FOR CHIEF ENGINEER & 1ST ASST ENGINEER

1. What are difference between MC and MC-C Engines of MAN B&W

The last ‘C’ in MC-C stands for ‘COMPACT’. So all the improvements in the new design are targeted to
achieve reduction in weight and cost of the engine, at the same time improving or maintaining the overall
efficiency. Major design improvements of MC-C engines over MC engines are the following:

1. Increased power to weight ratio.

2. Increased mean effective pressure for same bore engines at same speed.
3. All large diameter bearings are made of thin-walled bearings.
4. A simple cross head pin structure with reduced size and weight.
5. The introduction of reduced diameter twin tie bolts.
6. Bottom end of the tie rods threaded to the transverse girder of bed plate and hence reduction in material.
7. Reduced edge pressure of the main bearing.
8. Simplified main bearing casting.
9. High piston top land. It ensures the top piston ring is not exposed to high combustion chamber
temperatures. Along with high top land, CPR (controlled pressure relief) piston rings are used to reduce
the pressure drop across the ring and hence prevention of piston ring collapse.
10. Reduced height of the cylinder block and the cylinder cam box.
11. Due to the reduced mass of the moving parts the second-order moment decreased by about 8%,
improving the vibration condition.
12. A simplified frame structure makes it easier to weld.
13. Holding down bolts in a sunken structure to make compact design.

2. What is the purpose of Indicator Diagrams

Indicator diagrams indicates, simultaneously,the pressures and the relative position of the piston for a
particular engine cylinder. They are taken for every voyage, both in loaded and ballast condition. It is a
practice to take indicator cards after every major overhauls.

Purpose

 To calculate indicated power of the engine

 To determine peak pressures and compression pressures
 To evaluate the process of combustion inside the engine
 To evaluate scavenging and exhausting conditions
 After drawing atmospheric pressure line, hook the cord to indicator drive, open indicator cock, take
power card and shut off the cock.
 Make sure that the instrument is not exposed to high temperature for long time. This may affect its
accuracy.
 Remove the hook, turn the drum by hand to a place clear from the power diagram, take compression
pressure line with the fuel cut off.
 After taking indicator cards from all the cylinders, open the instrument and clean all the parts, and
lubricate the same.
Types of Indicator Diagrams

See: Types of Indicator Diagrams

Calculate Indicated Power

See: How to Calculate Indicated Power

Evaluation of Indicator Diagrams

Power Diagram

 To calculate indicated power, also gives peak pressure.

Out of Phase Diagram

 Required for accurate determination of the compression pressure.

 To evaluate peak pressure (more accurately), compression pressure and ignition delay period.
 It shows combustion process (early or late combustion).
 To evaluate injection, fuel quality, ignition delay, combustion, loss of compression, expansion, fuel pump
timing and after burning.
Troubleshooting with Indicator Diagrams

See: How to Troubleshoot with Indicator Cards

Precautions While Taking Indicator Cards

 Always lubricate indicator instrument parts to prevent seizure at high temperatures.

 Tightness of the indicator piston inside the cylinder to be checked. It should be a free sliding fit.
 The cock to be free from accumulated carbon particles.
 Do not apply much pressure on the stylus while taking the diagram.
 Allow sufficient cooling time for the instrument after taking diagrams from each units.

How to Measure Indicated Power in Diesel Engine

with Indicator Diagram
May 3, 2014 2:05 am | 2 Comments | Frozee

The burning of fuel in an engine cylinder (2 stroke or 4 stroke diesel engine) will result in the production of
power at an output shaft, some of the power produced in the cylinder will be used to drive the rotating masses
of the engine.
Typical indicator diagram for a 2 stroke engine is shown in figure below. This power card or pv diagram can
be used to measure indicated power in diesel engines. The area within the diagram represents the work done
within the cylinder in one cycle.
Measuring Indicated Power of Diesel Engine
The area can be measured by an instrument known as ‘Planimeter’ or by the use of the mid ordinates rule. [On
modern engines this diagram can be continuously taken by employing two transducers, one pressure transducer
in the combustion space and other transducer on the shaft. Through the computer we can thus get on
line indicated diagram and power of all cylinders.]

The area is then divided by the length of the diagram in order to obtain mean height. This mean height, when
multiplied by the spring scale of the indicator mechanism, gives the indicated mean effective pressures for the
cylinder. The mean effective or average pressure [Pm] can now be used to determine the workdone in the
cylinder. Following calculations can be made to the area of indicator diagram to measure indicated power.

Calculations

Area of the indicator diagram = a [mm2]

Average height of the diagram = a [mm2] / l [mm]
Average mean indicator pressure = a [mm2] / l [mm] x k [bar / mm]
or Pm = ( a / l ) x k [bar]
where k = spring scale in bar per mm

 
Work done in one cycle = Mean Indicated Pressure x Area of the Piston x Length of stroke
= [Pm] x [A] x [L]
To obtain the power of this unit, it is necessary to determine the rate at which work is done,

i.e. multiply work by number of power strokes in one second.

Now, Indicated Power of Unit [i ] = p

Mean Indicated Pressure [Pm] x Area of Piston [A] x Length of Stroke [L] x Number of Power Strokes per
Second [N]
or

Indicated Power of Unit = Pm L A N

Unit of Final Result

Indicated Power = Pm L A N

= ( a / l ) x k [bar] x L [m] x A [m2] x N [1/s]
= [bar] x [m] x [m2] x [1/s]
= 105 N/m2 x m x m2 x 1/s
= 105 Nm/s
= 105 Joules/s
= 105 Watts
Hence, multiply the result obtained from calculating indicated power with 105 and the final unit will
be in Watts.
See Also: Calculation of Shaft Power in Marine Engines on Ships

Continuous Survey of Machinery

Classification Societies with International Association of Classification Societies or IACS such as LR,

ABS, GL, DnV, BV, etc require that all machinery under their rules must be surveyed every five
years. This heavy work load is reduced if all surveys were done at one time, all Classification
Societies will allow some items to be surveyed in rotation, over a number of annual cycles. Here
surveys are continuous over the five year cycle of surveys, so it is called as Continuous Survey of
Machinery or CSM.

To reduce the costs to Owners/Operators, Class will allow the Chief Engineer to survey most items
under his supervision. Once surveyed by the Chief Engineer, the items would still require the Class
Surveyor to credit the surveys at an annual audit. The Chief Engineer will be instructed by Class that
he is eligible to undertake these surveys on Class’s behalf, and the specific items he can and cannot
survey.

To fully utilise the manpower on-board ships, it would be prudent to ensure that when items are due
for survey, that they are also required to be overhauled. Thus as the time when overhauls are due
can be modified by operational practices, the Chief Engineer should endeavor to ensure that both
the overhaul or planned maintenance routine and the survey are due within the same time period.

Programmes for which Opening Machinery not Required

Two programs briefed below are approved by the Class in order that physical opening up machinery
is not necessary on every occasion.

Lubricating oil analysis

This programme could be used on the steering gear machinery. Samples of the lubricant within the
system would be sent for analysis on a regular, three monthly basis to detect contaminants, wear
particles, and oil characteristics, such as viscosity. These results will indicate the quality of the oil,
and the presence of any internal wear. Based on these results, an internal inspection of the steering
gear should be wavered, and only an operational test be required at the survey date.

Performance monitoring

This programme could be used on auxiliary diesel engines. The operational parameters of the
engine, such as exhaust temperatures, lubricating oil pressures, engine load, boost air pressure, etc,
etc, would be recorded under steady state conditions. These sets of recent readings would be
compared with those taken when the machine was new, or in a known good operating condition.
Based on these results the internal inspection of the engine components would be wavered.

Cylinder Liner Lubrication of Main Engine on Ships

January 18, 2015 11:05 am | Leave a Comment | Frozee

Lubricator
The lubricators are driven by a common drive from the engine it supply cylinder oil for the cylinder liner
lubrication of main engine in ships. They are synchronized with the engine to provide timed lubrication.
How to arrange to supply oil to cylinder or when they supply L.O to engine ?
Lube oil be fed to the piston at the time when the top two piston rings pass the lubricating holes in the cylinder
during the pistons upstroke.
What is Timed lubrication  ?
 1. Lubricators of each cylinder are synchronized with engine to provide timed cylinder liner lubrication.
2. Cylinder oil is fed; at the time when top two piston rings pass the oil feed points, in the cylinder during
piston upstroke [4/S and 2/S Uniflow engines]
Disadvantages of Timed lubrication ?
1. It requires  very rapid injection  of oil at correct time, with correct amount, and pressure
2. It is discharging through  very small bore;  with long pipes to various oil feed points
3. Having a  non-return valve  at the top of lubricator, hence it complicates the timed injection
4. The hot combustion gases tend to carbonize the oil, and block the orifices.
Where lubricator quill is fitted?
Lubricator quills are arranged around the periphery of the cylinder liners and connect cylinder lubricators with
oil feed points in the cylinder liners.
What are the requirement of lubricator ?
1. Must be capable of delivering regularly every stroke a quantity of oil against moderate pressure
2. Must have a wide range of adjustment
3. The quantity of discharged oil per strike should be clearly visible
4. Can be operated by hand
How do you do lubricator quill overhaul ?
1. Remove nut on lubricator quill (L.O connector)
2. Take out lubricator quill fitted directly to the cylinder without passing through the jacket cooling space.
3. Remove lubricator quill (L.O outlet side)
4. Take out spring and non return ball valve.
5. Clean all parts in diesel oil.
6. Check non return valve for occur.
7. Check spring tension.
8. Place the non return valve and spring into the lubricator quill then tighten out.
9. Fit the lubricator quill to the cylinder tighten the nut.
10. After fitting the lubricator quill, It is operated by hand at the same time check the cylinder liner wall for
sufficient oil come out and effective cylinder liner lubrication is taking place.
What are the requirements of cylinder lube oil ?
1. It must  reduce sliding friction  between piston rings and cylinder liner to a  minimum.
2. It must process  adequate viscosity at high working temperature  and still be sufficiently fluid to spread
rapidly over the entire working surfaces to form a good adsorbed oil film.
3. It must  form an effective seal  in conjunction with the piston rings, preventing gas blow by, burning
away of the oil film and lack of compression.
4. It must  burn cleanly, leaving as little and as soft a deposit as possible.
5. It must  effectively prevent the build up of deposits  in the piston ring zones and exhaust ports.
6. It must  effectively neutralize  the corrosive effects on the mineral acids formed during combustion of the
fuel.
 What are the effects of excess cylinder liner lubrication ?

1. Fouling of ring grooves and resulting ring zone deposits.

2. Consequently, loss of gas sealing effect and blow by follows.
3. Fouling of scavenge space and scavenge fire follows.
4. Also affecting combustion process.
5. Leading to breakage of piston rings
6. Fouling of exhaust system and turbocharger.
7. Increased cylinder oil consumption.
What are the effects of reduced cylinder liner lubrication ?
1. Promote wear of liner and rings
 2. Overheating of local area resulting micro seizure due to lack of boundary lubrication.
3. Consequently major damage to piston and cylinder liner.
How to check correct amount of cylinder liner lubrication by a marine engineer?
Checking by open scavenging drain (little coming out O.K) at sea.

In port:  Check the liner is wet or not (thin layer wet O.K)
Oil has to not collect at the scavenge space.

Contamination of Lubricating Oil (LO) System with

Water in Ships
June 5, 2014 10:08 pm | Leave a Comment | Frozee

Contamination of Lubricating Oil by Water

Causes

1. Leakages from cylinder cooling water system.

2. Leakages from piston cooling water system (for water cooled pistons).
3. LO cooler water leakages (can be seawater or freshwater).
4. Leakages from sump tank heating coils.
5. Condensation of water vapour inside crankcase.
Effects

1. Acid formation in lube oil for trunk type piston engines.

2. Reduction in cooling efficiency.
3. Reduction in load carrying capacity of lube oil.
4. Reduction in lube oil properties such as TBN.
5. Formation of sludge.
6. Corrosion in various parts of the machinery.
7. Microbial degradation of lube oil.
Remedies

1. Proper purification of lube oil with minimum throughput.

2. Renewal of lube oil.
How to Deal With Seawater Contamination in Lube Oil

1. Find and rectify source of seawater leakages immediately.

2. Transfer whole sump oil to LO settling tank, maintain temperature around 60 degree Celsius, drain water
and sludge periodically.
3. Clean the sump and inspect.
4. Renew sump with fresh lube oil.
5. Run LO purifier in batch operation at about 78 degree Celsius and optimum efficiency, from LO settling
tank to tank.
6. Sent purified LO sample for shore analysis.
 7. Shore analysis report will specify whether the LO can be reused or treatment such as water washing to be
carried out or not.
Procedure for Batch Purification for Lube Oil

Batch purification of lube oil is carried out when,

 Water leaks into lube oil

 LO is mixed with high insoluble combustion products
 LO sump tank is cleaned and refilled with LO
The procedure for batch purification of LO is given below:

1. Whole LO is transferred from LO sump to settling tank through LO purifier or LO transfer pump.
2. Allow LO to settle for about 24 hrs at around 60 degree Celsius.
3. Drain sludge and water periodically from the tank.
4. Clean the sump thoroughly and examine.
5. Purify oil at optimum efficiency, proper temperature and minimum throughput. Sent the purified oil to
the sump tank.
Allowable Limits for Water in Lube Oil

 For cross head type engines water in LO to be less than 0.2%; take immediate action when the water
content is between 0.5% to 1.0%; water content above this may damage the engine.
 For trunk type engines water in LO to be less than 0.1%; take immediate action when the water content is
above 0.5% ; water content above this may damage the engine.
See Also: Oil Carry Over in Air Compressors
See Also: Main Engine Lube Oil Cooler Fouling

Why wear down in main bearings is critical to the condition of the crankshaft and
propeller shaft system on ships ?

The operational stresses present within the crankshaft is influenced by the bending stresses present. If the
crankshaft alignment is completely straight then the bending stresses are minimal, but should uneven main
bearing wear down occur, then these bending stresses will greatly increase.

When the main bearings wear down, the alignment of the crankshaft to the propeller shaft will change. This
wear down will increase the bending stress on the propeller shaft, and the external moment at the engine / shaft
interface, increasing the crankshaft stresses.

When the crankshaft is subjected to these high stresses, the small defects present within the shaft could
develop and propagate into cracks that could lead to shaft failure.
Why total reliance is placed on frictional grip in conventional built up crankshaft on
main engine ?

Frictional grip is the usual method of crankshaft construction for built-up crankshaft. This grip is subjected to
the full torque of the engine output, and  hence subjected to high torsional stresses. If there are any defects at
this joint, then the resulting stress concentration would trigger a crack and possible shaft failure.

To minimise the possibility of such defects, then only a frictional grip is permitted under Classification Rules
for crankshaft construction, hence pins, keys, etc are not allowed.

Why oil holes are given large fillets in crankpins and journals ?

