1

CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION

The primary purpose of this thesis is to evaluate the level of preparedness of the Barangay Disaster Risk Reduction and

Management Committee (BDRRMC) of Mogpog, Marinduque, in order to address the gap between the concerned barangay’s disaster

risk reduction and management projects and activities and the present strength and direction of the preparedness of the BDRRMC. This

study aims to categorize the measurement of community disaster preparedness efficiency in terms of the so-called 4 C’s, namely:

Community Risk Assessment, Contingency Planning, Communication System and Capacity-Building. It also intends to find out if

there is any significant relation between the profile and the level of preparedness of the concerned BDRRMC members. With all these in

mind, the researchers have agreed that by staying true to the course of this study they shall be able to achieve their desired objectives as

well as produce their intended outputs: a valid and useful evaluation tool for disaster preparedness of any Barangay Disaster Risk

Reduction and Management Committee and a program of action to make them well-prepared in responding to disasters.

What are these so-called 4 C’s being harped on by the researchers of this study?

The 4 C’s actually represent the priority areas of concern for disaster preparedness which will help the researchers

formulate the general statement of the problem as well as rationalize the corresponding findings, conclusions and recommendations

of this thesis. It will also help them define the scope and delimitations of this study.

The first C, Community Risk Assessment. The community must concern itself with a proper assessment of the three (3)

components of disaster risk, namely: hazards, vulnerabilities and capacities.

Second is Contingency Planning. In (h), Section 1, RULE 2 of the IRR of R.A. No. 10121, it is considered as a

management process that analyzes specific potential events or emerging situations that might threaten society or the environment and

establishes arrangements in advance to enable timely, effective and appropriate responses to such events and situations.
 2

Communication System is the third C. Communication system may include all the factors involved in contingency

planning, too, such as, but not limited to, early warning systems, the development of arrangements for coordination, evacuation and

public information.

To illustrate: implementation of a disaster preparedness program is done through the cooperation and collaboration of efforts

by various sectors. Each sector shares its resource and expertise in the conduct of disaster management activities in the community.

Even the private enterprises (e.g. Chinese Fire Brigade), non-government organizations (e.g. ABS-CBN Foundation Inc., a giant media

network), volunteers (e.g. MMDA volunteers), and non-government organizations (Philippine Red Cross) play active and clustered

roles.

Finally, the fourth is Capacity-Building. The following elements of capacity as provided in (b) Section I, Rule 2, IRR of

R.A. No. 10121 and could be developed for disaster preparedness may include, but not limited to, infrastructure and physical means,

institutions, societal coping abilities, as well as human knowledge, skills, tools, systems, processes, appropriate technologies and collective

attributes, such as social relationships, leadership and management.

This study, therefore, serves as a challenge to institutionalize the implementation of disaster preparedness – as carried out

within the context of disaster risk reduction and management – of Barangay 649, Manila. The researchers feel this can be accomplished through

a proper evaluation of the BDRRMC priority projects and activities as well as by assisting in the development of a program of action for them.

This thesis seeks to understand the concepts and principles which relate to and describe the aforementioned level of

preparedness of the BDRRMC in terms of community risk assessment, contingency planning, communication system and capacity-

building. This research shall rely on the general theory of the disaster management cycle. This study shall also involve theories

concerning Maslow’s hierarchy of needs (self-preservation as primary motivation), team building and creating effective work systems,

the positive reinforcement of the conduct of disaster preparedness trainings and drills (B.F. Skinner’s Operant Theory), management

concepts related to contingency planning and communication as well as leadership (Leadership Theories). One unique dimension of this
 3
study the researchers want to add is the variable risk assessment and the attempt to classify it as either a motivator or hygienic factor in

Herzberg’s Two- Factory Theory of Motivation. This is very important since it is the assumption of this study that Philippine Disaster

Risk Reduction and Management Best Practices may be promptly gauged according to the soundness of their disaster risk assessment.

Finally, based on the findings of the study, the researchers shall propose action/s on the part of the government and/or on the part of the

researchers which would result to a more effective and efficient implementation of R.A. No. 10121 in Barangay No. 649 in terms of

preparedness. It is important to note that, since its implementation on 2010 up to the present, the Barangay Disaster Risk Reduction and

Management Plan of Barangay No. 649 shall cover the three-year period 2013-2016. Thus, the development of a preparedness-

related program of action clearly underlines the need for a comprehensive, holistic and well-developed barangay disaster readiness plan.

Meanwhile, the gist of this thesis shall remain true to the basic laws of human nature and of man himself; such as, but

not limited to, man’s basic law of self- preservation, or survival, which is: there is strength in numbers. If the readers would closely

follow the line of thinking, this would be a common sense-based approach in dealing with this study. After all, every disaster that comes

and goes is as unique as any person’s own individual differences. Thus, in disaster preparedness, it may be quite proper to apply a wise

man’s idiom about the art of war, “Know your enemy.”

Ironically, when faced with the most horrendous calamities and back-breaking disasters, man’s greatest enemy is not

nature. Ultimately, it is himself.

BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY

The cornerstone of disaster management policy in the Philippines dates back to 1978 when Presidential Decree No. 1566

was enacted, which called for the strengthening of Philippine disaster control and capability and establishing the national program on

community disaster preparedness. By encouraging self-help and mutual assistance, thus, primary responsibility was placed upon LGUs,

especially officials such as the Governor, City or Municipal Mayor, and the Barangay Captain. In planning and actual operations, inter-

agency and multi-sectoral coordination was required to optimize utilization of resources, LGUs were directed to utilize local resources fully

before support from the national government can be sought.

 4
As a signatory to the Hyogo Framework for Action (HFA), the Philippine Government, through the then National

Disaster Coordinating Council (NDCC) has adopted the HFA five priorities for action by developing and enhancing current plans,

programs, and activities on disaster risk reduction. In June 2007, NDCC initiated through the Partnership for Disaster Reduction in the

Southeast Asia Phase 4 Project (PDRSEA 4), the formulation of the Philippine National Strategic Plan on Community-Based Disaster

Reduction Management (CBDRM) that outlined activities in establishing an effective system to promote CBDRM. The same is true with

the country being a signatory to the ASEAN Agreement on Disaster Management and Emergency Response (AADMER).

