MODULE 1B

ORGANISMAL BIOLOGY:
ANIMAL BIOLOGY
Prepared by: Samuel C. Brillo, MSc-Biology (cand.)
Animal Biology consists of three subtopics:
• Module 1B.1 Animal Form and Function
• Module 1B.2 Animal Nutrition and Transport
• Module 1B.3 Feedback Mechanisms in Animals
 MODULE 1B.1

Animal Form and Function

• define animal anatomy, animal morphology, and animal
physiology
• describe diversity of animal forms
• illustrate different nervous and immune functions essential for
animals’ survival
 10
1 9

2 8

7
11

3 6

4 5
 Animal Morphoanatomy
Morphoanatomy - The study of
anatomical forms and structures
with emphasis on characteristics
useful in distinguishing the species.
Animal Body Plans
 Bilateral Symmetry -Divides an organism into mirror image
halves

Felis domesticus

Saturnia pavonia
 Radial Symmetry -the organism can be divided into similar
halves by passing a plane at any angle along a central axis

Tripneustes ventricosus

Linckia laevigata
Asymmetry-not identical on both sides of a central line; unsymmetrical;
lacking symmetry

Leucosolenida botryoides
Clathrina clathrus
Anatomical
terms of
(Anterior) (Posterior)
direction
MAJOR ANIMAL
GROUPS
Phylum Porifera = Sponges
• Marine
• Body is made up of tiny pores
• 3 main parts: ostia, osculum, spongocoel.
• Asymmetrical
General poriferan body plan

A spongocoel is the
large, central cavity of
sponges. Water enters
the spongocoel
through hundreds of
tiny pores called ostia
and exits through the
larger opening called
osculum.
Spicules- each of the small needlelike or sharp-pointed structures of
calcite or silica that make up the skeleton of a sponge. It comes in
different sizes: Megascleres and microscleres.

Spongilla lacustris
Spicules come in
different shapes as
well. Each shape
has its own name.
 Class Demospongiae Class Sclerospongiae
Most diverse; spicules are made Soft body covered by skeleton
of spongin (a protein) or silica (a made of calcium carbonate,
mineral) or both. either aragonite or calcite.

Niphates digitalis

Ceratoporella nicholsoni
 Class Calcarea Class Hexactinellida
Calcareous sponges, Commonly known as glass
characterized by spicules made sponges, spicules are made of
out of calcium carbonate). silica.

Clathrina clathrus
Euplectella aspergillum
Phylum Cnidaria

• 10,000 species of animals found

exclusively in aquatic (freshwater and
marine) environments
• Cnidarians include true jellyfish, box
jellyfish, hydras, corals, sea anemones.
• They have radial symmetry.
 Endoderm is the innermost
layer, which is called
gastrodermis.
Cnidarians undergo two life
stages: the polyp form, and
the medusa form.

Their body consists of three

layers: ectoderm,
Ectoderm is called the endoderm, and mesoglea.
epidermis which covers
their body.

Mesoderm is called the

mesoglea; which is Mouth is an opening where food and waste exits.
nonliving, contains
water and fluids.

Tentacle is a slender flexible limb or appendage in an

animal, especially around the mouth of an invertebrate,
Gastrovascular cavity is used for grasping, moving about, or bearing sense
the space in their body organs.
Basal disc is where which the food is being
the polyp attaches its digested.
body to a substrate.
Cnidocytes – are specialized cells in Cnidarians, also called “stinging
cells” which contains toxins. These cells are used to stun and capture
prey. Cnidocytes are contained in tentacles.
Cnidarians are grouped into 4 classes:
WORM PHYLA – large group of worms

1. Phylum Platyhelminthes (flatworms)

2. Phylum Nematoda (roundworms)

3. Phylum Annelida (segmented worms)

Phylum Platyhelminthes flatworms
• Body is flattened
• Has definitive head and tail region;
eyespots in head and has thick
cuticle outside the body.
• May be free-living or parasitic

Pseudobiceros hancockanus

Planaria sp.
Parasitic worms of Phylum Platyhelminthes

Taenia solium
Pig tapeworm

Fasciola hepatica
Liver fluke
Phylum Nematoda = roundworms
• Body is long, smooth, and
unsegmented.
• Cylindrical bodies are tapered at Ascaris lumbricoides
both ends.
• Free-living or parasitic

Caenorhabditis elegans
Phylum Annelida = segmented worms; earthworm, leech
• Body is segmented internally and
externally;
• they have complete digestive system;
• tube within a tube body plan.
• Most are free-living

Lumbricus terrestris
Hirudo medicinalis
Spirobranchus giganteus
Christmas tree worm
Phylum Mollusca = snails, shellfish, oysters, clams, octopus, squids,
cuttlefish
• Body is soft, unsegmented and has
strong muscular foot (in snail). Shell
can be external (in snails and
shellfish) or internal (in octopus).