Defect growth from a small surface defect into a crack that propagates through the shaft material require high
levels of stress. Such levels of stress are possible when the stress is concentrated at section changes. The oil
hole will inherently increase the local stress levels, and thus to minimise these increases, the oil hole will have
a significant radius at the surface. The size of this radius will significantly influence the local stress levels, and
should be closely monitored during crankshaft construction, and possible crankpin surface repairs by grinding.

What are the causes and effects of torsional vibrations in crankshaft ?

Torsional vibrations are inherent within diesel engines, due to the varying torque produced by the piston and
crank arrangement from each cylinder. This torque variation is further compounded by the arrangement of the
firing order of the crankshaft.

The effects of such vibrations is to increase the shear stress and hence total stress levels carried by the
crankshaft in service, when other stresses such as bending and combustion loads are present.

What is meant by the term critical speed and why it can be a problem on ships ?

The critical speed of a shaft occurs when the shaft rotational speed is at or close to resonant conditions. In this
condition the torsional vibration of the shaft increases greatly, and will impose very high shear stress on the
crankshaft. These levels of stress could even cause crankshaft failure.

What is the term fatigue cracking and state with reasons two factors of crankshaft
operation which have the
greatest influence on the likelihood of fatigue cracking ?

Fatigue cracking occurs when the primary cause of crack propagation is due to the fluctuating nature of the
stress applied to the component. The following factors could produce fatigue cracking:
  High combustion pressures, increasing the bending stress applied to each crankshaft throw
 Excessive crankshaft bending due to a main bearing failure, which increases the crankshaft bending
stresses.
How a detuner or torsional vibration damper can reduce the effects of torsional
vibration ?

The fitting of either a detuner or vibration damper will reduce the vibration levels of the crankshaft when
operating in areas of high torsional vibration, such as close or within a critical speed range. The detuner will
change the stiffness of the shaft and hence the natural frequency, thus separating the excitation frequency from
the component’s natural frequency, whereas the damper will absorb the vibration within the shaft, reducing the
effects of the torsional vibration.

Explain how a fatigue failure is identified ?

Fatigue failure is identified as starting at a stress raiser or defect, then the crack generates through the material
before causing sudden failure. The crack progress is shown as smooth, rippled formation known as striations or
beach marks, whilst the sudden failure is a classic brittle fracture with rough appearance.

Describe how a fatigue crack may be initiated ?

The initiation site will be where the local stress is high enough to increase the minute cracks which occur on
the metal surface. The stress can be increased locally by a surface defect, or even an extreme stress
concentration caused by high applied stress.

The main causes of fatigue cracks are:

Stress raisers

These can be reduced by ensuring a smooth surface finish to all area where high stress is applied especially in
the web/pin radii area

Oil holes

These should be minimised whenever possible, and the oil hole opening have wide and smooth radii

Tensile stresses

Fatigue strength is reduced when tensile stress are present, so the radii areas are often cold rolled to ensure that
the fatigue strength in these areas are increased.

Stress applied on hardened materials

Fatigue cracks can grow faster when the material is harder, as the dislocations in the metal concentrate the
stress on a smaller area of the material structure, hence any hardening of the crank pins must not be applied to
the highly stressed radii areas.

Describe the events leading to a crankcase explosion on a main engine ?

The atmosphere inside a crankcase is stable and will not allow combustion or an explosion to occur as there is
no ignition or fuel source.

Hence the first event is the production of an explosive mixture. This will occur when the lube oil in the
crankcase is heated by a “hot spot” and lube oil coming into contact with this will be evaporated. The
evaporated oil then rises within the crankcase, and then condenses in a cooler part of the crankcase. The
resultant white mist is within the explosive range, and is thus flammable.

The second event is the ignition of this white mist by either the same or another hot spot within the crankcase.
When the oil mist is ignited, a crankcase explosion will occur, which will raise the pressure within the
crankcase.

State how overheating might be indicated other than by mist detector ?

One of the common areas of overheating is the various bearings within the crankcase. Hence bearing
temperature monitors could be used to indicate that a bearing is overheating and could be oil mist generation
site.

State how the severity of a crankcase explosion is limited ?

The rapid pressure rise within the crankcase can cause the engine structure to be blown apart, causing physical
damage, and the resultant flame travelling across the engine room space causing personnel injury. This
pressure rise is limited by the statutory use of relief doors fitted to the crankcase. These doors will open when
the pressure rises above 0.02 – 0.1 bar, and prevent the over-pressure of the engine structure. The doors also
perform the added function of preventing fresh air ingress into the crankcase where hot burning gases are
present, by the quick closing action of the relief door.

Emission of flame has in the past caused severe burns to personnel during a crankcase
explosion, despite the addition of flame traps. Discuss the procedure in the event of
overheating being indicated ?

As the explosion is an uncontrolled event, then great care must be taken to ensure the safety of the engineers
within the engine room. MAN B&W recommend that:

1. Move away from the crankcase doors immediately

 2. Reduce speed to slow, and ask the bridge to stop
3. When the engine has stopped, close the fuel supply
4. Stop the auxiliary blowers
5. Open the skylight and/or stores hatch
6. Leave the engine room
7. Lock engine room entry doors and keep away from them
8. Prepare the fire fighting equipment.
9. Do not open the crankcase for at least 20 minutes after stopping the engine, and ensure that the oil mist
detector alarm (or bearing temperature monitor) has reset
10. Stop the LO circulating pump. Shut the starting air, and engage the turning gear.
11. Locate the “hot spot” (source of the oil overheating)
12. Make a permanent repair to the fault
What are the problems associated with effective lubrication of the liner and piston
assembly of a large slow speed engine ?

The effective lubrication of the cylinder liner and piston assembly requires a constant lubricant feed over the
whole liner surface, and that piston movement will generate the oil pressures required to separate the surfaces.

However in the real situation the following problems occur:

 The oil is injected at defined points which can lead to an oversupply at the feed points, and an under
supply away from these points
 The residual fuel normally used contains acids and abrasives that will reduce the lubrication properties of
the oil
 The normal operation of the piston will cause the piston movement to stop at top dead centre, causing any
oil pressure developed between the ring and liner to collapse
 The high temperatures present at top dead centre reduce the effectiveness of the lubricant
 The feed rate of the lubricant is regulated usually by the speed of the engine, which will cause a mismatch
between actual lube oil requirements over a wide range of engine operation, with usually too little an
amount of oil injected at low loads and during engine load changes.
Describe the appearance and state the causes of cloverleafing and microseizure on
cylinder liners ?

Cloverleafing will be caused when the supply of lube oil is not uniform around the radial bore of the liner. The
normal effect is for the oil to reduce in alkalinity away from the injection point, thus if the oil becomes acidic
then high corrosive wear rates will result. This will cause uneven bore wear rates, with heavy wear in the
areas furthest away from the oil injection points.

Microseizure is caused when the liner and piston ring material is pressed together causing localised welding of
the material in the absence of sufficient  lube oil. The causes are insufficient oil and/or excessive cylinder
pressures causes heavy ring/liner contact forces. The appearance is heavy scratching/tearing in the vertical
direction, together with a localised hardening of the ring and liner material.
Bearing Failure, Corrosion and Wiping in Marine Engines
What are different types of bearing failures or defects on ships ?

1. Crack
2. Fatigue failure of white metal
3. Squeezing of white metal, so oil grooves are partially blocked.
4. Wiping
5. Faulty casting and faulty machining.
6. Tin oxide Corrosion
7. Acid Corrosion
8. Thermal Ratcheting
9. Electrical Potential
10. Fretting
11. Cavitation Erosion
What is meant by wiping of bearings ?

 Wiping is a slight transient phenomenon & is undetected until the machinery is opened up for survey.
 In serious cases, complete bearing failure occurs due to over heating of bearing metal which occur owing
to –
**********  Temporary lack of oil

**********   Very slow start up of engine

**********  Too small bearing clearance    

**********  Misalignment of pin and bearing                                                                                              
**********   Fabricated cross girder of bedplate

**********  Tin oxide corrosion

What is meant by fretting of bearings ?

 Happens in dynamic loaded bearings / pivoted pad bearing i.e. thrust pads of thrust bearing.
 Fretting occurs on the back of support surface where the interference fit / nip is insufficient for dynamic
forces involved.
 Caused by the housing, which is insufficiently rigid for the load cycle involved.
What is meant by fatigue failure of bearings ?

 Bearings carrying high dynamic loads are liable to fatigue damage

 Caused by a concentration of load due to mechanical imperfection i.e. poor geometric
form, misalignment and distortion.
 White metal bearings are particularly prone to fatigue since any high loading not only increases the stress
in the lining, but the associated temperature rise reduces the strength.
 Causes of fatigue cracking  is due to poor bonding of white metal to its steel shell.
What is meant by Tin Oxide Corrosion in bearings ?
 Tin oxide is extremely hard & brittle and corrosion takes place at tin phase of white metal
 This breaks off rapidly, causing wear of the surfaces & breakdown of oil film
 Appearance  – Grey at initial stage, becomes darker as its thickness increases & particle
become detached.
 With high loads when the oxide layer becomes thick, the bearing temperature may rise sufficiently to
melt the underlying metal & failure occurs by wiping.
 Cause  – Water mixes with LO promoting electro-chemical reaction.
 Prevention  – Regular & continuous removal of water from lubricating oil prevent tin oxide formation.
What is meant by acid corrosion in bearings ?

 Takes place in high temperature condition

 Bearing alloy is attacked by acid (condensation of SO2) from high sulphur content fuel.
 Steel working parts corrode more than bearing alloy
 Solution  – Add rust & corrosion inhibitor in lubricating oil and select proper material.
What is meant by thermal ratcheting in bearings ?

 Caused  by alternate cooling & heating of bearing

 Results in bearing deformation
 Indication is high bearing temperature
 Occurs mainly in thrust pad bearing surface
What is meant by electrical potential damage in bearings?

 This type of damage occurs frequently in electrical machinery due to stray currents.
 The damage consists of uniformly distributed pitting, the pits being generally hemispherical with the
intensity increasing to a maximum in the zone of thinnest oil film.
 Caused  by incorrect earthlings system which cause spark erosion damage.
 Prevention  – Insulate the non-drying end bearing (pedestal bearing) of electrical machines
and sometimes in both bearings.
What is meant by cavitation erosion in bearings?

 Severe damage to complete bearing area.

 Cavities are usually around at low pressure areas i.e. oil groove or oil holes.
 Caused by an implosion of gas or air bubbles released from a lubricating oil film under
particular conditions
 The pressure set up locally during theses implosions are very high , possibly 220 bar & may cause a
pitting / cavitation
 Prevention  – May be reduced by viscous oil because of damping effect high viscous oil & viscosity
must be in limit.

Cause of white metal squeezing

 When bearing metal is pressed out into the oil groove due to load on bearing exceed its compressive
strength.
Cause of faulty casting and machining 
 It is due to premature failure even under normal running conditions. 
Causes of bearing overheat
 Improper viscosity of oil (lower)
 Insufficient lubrication
 Improper oil clearance
 Foreign matters in oil
 Misalignment of shaft and bearing
 Scored journal
 Poorly fitted bearing
Big end/crank pin bearing bolts failure
 Over stressed on bolts (due to piston seizure, over tightening, propeller strike some obstruction)
 Too long in service
 Wear of bolts & enlarge of holes can cause the easing of nuts.
 Too much clearance of bearings, shock resulting fatigue in bolts
 Nitride surfaces
 Surface to be machined at least by 0.025 mm to prevent bearing damage.
 Stainless steel shafts & white metal bearing surface – wiping, pick up & seizure
 Failures  – Due to lack of compatibility and the problem is worst at high specific load.
 Ni or Cr Plating : on journals / pins must be voided which results in scuffing seizure.

Functions and Properties of Lubricating oil on Ships

What are the functions of a lubricant?
1. Separate entirely the contact surfaces, thereby reducing static and dynamic friction to least possible
value to prevent wear and tear.
2. Remove heat generated within the bearing.
3. Protection of the working surfaces against corrosion.
4. Removal of contaminants.
5. Dampen noise produced.
6. Act as a sealant.
What are the Types of Lubrication on Ships?
 Hydrodynamic Lubrication or Full fluid film lubrication.
 Boundary Lubrication or Thin film lubrication.
 Hydrostatic Lubrication or Thick film lubrication.
 Elasto-hydrodynamic Lubrication or Thin film or square film lubrication.
What are the Properties of crankcase lubricating oil?
 Viscosity: To be suitable for the purpose
 Viscosity index: To be high
 Pour Point: Must be low
 Flash point: Must be high
 Oxidation stability: To be high
 Carbon residues: To be low
 Total acid number  or TAN: To be suitable for the purpose
 Total basic number or TBN: To be suitable for the purpose
 Detergency: For cleaning
 Dispersancy: To facilitate purification
 What is viscosity?
 It is a measure of internal resistance to flow between liquid layers.
 Viscosity of lube oil reduces when temperature rises and vice versa.
 For engine crankcase lube oil, viscosity is 130 to 240 Redwood No-1 seconds 60°C.
 For cylinder oil, viscosity is 12.5 – 22 Cst
What is viscosity index?
 It is the rate of change of viscosity of an oil with respect to change in temperature.
 An oil with low viscosity index has greater change of viscosity with change in temperature.
 An oil with high viscosity index has very little change of viscosity with change in temperature, which is a
desirable property for lubricating oil.
 For crankcase oil, viscosity index is 75 to 85.
 For cylinder oil, viscosity index is 85.
 Viscosity index of mineral oils is highest, about 115 and this may be raised to about 160 by
adding special additives.
 Hydraulic oils should have high viscosity index for faster response of the system. It is usually around
110.
What is a pour point?
 It is the lowest temperature below which an oil will stop flow.
 Pour point indicates that oil is suitable for cold weather or not.
 Pour point of engine crankcase should be  -18°C.
What is the flash point?
 It is the lowest temperature at which the oil will give off a sufficient inflammable vapour to produce a
momentary flash when a small flame is brought into the surface of the oil.
 Close flash point for crankcase lubricating oil is around 220°C.
Why flash point is important?
 Fuel oil flash point is to be high because if it is low, there would be a possibility of fire in storage.
 Engine crankcase lubricating oil flash point should be as high as possible to prevent crankcase explosion.
 For safe storage, oil storage tank heating temperature to be limited to at least 14°C lower than flash point
to prevent fire.
Average Closed Flash Points
 Petrol    =  -20°C
 70cSt Fuel Oil    =   71°C.
 Paraffin   =   40°C
 Lube Oil    =  220°C
 Diesel Oil  =   65°C
What is Total Acid Number or TAN and Total Base Number or TBN?
 The ability of an oil to react with a base reagent which indicates the acidity is expressed as TAN.
 The ability of an oil to react with acidic reagent which indicate the alkalinity is expressed as TBN.
 The results are expressed in milligrams of potassium hydroxide (KOH) required to neutralise one gram of
sample oil for both TAN and TBN.
 TBN for an oil used for cross head type diesel engine crankcase is 8mg KOH/gram of oil.
 TBN for an oil used for trunk type engine using heavy oil is 30mg KOH/gram of oil.
What type of engine are using high TBN and why?
If blow pass occur in a trunk type engine using heavy fuel oil, incomplete combustion products reach directly
into the crankcase and may cause the contamination of lube oil with acid. Thus in this type of engine to
neutralize the acid contamination must be used high TBN oil.

