Retesting allows this student to show
mastery of the material if they learn it after the original test. By
incorporating a retest policy, the ideal situation should occur. The grade
awarded to the student at the end of the semester would be an accurate
assessment of the student’s knowledge of the topic.

Writing research Objectives

Research Objectives
• Research Objectives summarize what is to be achieved by the

study.
• What is to be achieved by the proposed investigation has to be
plainly and concisely stated.
• It is a list of tasks needed to accomplish the research project
• Should be cohesive and logically arranged
• Objectives should be presented concisely and briefly
• They should be realistic about what you can accomplish in the
duration of the project
• Should not be too vague, ambitious or broad.
• Objectives should be closely related to the statement of the
problem.
• Not too many
Conti………………..
• Research is an organized investigation of a
problem in which there is an attempt to gain
solution to a problem.
• To get right solution of a right problem, clearly
defined objectives are very important.
• Clearly defined objectives enlighten the way in
which the researcher has to proceed.

Meaning
• A research objective is a clear, concise,
declarative statement, which provides direction
to investigate the variables.’
• Generally research objective focus on the ways to
measure the variables , such as to identify or
describe them.
• Sometime objectives are directed towards
identifying the relationship or difference
between two variables.

Conti…………..
• Research objective are the results sought by the
researcher at the end of the research process, i.e.
what the researcher will be able to achieve at the
end of the research study.
• The objectives of a research project summarize
what is to be achieved by the study.
• Objective should be closely related to the
statement of the problem.

Characteristics of research objective
• Research objectives is a concrete statement
describing what the research is trying to achieve.
A well-worded objective will be SMART, i.e
Specific, Measurable, Attainable, Realistic, &
Time-bound.
• Research objective should be Relevant, Feasible,
Logical, Observable, Unequivocal & Measurable.
• Objective is a purpose that can be reasonably
achieved within the expected timeframe & with
the available resources.
Conti…………
• The objective or research project summarizes
what is to be achieved by the study.
• The research objectives are the specific
accomplishment the researchers hopes to
achieve by the study.
• The objective include obtaining answers to
research questions or testing the research
hypothesis.

Types of research objectives
• There are two types of research objectives:
– General objective
– Specific objectives
• 1. General objective
• General objectives are broad goals to be achieved.
 It should derive directly from the problem statement.
• The general objectives of the study state what the

researcher expects to achieve by the study in general
terms.
• General objectives are usually less in number. Only one
sentence
Conti……………
• For example, if the research problem chosen is
“domestic violence against women in the Area
X ", the general objective could be “to identify
the reasons for domestic violence against
women in the Area X"

Conti…………..
• 2. Specific objective
• Specific objectives are short term & narrow in focus.
• General objectives can broken into small logically
connected parts to form specific objectives.
• General objective is met through accomplishing all
the specific objective.
• The specific objectives are more in number & they
systematically address various aspects of problem as
defined under ‘the statement of problem’ & key
factor that is assumed to influence or causes the
problem.
• They should specify what the researcher will do in
the study, where, & for what purpose.
Examples of specific objectives
• In the example on domestic violence, the specific
objectives for this problem could be:
– To determine the prevalence of domestic violence
against women in the Area X.
– To identify the characteristics of the abused women.
– To identify the immediate causes of violence against
the women in Area X.
– To identify the socio-economic and cultural factors that
may influence domestic violence against women in the
Area X.