Hapalochlaena lunulata Loligo vulgaris

(blue ringed octopus)
General molluscan body plan “Golden apple snail”
Pomacea canaliculata
General body plan of bivalves
Phylum Echinodermata = sea stars, sea cucumbers, sea
urchins, brittle stars, sea lilies

• Body is covered with spiny surface, with an internal skeleton inside

their body. These provide support and protection to the animal.
• They use their “tube feet” to move from one place to another.
tube feet
Class Echinoidea (sea urchins)

Mesocentrotus franciscanus
Class Holothuroidea (sea cucumbers)
Class Crinoidea (sea lilies)
Class Asteroidea (sea stars)
Phylum Arthropoda = insects, crustaceans, spiders, scorpions,
millipedes, centipedes

• The phylum Arthropoda is by far

the largest of the phyla of the
kingdom Animalia, containing,
for example, insects,
crustaceans, and arachnids,
centipedes, millipedes.
SUBPHYLUM CHELICERATA (chelicerates: arthropods without jaws)
SUBPHYLUM MYRIAPODA (multi-segmented, and each segment bears a pair of legs)
SUBPHYLUM CRUSTACEA (body segmented, covered with carapace)
SUBPHYLUM HEXAPODA, Class Insecta (insects) Divided into 2 subclasses:
Apterygota (wingless insects) and Pterygota (winged insects)
General insect body plan CHARACTERISTICS
• Have legs and some have wings
• Found in all environments
• 3 main parts: Head, Thorax, Abdomen

Wasp Grasshopper
Phylum Chordata
CHARACTERISTICS:
1. Single, hollow nerve cord beneath dorsal surface; in vertebrates, it differentiates into brain and
spinal cord.

2. Notochord: flexible rod on the dorsal side of gut, present at one stage in all chordates; displaced
in vertebrates by vertebral column that forms around the nerve cord.

3. Pharyngeal slits (pouches) connect pharynx (between mouth and esophagus) with outside gills in
sharks, fish; present in terrestrial animal embryos but disappear later except Eustachian tube
(connecting throat and middle ear)

4. Postanal tail extends beyond anus; present at least in embryo; regresses into tail bone in humans

5. Segmentation: reflected in arrangement of muscles (somites) and in vertebral column (both

mesoderm)
Anatomy of a primitive chordate. All animals belonging to Phylum Chordata
possesses these characteristics. However, during the course of development,
these parts begin to modify or change.
Class Chondrichthyes
(cartilaginous fish)

This group of animals include

sharks and rays.
Class Osteichthyes (bony fish)

This group of animals include the

usual marine and freshwater fish.
General body plan of a fish
Class Amphibia (amphibians)

This group of animals include salamanders,

newts, frogs, toads, and caecilians.

• Many amphibians, such as frogs, undergo

a metamorphosis, meaning they begin life
in the water and live on land as adults.

• Defining characteristics of these creatures

include moist, scaleless skin and the fact
that they are cold-blooded.
General body plan of amphibians
(Class Amphibia)
Caecilian
Class Reptilia (reptiles)

This group of animals include alligators,

crocodiles, lizards, iguanas, chameleons,
turtles, tortoises, snakes, cobras, and vipers.

• The first and foremost characteristic of the

reptiles is that are cold blooded.

• They are able to regulate their inner body

temperature to the temperature of the
environment.

• They have scaly skins but absence of hair

or fur. The scales of the reptiles develop
as a surface cells filled with Keratin.
Class Aves (birds)

This group of animals include flying and non-

flying birds.

All birds have the same characteristics:

• Feathers that covers the body, which grow
in their skin.
• Wings
• Lightweight skeleton
• Endothermic (warm blooded)
• Lungs with air sacs
• Beak
Class Mammalia
(mammals)

All mammals share the following

characteristics:
• Mammary Glands
• Hair
• Jaw and ear bones
• 4-chambered heart and
diaphragm
• Complex brain functions
 ANIMAL
REPRODUCTION
AND
DEVELOPMENT
Asexual vs. Sexual reproduction

Asexual reproduction – Sexual reproduction –

individuals are exact individuals are formed
clones of the parent with from the combination of n
identical genetic makeup. gametes to form a
genetically unique
offspring (variety)
 Hydra sp.