What is detergency and dispersancy ?

 It is a chemical additive called detergent which has a property of preventing the deposition of carbon
deposits and wash away with the lube oil.
 Dispersant additive is added to divide the larger size deposits into tiny particles to be carried in a
colloidal suspension evenly throughout the bulk of oil, which can be removed while filtration of the oil.
Explain the L O sampling procedure to send for LO test ?
  The sample should be drawn with oil circulation with the system such as a test cock on the discharge side
of the LO oil pump.
 Before taking the sample oil sufficient amount of oil should be drain out to clear the line.
 The sample is filled into the chemically cleaned container after it is rinsed with the sample oil
and immediately closed.
 The container should be attached with information on engine type, engine running hours, LO running
hours, fuel used, draw off point and date of sampling.
Explain Sampling Procedure of lube oil?
 Draw samples from a connection that comes directly out of the main oil supply line to the engine.
 Always sample for the same point.
 Sample only when the oil is up to its operating temperature with the engine running.
 Depending upon the draw off point, sufficient amount of oil should be drained out of the line prior to
drawing the sample.
 The sample should be filled into a chemically cleaned container after it is rinsed with sample oil and
immediately closed.
 The container should be attached with a label as follows:
 Records for Sample
1. Date of sample drawn
2. Point of sample drawn
3. Type of oil
4. Type of machinery use
5. Temperature of sample drawn
6. The period of time since the last renewal of oils.
 Avoid sampling from places where the oil may be stagnant or have little or no flow, such as sumps,
auxiliary smaller pipelines, purifier suction or discharge lines, drain cocks of filters, coolers etc.
 Also avoid sampling while engine is stopped.
What is the essential factor effecting the establishment of hydrodynamic
lubrication ?
1. Viscosity of lube oil
2. Load acting on the bearing
3. Surface smoothness of moving parts
4. Speed of rotation
5. Continuous LO supply
6. Bearing clearance, bearing length and pin diameter.
7. There must be convergence between fixed end and moving surface.
Where do locate ME LO sump and its fitting ?
 It is located under the main engine in the ship double bottom and surrounded by cofferdams.
 It consist of  1)  level gauge  2)  man holes  3)  air vent pipe  4)  sounding pipes  5)  heating steam
coils 6)  suction pipe and  7)  valves for LO p/p and purifier.
Why magnetic fitter is fitted on LO system and where is it fitted ?
 To prevent pump damage due to ferrous metal particles.
 Screw p/p used in LO oil system is working in very fine clearance thus to prevent entering the small
ferrous particles into the p/p.
 Magnetic fitter is fitted prior to the main circulation LO p/p.
What are the contaminants in the lube oil ?
1. Contamination of fresh Water (JW leaking)
2. Contamination of SW (Cooler leakage)
3. Contamination of fuel (Poor Atomisation, Unburned Fuel)
4. Oxidation products (High Exhaust Temperature, Burned Cyl Oil, Carbon from incomplete combustion)
5. Products of fuel combustion
 6. Foreign mineral matters (Scale formation, Wear and tear)
7. Biological contamination.
What are the effects of water contamination in lube oil ?
Causes
1. Condensation of water vapour within the crankcase
2. Leakage from the cooling water system for cylinder or piston
3. Leakage from the sump tank heating steam coils.
Effects
1. Reduce cooling efficiency.
2. Increase the acid formation in trunk type piston engine.
3. Can cause corrosion on m/c parts.
4. Microbial degradation, [Reduce centrifuging efficiency; promote local pitting and corrosion]
5. Reduce load carrying capacity
6. Reduce L.O properties, and TBN of oil
7. Form sludge due to emulsification
 Remedies
1. Proper purification with minimum throughput
2. Batch purification if heavy contamination
Maximum Allowable Amount of water in Lube oil?
 For crosshead type engine , < 0.2 % is satisfactory
 If water content exceed 0.5 ~ 1.0 %, immediate action should be taken
 If > 1%, engine can be damaged
 For trunk type engine , < 0.1% is satisfactory
 If > 0.5 %, immediate action should be taken and
 It is maximum permissible content
What are the effects of fuel dilution in lube oil ?
Causes
1. Poor atomization of a fuel injector and back leak through the fuel injector p/p plunger and barrel.
Effects
1. Fuel dilution usually diesel oil.
2. Lower viscosity and low fresh point
3. Lower viscosity LO reduces this properties ( e.g load carrying capacity )
4. Lower fresh point will case crankcase explosion.
How to remove contaminants
1. Filtering: Removes large oil insoluble matter
2. Gravity separation: Removes heavy matters, sludge and water
3. Adding special additives: Reduce acids, sludge, finer oil insoluble matter
4. Centrifuging: Removes sludge, foreign matter and water
5. Water washing: Only for straight mineral oil or oil without additives, can remove acids.
What will you do if LO is contaminated with FW or SW ?
1. Batch Purification must be done
2. Renovating Tank heating and regular draining
3. For SW contamination, Water Washing is required
4. Sump to be opened and thoroughly wipe out.
What is meant by batch purification ?
1. Firstly take the immobilization permit from the port authority.
2. The entire oil charge should be pumped by the purifier or by main circulation p/p into settling tank.
3. It should be allowed to settle for at least for 24 hours with heating about 60° C .
4. Water and sludge should be drained out periodically.
 5. Cleaned the interior of the sump tank and carefully examined.
6. The oil should be passed through the purifier at its optimum efficiency and than pump back into the sump
tank.
7. When sump tank empty, its interior should be cleaned and examined.
 When do periodic batch purification make ?
1. If the oil is suspected from containing strong acids
2. High insoluble contents due to poor combustion or water due to leak cooling system.
3. It is also made at least once a year when cleaned and examined for sump tank.
4. Suspecting biological contamination.
What is grease ?
1. It is a semisolid lubricant consisting of high viscosity mineral oil and metallic soap with filler.
2. Metallic soaps are compound of Ca, Na, Al.
3. Filler are lead, zinc, graphite and molybdenum.
What is solid lubrication ?
 Grease lubrication is known as solid lubrication
At what point cylinder oil is injected ?
 The cylinder oil is feed to the piston at the time when the top two piston rings pass the lubrication holes
in the cylinder during the piston stoke.
 It is a limited lubrication.
What will be happen temperature is lower than pour point ?
The oil can not freely flow thus effect the pumping system (lubrication system)

Why viscosity of lube oil is important ?

 Low viscosity is required for fuel oil in order to obtain good atomization at fuel.
 Lube oil must be chosen which has a suitable viscosity for the working temperature for efficient
lubrication.
How to maintain lube oil on board ships?
1. L.O onboard test is carried out regularly.
2. Regular cleaned L.O line filter.
3. L.O purifier should be run during ship is in sea
4. Maintain L.O purifier performance
5. Periodic batch purification must be carried out & cleaned L.O sump tank once a year
6. Maintain L.O temperature within limit
7. Maintain good L.O cooler efficiency
8. Keep good fuel combustion system
Why lubricating oil cooler is installed after lube oil filter ?
 It is more effective to filter the hot oil, as pressure drop through the filter is less and filter is more
efficient.
What will you do as 2/E, if main engine lubricating oil temperature abnormally
high?
1. Inform bridge & reduce engine speed
2. Check engine overload or not (Exhaust temp:, fuel rack,..)
3. Check L.O sump & L.O cooler & L.O purifier temperature (set value)
4. Check L.O sump tank heating valve.
5. Shut L.O cooler by-pass totally after stopping (or) too high temperature not fall
6. Clean L.O cooler
7. Check sump tank heating coil leakage
8. Make L.O onboard test (esp  Viscosity)
 9. Check lubricating oil piping system leakage or blockage
10. Make inspection & check bearing clearance & loosing attachment
11. Check ampere (or) load when turn the turning gear
What will you do as 2/E, when increase sump lubricating oil level by marine
engineer?
1. Check piston cooling system (water)
2. Check L.O purifier (gravity disc is correct or not) [L.O purifier water outlet sight galss]
3. Check filling valve from storage tank
4. Check L.O cooler/although oil pressure is greater than sea water pressure.
What will you do as 2/E, when decrease in sump lubricating oil level by marine
engineer?
 Check rate of decreasing if slowly decrease, fill up L.O and find the leakage without stopping engine.
 If rapidly decrease, inform to bridge and stop the engine. Find the leakage and repair. Possible leakage
points are:
* Bed plate crack (check engine room bilge)

* Piston cooling L.O system (check scavenge space & under piston space {entablature})

* L.O cooler & L.O purifier

* All pipes and connection

* Check L.O return valve from crankcase to sump tank close or not

* Check oil scraper rings & stuffing box

What will you do as 2/E, when decrease in lubricating oil pressure observed?

1. Start stand by pump
2. Change & clean L.O filter
3. After engine stopping, check bearing clearance and L.O pipe connection
4. Check L.O pump discharge & suction pressure
5. Check L.O temperature
What is meant by hydrodynamic lubrication (full fluid film)?
1. Moving surfaces are separated completely by the pressure of a continuous unbroken film or a layer of
lubricant, generated by the movement of the two surfaces relative to each other.
2. Essential requirement is formation of a wedge of lubricants between surfaces.
3. Thickness of film 0.025 – 0.10 mm.
4. Happens in lubrication for Journal Bearing, Bottom End Bearing, Tilting Pad Thrust Bearing      
What is meant by boundary lubrication?
1. It exists when a full-fluid film lubrication is not possible.
2. The sliding surfaces are separated by only a thin film of lubricant.
3. High friction between the surfaces and some degree of metal to metal contact occurs
4. Lubricant oil film decreases, until asperities of mating surfaces touch
What is meant by hydrostatic lubrication?
1. A form of thick film lubrication, but instead of being self- generated, it is supplied from an external
source by oil under pressure from a pump.
 2. Lubrication for Crosshead Bearings, with attached pump.
What is meant by elasto-hydrodynamic lubrication?
1. Applies to line contact or nominal point between rolling or sliding surfaces, such as rolling contact
bearings and meshing gear teeth.
2. Thin film or squeeze film lubrication limits metal to metal contact.
3. Elastic deformation of the metals occurs, and there is effect of high pressure on the lubricant.
What will you do as 2/E, if lube oil is contaminated with sea water?
1. When sump oil is contaminated with SW, find sources of leakage (may be from LO cooler during ME
stopped) stoppage and rectified.
2. In port or while ME is stopped, transfer contaminated oil through purifier or transfer pump into settling
tank, settled for at least 24 hours at about 60 C°, and water and sludge drained out periodically.
3. Oil passed through purifier at 78° C with optimum efficiency, and pump back to settling tank.
4. When sump tank is empty, interior cleaned and examined.
5. Purified oil sent to laboratory and tested
6. During this time, new oil should be used
7. Oil should be reused, if lab results recommended that it is fit for further use. (Straight mineral oil 3%
water washed. Additive oil 1% water washed).
What are the difference in Cylinder oil and System oil?
 Cylinder oil is detergent / dispersant oil
 System oil is straight mineral oil
What are the lube oil tests carried out on board Ships ?
Viscosity Determination
 The simplest method is three tube rolling ball viscometer
 Assuming the oil in the engine to be SAE 30 grade, one tube is filled with minimum safety viscosity
(about SAE 20) and another one filled with maximum safety viscosity (about SAE 40). The last tube is to
be filled with test sample.
 All tubes are placed in a bucket of warm water until the oils are at the same temperature.
 The three tubes then mounted on a tilted board and inverted. An internal hollow ball in each tube then
rises to the surface.
 If the time taken in the test sample is between that of the lower and upper limit oils, the oil is fit for
further use. If not, it must be replaced.
Insoluble Content
 A drop of sample oil is released from a given height onto a special filter paper.
 Compare the result with the known varying insoluble content. The upper limit for straight mineral oil is
1% to 1.5 % and for detergent dispersant oil is 5%.
Water and other Contaminants
A known amount of sample oil in the test tube is heated and must be shaken the while doing so               
 If there is no cracking, the oil is dry
 If there is slightly cracking, the oil having a trace of water
 If there is a heavily crackling, the oil is heavily diluted with water
 Acidity / Alkalinity Determination
Acidity is tested by extracting the acids from the sample by means of shaking with a known amount of distilled
water. The acidic extract is then placed on a watch glass with an indicator solution of known strength. The
mixture is then drawn up into a glass tube and its colour compared with a series of colour standards, each
representing a known PH value, from which the sample can be determined quite accurately.

Another method   is :
A drop of indicator solution is placed on to blotting paper and this is followed by a drop of sample oil placed at
the centre of the drop of previous absorbed indicator.

 If the change of colour is Red, it is acid

 If blue/green, it is alkaline.
 If yellow/green, it is neutral.
Foreign Particles Test
 This can be done by either Spectrochemical analysis or Ferrographic analysis, each giving particle size
less than 10 uM to 100 uM range depending on the tests applied.
 The most powerful technique is Inductively coupled plasma atomic emission spectrometry (ICP OR
PES), which uses a direct spray technique to determine the wear and contaminant elements present in the
oil. This technique will in the main only detect the particles below 10 uM size.
 In ferrographic test, the sample is thinned first with some solvents and allowed to pass slowly down a
slide surrounded by powerful magnetic field. Then it is examined by special microscope with red and
green filters under lights. The shape of the particles is used to identify the source of the wear debris.
 The advance ferrography method was added to the PFA (Progressive Fast Analysis) programme where all
samples pass through the combination of two machines, a particle quantifier (PQ) and a rotary particle
depositor (RPD). These test measures the induced magnetic moment of debris as deposited on a substrate
or contained within a specific volume of liquid.
 These machines provide accurate test by rotating the metal particles and then separating into three
different sizes, Theses three bands of particles are examined by very powerful microscope to determine
the type of materials and shape.
 If more detailed examination is necessary, the debris may be subjected to a scanning electron microscope.

Describe the composition of a cylinder oil suitable for a main engine operating on
residual fuel ?

The cylinder oil will require:

 Ample viscosity to separate the surfaces under high loading conditions

 Sufficient alkaline reserve to neutralise the acids formed by combustion of residual fuel oil
 High levels of detergent to maintain piston ring cleanliness and free ring movement
 A level of anti wear properties to minimise micro seizure
 The ability to burn without residue
With reference to bridge control of a large MAN B&W slow speed propulsion
engine explain how starting and reversal are achieved ?

For large propulsion engines the Bridge Control is achieved by using the telegraph to select the desired speed
and direction. When the bridge telegraph is placed in Stop, the fuel is prevented from injecting as the fuel
pump puncture valves are energised. When the bridge telegraph is moved to  an ahead command, the air start
and fuel cams are placed in the required direction, and the start command is given. This will admit starting air
to the engine. Once the engine is turning above the starting speed, the air is closed and fuel is admitted. The
quantity of fuel admitted will depend on the position of the telegraph handle, i.e. slow ahead, full ahead,
etc. When the bridge telegraph is moved to an astern direction, the air start and fuel cams
are reversed. Once the air start is reversed, the engine will start as detailed for the ahead start.
Describe the investigation and remedial action required if the engine fails to turn on
air ?