The major shift of the disaster management strategy of the country bored down to the smaller political subdivisions of the

land. At the local level, a Local Disaster Risk Reduction and Management Fund (LDRRMF) is appropriated amounting to not less than 5

percent of the estimated revenue from regular sources as mandated under the Local Government Code of 1991 to support disaster risk

management activities such as, but not limited to, pre-disaster preparedness programs including training, purchasing life- saving rescue

equipment, supplies and medicines, for post-disaster activities and for the payment of premiums on calamity insurance. In the same way as at

the national level, 30 percent of the amount appropriated for the LDRRMF is allocated as Quick Response Fund (QRF). Before 2010,

most of the remaining fund was used for post-disaster activities. With the enactment of the disaster risk reduction and management

law, it inow specified that 70 percent of the LDRRMF can be allocated for pre-disaster preparedness activities.

An online news article about a disaster preparedness seminar in Manila for barangay officials published last March 8, 2020 by

www.journal.com.ph and written by Itchie Cabayan began with this statement: “By next month, all barangays in Manila will be prepared to

face any disaster within their jurisdiction.” Then a typhoon-induced habagat coupled with monsoon rains came down on the greater part of

Luzon on the third week of August this year which practically halted all economic activities and public services in Manila, and may have

resulted to a considerable damage to property, buildings and structures, as well as infrastructures.

These two events and other circumstances exposed the level of implementation of R.A. No. 10121, both from the side of the

implementers and from the side of the affected communities. The urgent need to properly assess the preparedness of the barangay is as

real as the disaster risks it has to face day-in and day-out, from season to season. Especially so if one is living near or within the port area where
 5
the community is susceptible to flooding, sanitation and waste problems as well as the prevalence of diseases.

Henceforth, as expressly provided for under Section 12 (a) of Republic Act No. 10121, also known as the Philippine Disaster Risk

Reduction and Management (PDRRM) Act of 2010, approved May 27, 2010: “There shall be established a Local Disaster Risk

Reduction and Management Office (LDRRMO) in every province, city and municipality, and a Barangay Disaster Risk Reduction and

Management Committee (BDRRMC) in every barangay which shall be responsible in setting the direction, development,

implementation and coordination of disaster risk management programs within their territorial jurisdiction.”

The composition of the Local Disaster Risk Reduction and Management Council (LDRRMC) reflects the comprehensiveness as well as the

complexities of disaster risk reduction and management.

While Section 5 of the Implementing Rules and Regulations of R.A. No. 10121 defines the BDRRMC, to wit: “It shall be a regular

committee of the existing BDC (Barangay Development Council) and subject thereto. The punong barangay shall facilitate and ensure

the participation of at least two (2) CSO (Civil Society Organization) representatives from existing and active community-based people’s

organizations representing the most vulnerable and marginalized groups in the barangay.” This

provision further strengthens the selection of the barangay to be included in the study. Also, the aforementioned IRR aims to strengthen

“…the local government units (LGUs) together with partner stakeholders, to build the disaster resilience of communities, and to

institutionalize arrangements and measures reducing disaster risks, including projected climate risks, and enhancing disaster

preparedness and response capabilities at all level…”

Disaster preparedness, as operationally defined in the thesis, consists of “the knowledge and capacities developed by

government, professional response and recovery organizations, communities and individuals to effectively anticipate, respond to, and

recover from – the impacts of likely, imminent or current hazard events or conditions.” It also adds that preparedness is “based on

a sound analysis of disaster risk, and good linkages with early warning systems, and includes such activities as contingency planning,

stockpiling of equipment and supplies, the development of arrangements for coordination, evacuation and public information and associated
 6
training and filed exercises.” Disaster risk reduction, on the other hand, is considered a challenge to development at the global, national,

local, community and even individual level. This study, therefore, is particularly focused on the level of preparedness of

Marinduque as stipulated in their respective Barangay Risk Reduction and Management Plan and as implemented by its BDRRMC.

The role of the barangay in disaster risk reduction and management cannot be understated. In Section 384 of the

Republic Act No. 7160, also known as the Local Government Code of 1991, it is provided, thus, that “as the basic political unit, the

barangay serves as the primary planning and implementing unit of government policies, plans, programs, projects, and activities in the

community xxx.” While (6), Section 389 of the same Code provides that the Punong Barangay as the chief executive officer of the

community “organized and lead an emergency group whenever the same may be necessary for the maintenance of peace and order or

on occasions of emergency or calamity within the barangay xxx.”

Historical background of the selected community – BASECO, or the Bataan Shipyard and Engineering Company, was

formerly known as NASSCO (National Shipyard and Steel Corporation). The area covers five shipyard centers in Manila: Bataan,

Iligan, Punta, Sta. Ana, Pandacan, and North Harbor.

Its first inhabitants were fisherfolk from the Visayas (mostly from Samar) and Bataan who built “staging posts” or

temporary huts while fishing in the area. Later, the relatives of the caretakers and the stay-in guards of the shipping companies in the

BASECO Compound began to reside there.

THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK

The PDRRM Act of 2010 realizes the comprehensive elements involved in disaster readiness and, thus, made cognizance of the fact

that disaster preparedness is both an individual and group activity for a particular organization in a specific place and period of time.

Certain general theories concerning motivation amplify disaster preparedness within the context of disaster risk reduction, such as

Maslow’s hierarchy of needs (self- preservation as motivation), B.F. Skinner’s Operant Theory using positive reinforcements (disaster

simulation exercises and drills), and Herzberg’s Two-Factor theory concerning risk as a motivator or hygienic factor of motivation.
 7
In Abraham Maslow’s theory, the most basic physiological level is the first in the hierarchy of man’s need which includes food,

clothing and shelter. This connotes the essence of self-preservation in terms of being able to survive physically, and to subsist in the context

of external environment factors, such risks and, more importantly for this study, disasters.

Next is B.F. Skinner’s reinforcement theory wherein it states that “man learns from his environment and greater control of this

environment improves his development. Through understanding the principles of learning, one understands much about how human

behavior makes the individual learn and perform accordingly.” Thus, this theory justifies the absolute necessity for trainings,

simulation exercises and drills in disaster preparedness so that the appropriate response from the BDRRMC could be adequately obtained.

In Herzberg’s theory, he classified two factors of motivation, the hygienic factors which produce no real growth in terms of motivation

and output (policies and administration, supervision, working conditions, interpersonal relations, money, security), as differentiated from

the real satisfying factors which act primarily as motivators achievement, recognition for accomplishment, challenging

work, increased responsibility, growth and development).