Donax variabilis
Types of Asexual Reproduction
• Regeneration
• Budding
• Parthenogenesis
Regeneration
• Involves the production and
differentiation of new tissues to
replace missing and damaged
parts of the body.
• Cellular replication by mitosis,
followed by differentiation
Fragmentation in Planaria, a flatworm.
(Phylum Platyhelminthes)
Budding
• Involves forming of new individual
from an outgrowth or ‘bud’ on the
parent’s body.
• It doesn’t involve any sex organs.
• Common in Hydra and polyps
• If not detached from parent’s
body, it might grow into a colony.
Hydra (Phylum Cnidaria)
Parthenogenesis
• Involves an activated unfertilized
egg that undergoes mitosis in the
absence of cytokinesis
• Two nuclei fuse together to form
2n nucleus then further develop
as if it had been fertilized.
• E.g., aphids (Aphididae), bees
(Apidae), wasps (Vespidae) and
ants (Formicidae),
few species of vertebrates e.g.,
Bynoe’s gecko (Heteronotia binoei)
Structurally similar gametes Different gametes; smaller one is male
gamete
Monoecious vs. Dioecious Organisms
• Monoecious: • Dioecious:
Also called Monoecism, Also called Dioecism, Having
Having male and female sex male reproductive organs in
organs in the same one individual and female in
individual (also called another
hermaphroditic)
Self-Fertilization vs. Cross-Fertilization
• Self-Fertilization: • Cross-Fertilization:
Fertilization effected by union Fertilization in which gametes
of egg cell and sperm cell are produced by separate
from the same individual. individuals or sometimes by
individuals of different kinds
Animal Reproductive Development
Sequential hermaphroditism • Protandry (male to female) vs.
occurs when the individual Protogyny (female to male)
changes sex at some point in its
e.g. Amphiprion ocellaris
life.
Animal Reproductive Development

Indirect development Direct development

• Involves one or more • Offspring hatch or are born in
intermediate larval forms miniature adult form.
before the adult form is • Occurs mostly in vertebrates
attained.
• Metamorphosis absent
• Occurs mostly in
invertebrates
• Metamorphosis present
Gonads
• Sex organs
• Produce hormones that regulate the development of
gametes and 2ndary sex organs act as pheromones and
produce sexual differences in appearance and behavior.
Gametic development

Spermatogenesis Oogenesis
• Testes; testosterone • Ovaries; estrogen
• Spermatogenesis is the • Oogenesis is the process in
process in which an animal which an animal produces
produces spermatozoa from oogonia from PGC by way of
PGC by way of mitosis and mitosis and meiosis.
meiosis.
What is PGC?
The primordial germ cells are the
common origins of spermatozoa
and oocytes and thus represent
the ancestors of the germline.
NERVOUS
SYSTEM
 102

NOTE:

• The nervous system allows body to respond

quickly to changes in the environment by
gathering information, transmitting, and
processing information to determine the best
response, and sending information to muscles,
glands, and organs so they can respond correctly.
The nervous system
on all organisms
varies.
Nervous system of Hydra

In Hydra, nerve nets are

diffused all over the body
to control the contraction
of the gastrovascular
cavity or the gastrocoel.
Nervous system of Planaria
Remember that Planaria is a flatworm (Platyhelminth)

• CEPHALIZATION- the onset

of cephalization marks a more
complex nervous system.

In simple cephalized animals (ex:

Planaria) a simple central
nervous system or CNS with a
small brain and longitudinal
nerve cords is present.
Nervous system of Annelids and Arthropods
• In more complex invertebrates like
annelids and arthropods, the
nervous system is divided into two
regions: the CNS and PNS.

• CNS or Central Nervous System

is composed of brain and ventral
nerve cords with clusters of
neurons called ganglia.

• The rest of the nerves in animal’s

body is the PNS or peripheral
nervous system.
The Human Nervous System
109
1. Somatic Nervous System (voluntary) 110
• Relays information from skin, sense organs &
skeletal muscles to CNS
• Brings responses back to skeletal muscles for
voluntary responses

2. Autonomic Nervous System (involuntary)

• Regulates bodies involuntary responses
• Relays information to internal organs
• Two divisions:
A. Sympathetic nervous system – in times of
stress
➢ Emergency response
➢ Fight or flight
B. Parasympathetic nervous system – when
body is at rest or with normal functions; Normal
everyday conditions
111
112
113
114
 -is done by sensory neuron

“stimulus”

-is done by
interneurons in
-is done by motor neuron CNS

“response”
IMMUNE
SYSTEM
 117

NOTE:

• Immune system is responsible for defending

organisms from pathogens such as:
✓ Viruses: Ebola, rabies, HIV, HPV
✓ Bacteria: E. coli, Salmonella, Staphylococci
✓ Fungi: Trichophyton, Candida
✓ Systemic: cancer cells
 118

• There are two major lines

of defense: innate
immunity and
acquired/adaptive
immunity.
 119

How does our body defend

ourselves against diseases?
Innate immunity
• Nonspecific response to a broad range of microbes
• Formed by skin and mucous membrane accompanied by
macrophages and other phagocytic cells
Innate immunity
There are two lines of defense under innate
immunity:
First line Second line
Skin and mucous membrane, Chemical defense, done
Acts as barrier on invading through phagocytosis
pathogens
Lines the digestive tract, Inner lining of organs / tracts
respiratory and genitourinary
tract
First line of defense