If the engine fails to start on air the following points would be investigated, and remedial action taken.

 No air pressure at engine manifold. The valves from the air receiver would be checked, and opened if
found shut.
 Low air pressure at engine manifold. This could indicate that the air compressors are either not working
or excess air is being used. All air compressors would be started, and air usage restricted to engine
manoeuvring only.
 Turning gear engaged. The turning gear position and the interlock switch would be visually checked. The
gear would be removed if found engaged.
Describe the investigation and remedial action required if the engine turns on air but
fails to fire on fuel ?

If the engine fails to fire on fuel the following points would be investigated, and remedial action taken.

 Check for any shut-downs still active. The shut down panel would be examined, and if a trip is active the
cause would be investigated and system made operational. Following this the trip reset button would be
pressed.
 Low fuel pressure at the engine manifold. The fuel system would be investigated, and all valves checked
to be opened, and all booster and supply pumps checked for running.
 Sticking fuel linkage. The action of the fuel linkage would be checked during the start sequence. The fuel
linkage should admit a “starting level” of fuel after the engine start sequence has been completed. The
physical movement of the fuel linkage would be checked, and any mechanical friction reduced
by lubrication.
Describe the investigation and remedial action required if the engine fails to reverse ?

If the engine fails to reverse the following points would be investigated, and remedial action taken.

 Air start distributor not reversing. The engine controls would be moved ahead and astern whilst observing
the movement of the air start distributor. If the distributor is not moving, then the air servo cylinder
would be checked to ensure that it is free to move, and that air is being admitted and vented as required to
achieve the movement required.
 Air start valve not opening. It is possible that the air distributor does reverse as expected, but that the
required air start valve would not open to rotate the engine in the new direction. This would be
investigated by turning the engine in the ahead direction so that it stops in a new position. The engine
would again be tested in the astern direction to test if a starting air valve has failed to open. Any valve
found faulty would be removed, freed and refitted.
Questions and Answers for Marine Engineers – Part 1
Posted in: General Engineering Knowledge, MEO Examination Study Materials, Motor Engineering Knowledge |
Tagged: cloverleafing, composition of a cylinder oil, Describe how a fatigue crack may be initiated, Describe the events leading
to a crankcase explosion on a main engine, engine fails to reverse, engine fails to run on fuel, engine fails to stop, engine fails to
turn on air, Explain how a fatigue failure is identified, Explain the term water hammer, fatigue cracking, How a detuner or
torsional vibration damper can reduce the effects of torsional vibration, how the risk of water hammer may be
avoided, microseizure, possible effects of water hammering, problems associated with effective lubrication of the liner and piston
assembly, State how overheating might be indicated other than by mist detector, State how the severity of a crankcase explosion
is limited, Stress raisers, Tensile stresses, wear down in main bearings is critical to the condition of the crankshaft, What are the
causes and effects of torsional vibrations in crankshaft, What is meant by the term critical speed and why it can be a problem on
ships, Why oil holes are given large fillets in crankpins and journals, why the testing and treatment of boiler water is
essential, Why total reliance is placed on frictional grip in conventional built up crankshaft on main engine

Pneumatic Control Systems on Ships

What are the advantages and disadvantages of both electrical and pneumatic control
systems on ships ?

Electrical Control System

Advantages
1. No air compressor and associated machinery required.
2. High efficiency since there is no leakages.
3. Instantaneous response.
4. Very little affected by normal temperature variations.
5. Very accurate.
6. Electric cables are cheap and easy to lay.
Disadvantages
1. The system require uninterrupted power supply with no voltage fluctuations.
2. Standby batteries required in case of power failure.
3. There is risk of fire due to overheating. Expensive intrinsically safe / explosion proof equipment may be
required.
4. Moisture may cause damage to the system.
5. Damage readily occurs in the event of a fire.
Pneumatic Control System
Advantages
1. Not affected by ship’s power supply variations for short term.
2. No heat generated and hence no risk of fire.
3. Actuators are cheaper and accurate than electric systems.
4. Simple control air piping system.
Disadvantages
1. Require air compressor and associated systems.
2. A clean, dry and oil free supply of good quality air is essential for satisfactory operation of the system.
3. Good quality air require driers, filters with drains, etc. which increases maintenance.
4. May have transmission lags in large systems.
What is meant by ‘fail safe’ and ‘fail set’ in a pneumatic control systems ?

On failure of control air supply, the pneumatic actuator may be arranged to move to a position that allows the
plant to continue to operate safely, in other words, fully opened or fully closed. This is known as fail safe. For
example, in the case of a jacket cooling water system, on failure of control air, the actuator opens fully to allow
jacket water to the cooler without bypass. On the other hand a fuel oil control valve for boiler closes
completely on such a failure. This ensures safety of the plant.

In some other systems, control air supply failure locks the position of valve at that time of failure. This is
called fail set. The advantage of this system is that the plant gets stable and have time for normal shutdown or
can wait for reestablishment of control air supply for some time. Example for such a system is boiler water
level control.

Explain two step control action, ratio control and  proportional plus integral control
with applications on ships ?

Two step control action is the simplest form of control, in that it assumes one or two preset positions, a switch
is ON or OFF or in the case of a valve it is OPEN or CLOSE. For example, a pressure switch controlling the
starting air compressor is an acceptable form of control since there can be fairly large deviation between
measured value and desired value. Another example is hydrophore pumps which cut in and cut off with the
hydrophore pressure.

Ratio control is one in which one variable is kept at a fixed ratio to another variable. Ratio control is found in
boiler combustion control system where the ratio between the air-fuel must be controlled to ensure good
combustion. The air flow is controlled by dampers to match the fuel flow.

In a proportional plus integral controller, the proportional element acts if there is any deviation between the
output (measured value) and the desired value, but the action results in a permanent difference between the
measured and desired value (called offset). The integral element removes this difference or offset. For more
details on the basics of proportional, integral and derivative control, please click on the links below.

Proportional, Integral and Derivative actions basic principles

More about PID Controllers
Application of the proportional-integral control is the water level control system for boiler on ships, which
maintains desired water level always without offset.

What is the effect of a leaking proportional bellows or measurement bellows in

pneumatic control systems ?

When proportional bellows start leaking, its ability to introduce the negative feedback is reduced. This results
in increased gain of the controller and control valve starts moving to the extreme positions causing instability.

When measurement bellows leak, it prevent the flapper from moving towards the nozzle, and the desired or set
value is changed, again causing hunting of the system.
Investigation on Top End Bearing Failure for Main Engine on Ships
Assessment of Top End Bearing Failure

The following information would be useful in assessing the possible causes of the failure:

 History of all work carried out on the bearings, to try and establish if any possible pattern or links exist.
 History of bearing clearances, to investigate whether the clearances have been maintained at the correct
values.
 Readings of the power developed by the engine, to establish if the engine has been operating at overload.
 Readings of the maximum combustion pressures developed by each cylinder, to establish if the load on
the top end bearing has been excessive.
 Readings of the lubricating oil analysis, to determine if the oil condition is acceptable.
Causes of Top End Bearing Failure

Following are the possible causes of top end bearing failure:

1. Wiping of the bearing due to high bearing loads caused by excessive cylinder pressure being developed
2. Insufficient lubricating oil supply due to supply pump failure, failure of the oil piping linkage, oil filter
blockage
3. Impurities within the lubricating oil, causing abrasion of the bearing and pin surface
4. Corrosion of the bearing and pin due to oil contamination with acidic products and/or water
5. Wiping of the bearing due to low viscosity of the oil caused by excessive oil temperatures and/or water
6. Insufficient bearing clearances within the bearing, causing excessive oil temperatures and hence low oil
viscosity
7. Excessive bearing clearances within the bearing, causing low oil generated pressures due to excessive
bearing end leakage
Prevention of Top End Bearing Failure

Prevention of all of the above causes will reduce the probability of future failures. Hence the following
procedures would be instigated:

1. Bi- monthly monitoring of all bearing clearances, to ensure these are within normal limits
2. Bi -monthly oil analysis of the oil by the oil manufacturer, to ensure oil quality is ensured
3. Weekly oil tests on-board for water contamination, dirt levels, viscosity and BN levels, to ensure that the
oil condition is acceptable.
4. Monthly checks of the lubricating oil low pressure alarm and trip, to ensure that the engine is protected at
all times
5. Three times a day recording of the supply oil pressure and temperature, to monitor the supply oil
6. Monthly monitoring of the cylinder pressures using indicator cards, to prevent bearing overload
7. Closely monitor any overhaul and repair work carried out on the bearings to ensure that the correct
procedure was being followed, and that the re-assembly was correct
8. Monitor any replacement parts that have been used to ensure they are the correct specification
9. Monthly checks of the general crankcase to ensure all locking devices are still in place
Function of fuel injection pumps

 To supply accurate metered amount of fuel with sufficient pressure to open fuel injector in correct timing.
How to cut out fuel pump

1. Reduce the engine speed

2. By lifting the pump roller form cam peak and securing the pump roller guide
3. By making pump rack to zero position
How to notice the incorrect timing ?

 Difficult to start the engine

 Abnormal exhaust temperature reading 
 Black smoke coming out
 Irregular running of engine.
How to check the fuel injection pump timing ?

 Lock off the starring mechanism

 Start L.O pump
 Open all indicator cock
By hair line method
1. Turn the engine so that the unit to be checked is toward the TDC of compression stroke
(plunger upstroke) so that hair line marking on plunger and pump body are coincided.
2. When hair lines are coincided, stop turning and check the mark on the fly wheel whether timing is correct
or not.
By removing deflector from fuel pump
 Take out deflector on both sides of the fuel pump
 Put hand torch on one side of pump and mirror on the other side
 The light from torch will be visible on the mirror
 Turn the engine so that the unit to be check is toward the TDC of compression (at plunger upstroke)
 At one instant the light on mirror disappears. (When plunger covers the deflector port)
 At this time, stop engine turning & check the mark on flywheel.
Adjustment of Fuel Pump Timing

Small engine
Slightly different variation can be adjusted:
 By adding or reduction shims on the pump base, or 
 By turning the plunger up and down adjustment screw on the pump roller guide, or 
 By shifting the coupling flange between the pump and the drive side of the engine in case of combined
unit system, (for small engine)
Large engine
 The timing can be altered by shifting the camshaft to the position relative to the crankshaft
 For adjustable cam type engines timing can be altered by individual cams of the fuel pumps.
 Individual unit timing checking up & adjustment required for movable cam type engine
 For solid camshaft type, it is only required for checking on No. 1 unit.

How will you check pump timing if no TDC mark given on flywheel ?
In Main Engine
1. Make a marking between cross head and guide shoe while they are before TDC and also mark at the
flywheel.
2. Turn the crank shaft in the same direction until the crosshead and guide shoe are at the previous mark
(coincide)
3. Make the second marking on the fly wheel. We got two marks on the flywheel mid point between the two
points is TDC.
4. Now 360º can be divided around the flywheel.
In Auxiliary Engine
1. Remove the fuel valve
2. Insert the rod onto the piston (mark on rod and flywheel)
3. Turn crank until the rod previous mark
4. Make the second marking on the fly wheel
5. Mid point between the two points is TDC

What points do you check on fuel pump when overhaul or how will you decide ?

 Check plunger guide wear & tear

 Check spring (length & stiffness, crack)
 Plunger & barrel wear & tear, check clearance (5 microns for DO, 15 microns for HO) by dropping the
plunger into the barrel it fall down slowly is OK
 Check control sleeve and rack teeth for crack
 Check the Delivery valve face 
 Check ‘O’ ring of fitted.

Metering of Fuel

 Controlling the fuel amount in two ways, by means of a helix groove on the plunger or by means of
control valves. 
 The quantity of fuel delivered is regulated by the vertical length of the helix where it is in line with the
suction port.
 This setting may be altered by rotating the plunger. In stop position, the vertical slot of the plunger is in
lined with the spill port     where then ports are opened and thus no injection occurred.

Inspection of Cylinder Liner and Piston Assembly on Ships

Complete inspection of cylinder liner and piston assembly will require all components to be removed from the
engine and fully dismantled. The initial inspection should be carried out before the components are cleaned to
monitor fouling rates, areas of concern such as very dirty liner wall.

Once the components have been cleaned, gauging and measurements can be carried out before the final
inspection is done.
Specific areas of inspection are:

 Liner wall
 Coolant side of liner
 Lubricator quills
 Piston crown
 Coolant side of piston
 Piston ring area
 Piston rod
 Piston internals
Possible Faults and Causes

 Excess wear on liner due to insufficient lube oil, abrasives in the fuel, liner too cool
 Cracks on liner wall due to fuel impingement (fuel injector fault or fuel oil too cold)
 Deposits on liner coolant side due to insufficient water treatment or oil in water
 Lubricator quills condition such as poor or nil operation due to supply system defect
 Burning and cracking of piston crown due to fuel impingement or insufficient coolant
 Deposits on piston coolant side due to fresh water treatment insufficient or LO additive depletion
 Wear of piston rings and grooves due to insufficient lube oil, abrasives in the fuel, poor combustion
(causes excessive carbon build-up)
 Scoring of piston rod due to heavy dirt in scavenge space, excess spring tension
 Cracking of the piston mating surfaces caused by incorrect tensioning procedures
Preventive Measures

 Ensure adequate LO supply, clean fuel using separator at low through-puts, operate FW coolant at 80
degrees
 Regular inspection and testing of fuel injector, correct setting of FO viscosity control to 12cSt
 Weekly checks of FW condition for nitrate reserve and low level of chlorides
 Regular check of flow rate from cylinder LO unit, plus daily consumption
 Check piston coolant flow alarms
 Use LO analysis to ensure LO condition maintained correctly
 Regular checks of combustion efficiency by maintained fuel injection equipment
 Regular cleaning of scavenge space. and monitor condition of stuffing box drain
 Check the internals of the piston and correctly tension piston studs and apply fastening devices
What is meant by thermal stress and persistent burning in pistons ?

Thermal stress is caused when the free expansion of the surface metal is prevented by the relative cool metal of
the main structure. This is caused when the piston surface is exposed to the hot temperatures of combustion
and the outer skin of the piston expands. However this expansion is prevented by the main piston body, which
leads to compressive thermal stress in the piston skin, and tensile thermal stress in the piston body.

Persistent burning of the piston crown is due to localised excess temperatures in that region. This could be due
to either excessive external skin temperatures due to fuel impingement (fuel injector defect or incorrect fuel
viscosity), or excessive internal skin temperatures due to fouling/scaling of the coolant surfaces.