Examples…
• Examples:
• Title: Rating farmers’ soil conservation practices in environment
susceptible to erosion.
• Objective: test the effectiveness of existing conservation and
management systems in specific environment characterized by erosion
hazards
• Specific objectives:
• * What soil conservation and management measures do farmers practice
currently?
• * Which soil conservation and management measures are advocated by
the ministry of Agriculture?
• * To what extent the existing soil conservation and management practice
is effective in controlling soil erosion?
• What are the factors affecting use of effective soil conservation and
management system?
• Which soil conservation practices were preferred by farmers’?
• How do farmers rate soil conservation practices?
• What criteria do farmers use to rate a soil conservation practice?
Examples of general & specific objectives
• Research statement: “Effectiveness of planned teaching on
the knowledge of staff nurses working in psychiatric unit
regarding Physical Restraints for psychiatric patient in
selected hospital of Southern region”.
• General objective: To asses the knowledge of staff nurses
working in psychiatric unit regarding physical restraint.
• Specific objective:
• To assess the knowledge regarding Physical Restraints
among nurses working in psychiatric unit.
• To evaluate the effect of planned teaching on Physical
Restraints among nurses.
• To associate the knowledge with selected demographic
variables.
Method of stating objectives
• While stating objectives of the study, the following
guidelines must be taken care of:
• The objectives should be presented briefly &
concisely.
• They cover the different aspects of the problem & its
contributing factors in a coherent way & in a logical
sequence.
• The objectives are clearly phrased in operational
terms, specifying exactly what researcher is going to
do, where, & for what purpose.
• They are realistic considering local conditions.
• Use action verbs that are specify enough to be
evaluated.
Using Action Verbs in Study Objectives
Use action verbs that are specific enough to be
evaluated.
Research objectives should be in the simple
present tense
Examples of action verbs are: to determine, to
compare, to verify, to find out, to calculate, to
describe, to identify, to examine, to analyze, to
assess, to characterize, to establish, etc.
Avoid the use of vague non-action verbs such as:
to appreciate, to understand, or to study.
Use the Bloom’s Taxonomy to select action verbs
Group activity 1
• Activity on writing research objectives
• Here are some examples of general objectives
of which you may derive specific objectives
from them.
• General objective 1: To make the student
capable of using one of the three main
methods of data collection in order to identify
the information needs of a specific clientele
(questionnaire, interview, detailed case-
study).

Conti……………….
• Suggested Examples of specific objectives (General
Objective 1)
• The student must be able:
– to choose the most appropriate method of data collection for a
specific clientele;
– to prepare the corresponding data collection instrument;
– to modify the instrument prepared on the basis of a trial run;
– to draft the survey questionnaire and to use it in accordance
with the rules;
– to process the data using appropriate software;
– to decide on the form in which the results of the survey are to
be presented;
– to analyze and interpret the results obtained;
– to present the results of the survey in a way which is
comprehensible to non-specialists.

Conti…………….
• General objective 3: to examine factors
determining rural women’s participation in
decision making at the household level

Conti………………….
• Specific objectives:
• To assess the current status of rural women’s
participation in decision making at the household
level.
• To identify major determinant factors of rural
women’s participation in decision making at the
household level.

Conti…………………..
• General objective 4: to assess factors that
affecting student’s academic performances of
female students in high school.

Conti…………………….
• Specific Objectives
• (i) To assess academic performance of female
high school students
• (ii) To identify factors that affect high school
female students’ academic performance in the
study area.

Exercise on writing research objectives
• Write general and specific objectives based on

the problem formulated for your M.Sc.
Research proposal

Writing – a Good Research Questions,
– significance of the study,
– scope & limitation and
– operational definition of terms

Learning Objectives
• Identify the process for writing meaningful
research questions.
• Evaluate research questions.

Research Questions/Hypothesis
• Research questions and hypothesis are tools used
in similar ways for different research methods.
• Both hypothesis and research questions are
written before research begins and are used to
help guide the research.
• Hypothesis are used in deductive research, where
researchers use logic and scientific findings to
either prove or disprove (Accept or
Reject)assumptions.
• Heuristic research is based on experience, where
researchers use observations to learn about the
research subject.
Research Question…
• A hypothesis is defined as an educated guess,
while a research question is simply the researcher
wondering about the world.
• Hypothesis are part of the scientific research
method.
• They are employed in research in science,
sociology, mathematics and more.
• Research questions are part of
heuristic/experiential/empirical research
methods, and are also used in many fields
including literature, and sociology.
• As its name suggests, research questions are
always written as questions.
• Hypothesis are written as statements preceded
with the words "I predict."
• For example, a research question would ask,
"What is the effect of heat on the effectiveness of
bleach?"
• A hypothesis would state, "I predict heat will
diminish the effectiveness of bleach."