➢ Skin is acidic: pH ~3.5 – kills pathogenic

microorganisms
FIRST LINE OF DEFENSE

Sweat, tears, saliva

contain lysozyme, an
enzyme that kills bacteria.
Minor abrasion can cause
pathogens to enter the body,
which is in the inner linings of
organs or tracts (eg. Digestion,
respiration) -> leads to
secondary line of
defense
 SECONDARY LINE OF DEFENSE

Phagocytes, the cells responsible for phagocytosis

attach to their opponent (pathogen) via surface receptor
of pathogens then engulf it, forming a vacuole that fuses
with lysosome.
➢ Once the pathogen invade
the lining of organisms,
chemical defense
mechanism occurs ->
which is done through
phagocytosis.

Lysosomes contain chemicals and enzymes which

destroys the pathogen.
Secondary line of defense
➢ However, some pathogens have polysaccharide
capsule which is resistant to lytic enzymes or to
phagocytes.

➢ They can escape the first and second line of

innate immunity – which can trigger the next line
which is INFLAMMATORY RESPONSE.
Inflammatory response
➢ Triggers many responses such as:
➢ Dilation of blood vessel: which allows more
blood to flow in. Affected cells in the area
release hormone called histamine.
✓ What is the use of histamine?: to relax
blood vessel to allow more blood flow.

➢ Fever: high blood temp. can occur which can

hinder bacterial growth. Lymphatic system is
activated at this moment.
Dilation of blood vessel
Acquired immunity
How does it work?
• Lymphocyte provides specific defense against
pathogens.
• The body detects antigen, which is either: a
foreign object, molecule or invading
pathogens.
• The immune system now will produce
antibodies: which will attach to the antigens.
Acquired immunity
How does it work?
• Our body produces two types of cells for
acquired immunity to work. These are:
1. B cells
2. T cells
Acquired immunity
• B cells: produces antibodies, if there is
an antigen, it triggers the production of B cells
in our body.
• Only B cells that produce the antigen-
antibody response is selected for future
propagation when similar invader is
present!
Acquired immunity
Acquired immunity
• B cells: are produced by lymphatic system,
which stores B cells and memory B cells.
Acquired immunity
• T cells: attacks infected cells through
phagocytosis or by injecting chemicals called
perforins to break down and kill the pathogen.
Acquired immunity
• There are three types of T cells:
1. Killer T cells: injects chemicals to
pathogens
2. Helper T cells: attracts and assists B
cells in antibody production
3. Suppressor T cells: stop B and T
cells after infection
B and T cells
are produced
in the bone
marrow, and
site of
maturation
dictates the cell.

fate of cell.

Example: maturation in bone marrow forms B cells and

maturation in lymph forms T cell
 Antibodies

• The antibodies
produced in
response to
antigen consists
of Y shape
MUSCULO-
SKELETAL
SYSTEM
 147

NOTE:

• A skeletal system is necessary to support the

body, protect internal organs, and allow for the
movement of an organism. There are three
different skeleton designs that provide
organisms these functions: hydrostatic skeleton,
exoskeleton, and endoskeleton.
HYDROSTATIC SKELETON 148

• A hydrostatic skeleton is one formed by a fluid-filled

compartment within the body: the coelom. The organs of the
coelom are supported by the aqueous fluid, which also resists
external compression.
• This compartment is under hydrostatic pressure because of the
fluid and supports the other organs of the organism.
• This type of skeletal system is found in soft-bodied animals such
as sea anemones, earthworms, Cnidaria, and other invertebrates.
 149

Hydrostatic skeleton: The skeleton of the red-knobbed

sea star (Protoreaster linckii) is an example of a
hydrostatic skeleton.
EXOSKELETON 150
• An exoskeleton is an external, hard, encasement on the surface of an
organism. For example, the shells of crabs and insects are exoskeletons.
• This skeleton type provides defense against predators, supports the body,
and allows for movement through the contraction of attached muscles.
• Arthropods, such as crabs and lobsters, have exoskeletons that consist of
30–50 percent chitin, a polysaccharide derivative of glucose that is a
strong-but-flexible material. Chitin is secreted by the epidermal cells.
• The exoskeleton is further strengthened by the addition of calcium
carbonate in organisms such as the lobster. Because the exoskeleton is
acellular and does not grow as the organism grows, arthropods must
periodically shed their exoskeletons.
 151

Exoskeletons: Muscles attached to the exoskeleton of the Halloween

crab (Gecarcinus quadratus) allow it to move.
152
ENDOSKELETON 153

• An endoskeleton consists of hard, mineralized structures located within the soft

tissue of organisms.
• The bones of vertebrates are composed of tissues, whereas sponges have no true
tissues.
• Endoskeletons provide support for the body, protect internal organs, and allow
for movement through contraction of muscles attached to the skeleton.
 154

Endoskeletons: The skeletons of humans and horses

are examples of endoskeletons. They provide bodies
with support, protection of organs, and aid in movement.
 155
• The human skeleton is an endoskeleton
that consists of 206 bones in the adult. It
has five main functions: supporting the
body, storing minerals and lipids,
producing blood cells, protecting internal
organs, and allowing for movement.