Possible Causes Remedies for Abnormal Cylinder Liner Wear

Visual examination of both the liner surfaces did not show any obvious damage. Investigations were carried
out to check:

1. Cylinder oil injection rates (found to be normal and the same for the past 18 months)
2. Cylinder liner temperatures (all temperatures were normal and steady at the required 85 degrees)
3. Fuel oil viscosity (this has been maintained between 13 and 15 cSt)
4. Piston ring specification (the same rings have been in use for over 5 years)
5. Fuel oil quality. The vessel has changed bunker supplies 9 months ago when the trading area changed.
Although usage of the fuel has not presented any other operational difficulties to date, the quality of the
fuel could be a possible cause of these high liner wear rates.
As per shore analysis for fuel oil, fuel contaminants were within limits, but the sulphur levels in the fuel were
between 3.4 and 3.9%, which are higher than the recommended levels for the grade of cylinder oil
presently used on-board. To counteract any further corrosive wear of the liners, the cylinder oil dosage rate
was increased on all cylinders by 25%, and awaited the recommendations of the lubricating oil supplier for
advise regarding possible use of a higher TBN grade of cylinder oil.
A report is attached showing measurements of the liner to date. All liners will be monitored for wear monthly
over the next six months. Please note  that at present total liner wear is still acceptable, but should this level of
liner wear continue, then the liners would require replacement in less than two years.

Turbochargers in Diesel Engines

Supercharging is the process of the increasing of the weight of the charged air by increasing the
density of the charged air.
Turbocharging is one kind of supercharging by using exhaust gas turbocharger. In which the energy in the
exhaust gas expelled from the engine cylinder is utilized in driven in gas turbine, which is connected to a
centrifugal air blower and air is supplied to scavenge air trunk.

Constant Pressure System Turbocharging

 Exhaust gas from all cylinders into a common large manifold where pulse energy is largely dissipated. 
 The gas flow will steady rather than intermittent and at a constant pressure at turbine inlet.
Turbocharger Arrangement in Constant Pressure System
 No exhaust grouping
 Exhaust gases enter into large common manifold and then to turbine
 Firing order not considered
Advantages and Disadvantages for Constant Pressure System
Advantages
1. Good performance in high load (Efficient when Bmep is above 8 bar)
 2. More suitable for high output engine.
3. There is no need to group the cylinders exhaust into multiple of three. (Simple piping system)
4. No exhaust grouping 
5. High turbine efficiency due to steady flow of exhaust.
6. The work transfer at the turbine wheel is smooth.
7. Reduction in SFOC (Specific Fuel Oil Consumption) of 5% – 7%
Disadvantages
1. When running at reduced speed and starting up low available energy at turbine. Thus it supplies
inadequately air quantity of the scavenge pressure necessary for efficient scavenging and combustion.
2. It require scavenge assistant (Auxiliary Blowers).
3. Poor response in changing load.

Pulse System of Turbocharging

 Makes full use of the higher pressure and temperature of the exhaust gas during the blow down period
 While rapidly opening the exhaust valves, exhaust gas leave the cylinder at high velocity as pressure
energy is converted into kinetic energy to create the pressure wave or pulse in exhaust
 These pressure waves or pulses are lead directly to the turbocharger
 Exhaust pipe, so constructed in small diameter, is quickly pressurized and boosted up to form pressure
pulse or wave
 Pressure waves reach to turbine nozzles and further expansion takes place.
Turbocharger Arrangement in Pulse System

 Interference exists between exhausting and scavenging among cylinders 

 To prevent this, cylinders are grouped relatively with connections to two or more exhaust pipes
 Pipes are arranged, in small diameter to boost up pressure pulse and in short, straight length to prevent
energy loss 
 Number of exhaust branch depends upon firing order, number of cylinders and turbocharger design
Advantages and Disadvantages of Pulse System

Advantages
1. At low load and low speed it is more efficient (Still efficient when Bmep is < 8 bar)
2. No need assistant of scavenge pump and blower at any load change.
3. It is highly response to change engine condition giving good performance of all speed of engines.  
4. High available energy at turbine 
5. Good turbocharger acceleration
Disadvantages
1. The exhaust grouping is complicated.
2. Different sizes of exhaust pipes are needed for spare.
3. High pressure exhaust from one cylinder would pass back into another cylinder during the low pressure
scavenging period thus adversely effecting the combustion efficiency.

Under Piston Pressure Supercharging

 It is a type of constant pressure charging system
 Air charged by turbocharger is passed through CAC into first stage manifold, and then through non-
return valves into second stage and under piston space
 In down stroke, piston under side compress further the scavenge air
  Differential pressure shuts the inlet non-return valves as scavenge ports are uncovered, and a pulse effect
is given to cylinder
Advantages
 Assist tangential swirl and ensure complete evacuation of remaining exhaust gas
 No auxiliary blower may be required, during manoeuvring
Turbocharger Surging

 When the discharge volute pressure exceed the pressure built up in the diffuser and the impeller, it
produces a back flow of air from discharge to suction and it is characterized by noise and vibration of
turbocharger.
Causes of Turbocharger Surging

1. Suddenly load change by heavy sea

2. Scavenge space fire / Exhaust trunking fire
3. Poor power balance
4. Dirty nozzle and blades
5. Individual cylinder misfire
6. Chocked scavenge /exhaust ports
7. Incorrect matching of turbocharger to engine.
8. Poor scavenging or leaky exhaust valve

What is exhaust tuning ?

 Exhaust tuning means arranging the exhaust pipes with suitable length and suitable valve timing to
exhaust into the same pipe without disturbance.
 When the exhaust valve of a diesel engine opens, the cylinder rapidly expands, and gain velocity and
kinetic energy as they pass into the exhaust pipe. 
 The kinetic energy of the mass of exhaust gas carries it along the exhaust pipe, and causes a pressure
build up ahead of the mass of gas and a partial vacuum behind it.
 This principle is used in a tuned exhaust system. The partial vacuum created by exhaust from one
cylinder is used to help exhaust expulsion from the following cylinder.
 Grouping of exhaust pipes depends upon the firing order, length & diameter of exhaust pipe.
Advantages of Inter Cooling the Charged Air

 The effect of cooling reduces the scavenge air temperature and increase the density of air delivered to the
cylinders, thus increasing the power out put delivered by the engine.
 It can increase the output by about 10%.
 Cooled scavenge air reduces cylinder and exhaust gas temperature at a given power level and these
temperatures thus remain within the acceptable limits.

Types of Turbocharger Lube Oil System

1. Own sump
2. External lube oil supply system
Types of Turbocharger Bearings

Ball type bearing (rolling type)

 These are used in turbocharger lube oil from the sumps on both air and exhaust sides is sprayed onto the
bearing by means of attached rotor driven gear type pumps.
Sleeve type bearings

 These are lubricated by external L.O supply system.

 By gravity from independent header tank situated about six meters above the bearings. The tank capacity
must supply for about 15 minutes after engine is stopped or
 From a main L.O pump lead to the bearings with a separate L.O pipe line. It has also gravity tank incase
of failure of L.O supply. (Under main engine L.O system)
Function of Labyrinth Seals

 The bearings are separated from the blower and turbine by labyrinth seals.
 These seals are sealed by air supply from the discharge of blower to prevent oil entering the blower and
to prevent contamination of the oil by the exhaust gas.
 In case of defective labyrinth seals on blower side, oil is leaked into the air system the cooling surfaces
are covered with oil which are insulators and the cooling efficiency will be reduced. Also there will be
deposits on the blower and the blower efficiency will be reduced.
 In case of defective labyrinth seals on turbine side, the oil is leaked into the exhaust side and there will be
carbon deposits on the nozzle and turbine blades. Reduce blower efficiency and fire in the exhaust piping.
It will cause turbocharger surging. Oil will contaminate with exhaust  gas.
How will you know turbocharger air filter chocked ?

 It can be known by comparing the manometer difference. If manometer difference is greater than normal,
turbocharger air filter may be choke.
 It can cause reduced engine power
 Black smoke will emit from the funnel
 Scavenge pressure will reduce
Function of nozzle ring in turbocharger

 To change pressure energy to velocity (kinetic energy)

Function of shroud ring in turbocharger

 Shroud ring is a component in turbochargers which forms a part of the inner exhaust gas casing adjacent
to the turbine.
 The area around the turbine is always in contact with highly corrosive exhaust gases. If no shroud ring is
fitted, the turbine inner casing will be slowly wasted and complete housing to be renewed for repair.
Otherwise only shroud ring can be replaced with new one.
 Minimize maintenance cost.
 The radial clearance between turbine blades and shroud ring to be maintained within manufacture
tolerance limits. This is very difficult in absence of shroud ring since casing can go for uneven wear.
Purpose of inducer in turbochargers ?

 To feed the shock less air flow to the impeller or

 To guide the air smoothly into the eye of impeller

Function of Diffuser in turbochargers ?

 To direct the air smoothly into volute casing 
 Convert kinetic energy to pressure energy inlet air

What is K value in turbochargers ?
 It is a distance between the rotor shaft end and the flange of bearing cover measured by blower side.

Purpose of  K value in turbochargers ?

 To ensure that rotating impeller does not to touch the stationary blower casing cover in case of thrust
bearing worn out.

How will you run engine in case of turbocharger failure ?

 Rotor to be blocked
 Exhaust gas to be by-passed the turbocharger
 Run engine with reduced speed with remaining turbocharger
 Use Auxiliary Blower
 Maintain all temperature and pressure of fuel, cooling water and lubrication within limit
How to Cut off Damaged Turbochargers for Engine Operation

Engines with one turbocharger (Engines with exhaust by-pass)

1. Stop the engine.
2. Lock the turbocharger rotor.
3. Remove the blanking plate from the exhaust by-pass pipe.
4. Remove the compensator between the compressor outlet and the scavenge air duct. This reduces the
suction resistance.
5. Run engine with 15% of MCR load and 53% speed.
Engines with one turbocharger (Engines without exhaust by-pass)

1. Stop the engine.

2. Remove the rotor and nozzle ring of the turbocharger.
3. Insert blanking plates.
4. Remove the compensator between the compressor outlet and the scavenge air duct. This reduces the
suction resistance.
5. Run engine with 15% of MCR load and 53% speed.
Engines with two or more turbochargers

1. Stop the engine.

2. Lock the rotor of the defective turbocharger.
3. Insert orifice plates in the compressor outlet and the turbine inlet. (A small air flow is required to cool the
impeller, and a small gas flow is desirable to prevent corrosion)
4. Run engine with 20% of MCR load and 58% speed.

Procedure for Turbocharger Overhaul

Overhauling is carried out as per planned maintenance of turbochargers. The procedure for
overhauling diesel engine turbocharger is explained below.

1. Lock off the engine staring mechanism.

2. Remove the turbocharger air filter.
3. Drain off the oil from both drain plugs.
4. Remove the bearing covers from both sides.
5. Remove the locking wires.
6. Unscrew the hexagon screws and remove oil suction pipes.
7. Tighten again the hexagon screws of the bearing boxes.
8. Check the deflection of the divergent nozzle by using pick tester and magnet stand.
9. Remove the divergent nozzle by screw driver.
10. Measure the K value at the blower side by using depth micrometer or caliper and straight edge.
11. Lock the rotor with special tool.
12. Extract the lubricating disc.
13. Extract the both bearings by bearing extractor.
14. The various parts should be warped in waxed paper to protect them against dirt and moisture.
Checks on Turbocharger while Overhauling

1. Check the deflection of divergent nozzle.

2. Measure the K value at blower side.
3. Change the bearing on both sides with the new one (because bearing service life is same as
turbocharger overhauling time).
4. Clean blower and turbine side with chemical and inspect carefully.
5. Check the labyrinth seal.
6. Made clear the labyrinth seal air line
7. Check the casing for crack & wear
8. Blade condition
9. After reassembled, check Static Balance
10. Check Impeller and Casing clearance
 When will you change turbocharger bearing ?

1. As per Running Hour

2. As per clearance
3. When damaged
4. When vibration is heavy
How to check deflection of divergent nozzle ?

1. By using Pick tester &

2. Magnet stand
What is the main purpose of turbocharger water washing ?

 To ensure efficient functioning of turbocharger.

 To protect the compressor and turbine from contamination (Deposits).
Disadvantages of turbocharger water washing to turbine side ?

 Engine speed has to lower.

 Thermal stress and corrosion usually occurred.
 Longer cleaning time.
 Very fine hard deposits and residues cannot be removed easily with water washing.
Advantages of solid (crystal) cleaning or grit washing ?

 Not required to reduce engine rpm, thus not affect on scheduled voyage
 No used of water, so no corrosion and thermal stress.
 Cleaning time is short.
 Not wear turbine blade.
 Effectively remove combustion residues and hard particle.
How will you carry out turbocharger turbine and blower side water washing ?

Blower side water washing

1. It can be done when M/E on full load.

2. Fill up the warm fresh water to hopper and closed the cover.
3. Open the valve and water will flow into the blower casing and mechanically attack the blower blades and
clean the deposit.
4. Close the valve, open the cover and check the cleaning water must be empty.
Turbine side water washing procedure
1. Turbine side water washing can be made with hot fresh water.
2. Inform to the bridge
3. Reduce the M/E rpm to recommended speed and hence turbocharger rpm.
4. Check the water washing injection nozzle if fitted. (directly aim to the exhaust grips before entering to the
turbocharger)
5. Open turbocharger drain valve.
6. Open the water supply about 1 bar to turbine side.
7. Water washing must be made until the clean water comes out.
8. Close the water supply and remove the nozzle.
9. Exhaust side drain can be closed after all water is drained out and dried.
10. Inform to the bridge and increase the M/E rpm gradually to sea speed.
11. The turbine side water washing is usually at departure after manoeuvring time.
12. For usual practice cleaning is done at every 500 hr, running hour depending on the cleanliness of the
turbocharger .
Grit Washing or Dry Cleaning of Turbocharger

1. Turbine side cleaning is superseded by walnut shell, with grain size of 12 to 34 mesh 
2. No speed reduction required and cleaning can be done at full speed, once every day
3. Compressed air of (3 -5 bar) is used to help the grains strike the deposited Turbine Blades and Nozzles,
giving effective cleaning of hard particles
4. Air supply pipe is fitted to solid grain container, and grains are injected into exhaust system by air
pressure, at the same point (as in water washing ) just after exhaust grids
5. Turbine casing drain kept open during cleaning time (about 2 minutes only) 
What measurements are taken during auxiliary engine turbocharger overhaul ?

 K value, it is a distance between the rotor shaft end and the flange of bearing cover measure at blower
side (axial clearance).
 Check radial clearance (at plane bearing), by placing clock gauge on the shaft from the top and clamp by
screw driver from bottom, record the clearance.
 Rotor and Casing clearance (for new casing or new rotor) (L & M values)
How to measure turbocharger axial and radial clearance ?

Axial Clearance

 Push the shaft by screw jack and measure by Depth Gauge (0.2 – 0.3 mm)
Radial Clearance 
 Lift the shaft radially and measure by Dial Gauge (0.15 – .02 mm)
Why turbocharger exhaust outlet lower than inlet temperature ?

 Some exhaust gas heat and pressure energy is transferred to mechanical rotating energy for
turbocharger, thus pressure become decrease and temperature lower.
What will occur is oil leak in turbocharger system ?