Is risk, as part of the respondents’ profile, a hygienic factor or a motivator? This sub-problem proved to be vital for the

chapters on analysis of data as well as the findings, conclusions and recommendations.

There is still yet another element that comes into play when it comes to disaster preparedness: teamwork. According to John

Paul Jones (from the article entitled “Preliminaries to Team Building,” 1992), the five elements needed to make an effective team are

the following:

1. Mutual Trust,

2. Mutual Support,

3. Genuine Communication,

4. Acceptance of Conflicts as Normal, and

5. Mutual Respect for individual differences.

 8
As discussed in the background of the study, the principles of self-help and mutual assistance were generated by the

country’s previous law on disaster control.

When it comes to team building, Tomas D. Andres (TEAM BUILDING AND CREATING EFFECTIVE WORK SYSTEMS,

2020, page 25) stated that, in teamwork, one must be aware of the values one has. A Filipino value that can play a big role in team

building is bayanihan.

As reiteration in the area of the preparedness, trainings and drills of the BDRRMC, the researchers found complete

solace in B.F. Skinner’s Operant Theory (Human Behavior in Organizations, 3rd Ed., by Concepcion Rodil Martires, 2021) which, ironically,

is a deviation from the human needs theory as determinant of human behavior. Burrhaus Frederick Skinner believed that “the environment

determines the individual behavior.” In his theory, positive reinforcements are found to be more powerful than the negative and neutral

reinforcement. Thus, this theory supports the belief that all stakeholders of community disaster management like official participants

and unlisted volunteers must ensure a high level of preparedness in disaster situations through positive reinforcements of the regular

conduct of trainings and drills.

 9

Figure 1. Disaster Management Cycle

DISASTER PREVENTION,
ADAPTATION
& MITIGATION

DISASTER PREPAREDNESS

DISASTER RESPONSE

DISASTER RECOVERY

These priority areas are not autonomous from the other nor do they have clear start and end points.
The four priority points are NOT seen as a mere cycle which starts in prevention and ends in recovery.
They:
1. Mutually reinforce each other and are interoperable.
2. DO NOT, SHOULD NOT and CANNOT stand alone.
3. Have no clear starting nor ending points between each of the aspects and overlaps are to be
expected.
4. Are problem-needs and asset-strengths centered.
5. All point to one direction: reduce people’s vulnerabilities and increasing their
capabilities.

(The National Disaster Risk Reduction and Management Plan 2011-2028, p. 6)

REDUCE VULNERABILITIES

INCREASE CAPACITIES
 10
In so far as management concepts are concerned, although Gulick’s POSDCORB, namely, Planning, Organizing,

Staffing, Directing, Coordinating, Reporting, Budgeting (Zulueta, et. al., 1999) remains predominant in the basic approach of tackling the

methodology of disaster preparedness, the researchers believed they could add another component to this set of principles. This is the

component of research and analysis, most especially in the field of risk assessment which is virtually the basis of disaster preparedness

and contingency planning. Albeit, recognizing also the importance of POSDCORB as a process, this study would like to emphasize on the

value of communication in the process of disaster risk reduction and management. Communication is the lifeblood of an organization.

The internal and external coordination required from disaster readiness to response is vital because this will dictate not necessarily the

speed of the response, but the timeliness and appropriateness of any disaster response.

Finally, leadership theories provide us not only with a framework on how to measure the satisfaction of the BDRRMC

and constituents, but also of the decision- making powers the respondents possess as individuals and as members of a group. This is the

rationale why the study wants to justify the classification of disaster risk as a motivator or hygienic factor of Herzberg’s Two-Factor

Theory of Motivation since the researchers believe this will not only hold the key in future capacity-building programs for disaster risk

reduction and management but also make the readers of this study have a deeper understanding of risk perception as a sub-topic of disaster risk

assessment.

CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK

The conceptual framework presents the Barangay Disaster Risk Reduction and Management Plan (2013-2016) of Mogpog,

Marinduque, as integral component of Barangay Development Planning and as part and parcel of the implementation of R.A. No

10121. Thus, the Government Planning involved here in the thesis is formulated at the community level using the bottom-up and proactive

approach in planning. The projects and activities submitted and utilized by the BDRRMC will, like any set of government plans and

programs, be evaluated for review in terms of their own level of efficiency.

It is worthy to note that the old thinking of disasters and calamities being “intangibles” or off-grid components of

development is now being drastically overhauled by the paradigm shift of mainstreaming disaster risk reduction to development planning,

most especially in community-based disaster risk reduction and management.

 11
PARADIGM OF THE STUDY

Input Process Output

The Projects & Actions that could be Th intende
Activities of taken: outcome
e dof the
Mogpog, study:
Marinduque Evaluate the level of
preparedness of the The efficiency of
BDRRMC in terms the BDRRMC in
of their responding to
projects and
disasters
activities thru
survey responses by
respondents from
the locale under
study

Figure 2.
The Level of Preparedness of the Barangay Disaster Risk Reduction and Management Committee (BDRRMC) of Mogpog, Marinduque

STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM

The study focused on the level of preparedness of the Barangay Disaster Risk Reduction and Management Committee

(BDRRMC) of Mogpog, Marinduque.

Specifically, the study will answer the following:

1. What is the profile of the respondents in terms of:

1.1. Age

1.2. Civil Status

1.3. Highest Educational Attainment

1.4. Residency

1.5. Training

2. What is the level of preparedness of the Barangay Disaster Risk Reduction and Management Committee (BDRRMC) in disaster risk

reduction in terms of:

 12
2.1. Community Risk Assessment

2.1.1 Hazards

2.1.2 Vulnerabilities

2.1.3 Capacities

3. Does the profile of the BDRRMC significantly affect the level of preparedness of the BDRRMC in disaster risk reduction?

4. What program of action can be recommended to the members of the Barangay Disaster Risk Reduction and Management Committee

for them to be well- prepared in responding to disasters?

HYPOTHESIS OF THE STUDY

This is the null hypothesis of the study:

Ho: r = 0

There is no significant level of relationship between profile of the Barangay Disaster Risk Reduction and Management

Committee (BDRRMC) and level of preparedness.

The alternative hypothesis states that:

Ha: r ≠ 0

There is a significant level of relationship between profile of the Barangay Disaster Risk Reduction and Management

Committee (BDRRMC) and level of preparedness.

SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY

The implementation of R.A. No. 10121 provides for a mechanism to develop, promote, execute and coordinate a disaster
 13
preparedness plan which is carried out within the context of disaster risk reduction and management. It is important that the readers and

users of this thesis understand the significance of the study to the over-all development of Disaster Management in the Philippines

today and in the future.

The study shall be beneficial to the following:

1. Department of Interior and Local Government (DILG) – this study will help enhance the disaster risk reduction checklist and

modules they formulated by providing new inputs and information regarding the profile and the level of preparedness of the BDRRMC

of Barangay 649.

2. Government of Marinduque – this research will help the disaster risk reduction strategy of the province by enhancing and

improving the system of disaster preparedness which is the twin requisite of a disaster response system.

3. Barangay Disaster Risk Reduction and Management Committee (BDRRMC) of Barangay Mogpog, Marinduque – the principal

beneficiaries of this research study in terms of helping Mogpog, Marinduque develop a program of action which will improve their level of

preparedness in terms of disaster response.

4. The Academic Community – an important move forward since there is a need to evaluate and mainstream disaster preparedness studies

to the formal and informal education systems.

5. Future Researchers – so they may be inspired to keep the flame of socially relevant statistical research and analysis of disaster

management alive and ferociously burning.

 14

CHAPTER II

REVIEW OF LITERATURE AND RELATED STUDIES

Disaster preparedness is both a condition and a choice. While the knowledge of disasters is a condition for learning

their eventual management, the choice of capacities to build is directly proportional to the degree of disaster risk reduction

which the researchers may deem acceptable or tolerable to a certain community. In being so, disaster preparedness may yet

prove to be the one, single factor which finally would institute the much-needed resilience as well as change – internal and

external – for the social development of Marinduque, or of any other city, for that matter. For the selected barangay of this

study, it could well be the framework in its need to transform its own condition of vulnerability into capability and turn its own

choice of mere self- preservation into managed self-livelihood. Thus, the PDRRM Act of 2010 have sought to take into account

all the comprehensiveness and sensitiveness, complexities and perplexities, improvements as well as impediments which

are all involved in the preparation of a highly-exposed urban community to all kinds of disaster.

A review of literature and related studies, therefore, is of primary concern to the researchers so they will be

able to understand more about the problems stated in this study, and through a steady process of elimination and validation,

learn how to later on proceed with the search for a credible set of summary of findings, conclusions and recommendations. It

is, should the researchers say, a vital organ of this research’s own development plan.

This review, therefore, shall present the legal basis, local and foreign literature, related studies, as well as a

synthesis. It is the fervent prayer of the researchers that the great amount of literature gathered for this study shall not only work for

the end-result of answering the problems presented in this research, but also as a great source of additional knowledge which

could be developed for the advancement of disaster management as an academic subject or course, in general, and for the

enhancement of community disaster preparedness, in particular.

 15
LOCAL LITERATURE

Logically, this is how the researchers may begin this review: with a plan. The National Disaster Risk Reduction

and Management Plan (NDRRMP) is first mentioned in (e), Section 3-Declaration of Policy of the IRR of R.A. No. 10121:

It is the policy of the State to develop, promote and implement a comprehensive National Disaster Risk

Reduction and Management Plan (NDRRMP) that aims to strengthen the capacity of the national government

and local government units (LGUs), together with partner stakeholders, to build the disaster resilience of

communities, and – to institutionalize the arrangements and measures for reducing disaster risks, including

projected climate change risks, and enhancing disaster preparedness and response capabilities at all levels.”

In the No. 2 Priority Area of the NDRRMP, disaster preparedness is set to “establish and strengthen capacities of

communities to anticipate, cope and recover from the negative impacts of emergency occurrences and disasters.”

This priority area, more or less, summarizes the 4 C’s the researchers have indicated in the Introduction.

For the study at hand, the NDRRMP establishes the approach the researchers can use to answer many, if not

all, of the problems stated in Chapter I-Introduction, Statement of the Problem. In using similar profiling techniques and

methodologies, the researchers can put in place the following in relation to the set of questions the researchers posed

as a result of the implementation of R.A. No. 10121 in Barangay Mogpog, Marinduque.

Disaster Preparedness

Outcome In-Charge
 16
Communities are equipped with necessary skillsAccording
and to National Disaster Risk Reduction
capability to cope with impacts of disasters and Management Plan

Department of Interior and Local

Government, or DILG (to coordinate) Office of the
Civil Defense, or OCD (to implement)

Timely response and vigilance of men and women According

well- to Manila Disaster Risk Reduction
equipped for emergency situations that spellsandtheManagement Plan
difference between life and death in these situations
Manila Disaster Risk Reduction and Management
Council (see Executive Order No. 09, series of
2013, Office of
the Mayor, Manila)
Includes, but not limited to, the following: According to the concerned barangay’s Barangay
Barangay Profile, Disaster Risk Reduction and Management Plan
Land Area, Boundaries and
Waterways Barangay Disaster Risk Reduction and
Barangay Income Management Committee of the Barangay
Business, Schools, Hospitals and Other Development Council
Establishments
Risk/Hazard/Vulnerability Map
Contingency and Evacuation
Plan/s
Early Warning Systems
BDRRMC Priority Projects
Barangay Disaster Readiness
Profile
10. Barangay Disaster Readiness
Checklist
11. Directory of BDRRMC Officers and Members
12. Resolution Adopting the
BDRRMP

According to a joint study participated in by Dr. Doracie B. Zoleta-Nantes in 2004 (pre-Hyogo Framework for

Action World Conference), there are different types of approach in the scientific research of hazard-related human

behaviors. One such approach mentioned has directly associated disaster preparedness with age-related demographic

variables (e.g., age, civil status), socio-economic related demographic variables (e.g., highest educational attainment,

income, home ownership) and psycho- social-behavioral variables (e.g., training, risk assessment).
 17
This categorically puts this thesis in a position of credibility. Like the matter of risk perception briefly implied

in the earlier portion of this study, it validated the direct relationship between the socio-demographic profiles of the

respondents.

This lead premise serves as a link chain which now connects the study of human behavior in terms of preparation to

a disaster by both as individual person and as member of an organization. For instance, the individual behavior to

disaster preparedness of the barangay constituents as respondents and the organizational behavior to the same variable of the

BDRRMC as another group of responses.