• The skeletal system in vertebrates is

divided into the axial skeleton (which
consists of the skull, vertebral column, and
rib cage = total of 80 bones), and the
appendicular skeleton (which consists of
the shoulders, limb bones, the pectoral
girdle, and the pelvic girdle = total of 126
bones).
156
157
158
 159

Appendicular skeleton: The appendicular skeleton is

composed of the bones of the pectoral limbs (arm, forearm,
hand), the pelvic limbs (thigh, leg, foot), the pectoral girdle,
and the pelvic girdle.
160
161
162
 163

NOTE:
• The muscular system controls numerous
functions, which is possible with the significant
differentiation of muscle tissue morphology and
ability.
 164

Types of Muscle
165
 166

Skeletal Muscle Tissue

• Skeletal muscle mainly attaches to the skeletal system via tendons to

maintain posture and control movement. For example, contraction of the
biceps muscle, attached to the scapula and radius, will raise the forearm.
Some skeletal muscle can attach directly to other muscles or to the skin,
as seen in
the face where numerous muscles control facial expression.

• Skeletal muscle is under voluntary control, although this can be

subconscious when maintaining posture or balance. Morphologically
skeletal myocytes are elongated and tubular and appear striated with
multiple peripheral nuclei.
 167

Cardiac Muscle Tissue

• Cardiac muscle tissue is found only in the heart, where cardiac

contractions pump blood throughout the body and maintain blood
pressure.

• As with skeletal muscle, cardiac muscle is striated; however it is not

consciously controlled and so is classified as involuntary. Cardiac
muscle can be further differentiated from skeletal muscle by the
presence of intercalated discs that control the synchronized
contraction of cardiac tissues. Cardiac myocytes are shorter than
skeletal equivalents and contain only one or two centrally located
nuclei.
 168

Smooth Muscle Tissue

• Smooth muscle tissue is associated with numerous organs and tissue

systems, such as the digestive system and respiratory system. It plays an
important role in the regulation of flow in such systems, such as aiding the
movement of food through the digestive system via peristalsis.

• Smooth muscle is non-striated and involuntary. Smooth muscle myocytes

are spindle shaped with a single centrally located nucleus.
Hoefenagels, M. Biology: Concepts and Investigations. McGraw-Hill, 2017.
Mader, S.S. Concepts of Biology. McGraw Hill Publishing, 2014.
Miller, S. & Harley, J. Zoology 10th edition. McGraw-Hill, 2016.
Rea, M.A. & Dagamac, N.H. General Biology 2. REX Book Store, 2017.
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/299542613_An_Introduction_to_Zoology
https://www.academia.edu/36439722/Hickman_-_Zoology_14th_ed.pdf
https://www.academia.edu/36439722/Hickman_-_Zoology_14th_ed.pdf
https://web.duke.edu/histology/MBS/Videos/Phys/Phys%201.2%20Homeo%20Reg/Phys%201.2%20and%
201.2%20Homeo%20Fluid%20Compartments%20and%20Reg%20NOTES.pdf
 MODULE 1B.2

Animal Nutrition and Transport

• define plant nutrition and transport
• describe the structure of organs and tissues involved in plant
transport
• illustrate pathways of nutrients throughout plants
DIGESTIVE
SYSTEM
 173

NOTE:

• Animals are heterotrophic; meaning, they cannot

make their own food.

• In order to survive, animals must bring nutrients

from the food to the body cells.

• It is the job of digestive system to break down

large, complex molecules to small, simpler
molecules absorbable by cells.
 174

“Animals can be classified

into two: invertebrates and
vertebrates. These two
have different ways of
digesting their food.”
 175

Invertebrate
Digestive
Systems
Invertebrates can be classified as
those having gastrovascular cavities
and those having alimentary canals.
GASTROVASCULAR CAVITY (GVC) 176

• Animals having gastrovascular cavity include Platyhelminthes

and Cnidaria.
• They digest their food a tube or cavity with only one opening
that serves as both mouth and anus.
• Ingested materials enter the mouth and pass through the
cavity, where digestive enzymes are secreted to break down
the food.
• The cells lining the cavity engulf the food particles.
General Mechanism of GVC 177