 If oil is leaked into the air system the cooling surface are covered with oil which are insulated & cooling
efficiency will be reduce (ie. Scavenge temperature drop; Exhaust temperature high)
 Also there will be deposits on the blower and blower efficiency will be reduced
 If oil leaked into exhaust side, Carbon deposits on the nozzle & turbine blade. It cause surging, reduces
blower efficiency and fire in the exhaust piping (uptake fire)
Turbocharger Over Run

Causes

 Happens in constant pressure turbo charged engine

 Caused due to fire and or detonation of scavenge space
 Exhaust trunk fire due to accumulation of leaked or excess lube oil and unburned fuel
Effects

 Turbocharger bearings, casing damage

 E/R fire
 Prevention
 Scavenge space regular cleaning
 Exhaust gas pipe regular cleaning
 Maintain complete combustion of fuel
 Liner, piston and rings, fuel vales, cylinder lubrication, maintained in good order
 Avoid operating M/E under reduced load for long term
Causes of Turbocharger Vibration

 Unbalancing
 Bearing defects
 Deposits in nozzle ring
 Impingement
 Surging, Scavenge Fire, Overloading

Calculation of Effective Power in Marine Engines on Ships

Calculation of the indicated, effective and finally shaft power of marine engines in practical case consists of
the following steps:

Calculate:

 The mean indicated pressure, pi

 The mean effective pressure, pe
 The cylinder constant, k2
 The indicated engine power, Pi
 The effective engine power, Pe
The mean indicated pressure, pi
pi = A / (L × Cs) bar
where:
A (mm2) = area of the indicator diagram, as found by planimeter.
Place the planimeter and indicator card on a piece of plane cardboard (not too smooth), and trace the
diagram. Only consider the result satisfactory, when two readings are obtained which do not differ more than
‘1’ on the planimeter vernier scale.
L (mm) = length of the indicator diagram.
Cs (mm/bar) = spring constant (= vertical movement of the indicator stylus (mm) for a 1 bar pressure rise in
the cylinder).
pi corresponds to the height of a rectangle with the same area and length as the indicator diagram. i.e., if pi
was acting on the piston during the complete downwards stroke, the cylinder would produce the same total
work as actually produced in one complete revolution.
The mean effective pressure, pe
pe = pi – k1 (bar)
where,

k1 = the mean friction loss (The mean friction loss has proved to be practically independent of the engine
load. By experience, k1 has been found to be approx. 1 bar)
k2 = the cylinder constant (k2 is determined by the dimensions of the engine, and the units in which the
power is wanted.)
For power in kW : k2 = 1,30900 × D2 ×S
For power in BHP : k2 = 1,77968 × D2 × S
where:
D (m) = cylinder diameter
S (m) = piston stroke
Value of k2 for different MAN B&W engines types is given below.
The indicated engine power, Pi
Pi = k2 × n × pi (ikW or ihp)
where,

n (rpm) = engine speed.

The effective engine power, Pe
Pe = k2 × n × pe (kW or bhp)
where,
n (rpm) = engine speed.
Due to the friction in the thrust bearing, the shaft power is approx. 1% less than the effective engine power.
From this calculation of shaft power in marine engines can be carried out on ships.
What are the causes of starting air line explosion on ships ?

1. The main cause of starting airline explosion is the leaking starting air valve or jamming at open position
of the valve.
2. Initially, the oil which is discharged from the air compressor to starting air line system, it will deposit as a
thin moist film on the internal surface of the pipes but not ready to combustion.
3. If starting air valve leaked or jammed at open position, hot gas or flame may enter the starting air
manifold, vaporize the oil and set the fire to oil mist and greasy matters, which generally deposit on the
surface.
4. At that condition, mostly arrival first start for manoeuvring time, high pressure compressed air coming
into contact with the fire and may cause explosion.
How to prevent starting the air line explosion ?

1. Regular overhaul and maintenance of starting air valve.

2. Before departure, test the air starting valve leakage.
3. Regular drain off the air bottle drain valve.
4. Regular drain off air starting system.
5. Regular cleaning of the compressor suction air fitter and use oil wetted suction filter.
6. Feed minimum absolute cylinder lubrication to compressor.
What are the safety devices on starting air line ?

1. Spring loaded safety valve or bursting disc. (if bursting disc fitted, no need of relief valve)
2. Flame trap. (At Joint where manifold to each cylinder starting line)
3. Starting air line drain valve. (Inlet of automatic air starting valve)
4. Turning gear interlock 
5. Reversing interlock 
How to test starting air valve leakage of main engine on ships ?

When Engine Running

 By hand touch feeling to adjacent pipe to the valve while in engine is operating.         
 If leak, we can feel the pipe hotter than others.
When Engine Stopped
 Shut the isolating valve of starting air distributor        
 All indicator cocks must be opened    
 Disengage the turning gear
 Open the main air bottle stop valve
 Set the control lever to starting position       
 Check all the indicator cocks   
 Escape of air through indicator cock will show a leaking starting valve
 It should be replaced immediately.    
Write a note on bursting disc arrangement on main engine ?
 When starting air line explosion occurs, bursting disc burst out of safety tube, the outer hood can be
moved round just far enough to blank off the holes in the inner hood, thus preventing air leaks when the
engine continue using air.
 It is only used for emergency and the bursting disc should be renewed as soon as possible.
 The detector fixed to the safety cap will by bent out at the explosion and it tells at a glance which disc has
burst.
What are the bursting disc maintenance on ships ?
  For renewable type, renew after complete running hours.
 For reusable type, annealing must be done.

What is governor ?

 Governor is a device which controls the speed of engine automatically in the prescribed limits.
 The governor does its job in two steps.
 By measuring the speed and
 By controlling the a amount of fuel supply to the engine.
What is the function of governors ?

 To adjust the rate of fuel supply in such a way as to keep the engine running at a steady speed regardless
of the load.
 To control the engine running at a steady speed under all conditions of load.
What is governor droop?

 When considering the engine and governor combination, the difference between the no load speed and
full load speed is called governor droop.
 Small droop results in rapid swing.
 Large drop results in slower response to change in speed.
What are the types of governors ?

1. Mechanical governor.
2. Hydraulic governor.
3. Inertia governor [fitted on older slow speed engine]
4. Electronic governor.
What is compensation ?

 The use of temporary speed droop to prevent over correction of the fuel supply is called compensation.
It require two actions:

1. Droop application – as the fuel supply is changed

2. Droop removal – as the engine response to the fuel change and returns to original speed .
What types of governor used in G/E and M/E ?

 G/E governor is a droop speed governor with over speed trip.

 M/E governor is a constant speed governor with over speed trip.
Why over speed trip is fitted in main engine ?

 It is fitted to control the sudden load change and sudden increase in speed. e.g severe load change when
loss of propeller in heavy sea .
 Thus, to prevent engine parts damage, over speed trip is provided.
 Set the speed 15% more than MCR.
 It is attached at camshaft through gearing.
 If engine speed rise more than 10 to 15% above the rated speed,  It shut of fuel & stops the engine.
 The mechanism has to be manually reset before engine start again.
Why hydraulic servo governor is widely used ?

 Hydraulic governor is widely used because of their:

1. sensitivity
2. isochronous and
3. having grater power to move the fuel control mechanism of the engine .
What is hunting of governor ?

 It is a fluctuation of engine speed due to the over correction of the fuel supply. (too much increase
or decrease fuel supply)
What is the cause of engine hunting ?

 It is unavoidable time lag between the movement of the governor act and the movement of engine
response.
What is isochronous governor ?

 It is a constant speed governor.

 It is able to maintain exactly constant speed without hunting.
 This type of governor that has proportional and reset is called isochronous governor.
What will happen when over speed occurred ?

 Engine revolving and reciprocating parts may damage due to inertia effects.
Why will you test G/E over speed trip ?

 It can be tested by increasing the engine speed by speed adjuster at no load condition.
 Over speed trip will cut-out the fuel supply at 115% of normal speed.
Why speed droop governor is used at G/E ?

 It is fitted to get load sharing ability since isochronous governor gives constant speed, thus cannot share
the load.
 AVR is fitted at alternator.
Why over speed trip provided although governor fitted ?

 Governor only control the engine speed in prescribed limits.

 When accidental sudden load change from full load to no load happens, engine speed become too high
above 15% of rated speed.
 Due to time delay of governor control, engine parts may become damage.
 Thus to prevent this effect over speed trip must be provided to shut down the engine by cutting fuel.
Note: It need to reset before restart the engine.
How to operate/act isochronous governor ?

 It maintains constant speed without hunting.

 Speed droop for it is temporary
It has 2 actions:

1. Droop application (as fuel supply is changed)

2. Droop removal (as engine responses to fuel change and returns to original speed)
What is sensitivity ?

 Ability to control the engine speed, within narrow limits

Why Inertia type Governor is not used nowadays ?

 Although very simple type, it requires an engine speed increase of 5% or more to make it operate.
 In some cases, increase of engine speed will bring into or near to critical speed that can cause severe
vibration.
What are the governor maintenance carried out on ships ?
 Periodically check oil level
 Change the governor oil
 Grease the linkage and joint
Steering Gear Systems on Ships
 What are the types of telemotor system in steering gear on ships ?

1. Hydraulic system
2. Electric system
 What are the types of steering system ?

  Electro hydraulic system 

a) Ram type system (2 ram or 4 ram)

b) Vane type system

 All electric system

                a) Ward Leonard system
b) Single motor system

What is meant be non follow up system in steering gear ?

 When steering gear set to required position, rudder is moved & when rudder reach the required position,
steering gear must be set to off position. This system uses the three solenoid valve.
What is meant be follow up system in steering gear ?

 When steering gear set to required position, rudder is moved & when rudder reaches the set position,
steering gear still remains at that position. This system uses the hunting gear arrangement.
What is hunting gear ?

 It is a feed back mechanism of steering gear which repositions the floating lever of hydraulic pump as the
tiller moves to the desire position.
What are the safety devices for steering system ?

1. Hunting gear
2. Buffer spring
3. Angle adjusting stop (Hand over position limit switch)
4. Double shock valve
5. Relief valve
6. Tank level alarm (oil)
7. Over load alarm
What is the indication of air in the steering system ?

 Jumping pressure gauges

 Jerky operation 
 Defective steering
What is the effect of air in the steering system ?

 Air being compressible gives incorrect balance between units, time lags and irregular operation. ( which
can be dangerous )
Emergency steering gear operation?

 In the case of Telemotor failure, by switching the change over pin, emergency steering can be carried out
by isolating the receiver cylinder and directly controlling the connecting rod of the main steering power
unit’s pump lever.
 The emergency rudder angel indicator and communication system to bridge being provided at the
emergency station.
Action in case of electrical telemotor failure ?

 Put bridge control to manual 

 Emergency steering gear system is operated by (solenoid button) whether port or starboard.
 Rudder angle indicator and communication system between steering room and bridge must be provided.
 How to operate emergency steering gear ?

1. Disconnect auto pilot system.

2. Take out change over pin from attachment with telemotor receiver & fit to the hand gear.
3. Use communication system with telephone from steering gear room to bridge.
What are steering gear tests & maintenance ?

Control test
 Just prior to 1 hour before departure of vessel.
12 hour before departure
 Operation of main & auxiliary steering gear.
 Operation of remote control system.
 Operation of emergency power supply.
 Alarm test.
 Actual rudder angle & indicator.
 Communication system.(Bridge, Engine room & Steering gear room)
Every 3 months interval
 Emergency steering gear drill at steering gear room to bridge with sound communication system.
Types of pump used in hydraulic steering system ?

 Motor driven constant speed variable stroke delivery pumps. There are two types.
1. Radial piston type ( hele- shaw pump )
2. Axial piston type ( swash plate pump )
What are the advantages of rotary vane type over ram type ?
 Smaller space required
 Low installation cost
 Less weight
 Smaller power required, for the same load, because it can transmit pure torque to the rudder stock.
What are the disadvantages of rotary vane type over ram type ?

 Synthetic rubber backed steel sealing strips at vane tops are not strong enough for large ship gear.
 Can be used for rudder stock ratings of about 1700 KNm and less torque generated by two ram is 120 to
160 KNm and for four ram 250 to 10,000KNm.
Steering tests required before departure ?

1. Steering gear should be checked at least one hour prior to departure.

2. Telemotor transmitter oil level to be checked
3. Oil level of actuating system tank should be checked and replenished if necessary.
4. Rudder carrier bearing and bottom sea gland checked and greased.
5. Start pump and check response of the gear
6. Check abnormal noise and heat 
7. Check load carrying and running of the gear  ( swing from port 35° to stbd 30° within 28 sec )
What are the properties of telemotor hydraulic fluid ?
 Good quality mineral lubricating oil is used. Its properties are-
1. Low pour point (-50°C)
2. Low viscosity ( to reduced fractional drag, but not too thin to mate gland sealing, 30 Redwood Secs at
60°C)
3. High viscosity index (110)
4. High flash point (150° C closed)
5. Non sludge forming
6. Non corrosive 
7. Good lubricating properties  
8. Specific gravity 0.88 at 15.5° C
What is the purpose of buffer spring ?

 To prevent the damages of the control system.

What are the requirements for steering gear ?
 To move the rudder in either direction instantly when required
 Should come to reset immediately in the position corresponding to that shown on indicator on the bridge.
 Provision must be made to protect the steering gear from damage should a heavy sea strike the rudder.
 The design should be sample, the construction robust and its performance reliable at all times.
Purpose of swivel block in steering gear ?

 To control linear movement of the rams to the rotary movement to the tiller arms and rudder stocks.
Explain ward leonard system ?
 It is the one types of electrical steering gear system. Which control the speed of DC motor from zero to
maximum in either directions.
In four rams type steering gear system, what unit you make in service when one
cylinder damage  ?

 If one cylinder damage, four rams steering gear can be used as two rams type steering gear.
 First place the rudder at mid position.
 Isolate the circuit valves of two cylinder inlet.
 One cylinder is defective and another one, but they are not in diagonal position. Open the vent at that
cylinder.
Purpose of buffer spring ?

 Absorb the difference between the steering order speeds and follow up speed.
 Absorb the movement of steering wheel if it is mishandled when the hydraulic pump stop in.
 Absorb the movement of the control lever when rudder drift
 Absorb the vibration and shocks from the rudder.
When carry out emergency steering system ?
 Every voyage (UHA)
 Once at least within 3 Months (SOLAS)
 During Survey
What are daily check in steering gear room ?

 Pressure gauge of steering pump.

 Motor ampere on the steering switch board & motor hand touch feeling
 Noise and vibration.
 Oil level in tank
 Oil leakage in system
 Grease in rudder carrier bearing
 Check the bottom seal gland whether good or not.
What are steering system regulations ?
1. Every ship shall be provided with a main steering gear and an auxiliary steering gear.
2. The failure of one of them will not render the other one inoperative.
3. Relief valves shall be fitted to any part of the hydraulic system.
4. The main steering gear and rudder stock shall be:
5. (a) of adequate strength and capable of steering the ship at maximum ahead service speed. (b) capable of
putting the rudder over from 35′ on one side to 35′ on the other side with the ship at its deepest sea going
draught and running ahead at maximum ahead service speed and, under the same conditions, from 35′ on
either side to 30′ on the other side in not more than 28 seconds. (c) So that they will not be damaged at
maximum astern speed.
6. The auxiliary steering gear shall be: (a) of adequate strength and capable of steering the ship at navigable
speed and of being brought speedily into action in an emergency. (b) capable of putting the redder over
from 15′ on one side to 15′ on the other side in not more than 60 seconds with the ship at its deepest
seagoing draught and running ahead at one half of the maximum ahead service speed or 7 knots,
whichever is the greater.
7. In every tanker, chemical tanker or gas carrier of 10,000 gross ton and upwards and in every ships
of 70,000 gross ton and upwards, the main steering gear shall comprise two or more identical
power units.