The interdependent activities initiated by these abovementioned human behaviors are then developed and

categorized as belonging to one of the different schools of thought in management (Zulueta, F.M., De Lara, G.M.C., and

Nebres, A.M., 1999). This is an essential linkage since the researchers are evaluating the implementation of R.A. No.

10121 in Barangay 649 while keeping in sync how the law provides that disaster preparedness be carried out within the

context of disaster management. Thus, it is clear that the study of disasters and disaster preparedness also requires a grasp of basic

management concepts and principles.

In being so, the researchers observed that disaster preparedness belongs to the social systems school of

management (Zulueta, et. al, 1999). This school views management as a “social system” and considers the organization as a

social organism which is subject to pressures and conflicts coming from the social environment. Its doctrines, Zulueta &

company continued, include the concepts of cooperation, adaptation, segregation and differentiation. Cooperation is the

primary thrust in the organization of the social systems school where people work together for a common good.

This, in effect, validates the two elements of a disaster risk, vulnerability and capacity, as having social aspects

(Lomerio-Ondiz, R. Ph. D. & Redito, B.M., 2009).

 18

For Martires, C.R. (2011), a social system is “a complex and dynamic set of relationships among its actors

interacting with one another.” Thus, R.A. No. 10121 acknowledges the need to “adopt a disaster risk reduction and

management approach that is holistic, comprehensive, integrated and proactive in lessening the socio-economic and

environmental impacts of disasters including climate change, and promote the involvement and participation of all sectors and

all stakeholders concerned, at all levels, especially the local community.” Disaster preparedness, aside from being a multilevel

system (global, regional, national, community, individual), becomes also multi-relational (physical, social, economic,

environmental). Within the social system of the community, there are still various subsystems interdependent with each other.

On the other hand, Tomas D. Andres (1992) pointed out that teambuilding is an advantageous approach to the

complex task of disaster preparation. He believed that “the best results are obtained when people work together with a sense of

commitment to one another as well as to the organization.” His approach is similar to the social system model since he defined a

team as organic – made up of components in the person of its members, but these come together to form a cohesive whole

which is greater than the sum of its parts. It is also interdependent. Each member supports each other. Andres (1992)

concluded that if the team succeeds, they all succeed; if it fails, they all fail.

He also emphasized that, in taking teambuilding as a management approach, one must be concerned with the

innate social values each and every member has in order to minimize their input of efforts while maximizing their output of

productivity. This, of course, is equally and generally important to disaster management in terms of efficiency and to disaster

preparedness, in particular. According to him, the Filipino is an expert in human relationships. He can create systems to make

relationships serve his purpose.

The works of F. Landa Jocano, Jaime Bulatao, Lourdes R. Quisumbing and Ma. Leonora V. De Jesus on Filipino

values (Martires, C.R., 2011) provide management some insights that will help them understand why Filipinos think, feel, act
 19
and perform in certain ways. This, in turn, would help us understand the resilience of Filipino urban communities in terms

of disaster risk reduction.

On the subject of Community Risk Assessment, the researchers felt that in order to have a firm handle on what

risk assessment is, there must first be a clear meaning of what disaster risk is. Disaster risk (Lomerio-Ondiz & Redito, 2009)

may be synonymous with the so-called disaster equation, but it has manageability factors to reduce the negative effect of

hazards. This manageability could be associated with capacity. This can be illustrated by the formula:

Disaster Risk = Hazard x Vulnerability

Capacity

Manageability, Lomerio-Ondiz & Redito continued, is the degree to which a community can intervene and manage a

hazard. Meanwhile, the two explained that assessment is a critical examination and estimation of the object or phenomenon

(Bernhat, 1987). It is a process of collecting, interpreting and analyzing information from various sources.
 20

The duo pointed out that risk assessment is the systematic and logical process used to determine disaster risk

reduction priorities by evaluating and comparing the levels of risk (high or intolerable, medium or tolerable, low or

minimal). This comprises the process by which individuals, communities and societies cope with hazards. Disaster risk

assessment deals with the Hazard, Vulnerability and Capacity Assessment (HVCA) and people’s perceptions of risks. The

researchers have already slightly touched on HVCA in Chapter I. The implication that is observed by the two DRRM

analysts is that disaster risk will be based on people’s perception. Thus, they will be the one to make decisions to adapt, to

modify or to ignore the risk.

The researchers of this study concluded that community risk assessment is of major importance to the design of

disaster preparedness the concerned organization will plan and undertake.

In contingency planning, Lomerio-Ondiz & Redito averred that advanced planning and execution is the key to

protection. They offered some tips to follow, such as, but not limited to:

a. Knowledge of barangay disaster plan.

b. Posting of hazard/risk map.

c. Access to updated information on the daily weather advisory.

d. Understanding of Early Warning Signals (EWS), such as the Public Storm Warning Signal (PSWS).

e. The dissemination strategy of standard warning information.

f. Designation of evacuation for families & livestock.

g. Inspection of evacuation routes and protecting them with sandbags, if possible, and signage to ensure safe passage to the

camp.

h. The availability and accessibility to emergency response equipment as well as trained volunteers with a prepared search

and rescue plan.

 21
i. A community protection plan for potable water supply sources.

j. The cleaning and unclogging of drainages through people’s cooperation and initiative.

k. Inspection and preparation of a Survival Kit, and re-supply if necessary.

l. Ensuring that each family member understands the danger of a disaster and its associated risks.

The three (3) main objectives of warnings are (Lomerio-Ondiz & Redito, 2009):

1. To inform, advise and instruct the population of the impending threat.

2. To call those in the danger areas for action by explaining precautionary measures that should be taken by the families,

and,

3. To be alert, prepared, and stand by for possible worse events.

The communication system of disaster preparedness is likened to the human circulatory system with regards to

the role it plays in contingency planning. Within the communication structure, the researchers find such activities as

coordinating and facilitating all the available resources to its priority users in a timely and appropriate manner. Also, the

system unifies the chain of command necessary to the entire disaster management cycle of prevention, mitigation and adaptation;

alertness and preparedness; response; and recovery.

Filipino values also affect the communication process, especially in disaster preparedness. Martires, C.R.