Hydra vulgaris,
a cnidarian

Daphnia sp.
 Digestive System of Cnidaria 178

Medusa form Polyp form

Digestive System of Cnidaria 179
 Examples of Cnidarians (Cnidaria) 180

Hydra viridissima Aurelia aurita

Porites porites Phacellophora camtschatica

 Digestive System of Flatworm 181

Planaria sp.
Examples of Flatworms (Platyhelminthes)182

Dugesia tigrina Pseudobiceros hancockanus

Fasciola hepatica Planaria torva

ALIMENTARY CANAL 183

• Some invertebrates like earthworms (Annelida: Oligochaeta)

and insects (Arthropoda: Insecta) have alimentary canal.
• Alimentary canal is a pathway which receives food through
mouth on one end and eliminates wastes through the anusLumbricus
on terrestris
another.
• It consists of the mouth, esophagus, crop, gizzard, intestines,
and anus.

Periplaneta americana
Digestive System of Insect (Insecta) 184
The insect’s body is Tettigonia viridissima
divided into three major
divisions:
head, thorax, and
abdomen.
 Digestive System of Earthworm (Oligochaeta)
185

Megascolides australis

The earthworm is made of

about 100-150 segments.
Segmented body parts provide
important structural functions.
 186

Vertebrate
Digestive
Systems
There are four types of digestive
systems among vertebrates, namely:
monogastric, avian, ruminant, and
pseudo-ruminant.
MONOGASTRIC DIGESTIVE SYSTEM 187

• Consists of single stomach chamber.

• Physical and chemical digestion begins in mouth.
• A monogastric digestive system works as soon as the food enters the mouth.
• Examples of animals with monogastric digestive system are humans (omnivore),
cats (carnivore), and rabbits (herbivore).

Homo sapiens Felis catus Oryctolagus cuniculus

 Ingestion – process by which Mastication – (chewing) process by
animals take in food using their which food is broken down in mouth,
mouth. mechanically.
 189

Mouth must be moistened with

saliva.

Saliva contains ptyalin, an

enzyme which helps break down
carbohydrates in food.

1. Enzymes in saliva hasten
chemical reactions in the mouth;
breaking down complex substances
into simpler ones.
The main job of liver is to filter the
blood coming from the digestive
tract, before passing it to the rest of
the body. The liver detoxifies
chemicals and metabolizes drugs. As
it does so, the liver secretes bile that
ends up back in the intestines.
5. Remaining water, nutrients and
undigested food will be stored in
large intestine.
Through process of defecation,
undigested food called feces will
be excreted. (rectum to anus)
The Process of Digestion
2. Tongue will push the food, (process of gulping) to esophagus.
Food moves down in this tube to the stomach through peristalsis
(contraction of smooth muscles). Epiglottis must close the throat when
gulping to avoid food or liquid from entering the lungs.
3. In the stomach, food
continues to be digested by
HCl, enzymes and
digestive juices. Stomach
carry out peristalsis. In 3-4
hours, the food will become
a chyme before going to
SI.
4. The villi in SI lining
(called epithelia), absorb
the nutrients in food. Along
with the bile from the liver
and pancreatic juices,
they help break down fats,
proteins and starches.
 AVIAN DIGESTIVE SYSTEM 191

• Birds (Aves) do not have teeth. Their beak/bill/rostrum serves as their

mouth.
• Birds do not masticate their food.
• Crop, proventriculus, and gizzard.

Anas luzonica

Pithecophaga jefferyi
Lonchura atricapilla Cacatua haematuropygia Struthio camelus
 Digestive System of Chicken (Aves) 192

Flightless birds are heavier

Absorption
than birds that can fly. This is
because flying birds have
higher metabolism.

Exits waste

Food is stored in
crop.
Absorption
Gastric juices
are secreted
to digest the
food.

Where the food is

mechanically
ground. Gallus gallus domesticus
 RUMINANT DIGESTIVE SYSTEM 193
• Polygastric, meaning the stomach has multiple compartments:
rumen, reticulum, omasum, and abomasum.
• Diet of ruminants (herbivores) consists largely of roughage or
fiber, their digestive system enables them to break down
cellulose (main component or rigid cell wall in plants).

Bos taurus Ovis aries Capra aegagrus hircus

 Digestive System of Cow (Ruminantia) 194
1st: RUMEN. Largest chamber,
contains bacteria that promote
fermentation, and break down food.

Bacteria found in rumen of most

ruminants are Cellulomonas,
which secretes cellulases which
breaks down cellulose.