CO2 Flooding System – Fixed Fire Fighting on Ships

CO2 flooding system or central bank CO2 system is one of the common fixed fire fighting system installed on
most of the ships. It releases carbon dioxide (CO2) in bulk quantity to a protected space (such as engine room,
cargo hold, purifier room, pump room, etc.) under fire. Smothering action of CO2 extinguishes the fire thereby
preventing spreading of fire to other parts of the ship. It consist of several CO2 cylinders located in a separate
room, called CO2 room. These bottles contain CO2 in liquid state. When the fire in a protected space goes out
of control or in a situation when the fire is not able to extinguish by local fire fighting media, CO2 flooding
system comes into picture. CO2 from the bottles directed via common manifold, main valve and distribution
pipe lines to nozzles through which it is released to the protected space for fire extinction. Due to safety
reasons, the CO2 flooding system is manually released from a release cabinet located outside the protected
space.

Why CO2 is used?

Carbon dioxide is the fire extinguising medium used in CO2 flooding system. It is an effective fire suppression
agent applicable to a wide range of fire hazards. It has a high rate of expansion which allows it to work fast.
When applied to a fire, CO2 provides a heavy blanket of gas that reduces the oxygen level to a point where
combustion cannot occur. Since carbon dioxide is a gas, there is no clean up associated with a system
discharge. CO2, a compound of carbon and oxygen, is a colorless gas which cause coughing to occur when
inhaled. At higher concentrations it is acutely toxic. Low and high pressure CO2 is used for the fire protection
of machinery spaces, pump rooms, cargo holds, paint stores and galley exhaust ventilation ducts on board
ships.

There are several advantages for the CO2 as a fire fighting medium. They are:

 Density is 1.5 times higher than air. So CO2 settles down and displaces air.
 It can be easily liquefied and bottled.
 20% – 30% CO2 concentration extinguishes fire by smothering
 Non-corrosive
 Non- conductor of electricity
 No residues left after application
 No deterioration with age
Similarly there are some disadvantages also, such as:

 CO2 is highly asphyxiating. 9% concentration causes unconsciousness within minutes

 Very little cooling effect. So there is danger of re-ignition.
 When discharged, solid CO2 particles present and generate sufficient static electricity to produce spark.
Explanation of CO2 Flooding System

As mentioned earlier CO2 flooding system floods the protected space under fire with carbon dioxide, which
displaces air, thereby removing one leg of fire triangle for the extinction of fire. CO2 flooding system consist
of main CO2 bottles, common manifold, master valve or distribution valve and distribution pipe lines with
nozzles as shown in the figure below. Click on the diagram to enlarge.

Main CO2 bottles contain carbon dioxide in liquid state with a pressure of 56 bar at 20 degree Celsius.
Pressure of CO2 at 25 and 30 degree Celsius are 64 bar and 71 bar respectively. So it is important to keep the
temperature of CO2 bottles low for limiting the pressure inside bottles. CO2 from the main bottle is released
by a ‘CO2 release cabinet’ as shown in the figure. As soon as the release cabinet door is opened, a micro
switch is activated. The micro switch will ensure the activation of CO2 warning alarms and ventilation shut
off. CO2 release cabinet or release box consist of two pilot CO2 cylinders or bottles containing CO2 gas
inside. The pressure of CO2 inside these pilot bottles is same as that of main CO2 bottles. Only quantity of gas
is different. For releasing CO2 to the protected space, one of the pilot bottle valve is opened. Now CO2
reaches two valves marked 1 and 2. First valve 1 is to be opened. Then CO2 passes through a non return valve
and opens pneumatically operated master valve. Now master valve is opened. Next, open valve 2 in the release
cabinet, which supply CO2 to main CO2 bottle head assembly through a non return valve and ‘time delay
unit’. Function of the time delay unit is explained below. Head assembly consist of a pressure operated
cylinder valve. This pressure operated cylinder valve prevents CO2 from bottle coming to the common
manifold. As CO2 reaches the head assembly from pilot bottle, pneumatic actuator in the head moves and
opens the pressure operated cylinder valve. Then CO2 from main bottle escapes to the common manifold via
non return valve as shown. Each of the main CO2 cylinder have a head assembly and non return valve. The
pilot CO2 line is connected to all these heads. All the CO2 from the main bottles now release to common
manifold. Since the master valve is already open before, CO2 from manifold is released to the protected space
through distribution pipe lines and nozzles.

As you can see in the diagram, there are two CO2 release cabinets. One is local release cabinet and is located
in the CO2 room itself. One more remote release cabinet is used, which is located in a remote place such as fire
control station. This facilitates operation of CO2 flooding system from a remote place other than CO2 room.
Both release cabinets are connected in parallel and non return valves fitted in the lines prevent back flow of
CO2. Also two pilot CO2 bottles are placed in the release cabinet. Only one is sufficient for the operation of
both master valve and CO2 bottle head assembly.

CO2 flooding system explained here protects only a single space. There are systems which can protect multiple
spaces such as engine room and pump room together. In that case separate release cabinets will be there for
engine room and pump room. Main CO2 bottles are shared for engine room and pump room according to the
volume of the spaces.

Time Delay Unit in CO2 Flooding System

CO2 from the pilot bottles in release cabinet reaches main CO2 bottle head assembly through a time delay unit.
Function of this time delay unit is to delay the supply of CO2 to the head assembly for 60 – 90 seconds. In
other words, when valve 2 in the release cabinet is opened, CO2 reaches only after 60 to 90 seconds to the
head assembly. Reasons for providing such a s delay in CO2 flooding system are given below.

1. As soon as CO2 release cabinet opens, alarm is sounded in the protected space. A time delay of 60 to 90
seconds give sufficient time for any personnel in the protected space to escape, even after the operation of
both valves in the release cabinet.
2. If CO2 is released from main bottles to the common manifold before opening master valve, there may be
difficulty in opening master valve because of the bulk CO2 pressure acting on it. Because of the time
delay, positive opening of the master valve is ensured before releasing CO2.
3. Regulation per International Code for Fire Safety System (FSS Code) 2.1.3.2 says, “The pre-discharge
alarm can be automatically activated (e. g. by opening the release cabinet door). The alarm shall operate
 for the length of time needed to evacuate the space, but in no case less than 20 seconds before the
medium is released.”
The time delay can be achieved in different ways. Out of these, two types of time delay unit is commonly used
in CO2 flooding system on board ships. One is electrical type, which has an AC 220 V power supply, a
pressure switch, timer and a solenoid valve as shown in the figure below.

Power source is
always available for the unit. Solenoid valve is normally in closed position. When CO2 from pilot cylinder
(CO2 release cabinet) reaches the time delay unit, the pressure acts on the pressure switch. This closes the
pressure switch. But the timer allows power supply to the solenoid only after 60-90 seconds, the timing can be
adjusted as required. As soon as the specified time is reached, solenoid becomes energize and the solenoid
valve will open. This allow passage of CO2 to the pressure operated cylinder valve of main bottle. Normally a
by pass valve is also fitted across this time delay unit which can be used in case the unit goes defective.
Another type of time delay unit uses an empty bottle fitted just before the head assembly. This empty bottle
fills first before supplying pressurised CO2 to the head assembly. This is more reliable since there is no
electrical components involved. Figure below 000000shows two time delay units, one for engine room and the
other for purifier room.
CO2 Main Bottle Head Assembly

Head assembly mainly consist of a cylinder valve, which is operated by a pneumatic actuator and linkages as
shown in the figure below. CO2 from the release cabinet reaches the pneumatic actuator through time delay
unit and actuator operates the cylinder valve to release CO2 from main bottles to the common manifold.
The pressure operated cylinder valve shown in the figure above can also be manually operated by use
of a lever inserted into the top of the valve. Free space above the valve should be minimum 200 mm.
The closing nut is to be screwed tight to the valve outlet during transport and storing of cylinders with
valve fitted. The cylinder valve is always supplied with a cotter pin or split pin as shown for securing
cylinder after filling and during any maintenance on the CO2 flooding system.
        

   
Bursting Disc in CO2 Flooding System

The pressure of CO2 inside the bottle depends on the temperature of the surroundings. As temperature
increases, pressure also increases. Therefore to safeguard against abnormally high pressures inside the bottle, a
bursting disc is provided on the head assembly as shown in the figure above. When the CO2 pressure inside
the bottle increases to about 200 bar, bursting disc burst and releases CO2 to the CO2 room. Pressure inside the
bottle build up to such a high value means there is a fire inside CO2 room. Here, CO2 released from the bottle
itself extinguishes fire inside the room. For better understanding have a look at the pressure- temperature
relationship at different filling densities from the graph below.
  From this graph,
pressure of CO2 at different temperatures can be identified.
Function of Pressure Switch, Pressure Gauge in Manifold

Pressure switch is fitted in the common manifold to identify any leakage of CO2 gas from bottles to the
manifold. The pressure switch activates warning alarm for the leakage. Similarly pressure switch will activate
alarms while actual operation of CO2 flooding system. A pressure gauge is also fitted on the manifold to read
any gas pressure inside. A valve for pressure testing of the system is also connected to the pressure gauge
connection as shown in CO2 line diagram. 
Why Relief Valve is Required?

There is a relief valve fitted in the manifold of CO2 flooding system. Function of the relief valve is to release
the CO2 pressure in the manifold to the atmosphere outside CO2 room. Such a situation arises when CO2 get
released from the bottle and master valve is still closed. Set pressure of relief valve is about 180 bar. Again, set
pressure varies with the system design and regulations. A relief valve is required for two purposes:

1. If the pressure of fluid in a pipe line increases beyond the designed working pressure, there must be a
pressure relief mechanism for bringing down the pressure to safe guard the system. In the case of CO2
flooding system, CO2 will accumulate in the manifold when it is released from the bottle and master
valve is closed. Pressure of CO2 is 55 bar at 20 degree Celsius. As CO2 takes temperature from
surroundings, its pressure also increases to dangerous levels. Since these pipes are pressure tested to 190
bar only, a relief valve is necessary in the manifold.
2. Any pressure accumulate in the manifold may release other CO2 bottles which are intact, if the non return
valve between bottle and manifold is damaged.
What is the Purpose of Dip Tube in CO2 Extinguisher?

Whether it is portable CO2 fire extinguisher or cylinder in CO2 flooding system, a siphon tube or dip tube is
necessary inside bottle.
 The function of dip tube is to deliver
liquid carbon dioxide outside the bottle. If dip tube in not provided, CO2 evaporates from the surface while
discharge taking latent heat of vaporization and remaining liquid CO2 will freeze inside and hence failure of
CO2 discharge. Therefore it is necessary to operate CO2 fire extinguishers in up right position.
What are the requirements of CO2 Room

In CO2 flooding system, carbon dioxide bottles are placed in a separate room called CO2 room. The
requirements for location, accessibility, use and ventilation of CO2 storage spaces as per IMO are:

 Spaces for storage of cylinders or tanks for extinguishing gas should not be used for other purposes.
 These spaces should not be located in front of the forward collision bulkhead.
 Access to these spaces should be possible from the open deck.
 Spaces situated below the deck should be directly accessible by a stairway or ladder from the open deck.
 The space should be located no more than one deck below the open deck.
 Spaces where entrance from the open deck is not provided or which are located below deck are to be
fitted with mechanical ventilation.
 The exhaust duct (suction) should be lead to the bottom of the space.
 Such spaces should be ventilated with at least 6 air changes per hour.
Requirements of CO2 Flooding System

1. Discharge requirement is, at least 50% of CO2 discharge to be carried out in 1 minute and at least 85%
discharge in 2 minutes.
2. Capacity of CO2 in the system to be, 1.) 30% of the gross volume of the largest protected cargo space, 2.)
40% of the gross volume of machinery space excluding engine casings, 2.) 35% of the gross volume of
machinery space including engine casings for vessels GT < 20000. Total amount of CO2 cylinders
depends on the highest gross volume out of above 1,2,3 in a particular ship.
3. Safety procedures must be there against unauthorized use of the system.
4. Machinery space to be fitted with audio-visual alarm and ventilation blower trip.
5. Alarm must trigger well before operation of CO2 flooding system.
6. Permanent piping arrangements should be made.
7. Manifold, distribution piping to be pressure tested. See Pressure Testing of CO2 Flooding System below.
 8. Diameter of associated pipe lines in the system should not be less than 20 mm.
9. Copper and flexible pipes are allowed between CO2 cylinder and common manifold.
10. Distribution pipes to cargo spaces should not pass through engine room.
11. All stop valves to be checked every month to ensure their working and position.
12. The CO2 flooding system installation to be checked monthly for any leakages.
13. All control valves to be tested annually.
Calculation of CO2 Required
 Quantity of free carbon dioxide calculation at 0.56 m3/ kg
 Mixing ratio of CO2 based on the volume of protected spaces to be as follows:
a) Gross volume of engine room space including casing = 35%

a) Gross volume of engine room space excluding casing = 40%

a) Gross volume of purifier room space = 40%

 Quantity of CO2 in kg = (GROSS VOLUME x MIXING RATIO) / 0.56

QUANTITY OF
GROSS MOLUME QUANTITY OF 45 KG
NAME OF SPACE (M3) CO2 (KG) CYLINDER
NO.
ENG ROOM SPACE
INCL. CASING 7324 4577.5 102
1
ENG ROOM SPACE
2 EXCL. CASING 6856 4897.14
109
3 PURIFIER ROOM SPACE 132 94.2
3
Therefore required quantity of 45 kg CO2 cylinder for engine room = 109
Note: The air reservoir in engine room space is not included in the above calculation since the outlet of safety
valve shall be led to atmosphere outside engine room.

Pressure Testing of CO2 Flooding System

Area Material Test

Pipe Section
Galvanized Seamless
Branch Pipe to Nozzles Manganese Steel 7 Bar Air Blowing Test
Low Pressure Section
Master Valve to Main Galvanized Seamless
Medium Pressure Pipe Branches Manganese Steel
Section 80 Bar Pressure Test
 CO2 Cylinder to Galvanized Seamless
High Pressure Section Master Valve Manganese Steel
190 Bar Pressure Test
Pilot Control Line Control Lines Copper Tube
58 Bar Pressure Test
 Maintenance of CO2 Flooding System

Fixed carbon dioxide fire extinguishing systems should be kept in good working order and readily available for
immediate use. Maintenance and inspections should be carried out in accordance with the ship’s maintenance
plan having due regard to ensuring the reliability of the system. The on board maintenance plan should be
included in the ship’s safety management system and should be based on the system manufacturer’s
recommendations.