• Research questions inquire about the
relationships among variables that the
investigator seeks to know.
• Research questions are the specific queries
(demand for answers ) researchers want to
answer in addressing the research problem
– Back to objectives to develop questions

• Developing a good research question is one of
the first critical steps in the research process. The
research question, when appropriately written,
will guide the research project and assist in the
construction of a logical argument.
• The research question should be a clear, focused
question that summarizes the issue that the
researcher will investigate.

How to Develop a Good Research Question
• Researchers should begin by identifying a broader
subject of interest that lends itself to
investigation. For example, a researcher may be
interested in childhood obesity.
• The next step is to do preliminary research on the
general topic to find out what research has already
been done and what literature already exists.
• How much research has been done on childhood
obesity?
• What types of studies? Is there a unique area that
yet to be investigated or is there a particular
question that may be worth replicating?

Conti………………
• Then begin to narrow the topic by asking
open-ended "how" and "why" questions.
• For example, a researcher may want to
consider the factors that are contributing to
childhood obesity or the success rate of
intervention programs.
• Create a list of potential questions for
consideration and choose one that interests
you and provides an opportunity for
exploration.
Conti……………….
• Finally, evaluate the question by using the
following list of guidelines:
• Is the research question one that is of interest
to the researcher and potentially to others?
• Is it a new issue or problem that needs to be
solved or is it attempting to shed light on
previously researched topic.

Conti……………
• Is the research question researchable? Consider
the available time frame and the required
resources.
• Is the methodology to conduct the research
feasible?
• Is the research question measureable and will
the process produce data that can be supported
or contradicted?
• Is the research question too broad or too
narrow?

Examples of research questions
• Considering the information above, the
following provides examples of flawed
research questions as well as questions that
are well-designed:

• Too narrow: What is the • Less narrow: How does
childhood obesity rate the education level of the
in Hawassa? parents impact childhood
obesity rates in Hawassa?
This is too narrow because it
can be answered with a This question demonstrates
simple statistic. Questions the correct amount of
that can be answered with a specificity and the results
"yes" or a "no" should also would provide the
typically be avoided. opportunity for an argument
to be formed.

• Unfocused and too • More focused: How does
broad: What are the childhood obesity
effects of childhood correlate with academic
obesity in Ethiopia? performance in
elementary school
This question is so broad children?
that research methodology
would be very difficult and This question has a very
the question is too broad to clear focus for which data
be discussed in a typical can be collected, analyzed,
research paper. and discussed.

• Too objective: How much • More Subjective: What is
time do young children the relationship between
spend doing physical physical activity levels
activity per day? and childhood obesity?
This question may allow the This is a more subjective

researcher to collect data question that may lead to
but does not lend itself to the formation of an
collecting data that can be argument based on the
used to create a valid results and analysis of the
argument because the data data.
is just factual information.

• Too simple: How are school • More Complex: What are
systems addressing the effects of intervention
childhood obesity? programs in the elementary
schools on the rate of
This information can be childhood obesity among
obtained without the need to 3rd - 6th grade students?
collect unique data. The
question could be answered This question is more complex
with a simple online search and requires both investigation
and does not provide an and evaluation which will lead
opportunity for analysis. the research to form an
argument that may be
discussed.