2nd: RETICULUM.
3rd: OMASUM. Grinds the Small pouch that
food and removes water traps foreign Some bacteria also exist are:
4th:ABOMASMUM. Serves as “true” from it. materials which the Fibrobacteres, Klebsiella,
ruminant animal
stomach in that it functions similarly Bacteroides, and Oxalobacter.
as the stomach of monogastric may have
animals. swallowed.
 PSEUDO-RUMINANT DIGESTIVE SYSTEM 195
• Stomach has three chambers: reticulum, omasum, and abomasum.
• Diet: roughage, fiber, forages, grains (mainly herbivorous)
• Has enlarge cecum where food is fermented and digested.
• Also relies on microbial support for digestion.
• Camels, horses, rabbits, guinea pigs

Equus caballus
horse

Camelus dromedarius Cavia porcellus

Arabian camel guinea pig
Digestive System of Rabbit (Lagomorpha)196
RESPIRATORY
SYSTEM
 198

NOTE:

• Respiratory system consists of organs that allow

gas exchange. It brings oxygen in the body cells of
animals and eliminates carbon dioxide, which is a
waste product of cells.
 199

• Respiration occurs
through respiratory
organs of animals which
include skin, gills,
tracheal system, and
lungs.
 200

Have you ever wondered why

earthworms are red?

Have you ever wondered why

can they survive below the
ground?
 GAS EXCHANGE THROUGH SKIN 201
• Animals using integumentary system (or their skin) include amphibians and
earthworms.
• It allows gas exchange between the external environment and circulatory
system due to the network of capillaries that lie below the skin.

Ichthyopis mindanaoensis
Mindanao island caecilian

Alcalus mariae Limnonectes magnus (formerly

Bufo marinus Palawan Eastern frog Rana magna)
Marine toad Giant Philippine frog
 Gas Exchange in Earthworms (Oligochaeta)
202

Earthworms (Lumbricus
terrestris) are able to survive
below the soil. In the environment,
from air or water, oxygen moves
through a thin, moist body wall of
vessels
Gas Exchange in Frogs 203
 GAS EXCHANGE THROUGH GILLS 204

• Fish and other aquatic organisms use their gills to take up

oxygen dissolved in the water and diffuse CO2 out of the
Sardinella tawilis bloodstream.
Tawilis (only in Taal lake)

Oreochromis niloticus
Nile tilapia

Chanos chanos
Milkfish

Carassius auratus
Goldfish Rhincodon typus
Butanding
Decapterus macarellus
Galunggong
Gas Exchange in Fish 205
Gills
Animals with this type of respiration
uses their gills to breathe.

Dissolved oxygen in water is

readily diffused into the gill
membranes and allows carbon
dioxide to be expelled to the water.

2 types of gills:
(1) Internal
(2) External
GAS EXCHANGE THROUGH TRACHEA
Instead of lungs, insects breathe with a network of tiny tubes
called tracheae. Air enters the tubes through a row of holes along
an insect's abdomen called spiracles. The air then diffuses down
the blind-ended tracheae. The tracheoles are the sites of gas
exchange.
GAS EXCHANGE THROUGH LUNGS

• Lungs- pair of organs divided into small chambers filled

with capillaries.

• When inhaling, there is a decrease in pressure around

lungs, causing air to breathe in. The ribcage expands, and
moves diaphragm downward.

• When exhaling, there is an increase in pressure around

lungs and force air out of respiratory tract. The ribcage
contracts and moves diaphragm upward.
 Air enters the body through General Mechanism of Respiration
the nasal cavity.

In humans, chest cavity is bisected by

the trachea, a tube that connects the
nose and mouth to the lungs.

Trachea
divides into
two main
bronchi; left In the tip of bronchioles are
and right alveoli (also called air sacs)
bronchus. Alveoli are the main sites of gas
exchange; it contains pulmonary
capillaries which diffuses in
oxygen and CO2 out.
Bronchi is subdivided into
bronchioles Under the lungs is the dome
shaped muscle called the
diaphragm.
Lungs are enclosed in rib cage,
which serves to protect both lungs
and heart.
CIRCULATORY
SYSTEM
 212

• Circulatory system is
composed of heart,
blood vessels, and blood.
 213

Do animals have the same

number of heart, heart
chambers, and number of
circuits through which blood
flows?
SINGLE-LOOP CIRCUIT 214
• Two-chambered heart pumps the blood to the gills to be re-
oxygenated (via gill circulation), then blood flows to the rest of the
body and back to the heart (via systemic capillaries)

Pterigoplichthys pardalis
Caesio cuning Janitor fish (Amazon sailfin
Dalagang bukid catfish)

Selar crumenophthalmus Amphiprion ocellaris

Matang-baka Ocellaris clownfish
DOUBLE-LOOP CIRCUIT 215

• In amphibians, reptiles, birds,

and mammals blood flow is
directed into two circuits: one
through the lungs and one
back to the heart (via
pulmonary circulation) and the
other throughout the rest of
the body and its organs, which
also includes the brain (via
systemic circulation).
216
 Two Types of Double-Loop Circuit: 217