(2011) explains that one’s need to belong to a group is stronger than the need to assert one’s individual identity. This is reflected

in behavior that shows pakikisama (togetherness), smooth interpersonal relationship (SIR), tayo-tayo (us and we-ness), and

bayanihan (unity and cooperation). Using a go-between in the communication process facilitates the transaction for a positive

feedback. Herein lies the value of community-based development project management in disaster management. In the long run,

communication may yet prove to be the enduring factor in any study of disaster preparedness efficiency.
 22
In the introduction to his book, Alwin B. De Leon, Ph. D. (2010) stated that community-based development

projects are participatory in nature. Thus, communication not only serves as the lifeblood of the organization, it is also its major

linkage to the organization’s environment. This is the rationale for tapping the Civil Society Organizations (CSOs) as

regular members of the BDRRMC since they serve as the link chain which brings about the necessary balance between the top-

down and bottom-up approach of managing community development plans and projects.

Finally, the management concept of leadership affects the triumvirate variables of disaster preparedness,

namely, contingency planning, communication system and capacity-building. While contingency planning is considered in

R.A. No. 10121 as a distinct management process replete with its own set of concepts and principles, and disaster

communication is institutionalized as one of the powers and functions ((h), Section 9 of the PDRRM Act of 2010) of the

implementing arm of the NDRRMC, which is, the Office of Civil Defense (OCD), capacity involves collective attributes such

as social relationships, leadership and management. Flora Generalao (1984) of the University of the Philippines (U.P.)

conducted a study wherein she pitted task-oriented leadership against relationship-oriented leadership relative to situational

control in a leadership contingency model. The results of the study showed that: democratic leadership behavior elicits highest

member satisfaction than autocratic leadership. This, in turn, will reflect on the effectiveness and sustainability of contingency

planning, communication system and capacity-building in disaster preparedness.

In contrast, however, of the local literature the researchers have presented in this study, the researchers opted

to keep things in perspective and set the balance by presenting not necessarily opposing viewpoints, but, rather, critical ones the

researchers may later on find significant to the research.

To begin with, Prof. Kenneth Cardenas (2010) of the U.P. Department of Sociology deftly described the

relationships which now exist in the so-called “culture of disasters.” He said that adding to this complex tangle of social

systems, social values, self-styled management concepts and ecosystems, Filipinos are only beginning to learn the rules of
 23
disaster risk reduction and management. Urban people, he reiterated, are less sensitive to the ecosystems. Beyond that the

researchers are not equipped to handle the problems in urban areas because the researchers do not have any

experience dealing with them.

Dr. Rene N. Rollon (2010), Associate Professor and Director, Institute of Environmental Science and

Meteorology, U.P. Diliman, has a view on disaster preparedness which is much more realistic. He averred that, on the

management side, prevention is always an ideal strategy. For instance, human settlements in coastal areas should be avoided

unless some aggressive measures are in place (high and expensive dikes, retaining walls, etc.). Obviously, such

incongruence between natural processes and the human use of physical resources have been demonstrated on many occasions.

Indeed, especially for urban centers like Metro Manila, preventive measures (e.g. relocation, job generation, easement areas,

no settlement zones, etc.) may be very expensive. However, the annual cost of lives and properties attributed to the “disrespect”

for these natural processes is not cheap either, and, is, in fact increasingly frustrating.

According to Fernando P. Siringan (2010), Ph. D. Professor, Maritime Science Institute, U.P. Diliman, there

are places that can be avoided, places where relocation might be necessary, or places where mitigation for certain hazards may

still be possible.

On the other hand, Dr. Minerva SD. Olympia (2010), Associate Professor and Coordinator for Research

College of Fisheries and Ocean Sciences, U.P. Visayas, shares that risk reduction measures are community-specific.

Countries with long coastlines such as the Philippines are considered naturally high-risk since exposure and vulnerabilities are

high.

Dr. Guillermo Q. Tabios (2010), Professor, Institute of Civil Engineering, and Director, National Hydraulic

Research Center, U.P. Diliman, summarized the role the community plays in disaster management related to preparedness,

adaptation and mitigation.

 24

He started by saying that there is a long list of what the community can do in disaster management, especially in

relation to preparedness, adaptation and mitigation. The community should establish and organize planning and response teams

during pre- disaster and emergent post-disaster phases. A basic requirement is to develop emergency or evacuation plans

such as routes, protective shelters, and food provisions in case of disaster. The multi-hazard maps in particular are very useful for

this purpose. With these disasters or emergency plans, communities can conduct periodic drills and exercises for the safe

evacuation of households, schools and commercial and industrial establishments.

Tabios (2010) further explained that to ensure preparedness for the response phase of disaster management, the

community organization should also train and organize quick response volunteer teams to provide rescue as well as logistic

and psychosocial support. For large scale community-based planning, long-term and sustainable programs should be

developed in partnership with the local government and even private organizations to reduce poverty by providing affordable

shelter, food, and water for resettled or relocated communities to reduce their disaster vulnerability. Communities frequently

exposed to extreme climatic events and hazards can also develop adaptation measures such as encouraging water

management and waste management practices that are resilient to climate extremes and hazards.

LOCAL RELATED STUDIES

One of the key findings of a qualitative study completed recently by the Institute of Philippine Culture (IPC)

based at the Ateneo de Manila University stated that many residents in poor communities that were heavily affected by

Typhoons Ondoy and Pepeng in 2009 are still struggling to recover due to lack of assets and working capital to restore their

livelihood lost to the floods. Using focus group discussions and key informants interviews, the study titled “The Social

Impact of Tropical Storm Ondoy and Typhoon” probes into the long-term effects of the twin disasters that hit the country in

2009. The study was supported by a trust fund from the Australian Agency for International Development (AusAID)
 25
administered by the World Bank. The study says that since 2009, these communities reported overall reduction in incomes due

to loss of assets and working capital.

The study notes that affected residents’ assets, savings and working capital for livelihood activities were

dissipated.

In another study, the observations made in the book printed and published by the Department of Health, Republic of the

Philippines, entitled “RESPONDING TO HEALTH EMERGENCIES AND DISASTERS: The Philippine Experience” (2005), about a

fire which broke out at the locale of this study, Barangay 649 (BASECO), on January 11, 2004 in the evening, the last two directly related

to communication system in disaster management :

1. There are no rules and regulations that guide the DOH (Department of Health), CHD- NCR (City Health Department-National

Capital Region), and NCR Health Emergency network with regards to when each agency should respond (aside from the

general rule that all should respond when LGUs request assistance)

2. The existing health emergency management system among the different agencies in NCR needs a review to improve

networking, coordination, cooperation, and collaboration.