Exercise
• Write three research questions that could guide
the beginning of a research study.
• They can deal with any subject matter that asks
about the behavior, attitudes, and opinions of
people.
• Be sure to follow the guidelines for writing good
questions discussed

Exercise (Mark allotted 5%)
• Write two or three research questions for your
M.Sc. Research objectives that you stated
previously

Suggested readings
• Alon, U. (2009). How to choose a good
scientific problem. Molecular Cell, 35, 726-
728.
• Cox, C. (2012). What makes for good
research? [Editorial] International Journal of
Ophthalmic Practice, 3(1), 3.
• Taylor, D. (1999). Introduction to Research
Methods. medicine, 319, 1618.


Significance of the research
 State why you are carrying out that research

topic.
 State the uses of the research findings that
will emanate when the study is finished.
 Who will benefit with the findings?
 What will be the contributions to science?
 How will the findings influence some policies
and so on.

Scope and limitation of the study


Operational definition of terms
 It is important to define the key terminologies

that one uses in the study.
 This helps to tell the reader the focus of the
terms used in research.
 For example, when mentioning the term ICTs,
is one referring to all forms of ICTs known or, is
it limited to computers and networks alone?
 Or when using the term “reading materials in
the library”, is one referring to physical text
books and journals or otherwise?
277
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Research Methods and

Research Methods by Mikias Biazen (PhD) 1

Research Methods by Mikias Biazen (PhD) 4

• We all possess the vital instinct of inquisitiveness

Research Methods by Mikias Biazen (PhD) 5

Research Methods by Mikias Biazen (PhD) 6

Research Methods by Mikias Biazen (PhD) 7

Research Methods by Mikias Biazen (PhD) 8

Research Methods by Mikias Biazen (PhD) 10

• Research generates new knowledge

Research Methods by Mikias Biazen (PhD) 11

Research Methods by Mikias Biazen (PhD) 12

• How do you think we acquire such knowledge?

• Some of the sources of knowledge include the following.

Research Methods by Mikias Biazen (PhD) 13

Research Methods by Mikias Biazen (PhD) 14

Research Methods by Mikias Biazen (PhD) 16

Hypothesis confirmed or refuted

In this approach the research process is cyclical, i.e.

Research Methods by Mikias Biazen (PhD) 19

Research Methods by Mikias Biazen (PhD) 20

Research Methods by Mikias Biazen (PhD) 21

1. Is the Problem Researchable?

Research Methods by Mikias Biazen (PhD) 23

Research Methods by Mikias Biazen (PhD) 24

Research Methods by Mikias Biazen (PhD) 25

Research Methods by Mikias Biazen (PhD) 27

• In analytical research, on the other hand, the researcher has

Research Methods by Mikias Biazen (PhD) 31

Research Methods by Mikias Biazen (PhD) 32

Type of data Phenomena described Phenomena described in a

Research Methods by Mikias Biazen (PhD) 33

Research Methods by Mikias Biazen (PhD) 34

(v) Some other classifications of research

Research Methods by Mikias Biazen (PhD) 35

Research Methods by Mikias Biazen (PhD) 36

Research Methods by Mikias Biazen (PhD) 39

Research Methods by Mikias Biazen (PhD) 40

• Learning to write, however, promotes effective

Research Methods by Mikias Biazen (PhD) 41

Research Methods by Mikias Biazen (PhD) 42

Research Methods by Mikias Biazen (PhD) 43

• Research methods may be understood as all

Research Methods by Mikias Biazen (PhD) 44

Research Methods by Mikias Biazen (PhD) 45

• Research and scientific method are closely

Research Methods by Mikias Biazen (PhD) 47

Research Methods by Mikias Biazen (PhD) 48

Research Methods by Mikias Biazen (PhD) 49

• The sole aim of all research is to discover

Research Methods by Mikias Biazen (PhD) 51

Research Methods by Mikias Biazen (PhD) 52

Hypothesis confirmed or refuted

In this approach the research process is cyclical, i.e.

Research Methods by Mikias Biazen (PhD) 54

Research Methods by Mikias Biazen (PhD) 55

Research Methods by Mikias Biazen (PhD) 56

Research Methods by Mikias Biazen (PhD) 57