1. Double-Loop Circulatory System with 3-Chambered Heart

2. Double-Loop Circulatory System with 4-Chambered Heart

Naja philippinensis
Philippine cobra

Manis culionensis
Philippine pangolin
218
219
220
Human Circulatory System 221
EXCRETORY
SYSTEM
 223

NOTE:

• Excretory system provides a mechanism for the

elimination of various wastes from the body.
 224

• The wastes such as

excess water and salts,
carbon dioxide, and urea
are removed from the
body by the organs of the
excretory system.
 225

How do animals remove

excess waste inside their
body?
 EXCRETORY SYSTEMS OF INVERTEBRATES
226

FLAME CELLS
There are three common ways
invertebrates remove waste.
These are through their:

• Protonephridia (flame
cells)
• Nephridia
• Malpighian Tubules

Planaria (flatworms) live in fresh water. Their excretory system consists of two tubules connected to a
highly-branched duct system that leads to pores located all along the sides of the body. The filtrate is
secreted through these pores (called protonephridial pores). The cells in the tubules are called flame
cells (or protonephridia) because they have cluster of cilia that looks like a flickering flame when
viewed under the microscope.
 EXCRETORY SYSTEMS OF INVERTEBRATES
227

NEPHRIDIA
There are three common ways
invertebrates remove waste.
These are through their:

• Protonephridia (flame
cells)
• Nephridia
• Malpighian Tubules

In earthworms (Lumbricus),
nephridia are more evolved than
flame cells because they can
reabsorb useful metabolites before
excretion of waste. These are called
metanephridia. A pair of
metanephridia is present on each
segment. They are similar to flame
cells, in that they have tubules with
cilia and function like a kidney to
remove wastes.
 EXCRETORY SYSTEMS OF INVERTEBRATES
228

MALPIGHIAN TUBULES
There are three common ways
invertebrates remove waste.
These are through their:

• Protonephridia (flame
cells)
• Nephridia
• Malpighian Tubules

The Malpighian tubules remove

wastes from insects (Class Insecta)
by producing urine and solid
nitrogenous wastes, which are then
excreted from the body.

Paraponera clavata
Bullet ant
Hoefenagels, M. Biology: Concepts and Investigations. McGraw-Hill, 2017.
Mader, S.S. Concepts of Biology. McGraw Hill Publishing, 2014.
Miller, S. & Harley, J. Zoology 10th edition. McGraw-Hill, 2016.
Rea, M.A. & Dagamac, N.H. General Biology 2. REX Book Store, 2017.
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/299542613_An_Introduction_to_Zoology
https://www.academia.edu/36439722/Hickman_-_Zoology_14th_ed.pdf
https://www.academia.edu/36439722/Hickman_-_Zoology_14th_ed.pdf
https://web.duke.edu/histology/MBS/Videos/Phys/Phys%201.2%20Homeo%20Reg/Phys%201.2%20and%
201.2%20Homeo%20Fluid%20Compartments%20and%20Reg%20NOTES.pdf
 MODULE 1B.3
Feedback Mechanisms in
Animals
• define feedback mechanisms and homeostasis
• differentiate positive and feedback mechanisms
• illustrate different feedback mechanisms required for animal’s
survival, such as thermoregulation and osmoregulation
ENDOCRINE
SYSTEM
 233

NOTE:

• The endocrine system is the collection of glands

that produce hormones that regulate
metabolism, growth and development, tissue
function, sexual function, reproduction, sleep,
and mood, among other things.
 Hormones play a vital role in regulating bodily functions.
234

• Hormones are chemical

substances produced by
endocrine gland. They are
transported into the circulatory
system to target organs where
they exert their functions.
 FEEDBACK
MECHANISMS
242
243
244
245
246
247
248
Regulating blood
sugar levels
Glucagon: low glucose
(hypoglycemia)
Insulin: high glucose
(hyperglycemia)
Giving birth: homeostasis
(oxytocin)
Hoefenagels, M. Biology: Concepts and Investigations. McGraw-Hill, 2017.
Mader, S.S. Concepts of Biology. McGraw Hill Publishing, 2014.
Miller, S. & Harley, J. Zoology 10th edition. McGraw-Hill, 2016.
Rea, M.A. & Dagamac, N.H. General Biology 2. REX Book Store, 2017.
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/299542613_An_Introduction_to_Zoology
https://www.academia.edu/36439722/Hickman_-_Zoology_14th_ed.pdf
https://www.academia.edu/36439722/Hickman_-_Zoology_14th_ed.pdf
https://web.duke.edu/histology/MBS/Videos/Phys/Phys%201.2%20Homeo%20Reg/Phys%201.2%20and%
201.2%20Homeo%20Fluid%20Compartments%20and%20Reg%20NOTES.pdf