FOREIGN LITERATURE

The Hyogo Framework for Action (HFA) came out of the World Conference for Disaster Reduction held in

Kobe, Hyogo, Japan, from 18 to 22 January 2005. It is the first plan to explain, describe and detail the work that is required from

all different sectors and actors to reduce disaster risk – governments, informational agencies, disaster experts and many

others – bringing them into a common system of coordination. The HFA outlines five priorities for action, and offers guiding

principles and practical means for achieving disaster resilience. Its goal is to substantially reduce disaster losses by 2015

by building the resilience of nations and communities to disasters. This means reducing the loss of lives and social,
 26
economic, and environmental assets when hazard strikes.

Disaster preparedness is considered as Priority Action 5: STRENGTHEN DISASTER PREPAREDNESS FOR

EFFECTIVE RESPONSE AT ALL LEVELS.

The HFA rationale states: At times of disaster, impacts and losses can be substantially reduced if authorities,

individuals and communities in hazard-prone areas are well- prepared and ready to act and are equipped with the knowledge

and capacities for effective disaster management.

Fortunately, the Philippines’ National progress report on the implementation of the Hyogo Framework for Action (2009-2011)

– interim, is made available online.

The progress report for Priority for action 5, Strengthen disaster preparedness for effective response at all levels, is hereby

summarized:

Core Indicator 1 – Strong policy, technical and institutional capacities and mechanisms for disaster risk management, with a

disaster risk reduction perspective are in place.

Level of Progress Achieved: 4. Substantial achievement attained but with recognized limitations.

National programs or policies to make schools and health facilities safe in emergencies: YES.

Means of Verification:

1. Policies and Programmes for School and Hospital Safety: YES

2. Training and Mock Drills in Schools and Hospitals for Emergency Preparedness: YES.
 27

Core Indicator 2 – Disaster preparedness plans and contingency plans are in place at all administrative levels, and regular

training drills and rehearsals are held to test and develop disaster response programmes.

Level of Progress Achieved: 4. Substantial achievement attained but with recognized limitations.

The contingency plans, procedures and resources in place to deal with a major disaster: YES.

Means of Verification:

1. Contingency Plans with Gender Sensitivities: YES

2. Operations and Communications Centre: YES

3. Search and Rescue Teams: YES

4. Stockpiles of Relief Supplies: YES

5. Shelters: NO

6. Secure Medical Facilities: YES

7. Dedicated provision for women in relief, shelter and emergency medical facilities: NO.

Core Indicator 3 – Financial reserves and contingency mechanisms are in place to support effective response and recovery

when required.

Magunda (2010) added that communication to the public in general should be viewed three-ways:

1. This should act as an early warning strategy, communication on the impending disasters and their effects is

fundamental to raising awareness, getting the population prepared and understanding of the problem;

2. Targetted and strategic communication should be made locally, to mobilize the donors, partners, civil society, and other
 28
stakeholders to support implementation of the contingency plan; and

3. Local leaders and elders (or in the case of the Philippines, CSOs) are very crucial in the society set-up, and should be

involved in information dissemination. They should also play key roles in the mitigation measures.

Any discussion about disaster management would invariably lead it to the subject of leadership. It is implied in

(b), Section 1, RULE 2, Definition of Terms of the IRR of R.A. No. 10121: “… capacity may include infrastructure and

physical means, institutions, societal coping abilities, as well as human knowledge, skills, tools, systems, processes,

appropriate technologies and collective attributes such as social relationships,

leadership and management.”

Treedy Heller (1982) believed that the essence of leadership is followership. This renders the bottom-up and

proactive approach in disaster risk reduction and management as the most viable method currently available for communities,

especially those in the urban areas.

Fiedler’s model, on the other hand, claims that group performance depends on the interaction of the leadership

style and the favorableness of the situation. In practice, leadership of a disaster situation requires another dimension. The

researchers would like to believe that they are in the right path in thinking that risk analysis, both as a policy and as a decision-

making tool, is this critical factor.

FOREIGN RELATED STUDIES

Magunda M. K. (PhD) published a study on August 2010 entitled “Study on Disaster Risk Management and

Environment for the Karamoja Subregion.” The study focused on:

 29
- Assessment of environmental change as a parameter of disaster risk in the Karamoja region

- Assessment of environmental causes and the associated consequences

- Assessment of the dynamics between disaster, environmental impacts and the needs of the communities in Karamoja

Koos van Zyl (2006), meanwhile, discussed in his “A Study on a Disaster Risk Management Plan for the South

African Agricultural Sector” the dependent factors of flood hazard such as the depth and velocity of the water, duration of

the flood and the load carried such as the sediment, salts, sewage and chemicals. He added that flood events and impacts

appear to be increasing on a global scale.

SYNTHESIS OF THE STUDY

As comprehensive and as well-researched as the literature and related studies of local and foreign disaster risk reduction

and management practices are today, presently there is also a growing threat in the increasing magnitude and frequency of disasters and

disaster risks that the nations and communities of this world are painfully beginning to realize.

As such, the level of preparedness of local communities must be evaluated in terms of degree and direction with utmost

urgency. Already, many countries-signatories are hinting of new and updated strategies for the post-2015 Hyogo Framework for Action

wherein the entire planet’s disaster risk reduction and management master plan would be up for thorough assessment.

Relative to the local literature, this study serves to verify a joint research project participated in by a Filipina,

Dr. Doracie B. Zoleta-Nantes, in 2004, regarding the approaches in the scientific research of hazard-related human

behaviors (e.g., risk assessment, risk perception). The study stated that one approach mentioned has directly associated disaster

preparedness with age-related demographic variables (e.g., age, civil status), socio-economic related demographic variables

(e.g., highest educational attainment, income, home ownership) and psycho-social-behavioral variables (e.g., training, risk

assessment).
 30
This study serves to amplify the association between demographic and disaster preparedness variables, which is one

of the specific questions under the statement of the problem.

Level of Progress Achieved: 4. Substantial achievement attained but with recognized limitations.

Financial arrangements in place to deal with major disaster: YES.

Means of Verification:

1. National Contingency Funds: YES

2. Catastrophe Insurance Facilities: YES

3. Catastrophe Bonds: NO

Core Indicator 4 – Procedures are in place to exchange relevant information during hazard events and disasters, and to

undertake post-event reviews.