Monthly

 Alarms, Machinery trips, Door alarm, Quick closing valves, Flaps, Skylights, Ventilation fan trips to be
tested.
Yearly

 General inspection of the installation, pipe lines to be checked.

2 Yearly

 1+
 Verify CO2 contents by mechanical advantage lever, ultrasonic liquid level measurement or radioactive
liquid level measurement. Equipment for measuring CO2 content must be available on board ships. A
maximum reduction of 5% in CO2 content may be allowed provided total CO2 quantity on board is not
less than the required amount.
 Blow through the system with 6-7 bar air with plastic air bags at the nozzle ends.
5 Yearly

 1+2+
 The servo cylinders and any remote controlled stop valves to be tested by opening one pilot cylinder. The
main CO2 bottles must be uncoupled for this purpose.
 Spring loaded relief valves to be checked and pressure tested at 180 bar.
 Checking of HP alarms which operate with gas pressure.
 Section of CO2 which can be shut off must be tested with air at 25 bar.
10 Yearly

 1+2+5+
 CO2 bottles to be inspected internally. Siphon tube or dip tube to be checked. Cylinders to be pressure
tested at 250 bar. If permanent change in volume is observed, those cylinders to be discarded. After 20
years of installation of CO2 flooding system, these tests to be carried out every 5 years thereafter.
15 yearly and 5 year thereafter
  1+5+
 Pressure test HP pipes, stop valves to engine room, pump room, purifier room,etc. at 190 bar (hydraulic),
medium pressure pipes at 80 bar (hydraulic) and low pressure pipes at 7 bar air.
 After hydraulic pressure testing, lines to be blown through by dry air.
Service chart sample used by marine engineers for CO2 flooding system on ships is shown below. Click on the
diagram to enlarge.

Procedure of Releasing CO2 to the Engine Room on Ships

1. Muster and take head count.

2. Master will take decision, depending upon the situation and as per the company policy.
3. If total CO2 flooding of engine room is to be done, master will consult with chief engineer.
4. Nearest coast guard to be informed as soon as possible.
5. Ensure proper sealing of the engine room.
6. Make sure emergency generator is running and on load. Power is required for running emergency fire
pump for boundary cooling.
7. All access doors, vent flaps, blower flaps, skylights, hatches, fire flaps, to be closed.
8. Quick closing valves to be closed.
9. Emergency stops for lube oil pumps, fuel oil pumps to be operated.
10. All machinery in engine room to be stopped.
11. Ensure all personnel vacated engine room.
12. CO2 must be released by competent engineer.
13. Break the glass and take out key for CO2 release cabinet from key box. Using local CO2 release cabinet
is preferred.
14. Open the release cabinet. Audio visual alarms will sound and ventilation blower trips will activate.
 15. In the CO2 release cabinet, open pilot cylinder valve first. Now open valve 1 for master valve first. Then
open valve 2 for CO2 releasing mechanism. Co2 will be released after 60-90 seconds of time delay.
16. Now the system pressure can be checked from the pressure gauge on the manifold.
17. If CO2 is not released, then follow emergency releasing procedure. Open master valve manually and
open each CO2 main bottle by manual actuation lever.
Important Notes on CO2 Flooding System

 CO2 flooding is the final course of action, used only when all else has failed. Proper sealing of the engine
room is essential for effective extinction of fire. There were incidents like CO2 is released, effective
smothering did not occur due to improper sealing of engine room and fire remained unextinguished.
 To obtain a total flooding of engine room, about 35% by volume of CO2 is required in 2 minutes. This
will reduce the oxygen content of the air in engine room to less than 15% to extinguish the fire. At this
CO2 concentration human life cannot be supported.
 Typically it takes about 15-20 seconds after release of CO2 before the concentration in engine room
reaches a dangerous level.
Safety Precautions After CO2 Release

After CO2 flooding system is operated efficiently, engine room fire will extinguish by smothering action. But
before engine room entry is made or space ventilated, it is recommended to obtain expert advice from shore.
Nearest coast guard can be contacted for getting assistance for the same.

1. The first question is, how to make sure that CO2 is actually released after the operation of CO2 flooding
system. When Co2 is released there will be a loud noise of gas escaping to the protected space. CO2
bottles can be felt cold after releasing. Visual inspection of the operation of, pressure operated cylinder
valves also can be carried out.
2. CO2 has very little cooling effect. So there is a danger of re-ignition of fire when engine room is
ventilated immediately. Keep the boundary cooling running to reduce the temperature of the engine room.
3. Ventilation of engine room should not be started until it has been definitely established that the fire has
been extinguished completely, which will take several hours.
4. Engine room to be sufficiently ventilated before entering.
5. Entry to be carried out by trained personnel wearing breathing apparatus.
6. Even after fire has been extinguished completely, never bring  bare flame  such as candle light or lighted
cigarette into the burnt room, other wise fire may break out again due to explosion of combustible gases,
if any.
7. In order to allow persons to get away quickly and safely in case of fire, entrances and exits shall be
always kept clear.
8. Back up team or support team to be ready in case any difficulties happens in side.
9. An attendant should be instructed to remain at the entrance of the engine room.
10. An agreed and tested system of communication to be established between attendant and team inside
engine room.
11. In case any emergency occur to the team inside engine room, the attendant is not supposed to enter inside
before the help has arrived.
12. In the event of ventilation system fails, the personnel in the space should leave immediately.

MEO Oral and Written Examination Questions and Answers on CO2 Total Flooding
System on Ships
Why do you make CO room ventilation ? Where ?
 To remove the leakage CO2 from the CO2 room.
 CO2 gas is heavier than air and does not support to human life (Suffocate).
 CO2 room must be well ventilated before entry
 CO2 room is situated outside the machinery space usually at main deck and it must be a separate
compartment.
A short note on CO2 room ventilation arrangement ?

 It is made by motor driven exhaust blower or fan, which suction is drown from CO2 room floor, because
CO2 is heavier than air and leakage CO2 can accumulate on the CO2 room floor.
 Fan control switch is fitted outside the CO2 room, at the entrance.
Briefly describe carbon dioxide flooding system on ships ?

1. Steel cylinder, 67 liters capacity, each charged with 45 kg liquid CO2 under pressure of 55 bar.
2. Provided with safety disc, bursts at a pressure of 175 to 195 bar.
3. Quick release or total flooding cylinders are arranged that 85% of the capacity can be released within 2
minutes.
4. Can be discharged individually.
5. Manual release mechanism for individual release.
6. Same manifold for different groups (engine room, pump room, etc.)
7. The liquid when released produces about 450 times its original liquid volume in the gas form.
8. One kg of liquid CO2 can produce 0.56 cubic meter gas.
9. To be effective in smothering a fire the total carbon dioxide gas  to be obtained at least 30% of the gross
volume of the largest room of the ship and the total flooding system must release to obtain 40% of the
gross volume of the machinery space and held until the fire is out.
10. In the case of CO2 flooding system for cargo holds, the visual and audible smoke detecting cabinet (with
smoke detectors) is located in the CO2 room and two exhaust fans are installed in the water tight
galvanized steel box on top of it. The three way valves, under the smoke detecting cabinet, are normally
closed to CO2 line and the blower sucks air from the holds through smoke detector will be closed and
CO2 can be discharged to the required cargo hold.
What are the safety devices on CO2 flooding system ?

 Master valve with alarm switch.

 Relief valves at manifold.
 Stop valve and pull handle are in lock release cabinet and alarm switch.
 Safety bursting disc at each CO2 bottle.
 Leakage detecting pressure switch on manifold.
 Non return discharge valves after CO2 bottles.
What will you do for a cargo hold fire ?

1. Remote detector fitted at the CO2 room can detect smoke on concerned cargo space.
2. This operation must be done by master’s order.
3. After ensuring no person left in cargo space, seal off the cargo space (closing of ventilation fan, fire
damper, and hatch cover), operate 3 way valve for the concerned hold and manually open required CO2
bottles. 
What are the requirements of CO2 bottles ?

1. All bottles stamped at 52 bar pressure.

2. Bursting disc fitted, operates at 177~ 193 bar at 63 °C
3. Store in temperature less than 55 °C
 4. Recharge if 5 % loss.
5. Clamped against movement and vibration(by wooden plank).
6. Remote and manual operation possible.
7. Hydraulically tested to 228 bar.
8. Level tested (by radio active level indication).
9. if > 10 years internal and external examination required.
What are the limitations on CO2 properties ?

1. CO2 is heavier than air

2. Less cooling effect
3. Static electricity induced 
4. Heavily asphyxiating (suffocating) 
5. Ineffective if > 10 ~ 12 minutes
6. “One off” no reserve
7. Total evacuation required
8. Possibility of thermal shock
9. No protection of personal
10. Expands 450 times its volume in liquid to produce gas.
What are general inspections carried out in CO2 room ?

1. Check emergency light and all other lights.

2. Check exhaust fan / ventilation.
3. Check all bottles overall condition, clamps, valves etc.
4. Check operating wire condition.
5. Check CO2 alarms.
6. CO2 room key should be in position.
7. Check the operating instructions.
8. Inspection to be recorded in log book and Saturday safety routine book.
What are survey items on CO2 flooding system on ships ?

1. Check CO2 weight every 2 years

2. Testing of cylinder at 228 bars
3. Blow through the lines
4. General inspection on Instructions, Key, Emergency lights, Ventilation, Alarms etc.
What are the CO2 room safety arrangement ?

Exhaust fan and suction duct

 Provided at the bottom of the CO2 room.
 Any accumulated CO2 from leakage at the bottom can be exhausted to atmosphere.
Relief valve
 Reason explained above “Why Relief Valve is Required ?” section.
Check valve
 Fitted on connection pipe between each cylinder discharge valve and manifold, so that leakage of one
cylinder cannot effect other cylinder.
Bursting disc
 Each bottle has a combined bursting disc, which will rupture spontaneously at a pressure of 177 bar at
63°C
Pressure gauge and pressure alarm in the mainfold
 Reasons explained above.
Special Areas in MARPOL 73/78
Special areas means sea area where for recognized technical reasons in relation to its oceanographical and
ecological condition and to the particular character of its traffic the adoption of special mandatory methods for
the prevention of sea pollution by oil/NLS/garbage is required.

Annex VI Regulations for the Prevention of Air Pollution from Ships establishes certain sulphur oxide (SOx)
Emission Control Areas with more stringent controls on sulphur emissions and nitrogen oxides (NOx)
Emission Control Areas for Tier III NOx emission standards.

For the purpose of Annexe 1, following are the special areas:

1. The Mediterranean sea area

2. The Baltic sea area
3. The Black sea area
4. The Red sea area
5. The Gulf area
6. The Gulf of Aden area
7. The Antarctic Area
8. The North-West European Waters
9. Oman area of the Arabian Sea
10. Southern South African Water
For the purpose of Annexe 2, following are the special areas:

1. The Antarctic Sea Area

For the purpose of Annexe 4, following are the special areas:

1. The Baltic Sea

For the purpose of Annexe 5, following are the special areas:

1. The Mediterranean sea area

2. The Baltic sea area
3. The Black sea area
4. The Red sea area
5. The Gulf area
6. The North Sea area
7. The Antarctic Area
8. The Wider Caribbean Region
For the purpose of Annexe 6, following are the special areas:

1. Baltic Sea (SOx)

2. North Sea (SOx)
3. North American ECA
(NOx, SOx and PM)
 4. United States
Caribbean Sea ECA
(NOx, SOx and PM)

SOLAS Requirements for Steering Gear

Relief Valves

Relief valve to be fitted to any part of the hydraulic system, which can be isolated if required. The setting of
relief valve shall not exceed the design pressure. Relief valve shall be of adequate size and so arranged as to
avoid an undue rise in pressure above the design pressure. Relief valve protect piping and hydraulic system
against over pressurizing.

 Relief valve setting should not be less than 1.25 times the working pressure.
 Discharge capacity of relief valve should not be less than 110% of the total capacity of pumps.
 Rise in pressure should not exceed more than 10% of the set pressure, this safeguards against the
excessive torque on rudder stock in rough seas.
 Relief valve also should function in case of maladjustment of hunting gear in case rudder coming in
contact with some foriegn objects or rudder movement gets restricted.
 Relief valve of the pumps cannot be substituted for the shock valves.
Steering Gear Control

 Control for main steering gear should be provided from both navigation bridge and steering compartment.
 In case of chemical tankers and gas carriers two independent hydraulic tele-motors shall be fitted.
 Auxiliary steering gear shall be operated independently from the wheel house.
 There should be two independent power supply for the control circuits, one from main switch board and
one from emergency switch board.
 If no emergency generator is there, then two independent connections to be fed to the controller circuits
from port and starboard side of the main switch board, so that in case of fire, one can be isolated.
 In case of failure of main steering gear, second one should start within 45 seconds.
 Audio and visual alarms to be provided in wheel house for failure of power to the steering gear and
control system.
 Only short circuit protection to be provided on main supply and control system, by means of fuses.
 There should not be any overload trips, only overload alarms to be provided.
 Rudder angle indicator to be fitted in wheel house, bridge wings and steering compartment.
 Ensure dedicated communication system in place, between wheel house and wheel house.
 Gyro repeater to be fitted in steering gear room so that ship can be steered on desired course from
steering room.
 On wheel house control of steering gear, it should be in position to operate under manual mode (Follow
up and Non-Follow up) and auto pilot mode. Change over switch to be provided in wheel house so that in
case of emergency operator can change over control to steering room if necessary.

Categories of Noxious Liquid Substances (NLS)

May 2, 2014 6:14 pm | Leave a Comment | Frozee
Noxious liquid substances shall be divided into four categories as follows:

Category X

Noxious liquid substances (NLS) which, if discharged into the sea from tank cleaning or deballasting
operations are deemed to present a major hazard to either marine resources or human health and therefore,
justify the prohibition of the discharge into the marine environment.

Category Y

Noxious liquid substances (NLS) which, if discharged into the sea from tank cleaning or deballasting
operations are deemed to present a hazard to either marine resources or human health or cause harm to
amenities or other legitimate use of the sea and therefore, justify a limitation on the quality and quantity of the
discharge into the marine environment.

Category Z

Noxious liquid substances (NLS) which, if discharged into the sea from tank cleaning or deballasting
operations are deemed to present a minor hazard to either marine resources or human health and therefore,
justify less stringent restrictions on thequality and quantity of the discharge into the marine environment.

Other Substances (OS)

Substances indicated as OS (Other Substances) in the pollution category column of chapter 18 of the IBC Code
which have been evaluated and found to fall outside categories X, Y or Z as defined in regulation 6.1 of
Annexe 2 because, they are at present, considered to present no harm to marine resources, human health,
amenities or other legitimate uses of the sea when discharged into the sea from tank cleaning or deballasting
operations. The discharge of bilge or ballast water or other residues or mixtures containing only substances
referred to as ‘Other Substances’ shall not be subject to any requirements of this Annexe.