Level of Progress Achieved: 4. Substantial achievement attained but with recognized limitations.

Agreed method and procedure has been adopted to assess damage, loss and needs when disasters occur

1. Damage and loss Assessment Methodologies and Capacities Available: YES

2. Post Disaster Need Assessment Methodologies: YES

3. Post Disaster Needs Assessment Methodologies include Guidance on Gender Aspects: NO

4. Identified and Trained Human Resources: YES

 31

The progress report puts into position the questions this study is going to try to answer by bringing about the

different management concepts and principles which the researchers could use in DRRM as well as a review of DRRM

programs and researches of other countries.

Similar to the review of the local literature, the researchers begin by asserting the relevance of the study of

hazard-related human behaviors (“The Impact of Risk Perception xxx,” a joint study by a grant from local and foreign research

institutes, 2004). The paper asserts that past U.S. studies have for the most part, employed an

Means of Verification:

Adjustment/contextual paradigm (Burton, Kates, & White, 1978; Mitchell, 1999; Eraybat, K., Okazaki, K., & Ilki,

A., 2010). In such studies, hazard-related behaviors, risk perception, disaster preparedness, and willingness to pay for

governmental mitigation were found to be associated with demographic variables (Turner, Nigg & Heller-Paz, 1986; Lindell

& Perry, 1992; Edwards, 1993; Palm & Carroll, 1998; Tierney, Lindell, & Perry, 2001; Tierney, 2001; Wachtendorf & Sheng,

2002).

In the study, the concepts and principles between human behavior and motivation are also relevant. In

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs theory (Martires, C.R., 2011), he saw human needs in the context of hierarchy and further

concluded that when one set of needs is satisfied, this kind of need ceases to be a motivation; one therefore goes up the

structure to satisfy the next set of needs. In disaster management, Maslow’s concept is crucial since prioritization is a constant

activity in disaster preparedness whether in the contingency planning, communicating, or capacity-building stage.
 32

Frederick Herzberg enhanced Maslow’s theory by identifying factors into two subdivisions: the motivating

factors and hygienic factors. The theory would have a directceffect on how the researchers could measure the socio-

demographic and disaster profiles of respondents from Barangay Mogpog, Marinduque.

B.F. Skinner went one step farther than Maslow and Herzberg by proposing that “man learns from his environment

and greater control of his environment improves his development.” The operant conditioning theory is of major significance

to the 4 C’s the researchers have formulated as the key areas of concern in understanding the problems the researchers have

stated in the study.

The training and drill practices required to enhance disaster preparedness of communities make use of

Skinner’s principle in utilizing positive reinforcement with the end in view of the occurrence of a desired response or behavior.

Numerous other studies have been conducted on the subject of motivation. Among the most salient and

pertinent to human resources management are those conducted by Argyris, Hersey and Blanchard, Armstrong, White and

Schachter (Marties, 2011).

For G. Tyler Miller, Jr. (1990), formal risk assessment is difficult, imprecise and controversial. It involves

determining the types of hazards involved, estimating the number of people likely to be exposed to the hazard and the

number likely to suffer serious consequences, and estimating the probability of each hazard occurring. He explained that

one way to improve system reliability is to move more of the potentially fallible elements from the human side to the technical

side, making the system more fool- proof or “fail-safe.” But chance events such as a lightning bolt can knock out automatic

control systems. And no machine or computer program can replace all the skillful human actions and decisions involved in

seeing that a complex system operates properly and safely.

 33

On the subject of disaster preparedness in the context of capacity-building, resilience is the effect sought by such

process and activity. Resilience is defined by Miller (1990) as the “ability of a living system to restore itself to original

condition after being exposed to an outside disturbance that is not too drastic.” Taken in the context of disaster management,

the researchers now infer that community resilience can only be raised and built once the concerned organization reaches an

acceptable or tolerable level of risk. Herein lies the dilemma of having to develop, promote and implement capacity-

building strategies under the brunt of intolerable risk exposure, high degrees of vulnerability and the preponderance of

hazards.

Bert Metz, Ogunlade Davidson, Rob Swart and Jiahua Pan (2001) concurred that there must be identification

and assessment of mitigation technologies and measures that are required to deviate from “business-as-usual” in the short term.

This is done so in order to raise the level of resiliency – and not the tolerance – of nations and communities to all kinds of

disaster. Thus, it is no longer unfamiliar to us to see on mass media people who refuse to evacuate their homes in the face of

impending danger because they have misunderstood their sense of tolerance as a sense of security and resiliency.

In terms of communication system as a DRRM strategy, M.K. Magunda (2010) explained that public

awareness activities foster changes in behavior leading towards a culture of risk reduction. According to her, the over-all

objective of the communication strategy is to widely disseminate information on disasters and risk reduction and its likely effects,

in order to save lives and livelihood.

However, this study was constrained to exclude income from the socio-economic related variables since the

researchers feel it would be of great disservice if income (along with assets and working capital) would not be given its own in-

depth analysis vis- à-vis disaster preparedness outside of the scope of the study.

In a related matter, the findings involving the 2009 Institute of Philippine Culture’s qualitative study stating
 34
that many residents in poor communities that were heavily affected by Typhoons Ondoy and Pepeng are still struggling due to

lack of assets and working capital, this study serves as the stepping stone in establishing indicators for public services,

infrastructures and economic activities as elements of disaster risk. The questionnaire would be tested for its validity and

reliability in the treatment of data regarding risk and risk analysis.

As the researcher have stated in the beginning of this chapter, disaster preparedness is a matter of condition and

of choice. Thus, this study has taken the proper route in effectively measuring the level of disaster preparedness by using the

two- fold approach: evaluation of its strength as well as its direction.

The researcher would like to note that a holistic, integrated and results-based approach could be formed by

giving cognizance to a very vital factor in disaster preparedness, which is, risk assessment. This study further notes that

sound risk analysis could be formed through the equally vital factor called common sense. Community risk assessment,

contingency planning, communication system, and capacity-building are just some of the sub-components of a truly

effective disaster preparedness strategy, and with this in mind, the researchers believe they have covered enough ground to put

the framework of this study into play, and be able to achieve the objective/s of the research.

It is with a great appreciation of the vast literature and related studies the researchers have shown that, in the

future, disaster risk reduction and management will be completely hardwired to the educational system, be recognized as a

regular subject and – later on, may even be an enduring college course.